Mesoamerica - Knowledge

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liberated through death and returns to the gods, who are then able to create more life. Secondly, it justifies war, since the most valuable sacrifices are obtained through conflict. The death of the warrior is the greatest sacrifice and gives the gods the energy to go about their daily activities, such as the bringing of rain. Warfare and capturing prisoners became a method of social advancement and a religious cause. Finally, it justifies the control of power by the two ruling classes, the priests and the warriors. The priests controlled the religious ideology, and the warriors supplied the sacrifices. Historically, it was also believed those sacrificed were chosen by the gods, this idea of being "chosen" was decided by the gods. This was then displayed by acts, such as being struck by lightning. If someone was struck by lightning and a sacrifice was needed they would often be chosen by their population, as they believed they were chosen by the gods.

3801: 886: 565: 4198: 1903: 3685:. The different forms of sacrifice are reflected in the imagery used to evoke ideological structure and sociocultural organization in Mesoamerica. In the Maya area, for example, steles depict bloodletting rituals performed by ruling elites, eagles and jaguars devouring human hearts, jade circles or necklaces that represented hearts, and plants and flowers that symbolized both nature and the blood that provided life. Imagery also showed pleas for rain or pleas for blood, with the same intention to replenish the divine energy. Ritual sacrifice was done in efforts to appease the gods, and was done with the purpose of protection of the population. 4226: 3656:, and anthropozoomorphic sculptures, and in day-to-day objects. The qualities of these gods and their attributes changed over time and with cultural influences from other Mesoamerican groups. The gods are at once three: creator, preserver, and destroyer, and at the same time just one. An important characteristic of Mesoamerican religion was the dualism among the divine entities. The gods represented the confrontation between opposite poles: the positive, exemplified by light, the masculine, force, war, the sun, etc.; and the negative, exemplified by darkness, the feminine, repose, peace, the moon, etc. 3255: 509: 3706: 523: 4650: 1755: 488:, which were endemic among the colonists but new to North America, caused the deaths of upwards of 90% of the indigenous people, resulting in great losses to their societies and cultures. Over the next centuries, Mesoamerican indigenous cultures were gradually subjected to Spanish colonial rule. Aspects of the Mesoamerican cultural heritage still survive among the indigenous peoples who inhabit Mesoamerica. Many continue to speak their ancestral languages and maintain many practices hearkening back to their Mesoamerican roots. 6905: 8446: 1674: 3616: 3636: 3122: 3789: 1465: 1320: 4143:. This is largely based on the fact that most works that survived the Spanish conquest were public monuments. These monuments were typically erected by rulers who sought to visually legitimize their sociocultural and political position; by doing so, they intertwined their lineage, personal attributes and achievements, and legacy with religious concepts. As such, these monuments were specifically designed for public display and took many forms, including 579: 610: 137: 4108: 40: 551: 897: 2967: 1895: 537: 1802: 1140: 3914: 1865:. The apparent "Mexicanization" of architecture at Chichén Itzá led past researchers to believe that Chichén Itzá existed under the control of a Toltec empire. Chronological data refutes this early interpretation, and it is now known that Chichén Itzá predated the Toltec; Mexican architectural styles are now used as an indicator of strong economic and ideological ties between the two regions. 2824: 3161: 4212: 3945:. Dates or events were always tied to a compass direction, and the calendar specified the symbolic geographical characteristic peculiar to that period. Resulting from the significance held by the cardinal directions, many Mesoamerican architectural features, if not entire settlements, were planned and oriented according to directionality. 1059:, or the Trans-Mexican volcanic belt. There are 83 inactive and active volcanoes within the Sierra Madre range, including 11 in Mexico, 37 in Guatemala, 23 in El Salvador, 25 in Nicaragua, and 3 in northwestern Costa Rica. According to the Michigan Technological University, 16 of these are still active. The tallest active volcano is 3720:, is the ritualized practice of drawing blood from oneself. It is commonly seen or represented through iconography as performed by ruling elites in highly ritualized ceremonies, but it was easily practiced in mundane sociocultural contexts (i.e., non-elites could perform autosacrifice). The act was typically performed with 606:. "Mesoamerica" is broadly defined as the area that is home to the Mesoamerican civilization, which comprises a group of peoples with close cultural and historical ties. The exact geographic extent of Mesoamerica has varied through time, as the civilization extended North and South from its heartland in southern Mexico. 1997:, initially an important Early Classic center contemporaneous with Teotihuacan, maintained its political structure (it did not collapse) and continued to function as a regionally important center during the Postclassic. The latter portion of the Postclassic is generally associated with the rise of the 1856:

Chichén Itzá was originally thought to have been a Postclassic site in the northern Maya lowlands. Research over the past few decades has established that it was first settled during the Early/Late Classic transition but rose to prominence during the Terminal Classic and Early Postclassic. During its

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in Mexico. The distance between the two coasts is roughly 200 km (120 mi). The northern side of the Isthmus is swampy and covered in dense jungle—but the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, as the lowest and most level point within the Sierra Madre mountain chain, was nonetheless a main transportation,

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In representing numbers, a series of bars and dots were employed. Dots had a value of one, and bars had a value of five. This type of arithmetic was combined with symbolic numerology: '2' was related to origins, as all origins can be thought of as doubling; '3' was related to household fire; '4' was

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Ceremonial centers were always built to be visible. Pyramids were meant to stand out from the rest of the city, to represent the gods and their powers. Another characteristic feature of the ceremonial centers is historic layers. All the ceremonial edifices were built in various phases, one on top of

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The rules of the ballgame are not known, but it was probably similar to volleyball, where the object is to keep the ball in play. In the most well-known version of the game, the players struck the ball with their hips, though some versions used forearms or employed rackets, bats, or handstones. The

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Two characteristics are most notable in Mesoamerican architecture. Firstly, the intimate connection between geography, astronomy, and architecture: very often, urban centers or even single buildings are aligned to cardinal directions and/or along particular constellations. Secondly, iconography was

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Several distinct sub-regions within Mesoamerica are defined by a convergence of geographic and cultural attributes. These sub-regions are more conceptual than culturally meaningful, and the demarcation of their limits is not rigid. The Maya area, for example, can be divided into two general groups:

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in 1493. In world history, Mesoamerica was the site of two historical transformations: (i) primary urban generation, and (ii) the formation of New World cultures from the mixtures of the indigenous Mesoamerican peoples with the European, African, and Asian peoples who were introduced by the Spanish

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The Postclassic (beginning 900–1000 CE, depending on area) is, like the Late Classic, characterized by the cyclical crystallization and fragmentation of various polities. The main Maya centers were located in the northern lowlands. Following Chichén Itzá, whose political structure collapsed during

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The Late Classic period (beginning c. 600 CE until 909 CE) is characterized as a period of interregional competition and factionalization among the numerous regional polities in the Maya area. This largely resulted from the decrease in Tikal's socio-political and economic power at the beginning of

1194:. The northern Maya lowlands, especially the northern portion of the Yucatán peninsula, are notable for their nearly complete lack of rivers (largely due to the absolute lack of topographic variation). Additionally, no lakes exist in the northern peninsula. The main source of water in this area is 3773:

Sacrifice had great importance in the social and religious aspects of Mesoamerican culture. First, it showed death transformed into the divine. Death is the consequence of a human sacrifice, but it is not the end; it is but the continuation of the cosmic cycle. Death creates life—divine energy is

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Following the Spanish conquests in the sixteenth century, Spanish friars taught indigenous scribes to write their languages in alphabetic texts. Many oral histories of the prehispanic period were subsequently recorded in alphabetic texts. The indigenous in central and southern Mexico continued to

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scripts. Five or six different scripts have been documented in Mesoamerica, but archaeological dating methods, and a certain degree of self-interest, create difficulties in establishing priority and thus the forebear from which the others developed. The best documented and deciphered Mesoamerican

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The names given to the days, months, and years in the Mesoamerican calendar came, for the most part, from animals, flowers, heavenly bodies, and cultural concepts that held symbolic significance in Mesoamerican culture. This calendar was used throughout the history of Mesoamerican by nearly every

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Mesoamerican cultures that lived in the lowlands and coastal plains settled down in agrarian communities somewhat later than did highland cultures because there was a greater abundance of fruits and animals in these areas, which made a hunter-gatherer lifestyle more attractive. Fishing also was a

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Tikal came to dominate much of the southern Maya lowlands politically, economically, and militarily during the Early Classic. An exchange network centered at Tikal distributed a variety of goods and commodities throughout southeast Mesoamerica, such as obsidian imported from central Mexico (e.g.,

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in Guatemala; the Early Classic's temporal limits generally correlate to the main periods of these sites. Monte Albán in Oaxaca is another Classic-period polity that expanded and flourished during this period, but the Zapotec capital exerted less interregional influence than the other two sites.

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ascended at the height of the Classic period; it formed a military and commercial empire whose political influence stretched south into the Maya area and northward. Upon the collapse of Teotihuacán around 600 CE, competition between several important political centers in central Mexico, such as

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During the Early Classic, Teotihuacan participated in and perhaps dominated a far-reaching macro-regional interaction network. Architectural and artifact styles (talud-tablero, tripod slab-footed ceramic vessels) epitomized at Teotihuacan were mimicked and adopted at many distant settlements.

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on dinner plates around the world. One writer estimated these indigenous tribes developed three-fifths of the crops now grown in cultivation, most of them in Mesoamerica. Having secured their food supply, the Mesoamerican societies turned to intellectual pursuits. In a millennium or less, a

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period of Venus. Maya of the European contact period said that knowing the past aided in both understanding the present and predicting the future (Diego de Landa). The 260-day cycle was a calendar to govern agriculture, observe religious holidays, mark the movements of celestial bodies, and

3349:. The book consisted of a long strip of the prepared bark, which was folded like a screenfold to define individual pages. The pages were often covered and protected by elaborately carved book boards. Some books were composed of square pages while others were composed of rectangular pages. 3011:

Given that Mesoamerica was broken into numerous and diverse ecological niches, none of the societies that inhabited the area were self-sufficient, although very long-distance trade was common only for very rare goods, or luxury materials. For this reason, from the last centuries of the

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religious and societal structures, for example, as accompaniment to celebrations and funerals. Some Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Maya, commonly played various instruments such as drums, flutes and whistles. Although most of the original Mayan music disappeared following the

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The Classic period is marked by the rise and dominance of several polities. The traditional distinction between the Early and Late Classic is marked by their changing fortune and their ability to maintain regional primacy. Of paramount importance are Teotihuacán in central Mexico and

3169: 3207:, the movements of various other planets, and conjunctions of celestial bodies. These almanacs also made future predictions concerning celestial events. These tables are remarkably accurate, given the technology available, and indicate a significant level of knowledge among Maya 1917:

in the central Guatemala highlands, were important southern highland Maya centers. The latter site, Kaminaljuyú, is one of the longest occupied sites in Mesoamerica and was continuously inhabited from c. 800 BCE to around 1200 CE. Other important highland Maya groups include the

4155:, and other types of architectural elements (e.g., roofcombs). Other themes expressed include tracking time, glorifying the city, and veneration of the gods—all of which were tied to explicitly aggrandizing the abilities and the reign of the ruler who commissioned the artwork. 3322:

writing systems of Mesoamerica, and their interpretation, have been subject to much debate. One important ongoing discussion regards whether non-Maya Mesoamerican texts can be considered examples of true writing or whether non-Maya Mesoamerican texts are best understood as

1821:, so named after the hills where they are mainly found. Puuc settlements are specifically associated with a unique architectural style (the "Puuc architectural style") that represents a technological departure from previous construction techniques. Major Puuc sites include 3137:

in Mesoamerica. Although very different in styles, all kinds of Mesoamerican architecture show some kind of interrelation, due to very significant cultural exchanges that occurred during thousands of years. Among the most well-known structures in Mesoamerica, the flat-top

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Ceremonial centers were the nuclei of Mesoamerican settlements. The temples provided spatial orientation, which was imparted to the surrounding town. The cities with their commercial and religious centers were always political entities, somewhat similar to the European

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The majority of artwork created during this historical time was about these topics, religion and politics. Rulers were drawn and sculpted. Historical tales and events were then translated into pieces of art, and art was used to relay religious and political messages.

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period (8000 BCE– 1000 BCE) onward, regions compensated for the environmental inadequacies by specializing in the extraction of certain abundant natural resources and then trading them for necessary unavailable resources through established commercial trade networks.

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in Mayan). The geographic vision is also tied to the cardinal points. Certain geographical features are linked to different parts of this cosmovision. Thus mountains and tall trees connect the middle and upper worlds; caves connect the middle and nether worlds.

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Among the Aztecs, the name of each day was associated with a cardinal point (thus conferring symbolic significance), and each cardinal direction was associated with a group of symbols. Below are the symbols and concepts associated with each direction:

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The Mesoamerican ballgame was a sport with ritual associations played for over 3000 years by nearly all pre-Columbian peoples of Mesoamerica. The sport had different versions in different places during the millennia, and a modern version of the game,

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Autosacrifice was not limited to male rulers, as their female counterparts often performed these ritualized activities. They are typically shown performing the rope and thorns technique. A recently discovered queen's tomb in the Classic Maya site of

1365:. The last three periods, representing the core of Mesoamerican cultural fluorescence, are further divided into two or three sub-phases. Most of the time following the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century is classified as the Colonial period. 2993:

the other, to the point that what we now see is usually the last stage of construction. Ultimately, the ceremonial centers were the architectural translation of the identity of each city, as represented by the veneration of their gods and masters.

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is due to the incorporation of ideological and religious elements from the first primitive religion of Fire, Earth, Water and Nature. Astral divinities (the sun, stars, constellations, and Venus) were adopted and represented in anthropomorphic,

3188:, which could be thought of as the four "directional pillars" that support the year. These four times of the year were, and still are, important as they indicate seasonal changes that directly impact the lives of Mesoamerican agriculturalists. 5043:

Coe (1994), p. 45 ("The only domestic animals were dogs—the principal source of meat for much of Preclassic Mesoamerica—and turkeys—understandably rare because that familiar bird consumes very large quantities of corn and is thus expensive to

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While the game was played casually for simple recreation, including by children and perhaps even women, the game also had important ritual aspects, and major formal ballgames were held as ritual events, often featuring human sacrifice.

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Shared traits in Mesoamerican mythology are characterized by their common basis as a religion that—though in many Mesoamerican groups developed into complex polytheistic religious systems—retained some shamanistic elements.

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rose to prominence during the Middle Postclassic and dominated the north for c. 200 years. After Mayapán's fragmentation, the political structure in the northern lowlands revolved around large towns or city-states, such as

2005:. One of the more commonly known cultural groups in Mesoamerica, the Aztec politically dominated nearly all of central Mexico, the Gulf Coast, Mexico's southern Pacific Coast (Chiapas and into Guatemala), Oaxaca, and 1601:, an important Classic-era site that eventually dominated economic and interaction spheres throughout Mesoamerica. The settlement of Teotihuacan is dated to the later portion of the Late Preclassic, or roughly 50 CE. 4370: 679:

of the early to middle 20th century, Kirchhoff defined this zone as a cultural area based on a suite of interrelated cultural similarities brought about by millennia of inter- and intra-regional interaction (i.e.,

4088:, and flowers. It is related on the one hand to the luminous Sun and the noon heat, and on the other to rain filled with alcohol. The rabbit, the principal symbol of the West, was associated with farmers and with 3659:

The typical Mesoamerican cosmology sees the world as separated into a day world watched by the sun and a night world watched by the moon. More importantly, the three superposed levels of the world are united by a

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represents one of the oldest permanent agricultural villages in the area, and one of the first to use pottery. During the Early and Middle Preclassic, the site developed some of the earliest examples of defensive

3342:. No Precolumbian Mesoamerican society is known to have had widespread literacy, and literacy was probably restricted to particular social classes, including scribes, painters, merchants, and the nobility. 847:

and the Totonac flier dance; 13 as a ritual number; ritual period of 20 x 13 = 260 days; the mythic concept of one or more afterworlds and the difficult journey in reaching them; good and bad omen days; a

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Among the many types of calendars the Maya maintained, the most important include a 260-day cycle, a 360-day cycle or 'year', a 365-day cycle or year, a lunar cycle, and a Venus cycle, which tracked the

5408: 4055:). The North contrasts with the East in that it is conceptualized as dry, cold, and oppressive. It is considered the nocturnal part of the universe and includes the dwellings of the dead. The dog ( 3410:

linked to the four corners of the universe; '5' expressed instability; '9' pertained to the underworld and the night; '13' was the number for light, '20' for abundance, and '400' for infinity. The

6796: 829:), military orders (eagle knights and jaguar knights), clay pellets for blowguns, cotton-pad armor, traveling merchants who act as spies, wars for the purpose of securing sacrificial victims 2028:, the Tarascan state was one of the few to actively and continuously resist Aztec domination during the Late Postclassic. Other important Postclassic cultures in Mesoamerica include the 1857:

apogee, this widely known site economically and politically dominated the northern lowlands. Its participation in the circum-peninsular exchange route, possible through its port site of

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and their subsequent conquest of the Aztecs between 1519 and 1521. Many other cultural groups did not acquiesce until later. For example, Maya groups in the Petén area, including the

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the lowlands and highlands. The lowlands are further divided into the southern and northern Maya lowlands. The southern Maya lowlands are generally regarded as encompassing northern

3743:(among other locations). Another form of autosacrifice was conducted by pulling a rope with attached thorns through the tongue or earlobes. The blood produced was then collected on 1789:

region of Guatemala. Around 710, Tikal arose again and started to build strong alliances and defeat its worst enemies. In the Maya area, the Late Classic ended with the so-called "

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Generally applied to the Maya area, the Terminal Classic roughly spans the time between c. 800/850 and c. 1000 CE. Overall, it generally correlates with the rise to prominence of

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and agricultural production by the close of the period. Transformations of natural environments have been a common feature at least since the mid Holocene. Archaic sites include

3881:. Often, the architectural organization of Mesoamerican sites was based on precise calculations derived from astronomical observations. Well-known examples of these include the 2997:

were common public monuments throughout Mesoamerica and served to commemorate notable successes, events, and dates associated with the rulers and nobility of the various sites.

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hunter-gatherer tribal groupings to the organization of sedentary agricultural villages. In the subsequent Formative period, agriculture and cultural traits such as a complex

4362: 5790: 4059:) has a very specific meaning, as it accompanies the deceased during the trip to the lands of the dead and helps them cross the river of death that leads to nothingness. ( 5968:

La Población del Valle de Teotihuacán: Representativa de las que Habitan las Regiones Rurales del Distrito Federal y de los Estados de Hidalgo, Puebla, México y Tlaxcala

2892:) was an occasional substitute for maize in producing flour. Fruit was also important in the daily diet of Mesoamerican cultures. Some of the main ones consumed include 602:

often refers to a larger area in the Americas, but it has also previously been used more narrowly to refer to Mesoamerica. An example is the title of the 16 volumes of

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developed in the southern Maya highlands and lowlands, and at a few sites in the northern Maya lowlands. The earliest Maya sites coalesced after 1000 BCE, and include

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the period. It was therefore during this time that other sites rose to regional prominence and were able to exert greater interregional influence, including Caracol,

6756:: Open access international scientific journal devoted to the archaeological study of the American and Iberian peoples. It contains research articles on Mesoamerica. 6805: 5179: 8488: 1495:. Specific dates vary, but these sites were occupied from roughly 1200 to 400 BCE. Remains of other early cultures interacting with the Olmec have been found at 4077:, and rain. The west was associated with the cycles of vegetation, specifically the temperate high plains that experience light rains and the change of seasons. 3522:

collected extensive information on plants, animals, soil types, among other matters from native informants in Book 11, The Earthly Things, of the twelve-volume

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have been found throughout Mesoamerica. They vary considerably in size, but they all feature long narrow alleys with side walls to bounce the balls against.

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also known as the Occidente, is poorly understood. This period is best represented by the thousands of figurines recovered by looters and ascribed to the "

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are common throughout Mesoamerica. Some of the more important ones served as loci of human occupation in the area. The longest river in Mesoamerica is the

5400: 3755:(also known as El Perú) had a ceremonial stingray spine placed in her genital area, suggesting that women also performed bloodletting in their genitalia. 1432:

in Mesoamerica. The initial phases of the Archaic involved the cultivation of wild plants, transitioning into informal domestication and culminating with

1793:", a transitional period coupling the general depopulation of the southern lowlands and development and florescence of centers in the northern lowlands. 1742:. Towards the end of the Early Classic, this conflict lead to Tikal's military defeat at the hands of Caracol in 562, and a period commonly known as the 5473:. This total does not include those, since they are outside Mesoamerica, and there is discussion whether these areas were actually used for ballplaying. 4779:

Powers, Amanda K.; Garita-Alvarado, Carlos A.; Rodiles-Hernández, Rocío; Berning, Daniel J.; Gross, Joshua B.; Ornelas-García, Claudia Patricia (2019).

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Some Mesoamerican cultures never achieved dominant status or left impressive archaeological remains but are nevertheless noteworthy. These include the

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began to cultivate other crops throughout Mesoamerica. Maize was the most common domesticate, but the common bean, tepary bean, scarlet runner bean,

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The history of human occupation in Mesoamerica is divided into stages or periods. These are known, with slight variation depending on region, as the

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began moving south into Mesoamerica from the North, and became politically and culturally dominant in central Mexico, as they displaced speakers of

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ball was made of solid rubber, and weighed up to 4 kg or more, with sizes that differed greatly over time or according to the version played.

684:). Mesoamerica is recognized as a near-prototypical cultural area. This term is now fully integrated into the standard terminology of precolumbian 4044:, cane, and movement. The East was linked to the world priests and associated with vegetative fertility, or, in other words, tropical exuberance. 1858: 4577: 3800: 8498: 6936: 3406:

nature that characterized Mesoamerican ideology. As mentioned, the Mesoamerican numbering system was vigesimal (i.e., based on the number 20).

372: 227:. Mesoamerica is also one of only five regions of the world where writing is known to have independently developed (the others being ancient 2927:

for transportation is one notable difference between Mesoamerica and the cultures of the South American Andes. Other animals, including the

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memorialize public officials. The 260-day cycle was also used for divination, and (like the Catholic calendar of saints) to name newborns.

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The following is a list of some of the specialized resources traded from the various Mesoamerican sub-regions and environmental contexts:

6855: 6835: 5902: 1294: 885: 5066: 3435:, in terms of harvest weight the world's most important crop. But the inhabitants of Mexico and northern Central America also developed 2842:

and lowlands of Mesoamerica began to develop agricultural practices with early cultivation of squash and chili. The earliest example of

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obsidian, whose trade and distribution is argued to have been economically controlled by Teotihuacan, is found throughout Mesoamerica.

3897:'s "Group E", the first known observatory in the Maya area. Perhaps the earliest observatory documented in Mesoamerica is that of the 564: 6060:

The Nahuas After the Conquest: A Social and Cultural History of the Indians of Central Mexico, Sixteenth Through Eighteenth Centuries

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major provider of food to lowland and coastal Mesoamericans creating a further disincentive to settle down in permanent communities.

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were the primary source of animal protein in ancient Mesoamerica, and dog bones are common in midden deposits throughout the region.

1459: 5593: 923:, Mesoamerica possesses a complex combination of ecological systems, topographic zones, and environmental contexts. These different 8396: 5379: 4177:, but musical instruments were found, as well as carvings and depictions, that clearly show how music played a central role in the 3561: 5138:

Bernardino de Sahagun, Historia de las cosas de Nueva Espana; Diego Duran, The Book of The Gods and Rites, Oklahoma; The Books of

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considered integral part of architecture, with buildings often being adorned with images of religious and cultural significance.

314:, and large ceremonial centers were built, interconnected by a network of trade routes for the exchange of luxury goods, such as 5766: 8203: 8089: 5160:

Lecount, Lisa J. "Like Water for Chocolate: Feasting and Political Ritual among the Late Classic Maya at Xunantunich, Belize."

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are differentiated by the cyclical crystallization and fragmentation of the various political entities throughout Mesoamerica.

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The Flayed God: the Mesoamerican Mythological Tradition; Sacred Texts and Images from pre-Columbian Mexico and Central America

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and quail sacrifice; paper and rubber as sacrificial offerings; a pantheon of gods or spirits; acrobatic flier dance (see the

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The Maya closely observed and duly recorded the seasonal markers. They prepared almanacs recording past and recent solar and

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or El Chircal in Honduras, this place reflects the Olmec influence that existed in Central America in the pre-classic period.

2583: 2145: 191:. As a cultural area, Mesoamerica is defined by a mosaic of cultural traits developed and shared by its indigenous cultures. 8193: 8157: 8096: 4183: 3678: 1170:

and runs north for 970 km (600 mi)—480 km (300 mi) of which are navigable—eventually draining into the

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produce written texts in the colonial period, many with pictorial elements. An important scholarly reference work is the

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included a broad understanding of the cycles of planets and other celestial bodies. Special importance was given to the

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Braswell, Geoffrey E. (2003). "Introduction: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction". In Geoffrey E. Braswell (ed.).

4269: 3631:. In this form, it helps the dead cross the Chicnahuapan, a river that separates the world of the living from the dead. 3345:

The Mesoamerican book was typically written with brush and colored inks on a paper prepared from the inner bark of the

199: 4925: 8518: 8137: 6234: 5776: 5202: 4631: 123: 1629:, signifying a radical shift in socio-cultural and political structure. San José Mogote was eventually overtaken by 8152: 8142: 8084: 8062: 8045: 8040: 7959: 6840: 6402: 6368: 5095:Šprajc, Ivan. "El Sol en Chichén Itzá y Dzibilchaltún: la supuesta importancia de los equinoccios en Mesoamérica". 3764: 3327:

conventions that express ideas, specifically religious ones, but don't represent the phonetics of spoken language.

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materials. By 2000 BCE, corn was the staple crop in the region, and remained so through modern times. The Ramón or

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The Sierra Madre mountains, which consist of several smaller ranges, run from northern Mesoamerica south through

5342: 3530:, compiled in the third quarter of the sixteenth century. Bernardino de Sahagún reported the ritualistic use of 2174: 1369: 1354: 1301:

forest. The biodiversity is among the richest in the world, though the number of species in the red list of the

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Companion planting was practiced in various forms by the indigenous peoples of the Americas. They domesticated

3134: 3013: 2954:, birds, and various types of insects. They also hunted for luxury items, such as feline fur and bird plumage. 1381: 672: 61: 1122:

is 224 m (735 ft) above mean sea level. This area also represents the shortest distance between the

737:) for ritual purposes, as a medium for writing, and the use of agave for cooking and clothing; cultivation of 8416: 8401: 6922: 4828: 4259: 2158: 1586: 1350: 1274: 90: 371:, and Guatemala laid the basis for the Mesoamerican cultural area. All this was facilitated by considerable 8449: 8101: 7731: 7458: 7163: 6882: 4264: 3259: 3249: 3133:

Mesoamerican architecture is the collective name given to urban, ceremonial and public structures built by

806: 411: 57: 28: 6406: 4960: 4591: 1902: 1400:

The Mesoamerican Paleo-Indian period precedes the advent of agriculture and is characterized by a nomadic

1056: 8513: 7588: 6730: 6329: 6148: 4781:"A geographical cline in craniofacial morphology across populations of Mesoamerican lake-dwelling fishes" 3694: 3584: 3504: 2970: 2608: 1994: 1028:

mountains to the low flatlands of the northern Yucatán Peninsula. The tallest mountain in Mesoamerica is

435: 315: 220: 3564:

is another Aztec codex with written text and illustrations collected from the indigenous viewpoint. The

1484: 1020:

There is extensive topographic variation in Mesoamerica, ranging from the high peaks circumscribing the

72: 7766: 7751: 7049: 7034: 6530: 6158:

The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya: An Illustrated Dictionary of Mesoamerican Religion

6055: 5975: 3006: 2814: 2329: 2095: 2068: 1429: 867: 522: 1408:, was a large component of the subsistence strategy of the Mesoamerican Paleo-Indian. These sites had 570: 8147: 8079: 8050: 8035: 7776: 7701: 6063: 4622: 4569: 4284: 4102: 3882: 3700: 3116: 2818: 2337: 1282: 1159: 905: 599: 307: 232: 24: 6696: 6215: 935:, or highlands (situated between 1,000 and 2,000 meters above sea level). In the low-lying regions, 7736: 7653: 7236: 6949: 6333: 5151:

Mann, Charles C. 1491: Revelations of the Americas before Columbus. Vinton Press. 2005. pp. 196–97.

3311:

has been conserved partly in indigenous scripts and partly in the postinvasion transcriptions into

3180:

Agriculturally based people historically divide the year into four seasons. These included the two

2866:

and squash all became common cultivates by 3500 BCE. At the same time, these communities exploited

2502: 2208: 1242: 880: 681: 556: 6914: 6307: 5074: 4647:. Número especial 5. Julio de 2000. Raíces/ Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia. México. 3948:

In Maya cosmology, each cardinal point was assigned a specific color and a specific jaguar deity (

3519: 813:(base 20) number system); "century" of fifty-two years; eighteen-month calendar; screen-fold books 8383: 8074: 7981: 7658: 7368: 7363: 6281: 5663: 5429: 3893:; these are aligned to serve as astronomical observatories. The name of this complex is based on 3808: 3588: 3565: 3308: 2321: 2123: 1774:, and Calakmul (which was allied with Caracol and may have assisted in the defeat of Tikal), and 1711: 1579: 1373: 1314: 1115: 1025: 379: 50: 4802: 2850:, a cave in Oaxaca. Earlier maize samples have been documented at the Los Ladrones cave site in 1088: 1076: 310:, were diffused through the area. Villages began to become socially stratified and develop into 8360: 8167: 7761: 7564: 6774: 5401:"Feeding the gods: Hundreds of skulls reveal massive scale of human sacrifice in Aztec capital" 5176:"The "How" of the Three Sisters: The Origins of Agriculture in Mesoamerica and the Human Niche" 4874: 4239: 4033: 3835: 3508: 3155: 2905: 2229: 1175: 1107: 844: 790: 618: 443: 418:

and the Zapotec cultures. The Mesoamerican writing tradition reached its height in the Classic

360: 299: 216: 6558:"Jaguar and puma captivity and trade among the Maya: Stable isotope data from Copan, Honduras" 5886: 5229:

General History of the Things of New Spain by Fray Bernardino de Sahagún: The Florentine Codex

3752: 2950:

Societies of this region did hunt certain wild species for food. These animals included deer,

8453: 8317: 8237: 7880: 7781: 7390: 6618: 6610: 6315: 6037: 6029: 5926: 5918: 5856: 5430:"Archaeologists Announce Discoveries At The Ancient Maya Site Of Waka' In Northern Guatemala" 3804: 3783: 3580: 3229: 3139: 2685: 2404: 2099: 1971: 849: 780: 768: 685: 676: 303: 291: 211:

colonization of the Americas. Mesoamerica is one of the six areas in the world where ancient

6015:(1943). "Mesoamérica. Sus Límites Geográficos, Composición Étnica y Caracteres Culturales". 4334:

Wyatt, Andrew R.; Monaghan, John (2010-12-13). "Mesoamerica". In Holloway, Thomas H. (ed.).

3571:

Evidence shows that wild animals were captured and traded for symbolic and ritual purposes.

1384:, and changes in economic organization (including increased interregional interaction). The 8478: 8327: 7303: 7021: 6569: 6493: 6376: 4231: 4018: 3620: 3377: 3361: 3254: 3225: 2839: 2506: 2432: 2428: 2325: 1919: 1888: 1634: 1468: 1278: 1226: 1191: 1111: 403: 356: 4021:

maintain the association of cardinal directions with each color, but use different names.

3330:

Mesoamerican writing is found in several mediums, including large stone monuments such as

2114:, the Chontales, the Huaves, and the Pipil, Xincan and Lencan peoples of Central America. 1326:

is one of the largest archaeological sites, urban centers, and tourist attractions of the

1001: 703:

Some of the significant cultural traits defining the Mesoamerican cultural tradition are:

363:. Frequent contact and cultural interchange between the early Olmec and other cultures in 8: 7976: 7641: 7578: 7554: 7385: 7246: 7192: 7133: 7104: 7044: 7039: 6820: 5988:

Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures

4279: 4037: 3925:, an example of a Mesoamerican settlement planned according to concepts of directionality 3901:. This complex consisted of three plain stelae and a temple oriented with respect to the 3557: 3540: 3485: 3403: 3319: 2888: 2883: 1677: 936: 279: 97: 20: 6573: 6497: 5569: 5371: 5254:

Hofmann, Albert (1971). "Teonanácatl and Ololiuqui, two ancient magic drugs of Mexico".

4426: 2167: 2017: 1981:

In central Mexico, the early portion of the Postclassic correlates with the rise of the

1072: 8264: 7885: 7848: 7726: 7172: 7094: 7054: 7029: 6684: 6592: 6557: 6524: 6445: 6203: 5832: 5723: 5698: 5585: 5470: 4894: 4203: 4030: 3898: 3889:. A unique and common architectural complex found among many Mesoamerican sites is the 3500: 3267: 2919:

Mesoamerica lacked animals suitable for domestication, most notably domesticated large

2855: 2543: 2191: 1681: 1520: 1516: 1389: 1362: 514: 5995: 3949: 2216: 1861:, allowed Chichén Itzá to remain highly connected to areas such as central Mexico and 1609: 1055:. In central and southern Mexico, a portion of the Sierra Madre chain is known as the 8345: 7964: 7791: 7756: 7617: 7612: 7593: 7402: 7229: 6989: 6670: 6651: 6622: 6597: 6544: 6534: 6511: 6449: 6437: 6429: 6390: 6380: 6347: 6337: 6311: 6295: 6285: 6257: 6240: 6230: 6189: 6172: 6162: 6136: 6126: 6094: 6077: 6067: 6041: 5999: 5949: 5930: 5892: 5862: 5838: 5817: 5811: 5782: 5772: 5748: 5731: 5715: 5677: 5667: 5643: 5633: 5548: 5300: 5292: 5208: 5198: 4898: 4698: 4627: 4508: 4504: 4466: 4462: 4400: 4396: 4341: 4178: 4174: 4140: 4085: 3918: 3811: 3512: 3300: 2536: 2349: 2301: 1834: 1531: 1504: 1330: 1327: 1290: 955:. The highlands show much more climatic diversity, ranging from dry tropical to cold 636: 578: 458: 415: 383: 195: 148: 6753: 5589: 5580: 3705: 1754: 550: 8426: 8421: 8411: 8340: 8017: 7971: 7914: 7843: 7706: 7600: 7549: 7527: 7380: 7327: 7266: 6587: 6577: 6501: 6421: 6319: 6156: 5991: 5970:(in Spanish). Mexico City: Talleres Gráficos de la Secretaría de Educación Pública. 5707: 5693: 5575: 5282: 4886: 4839: 4784: 4780: 4500: 4458: 4392: 4254: 4217: 4070: 4014: 3553: 3527: 3304: 3263: 3233: 2591: 2587: 2041: 1943: 1935: 1605: 1417: 1233:(or Noh Petén), held out against the Spanish until 1697. Other large lakes include 1080: 1021: 956: 940: 924: 819:: specialized markets, "department store" markets subdivided according to specialty 722: 470: 240: 2847: 2636: 528: 8312: 7813: 7801: 7786: 7741: 7691: 7631: 7573: 7534: 7522: 7515: 7424: 7241: 7224: 7199: 6582: 6271: 5745:

Legacy of Mesoamerica, The: History and Culture of a Native American Civilization

5287: 5270: 4890: 4335: 4249: 3938: 3724: 3682: 3644: 3598: 3440: 3428: 3270:

dated to around 150 CE. Mesoamerica is one of the five places in the world where

2835: 2791: 2763: 2734: 2706: 1862: 1727: 1626: 1622: 1547: 1447: 1401: 1033: 1029: 892:

flourished from 600 BCE to 100 CE, and may have had a population of over 100,000.

840: 742: 160: 1585:

The Preclassic in the central Mexican highlands is represented by such sites as

1404:

subsistence strategy. Big-game hunting, similar to that seen in contemporaneous

1234: 1060: 758:, mirrors of polished stone, turbans, sandals with heels, textiles adorned with 387: 8457: 8406: 8305: 8269: 8249: 8232: 8172: 7936: 7828: 7806: 7796: 7648: 7626: 7510: 7505: 7490: 7485: 7412: 7358: 7310: 7281: 7187: 7177: 6850: 6012: 5986:

Grofe, Michael J. (2016), "Astronomy in Mesoamerica", in Selin, Helaine (ed.),

5807: 5762: 4056: 3606: 3594: 3492: 3456: 3373: 3216: 3192: 2571: 2555: 2360: 2111: 2045: 2013: 1959: 1385: 1377: 1358: 1270: 1206: 1179: 1171: 1123: 1100: 1084: 1008:, the Southern Pacific Lowlands, and Southeast Mesoamerica (including northern 963:

with warm temperatures and moderate rainfall. The rainfall varies from the dry

948: 776: 632: 283: 271: 6506: 6481: 5786: 5227: 4754: 3488:

due to its symbolic meaning and abundance. Gods were praised and named after.

2632: 2284: 2276: 1914: 1719: 1630: 1598: 1551: 1334: 407: 8472: 8431: 8300: 8292: 8259: 7996: 7946: 7838: 7833: 7823: 7673: 7636: 7544: 7539: 7441: 7346: 6515: 6433: 6425: 6122: 5852: 5719: 5696:; Smith-Stark, Thomas (September 1986). "Meso-America as a linguistic area". 5689: 5655: 5296: 4844: 4778: 4274: 4121: 3602: 3389: 3365: 3279: 3085: 2940: 2924: 2612: 1986: 1818: 1790: 1715: 1673: 1575: 1405: 1250: 1229:, in northern Guatemala, is notable as where the last independent Maya city, 1183: 1127: 960: 952: 944: 912: 746: 697: 660: 536: 287: 228: 156: 152: 6394: 6299: 6244: 6176: 6140: 6081: 5681: 5647: 5123:

Myths of Mesoamerican Cultures Reflect a Knowledge and Practice of Astronomy

2098:

groups (which may or may not have been related to the Olmecs), the northern

1786: 1187: 1004:. Other areas include Central Mexico, West Mexico, the Gulf Coast Lowlands, 927:

are classified into two broad categories: the lowlands (those areas between

8335: 8274: 8254: 8244: 7954: 7926: 7681: 7419: 7353: 7322: 7271: 7143: 7072: 7009: 6999: 6887: 6601: 6548: 6441: 5963: 5878:

La Méso-Amérique: L'art pré-hispanique du Mexique et de l'Amérique centrale

5735: 5304: 5212: 5139: 4932: 3873:

Observatories were built at some sites, including the round observatory at

3828: 3717: 3628: 3615: 3448: 3444: 3415: 3414:

was also used, and its representation at the Late Preclassic occupation of

3369: 3324: 3312: 2649: 2567: 2272: 2248: 2212: 2091: 2002: 1951: 1906:

Mesoamerica and Central America in the 16th century before Spanish arrival

1846: 1496: 1492: 1413: 1346: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1167: 1163: 1000:. The northern lowlands cover the remainder of the northern portion of the 989: 693: 689: 439: 275: 212: 6351: 3788: 3635: 3334:, carved directly onto architecture, carved or painted over stucco (e.g., 3121: 2767: 2710: 2021: 1743: 1710:, which was predominantly used by the Maya during the Early Classic), and 1653: 449:

During the early post-Classic period, Central Mexico was dominated by the

8391: 8350: 8281: 7986: 7875: 7818: 7746: 7583: 7559: 7448: 7286: 7204: 7182: 7158: 7004: 6994: 6224: 3922: 3473: 3452: 3296: 3237: 3173: 3125:

Illustration that recreates the structures of the archaeological site of

3100: 2936: 2677: 2575: 2424: 2388: 2345: 2264: 2107: 2072: 1955: 1939: 1511:. Research in the Pacific Lowlands of Chiapas and Guatemala suggest that 1475:

The first complex civilization to develop in Mesoamerica was that of the

1464: 1319: 1238: 1071:. Other volcanoes of note include Tacana on the Mexico–Guatemala border, 1068: 759: 718: 652: 501: 426: 419: 202:

societies flourished in Mesoamerica for more than 3,000 years before the

176: 4173:

Archaeological studies have never discovered any written music from the

3240:

of Oaxaca continue using modernized forms of the Mesoamerican calendar.

2620: 2498: 2408: 1523:

associated with various sculptures found at the Late Preclassic site of

584: 7921: 7890: 7716: 7711: 7375: 7336: 7298: 7216: 7089: 6974: 6969: 6229:. Mazal Holocaust Collection. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. 6152: 6030:"The Modern Ballgames of Sinaloa: a Survival of the Aztec Ullamaliztli" 5660:

American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America

4875:"Archaeobiology: Squash Seeds Yield New View of Early American Farming" 4168: 4116: 3998: 3956: 3886: 3878: 3815: 3710: 3653: 3411: 3395: 3291: 3208: 3035: 2986: 2966: 2595: 2490: 2268: 2252: 2103: 2049: 1967: 1927: 1842: 1758: 1539: 1286: 1155: 1143: 1048: 889: 863: 826: 802: 794: 738: 668: 621:, Honduras. An example of Mesomerican art during the preclassic Period. 431: 395: 345: 323: 207: 188: 5727: 5545:

The Memory of Bones: Body, Being and Experience Among the Classic Maya

4829:"The human impact imprint on modern pollen spectra of the Mayan lands" 4711: 4186:, some of it mixed with the incoming Spanish music and exists to date. 3459:(except for a few domesticated in the United States); and many of the 2669: 2661: 1923: 1875: 1782: 1483:

throughout the Preclassic period. The main sites of the Olmec include

1368:

The differentiation of early periods (i.e., up through the end of the

968: 609: 462: 136: 19:

This article is about the cultural area. For the economic region, see

8368: 8027: 8001: 7931: 7909: 7902: 7686: 7463: 7397: 7293: 7116: 7099: 6984: 6979: 6953: 4148: 3929:

It has been argued that among Mesoamerican societies the concepts of

3855: 3531: 3469: 3287: 3283: 3224:

culture. Even today, several Maya groups in Guatemala, including the

3185: 3181: 3029: 2771: 2714: 2486: 2474: 2183: 1963: 1880: 1775: 1731: 1718:

in Guatemala. Tikal was often in conflict with other polities in the

1594: 1443: 1433: 1338: 1298: 1262: 981: 928: 853: 836: 810: 798: 755: 711: 664: 644: 629: 332: 295: 255: 247: 184: 172: 6648:

The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors: Archaeology of Mesoamerica

5771:. Vol. 2. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 212–216. 5323: 4107: 3295:

writing system, and therefore the most widely known, is the classic

2943:. Turkey was the first to be domesticated locally, around 3500 BCE. 2470: 2454: 1910: 39: 7895: 7500: 7436: 7407: 7317: 7276: 7084: 7064: 6944: 5711: 5469::98) Slightly over 200 ballcourts have also been identified in the 4788: 4602: 4244: 4136: 4132: 3942: 3902: 3894: 3740: 3721: 3126: 2974: 2944: 2920: 2779: 2722: 2665: 2653: 2494: 2482: 2462: 2436: 2416: 2400: 2380: 2341: 2305: 2288: 2280: 2244: 2084: 2061: 2033: 2006: 1975: 1884: 1838: 1778: 1771: 1739: 1723: 1625:. Also of importance, the site was one of the first to demonstrate 1614: 1590: 1508: 1488: 1480: 1438: 1428:

The Archaic period (8000–2000 BCE) is characterized by the rise of

1409: 1041: 1009: 985: 920: 656: 481: 391: 337: 327: 311: 180: 6556:

Sugiyama, Nawa; Fash, William L.; France, Christine A. M. (2018).

5630:

The Maya and Teotihuacan: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction

4735: 2392: 2313: 1767: 1559: 1110:, a low plateau that breaks up the Sierra Madre chain between the 1063:

at 5,452 m (17,887 ft). This volcano, which retains its

7867: 7605: 7495: 7453: 7341: 7153: 7148: 7077: 4674: 3890: 3736: 3648: 3465: 3339: 3271: 3058: 3047: 3039: 2989:, and each person could identify with the city where they lived. 2893: 2879: 2787: 2783: 2730: 2726: 2681: 2673: 2628: 2563: 2478: 2466: 2396: 2384: 2260: 2153:

Honduras, Guatemala, Belize, obsidian and pyrite points, Iztapan

2076: 2048:

resided north of the Totonac, mainly in the modern-day states of

2029: 1947: 1931: 1841:. While generally concentrated within the area in and around the 1735: 1645: 1641: 1571: 1567: 1230: 1195: 1119: 1096: 1092: 1064: 1052: 908: 896: 626: 542: 485: 364: 267: 263: 6804: 6760: 6717:

Mesoweb.com: a comprehensive site for Mesoamerican civilizations

4550: 2458: 1563: 943:

are most common, as is true for most of the coastline along the

8373: 7477: 7431: 7138: 7125: 4152: 4089: 4081: 3874: 3819: 3732: 3624: 3535: 3436: 3399: 3335: 3331: 3077: 3043: 3025: 2951: 2913: 2909: 2897: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2851: 2795: 2755: 2751: 2738: 2702: 2698: 2559: 2333: 2224: 2187: 2053: 2037: 1998: 1990: 1982: 1894: 1649: 1543: 1199: 1037: 1005: 997: 993: 964: 793:(a 260-day ritual calendar and a 365-day calendar based on the 772: 734: 648: 640: 454: 450: 368: 259: 168: 164: 5946:

Death And The Classic Maya Kings, Chapter Three Royal Funerals

5800:

Mesoamerica's Classic Heritage: From Teotihuacan to the Aztecs

5743:

Carmack, Robert M.; Gasco, Janine L.; Gossen, Gary H. (1996).

5662:. Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics, 4. New York: 5311: 3168: 8224: 8119: 7663: 6961: 6945: 5765:(2001). "Mesoamerica: An Overview". In Davíd Carrasco (ed.). 5271:"Hallucinogenic drugs in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures" 4144: 4112: 4074: 4052: 4048: 4041: 4002: 3974: 3930: 3913: 3867: 3793: 3744: 3661: 3496: 3460: 3432: 3402:

as having both literal and symbolic value, the result of the

3200: 3051: 2994: 2978: 2901: 2875: 2871: 2843: 2828: 2775: 2759: 2718: 2624: 2616: 2579: 2551: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2450: 2420: 2412: 2317: 2309: 2256: 2220: 2204: 2080: 2057: 1850: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1806: 1801: 1690: 1618: 1555: 1535: 1524: 1512: 1500: 1476: 1323: 1246: 1222: 1151: 1139: 730: 726: 715: 614: 466: 399: 352: 341: 251: 236: 6321:

Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain

5003: 5001: 4923: 4111:

Art with ideological and political meaning: depiction of an

3160: 3142:

are a landmark feature of the most developed urban centers.

1099:, which is an island formed by both volcanoes rising out of 476:

The distinct Mesoamerican cultural tradition ended with the

340:, and ceramics. While Mesoamerican civilization knew of the 7258: 6611:"The Architectural Background of the Pre-Hispanic Ballgame" 4645:

Atlas del México Prehispánico. Revista Arqueología mexicana

3988: 3960: 3934: 3863: 3477: 3204: 3196: 3096: 3092: 3081: 2928: 2823: 2520: 1814: 1302: 319: 224: 6716: 5688: 5488: 5476: 4717: 1198:

that are accessed through natural surface openings called

438:, ensued. At this time during the Epi-Classic period, the 5798:

Carrasco, Davíd; Jones, Lindsay; Sessions, Scott (2002).

5103: 5013: 4998: 4697:. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc. p. 12. 4128: 3859: 3104: 2932: 825:: wooden swords with stone chips set into the edges (see 6748: 4926:"Pre-Columbian Magnetic Sculptures in Western Guatemala" 1265:

are present in Mesoamerica; the more well known are the

700:, respectively, have not entered into widespread usage. 635:, who noted that similarities existed among the various 6256:(in Spanish). Mexico: Secretaría de Educación Pública. 6088: 5623:. Vol. 2: Mesoamerica. Cambridge University Press. 5621:

Cambridge History of the Native peoples of The Americas

5512: 5448: 1374:

different configurations of socio-cultural organization

1205:

With an area of 8,264 km (3,191 sq mi),

1044:. Its peak elevation is 5,636 m (18,490 ft). 6615:

The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame

6034:

The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame

5923:

The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame

5619:

Adams, Richard E. W.; MacLeod, Murdo J., eds. (2000).

5025: 3418:

is one of the earliest uses of zero in human history.

2129:

Summary of the chronology and cultures of Mesoamerica

1217:

is perhaps most well known as the location upon which

1131:

communication, and economic route within Mesoamerica.

1067:

name, is located 70 km (43 mi) southeast of

971:

to the humid southern Pacific and Caribbean lowlands.

6089:

López Austin, Alfredo; López Luján, Leonardo (1996).

5797: 5500: 4662: 4290:

Painting in the Americas before European colonization

2032:

along the eastern coast (in the modern-day states of

1158:, which forms in Guatemala at the convergence of the 775:

floors; ball courts with stone rings (see the use of

246:

Beginning as early as 7000 BCE, the domestication of

6761:

Vistas: Visual Culture in Spanish America, 1520–1820

5632:. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 1–44. 5524: 4905: 4193: 3677:

Generally, sacrifice can be divided into two types:

3164:"Head Variant" or "Patron Gods" glyphs for Maya days 1333:. It is located in the archaeological region of the 382:, complex urban polities began to develop among the 348:, neither of these became technologically relevant. 163:, thus comprising the lands of central and southern 6667:

The Paleoindian and Archaic Cultures of Mesoamerica

6222: 5858:

Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies

5343:"Transcript of "The Maya myth of the morning star"" 5329: 5047: 4538: 4526: 3731:, and blood was drawn from piercing or cutting the 1640:The Preclassic in western Mexico, in the states of 856:

and natural deities, and a shared system of symbols

64:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 6555: 6473:The Ancient Civilizations of Mesoamerica: A Reader 5990:, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 1–12, 5742: 5317: 4741: 4680: 4656: 4608: 4556: 3507:agricultural technique. The cornstalk served as a 3464:comparatively short time, they invented their own 1845:, the style has been documented as far away as at 1722:, as well as with others outside of it, including 1530:During the Middle and Late Preclassic period, the 1308: 465:. Towards the end of the post-Classic period, the 6093:(in Spanish). Mexico City: El Colegio de México. 3427:Mesoamerica would deserve its place in the human 696:, which refer to northern Mexico and the western 457:. The lowland Maya area had important centers at 351:Among the earliest complex civilizations was the 219:), and the second in the Americas, alongside the 8470: 6326:Historia General de las Cosas de la Nueva España 5768:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures 3885:pyramid at Chichen Itza and the Observatorio at 3278:The Mesoamerican scripts deciphered to date are 6482:"Astronomy and its role in ancient Mesoamerica" 6117:Markman, Roberta H.; Markman, Peter T. (1992). 5816:(4th ed.). New York: Thames & Hudson. 5372:"Creation Story of the Maya | Living Maya Time" 4723: 480:in the 16th century. Eurasian diseases such as 8489:History of indigenous peoples of North America 6664: 6642:. Austin: University of Texas Press 1964–1976. 6116: 5654: 4826: 4096: 3908: 3421: 870:that have spread through the area by diffusion 373:regional communications in ancient Mesoamerica 359:and extended inland and southwards across the 6930: 6790: 6358: 6328: ed.). Santa Fe, NM and Salt Lake City: 4803:"Science Show – Bosawas Bioreserve Nicaragua" 4424: 4333: 4047:North: wind, death, the dog, the jaguar, and 1761:, Temple of the Feathered Serpent, 650–900 CE 1527:suggest a date of between 1800 and 1500 BCE. 473:empire covering most of central Mesoamerica. 6665:Zeitlin, Robert N.; Zeitlin, Judith (2000). 6486:The Role of Astronomy in Society and Culture 6407:"City Size in Late Post-Classic Mesoamerica" 5916: 5802:. Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado. 5618: 5482: 4425:Kilroy-Ewbank, Lauren (September 12, 2017). 1597:. These sites were eventually superseded by 6731:National Museum of Anthropology and History 6650:(3rd ed.). San Diego: Academic Press. 6471:Smith, Michael E.; Masson, Marilyn (2000). 6470: 6359:Sharer, Robert J.; Traxler, Loa P. (2006). 6147: 6107: 5982:. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1964. 5943: 5454: 5269:Carod-Artal, F.J. (January–February 2015). 5268: 5109: 5007: 4695:The Mythology of Mexico and Central America 4005:, associated with the color yellow and the 3566:ancient Aztecs used a variety of entheogens 3524:General History of the Things of New Spain, 3046:skins, birds and bird feathers (especially 2368:Classic Maya Centers, Teotihuacan, Zapotec 2117: 1974:were in eastern Guatemala and northwestern 1289:second in size in the Americas only to the 598:literally means "middle America" in Greek. 491: 16:Pre-Columbian cultural area in the Americas 6937: 6923: 6797: 6783: 6617:. New York: Thames & Hudson. pp. 6363:(6th ed.). Stanford University Press. 6306: 6036:. New York: Thames & Hudson. pp. 5925:. New York: Thames & Hudson. pp. 5225: 5129:July 18, 2003 (accessed January 25, 2016). 4755:"MTU Volcanoes Page – World Reference Map" 4634:) Oxford: Oxford University Press; p. 906. 3991:, associated with the color black and the 3574: 835:: the practice of various forms of ritual 741:; grinding of corn softened with ashes or 6608: 6591: 6581: 6529:. Cambridge Language Surveys. Cambridge: 6505: 6280:(1st pbk ed.). Oxford and New York: 6254:Agricultura y civilización en Mesoamérica 6011: 5579: 5574:(MA thesis). Louisiana State University. 5466: 5286: 4843: 4836:Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana 4692: 4668: 4360: 4340:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 24–41. 2961: 2854:, c. 5500 BCE. Slightly thereafter, semi- 1479:, who inhabited the Gulf Coast region of 1460:Olmec influences on Mesoamerican cultures 1213:is Mexico's largest freshwater lake, but 1106:One important topographic feature is the 639:within the region that included southern 124:Learn how and when to remove this message 6749:WAYEB: European Association of Mayanists 6054: 6027: 5919:"Rubber and Rubber Balls in Mesoamerica" 5875: 5834:The Olmecs: America's First Civilization 5761: 5627: 5530: 5494: 4718:Campbell, Kaufman & Smith-Stark 1986 4532: 4490: 4106: 3963:, associated with the color red and the 3912: 3799: 3787: 3704: 3634: 3614: 3562:Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis 3253: 3167: 3159: 3120: 2965: 2822: 2803: 1901: 1893: 1800: 1753: 1672: 1463: 1318: 1138: 1118:to the south. At its highest point, the 895: 884: 608: 135: 6768:"Google Scholar Citations: Mesoamerica" 6270: 6183: 5851: 5542: 5253: 5192: 5053: 5031: 5019: 4457:, Oxford University Press, 2022-02-21, 4391:, Oxford University Press, 2022-02-21, 4314:Education | National Geographic Society 1706:Pachuca) and highland Guatemala (e.g., 1453: 1269:, the second largest in the world, and 1150:Outside of the northern Maya lowlands, 900:Landscape of the Mesoamerican highlands 604:The Handbook of Middle American Indians 8471: 6645: 6522: 6479: 6251: 6186:Mesoamerican Chronology: Periodization 5547:. Houston: University of Texas Press. 5518: 5173: 4820: 4064:Dogs in Mesoamerican folklore and myth 3643:The great breadth of the Mesoamerican 3511:for the beans to climb, and the beans 3149: 1985:and an empire based at their capital, 688:studies. Conversely, the sister terms 613:Anthropomorphic figure from the Proto- 375:, especially along the Pacific coast. 8499:Indigenous peoples of Central America 6918: 6778: 6401: 6367: 6226:Aztec medicine, health, and nutrition 5985: 5962: 5948:. Austin: University of Texas Press. 5884: 5830: 5813:Mexico: from the Olmecs to the Aztecs 5567: 5506: 4911: 4872: 4866: 4544: 4337:A Companion to Latin American History 1378:increasing socio-political complexity 974: 410:. During this period, the first true 6112:. New York: Oxford University Press. 4924:Paul A. Dunn; Vincent H. Malmström. 4329: 4327: 3709:Ritual human sacrifice portrayed in 3431:if its inhabitants had only created 3258:One of the earliest examples of the 2846:dates to c. 4000 BCE and comes from 2024:and Guerrero. With their capital at 1805:Detail of the Nunnery Quadrangle at 1617:, ceremonial structures, the use of 1380:, the adoption of new and different 1209:is the largest lake in Mesoamerica. 292:mythological and religious tradition 204:Spanish colonization of the Americas 159:and extends to the Pacific coast of 155:that begins in the southern part of 62:adding citations to reliable sources 33: 6640:Handbook of Middle American Indians 6613:. In E. Michael Whittington (ed.). 6277:Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest 6032:. In E. Michael Whittington (ed.). 5921:. In E. Michael Whittington (ed.). 5888:The Oxford Companion to Archaeology 5806: 5067:"Science, civilization and society" 4729: 4623:Oxford English Reference Dictionary 4135:and generally focused on themes of 3977:, assigned the color white and the 3831:, is still played in a few places. 3822:depicting a ballplayer in full gear 3356:Handbook of Middle American Indians 2087:, remained independent until 1697. 1891:), that competed with one another. 1796: 1174:. Other rivers of note include the 386:, with the rise of centers such as 13: 6324:. Vol. I–XII (translation of 5861:. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. 5243:– via World Digital Library. 5094: 4580:from the original on Jan 25, 2024. 4367:Art of the Americas to World War I 4320:from the original on Dec 30, 2023. 4270:Indigenous peoples of the Americas 3758: 3484:Maize played an important role in 3358:, Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources 3243: 3034:Maya lowlands and the Gulf Coast: 2056:and Zapotec cultures, centered at 1134: 140:Mesoamerica and its cultural areas 14: 8530: 6705: 6526:The Mesoamerican Indian Languages 6188:. Vol. 2. pp. 222–226. 5996:10.1007/978-94-007-3934-5_10270-2 5571:Ancient Maya music now with sound 4373:from the original on Nov 7, 2023. 4324: 3870:as the morning and evening star. 2102:groups, often referred to as the 1950:in the Guatemalan highlands. The 8445: 8444: 7777:West South Central United States 6903: 6669:. Vol. 2. pp. 45–122. 6223:Ortiz de Montellano, B. (1990). 5793:from the original on 2020-08-09. 5436:from the original on 10 May 2010 5318:Sugiyama, Fash & France 2018 5182:from the original on 2021-04-14. 4742:Carmack, Gasco & Gossen 1996 4681:Carmack, Gasco & Gossen 1996 4657:Carmack, Gasco & Gossen 1996 4609:Carmack, Gasco & Gossen 1996 4557:Carmack, Gasco & Gossen 1996 4451:"The Archaeology of Mesoamerica" 4385:"The Archaeology of Mesoamerica" 4224: 4210: 4196: 3792:A small ceremonial ballcourt at 3765:Human sacrifice in Aztec culture 3688: 3495:8,000 to 10,000 years ago, then 3064:Guatemalan highlands: Obsidian ( 2064:respectively, inhabited Oaxaca. 1913:, in the Chiapas highlands, and 1668: 1633:, the subsequent capital of the 1267:Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System 577: 563: 549: 535: 521: 507: 286:, resulted in a transition from 38: 7992:Latin America and the Caribbean 7858:Latin America and the Caribbean 6459:from the original on 2018-10-08 6161:. London: Thames & Hudson. 5905:from the original on 2022-10-16 5880:(in French). Paris: Flammarion. 5837:. London: Thames & Hudson. 5611: 5596:from the original on 2021-04-10 5581:10.31390/gradschool_theses.3498 5561: 5536: 5460: 5422: 5411:from the original on 2021-10-13 5393: 5382:from the original on 2021-01-20 5364: 5353:from the original on 2021-08-17 5335: 5262: 5247: 5236:from the original on 2020-12-02 5226:de Sahagún, Bernardino (1577). 5219: 5186: 5167: 5154: 5145: 5132: 5115: 5088: 5059: 5037: 4967: 4953: 4917: 4855:from the original on 2018-05-18 4827:Franco-Gaviria, Felipe (2018). 4809:from the original on 2011-05-11 4795: 4772: 4761:from the original on 2011-04-08 4747: 4686: 4637: 4614: 4584: 4562: 4069:West: the house, the deer, the 3769:Human sacrifice in Maya culture 3110: 1749: 1395: 1309:Chronology, culture and history 1256: 779:and the practice of the ritual 625:The term was first used by the 425:In Central Mexico, the city of 49:needs additional citations for 23:. For the geographic area, see 8484:Classic period in the Americas 6742:concerning war in Mesoamerica 6646:Weaver, Muriel Porter (1993). 6108:O'Brien, Patrick, ed. (2005). 5944:Fitzsimmons, James L. (2009). 5658:(1997). William Bright (ed.). 4505:10.1093/obo/9780199766567-0194 4491:Woodfill, Brent (2018-10-25), 4484: 4463:10.1093/obo/9780199766581-0263 4443: 4427:"Mesoamerica, an introduction" 4418: 4397:10.1093/obo/9780199766581-0263 4377: 4363:"Mesoamerica, an introduction" 4354: 4302: 4131:expression was conditioned by 3307:writing systems. An extensive 2973:, the Classic period ruler of 2808: 2067:The Postclassic ends with the 1868: 1637:, during the Late Preclassic. 752:Clothing and personal articles 500:Ancient Mesoamerican sites in 1: 6110:Oxford Atlas of World History 5980:The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule 5885:Fagan, Brian M., ed. (1996). 5747:. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 4295: 4260:Hispanic and Latino Americans 3937:are associated with the four 3383: 2827:Examples of the diversity of 1519:may have preceded the Olmec. 1275:Rio Platano Biosphere Reserve 1015: 355:culture, which inhabited the 8509:Pre-Columbian cultural areas 8504:Indigenous peoples in Mexico 7459:Middle East and North Africa 7164:Middle East and North Africa 6583:10.1371/journal.pone.0202958 6375:(1st ed.). Malden, MA: 5917:Filloy Nadal, Laura (2001). 5288:10.1016/j.nrleng.2011.07.010 5275:Neurología (English Edition) 5142:of Mani, Kaua, and Chumayel. 5125:, University of New Mexico, 4891:10.1126/science.276.5314.894 4265:Indigenous peoples of Mexico 3849: 3672: 3639:Zapotec mask of the Bat God. 3290:, and they are often called 3274:has developed independently. 3260:Mesoamerican writing systems 3250:Mesoamerican writing systems 1817:settlements in the northern 1051:. The chain is historically 874: 868:number of grammatical traits 797:); use of locally developed 412:Mesoamerican writing systems 29:Mesoamerica (disambiguation) 7: 6330:School of American Research 5891:. Oxford University Press. 4961:"the kingdom of this world" 4499:, Oxford University Press, 4189: 4097:Political and religious art 4013:Later cultures such as the 3941:and linked together by the 3909:Symbolism of space and time 3777: 3716:Autosacrifice, also called 3695:Bloodletting in Mesoamerica 3585:Mesoamerican creation myths 3422:Food, medicine, and science 3135:pre-Columbian civilizations 2140:Important cultures, cities 2052:and northern Veracruz. The 453:culture, and Oaxaca by the 10: 8535: 8494:History of Central America 7752:Northeastern United States 6810:Indigenous North Americans 6754:Arqueologia Iberoamericana 6722:Museum of the Templo Mayor 6531:Cambridge University Press 6480:Šprajc, Ivan (June 2011). 6184:Mendoza, Ruben G. (2001). 5831:Diehl, Richard A. (2004). 5174:Landon, Amanda J. (2008). 5164:103.4 (2001): 935–53. Web. 4873:Roush, Wade (9 May 1997). 4805:. Abc.net.au. 2006-08-19. 4570:"Exploring the Maya World" 4493:"Mesoamerican Archaeology" 4166: 4100: 3877:and the "Observatorio" at 3781: 3762: 3698: 3692: 3592: 3578: 3387: 3247: 3153: 3114: 3057:Central Mexico: Obsidian ( 3007:Trade in Maya civilization 3004: 3000: 2815:Agriculture in Mesoamerica 2812: 2166:Agricultural settlements, 2121: 1663: 1457: 1423: 1376:that are characterized by 1312: 959:; the dominant climate is 878: 852:based on a combination of 708:Horticulture and plant use 469:of Central Mexico built a 18: 8440: 8382: 8359: 8326: 8290: 8223: 8117: 8025: 8016: 7945: 7866: 7672: 7476: 7257: 7215: 7124: 7115: 7063: 7020: 6960: 6901: 6816: 6523:Suaréz, Jorge A. (1983). 6507:10.1017/S1743921311002171 6064:Stanford University Press 5543:Houston, Stephen (2006). 5197:. New York: McGraw-Hill. 4596:Google Arts & Culture 4574:Google Arts & Culture 4285:Middle America (Americas) 4103:Category:Mesoamerican art 3701:Sacrifice in Maya culture 3515:, benefitting the maize. 3117:Mesoamerican architecture 2819:Maya diet and subsistence 2435:; Central American area: 2287:; Central American area: 2139: 2136: 2133: 1507:, and as far south as in 1446:, Guatemala, where maize 1283:Bosawas Biosphere Reserve 1057:Eje Volcánico Transversal 1036:located on the border of 931:and 1000 meters) and the 304:tradition of ball playing 215:arose independently (see 25:Middle America (Americas) 8519:Regions of North America 8233:Antarctic/Southern Ocean 7237:Transantarctic Mountains 6609:Taladoire, Eric (2001). 6426:10.1177/0096144204274396 6414:Journal of Urban History 6334:University of Utah Press 5330:Ortiz de Montellano 1990 5193:Hofmann, Albert (1980). 5071:www.mt-oceanography.info 4975:"Los Ladrones cave site" 4845:10.18268/BSGM2018v70n1a4 4693:Bierhorst, John (1990). 4626:, 2nd ed. (rev.) 2002. ( 4162: 3952:). They are as follows: 3556:). An earlier work, the 2503:Classic Veracruz culture 2431:apogee; Western Mexico: 2209:San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan 2118:Chronology in chart form 1898:The Aztec Empire in 1512 1680:viewed from atop of the 1485:San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán 1337:in what is now northern 1293:. The highlands present 881:Geography of Mesoamerica 492:Etymology and definition 420:Maya logosyllabic script 300:complex calendric system 7982:Caribbean South America 6282:Oxford University Press 5664:Oxford University Press 5568:Bourg, Cameron (2005). 5162:American Anthropologist 5110:Miller & Taube 1993 4361:Kilroy-Ewbank, Lauren. 3939:cardinal compass points 3589:Mesoamerican world tree 3575:Mythology and worldview 3544:(agglutinative form of 3534:mushrooms known to the 3309:Mesoamerican literature 2228:Central American Area: 2124:Mesoamerican chronology 1874:the Early Postclassic, 1315:Mesoamerican chronology 1116:Sierra Madre de Chiapas 1024:and within the central 789:: use of two different 7762:Southern United States 7565:Scandinavian Peninsula 6308:Sahagún, Bernardino de 6252:Palerm, Ángel (1972). 6028:Leyenaar, Ted (2001). 5876:Duverger, Ch. (1999). 4455:Latin American Studies 4389:Latin American Studies 4240:Americas (terminology) 4139:and/or sociopolitical 4124: 4120:(skull-rack) from the 3926: 3823: 3797: 3713: 3640: 3632: 3568:within their society. 3482: 3275: 3177: 3165: 3156:Mesoamerican calendars 3130: 3066:San Martin Jilotepeque 2981: 2962:Political organization 2831: 2175:Preclassic (Formative) 2069:arrival of the Spanish 1907: 1899: 1810: 1762: 1685: 1472: 1382:subsistence strategies 1342: 1176:Rio Grande de Santiago 1147: 1108:Isthmus of Tehuantepec 901: 893: 845:Danza de los Voladores 671:. In the tradition of 637:pre-Columbian cultures 622: 444:Oto-Manguean languages 414:were developed in the 402:in Guatemala, and the 361:Isthmus of Tehuantepec 217:cradle of civilization 141: 27:. For other uses, see 8238:Antarctic Convergence 7782:Western United States 6740:Selected bibliography 6316:Arthur J. O. Anderson 5256:Bulletin on Narcotics 5195:LSD, my problem child 4980:. UAC. Archived from 4110: 3916: 3803: 3791: 3784:Mesoamerican ballgame 3708: 3638: 3618: 3581:Mesoamerican religion 3579:Further information: 3520:Bernardino de Sahagún 3425: 3299:. Others include the 3282:combining the use of 3257: 3171: 3163: 3124: 2971:K'inich Kan B'alam II 2969: 2834:By roughly 6000 BCE, 2826: 2813:Further information: 2804:Other characteristics 1905: 1897: 1804: 1757: 1676: 1467: 1450:date to c. 3500 BCE. 1430:incipient agriculture 1402:hunting and gathering 1372:) generally reflects 1322: 1225:Empire, was founded. 1142: 1114:to the north and the 919:10° and 22° northern 899: 888: 781:Mesoamerican ballgame 677:archaeological theory 612: 139: 7304:Greater Central Asia 6377:Blackwell Publishing 5121:Roxanne V. Pacheco, 5097:Arqueología Mexicana 4232:Latin America portal 4184:Spanish colonization 3362:Mesoamerican codices 3195:, the phases of the 2856:agrarian communities 2507:Teuchitlan tradition 2433:Teuchitlan tradition 2354:Shaft Tomb Tradition 2326:Altar de Sacrificios 2283:; Valley of Oaxaca: 2215:; Valley of Oaxaca: 1658:shaft tomb tradition 1623:hieroglyphic writing 1454:Preclassic/Formative 1357:(or Formative), the 1279:Patuca National Park 1112:Sierra Madre del Sur 957:mountainous climates 809:; numbers (see also 357:Gulf Coast of Mexico 58:improve this article 8450:Continents of Earth 7977:Brazilian Highlands 7386:Indian subcontinent 7247:Antarctic Peninsula 7045:Southern Hemisphere 7040:Northern Hemisphere 6574:2018PLoSO..1302958S 6498:2011IAUS..260...87S 5349:. 21 October 2019. 4592:"Who Are the Maya?" 4280:Mesoamerican region 4084:, dried herbs, the 4080:South: rabbit, the 3558:Badianus Manuscript 3486:Mesoamerican feasts 3150:Calendrical systems 2977:, as depicted on a 2889:Brosimum alicastrum 2182:Unknown culture in 2130: 2106:, that include the 2016:(also known as the 1678:Pyramid of the Moon 1521:Radiocarbon samples 1469:Olmec Colossal Head 1388:period through the 1277:, Tawahka Asangni, 1273:(consisting of the 1087:in Costa Rica, and 823:Weapons and warfare 308:architectural style 21:Mesoamerican region 8514:Historical regions 8265:Great Barrier Reef 7886:Mainland Australia 7594:Apennine Peninsula 7055:Western Hemisphere 7030:Eastern Hemisphere 6638:, general editor. 6475:. Wiley-Blackwell. 6091:El pasado indígena 5497:, pp. 125–26. 5471:American Southwest 4204:Mesoamerica portal 4125: 3927: 3919:Avenue of the Dead 3899:Monte Alto culture 3824: 3798: 3714: 3641: 3633: 3548:(god, sacred) and 3455:; all the world's 3305:Epi-Olmec/Isthmian 3276: 3268:La Mojarra Stela 1 3178: 3166: 3131: 3024:Pacific lowlands: 2982: 2832: 2602:Early Postclassic 2505:; Western Mexico: 2489:; Central Mexico: 2423:; Central Mexico: 2352:; Western Mexico: 2344:; Central Mexico: 2237:Middle Preclassic 2211:; Central Mexico: 2192:Monte Alto culture 2179:2000 BCE – 250 CE 2128: 2020:) were located in 1908: 1900: 1811: 1763: 1686: 1682:Pyramid of the Sun 1517:Monte Alto Culture 1473: 1471:No. 3 1200–900 BCE 1343: 1305:grows every year. 1148: 975:Cultural sub-areas 911:joining North and 902: 894: 767:: construction of 623: 515:Holy Spirit Grotto 378:In the subsequent 298:numeric system, a 142: 8466: 8465: 8346:Mediterranean Rim 8219: 8218: 8158:Mediterranean Sea 8012: 8011: 7965:Amazon Rainforest 7792:Canadian Prairies 7757:Pacific Northwest 7618:Iberian Peninsula 7403:Arabian Peninsula 7230:Antarctic Plateau 6990:Three/Four Worlds 6912: 6911: 6856:Eastern Woodlands 6676:978-0-521-35165-2 6657:978-0-01-263999-3 6628:978-0-500-05108-5 6540:978-0-521-22834-3 6403:Smith, Michael E. 6386:978-0-631-23015-1 6369:Smith, Michael E. 6343:978-0-87480-082-1 6312:Charles E. Dibble 6291:978-0-19-517611-7 6263:978-968-13-0994-7 6195:978-0-19-510815-6 6168:978-0-500-05068-2 6132:978-0-06-250528-6 6121:. San Francisco: 6100:978-968-16-4890-9 6073:978-0-8047-1927-8 6047:978-0-500-05108-5 6005:978-94-007-3934-5 5955:978-0-292-79370-5 5936:978-0-500-05108-5 5898:978-0-19-507618-9 5868:978-0-393-31755-8 5844:978-0-500-28503-9 5823:978-0-500-27722-5 5754:978-0-13-337445-2 5694:Kaufman, Terrence 5673:978-0-19-509427-5 5639:978-0-292-70587-6 5554:978-0-292-71319-2 5483:Filloy Nadal 2001 5022:, p. 126–27. 4611:, pp. 40–80. 4514:978-0-19-976656-7 4472:978-0-19-976658-1 4406:978-0-19-976658-1 4347:978-1-4443-3884-3 4175:pre-Columbian era 3364:survive from the 3199:, the periods of 2801: 2800: 2643:Late Postclassic 2513:Terminal Classic 2350:Epi-Olmec culture 2298:400 BCE – 200 CE 2219:. The Maya area: 2198:Early Preclassic 1966:and northwestern 1546:. Middle to Late 1532:Maya civilization 1505:Teopantecuanitlan 1418:projectile points 1331:Maya civilization 1221:, capital of the 1002:Yucatán Peninsula 941:tropical climates 850:religious complex 745:; harpoon-shaped 667:and northwestern 617:culture found at 380:Preclassic period 306:, and a distinct 278:, as well as the 196:pre-Columbian era 149:historical region 134: 133: 126: 108: 8526: 8448: 8447: 8427:Global Southwest 8422:Global Southeast 8412:Global Northwest 8407:Global Northeast 8397:Global Heartland 8341:Indian Ocean Rim 8023: 8022: 7915:Island Melanesia 7606:Balkan Peninsula 7381:Himalayan states 7328:Russian Far East 7122: 7121: 7050:Water Hemisphere 6939: 6932: 6925: 6916: 6915: 6907: 6906: 6799: 6792: 6785: 6776: 6775: 6771: 6745: 6736: 6727: 6700: 6694: 6690: 6688: 6680: 6661: 6636:Wauchope, Robert 6632: 6605: 6595: 6585: 6552: 6519: 6509: 6476: 6467: 6465: 6464: 6458: 6411: 6398: 6364: 6361:The Ancient Maya 6355: 6303: 6272:Restall, Matthew 6267: 6248: 6219: 6213: 6209: 6207: 6199: 6180: 6144: 6113: 6104: 6085: 6062:. Stanford, CA: 6051: 6024: 6008: 5971: 5959: 5940: 5913: 5911: 5910: 5881: 5872: 5848: 5827: 5803: 5794: 5758: 5739: 5685: 5651: 5624: 5605: 5604: 5602: 5601: 5583: 5565: 5559: 5558: 5540: 5534: 5528: 5522: 5521:, p. 87-95. 5516: 5510: 5504: 5498: 5492: 5486: 5480: 5474: 5464: 5458: 5455:Fitzsimmons 2009 5452: 5446: 5445: 5443: 5441: 5426: 5420: 5419: 5417: 5416: 5397: 5391: 5390: 5388: 5387: 5376:maya.nmai.si.edu 5368: 5362: 5361: 5359: 5358: 5339: 5333: 5332:, p. 67-71. 5327: 5321: 5315: 5309: 5308: 5290: 5266: 5260: 5259: 5251: 5245: 5244: 5242: 5241: 5223: 5217: 5216: 5190: 5184: 5183: 5171: 5165: 5158: 5152: 5149: 5143: 5136: 5130: 5119: 5113: 5107: 5101: 5100: 5092: 5086: 5085: 5083: 5082: 5073:. Archived from 5063: 5057: 5051: 5045: 5041: 5035: 5029: 5023: 5017: 5011: 5005: 4996: 4995: 4993: 4992: 4986: 4979: 4971: 4965: 4964: 4957: 4951: 4950: 4946: 4944: 4943: 4937: 4931:. Archived from 4930: 4921: 4915: 4909: 4903: 4902: 4885:(5314): 894–95. 4870: 4864: 4863: 4861: 4860: 4854: 4847: 4838:. 70, 1: 61–78. 4833: 4824: 4818: 4817: 4815: 4814: 4799: 4793: 4792: 4776: 4770: 4769: 4767: 4766: 4751: 4745: 4744:, pp. 9–11. 4739: 4733: 4727: 4721: 4715: 4709: 4708: 4690: 4684: 4678: 4672: 4666: 4660: 4654: 4648: 4641: 4635: 4620:"Meso-America", 4618: 4612: 4606: 4600: 4599: 4588: 4582: 4581: 4566: 4560: 4554: 4548: 4542: 4536: 4530: 4524: 4523: 4522: 4521: 4488: 4482: 4481: 4480: 4479: 4447: 4441: 4440: 4438: 4437: 4422: 4416: 4415: 4414: 4413: 4381: 4375: 4374: 4369:. Khan Academy. 4358: 4352: 4351: 4331: 4322: 4321: 4306: 4255:Hispanic America 4234: 4229: 4228: 4227: 4220: 4218:Geography portal 4215: 4214: 4213: 4206: 4201: 4200: 4199: 4151:, architectural 3747:held in a bowl. 3725:prismatic blades 3528:Florentine Codex 3476:, including the 3264:Epi-Olmec script 3176:of Tikal (Mutal) 2836:hunter-gatherers 2686:Peñol de Cerquin 2516:800–900/1000 CE 2295:Late Preclassic 2150:10,000–3500 BCE 2131: 2127: 1962:were in western 1849:to the east and 1797:Terminal Classic 1627:inherited status 1606:Valley of Oaxaca 1582:, among others. 1083:in El Salvador, 1022:Valley of Mexico 805:(logo-syllabic) 769:stepped pyramids 723:floating gardens 675:, the prevalent 673:cultural history 581: 567: 553: 539: 525: 511: 478:Spanish conquest 129: 122: 118: 115: 109: 107: 66: 42: 34: 8534: 8533: 8529: 8528: 8527: 8525: 8524: 8523: 8469: 8468: 8467: 8462: 8436: 8378: 8355: 8322: 8286: 8215: 8204:South China Sea 8113: 8056:Central America 8008: 7941: 7862: 7814:Northern Mexico 7802:Northern Canada 7787:Atlantic Canada 7742:Mountain states 7668: 7523:European Russia 7516:Southern Russia 7472: 7425:Iranian Plateau 7253: 7242:West Antarctica 7225:East Antarctica 7211: 7111: 7059: 7035:Land Hemisphere 7016: 6956: 6943: 6913: 6908: 6904: 6899: 6831:Northwest Coast 6812: 6803: 6766: 6743: 6734: 6725: 6708: 6703: 6692: 6691: 6682: 6681: 6677: 6658: 6629: 6568:(9): e0202958. 6541: 6462: 6460: 6456: 6409: 6387: 6344: 6292: 6264: 6237: 6211: 6210: 6201: 6200: 6196: 6169: 6133: 6101: 6074: 6056:Lockhart, James 6048: 6013:Kirchhoff, Paul 6006: 5976:Gibson, Charles 5956: 5937: 5908: 5906: 5899: 5869: 5845: 5824: 5808:Coe, Michael D. 5779: 5763:Carrasco, Davíd 5755: 5674: 5640: 5614: 5609: 5608: 5599: 5597: 5566: 5562: 5555: 5541: 5537: 5529: 5525: 5517: 5513: 5509:, p. 1-12. 5505: 5501: 5493: 5489: 5481: 5477: 5467:Taladoire (2001 5465: 5461: 5453: 5449: 5439: 5437: 5432:. May 6, 2004. 5428: 5427: 5423: 5414: 5412: 5399: 5398: 5394: 5385: 5383: 5370: 5369: 5365: 5356: 5354: 5341: 5340: 5336: 5328: 5324: 5316: 5312: 5267: 5263: 5252: 5248: 5239: 5237: 5224: 5220: 5205: 5191: 5187: 5172: 5168: 5159: 5155: 5150: 5146: 5137: 5133: 5120: 5116: 5108: 5104: 5093: 5089: 5080: 5078: 5065: 5064: 5060: 5052: 5048: 5042: 5038: 5030: 5026: 5018: 5014: 5006: 4999: 4990: 4988: 4984: 4977: 4973: 4972: 4968: 4959: 4958: 4954: 4948: 4941: 4939: 4935: 4928: 4922: 4918: 4910: 4906: 4871: 4867: 4858: 4856: 4852: 4831: 4825: 4821: 4812: 4810: 4801: 4800: 4796: 4777: 4773: 4764: 4762: 4757:. Geo.mtu.edu. 4753: 4752: 4748: 4740: 4736: 4728: 4724: 4716: 4712: 4705: 4691: 4687: 4683:, pp. 5–8. 4679: 4675: 4667: 4663: 4655: 4651: 4642: 4638: 4619: 4615: 4607: 4603: 4590: 4589: 4585: 4568: 4567: 4563: 4555: 4551: 4543: 4539: 4531: 4527: 4519: 4517: 4515: 4489: 4485: 4477: 4475: 4473: 4449: 4448: 4444: 4435: 4433: 4423: 4419: 4411: 4409: 4407: 4383: 4382: 4378: 4359: 4355: 4348: 4332: 4325: 4308: 4307: 4303: 4298: 4250:Central America 4230: 4225: 4223: 4216: 4211: 4209: 4202: 4197: 4195: 4192: 4171: 4165: 4105: 4099: 4001:, Bacab of the 3987:, Bacab of the 3973:, Bacab of the 3959:, Bacab of the 3911: 3852: 3805:Ballgame marker 3786: 3780: 3771: 3761: 3759:Human sacrifice 3729:stingray spines 3703: 3697: 3691: 3683:human sacrifice 3675: 3609: 3599:Olmec mythology 3591: 3577: 3447:, essential to 3441:Italian cuisine 3439:, now basic to 3424: 3412:concept of zero 3392: 3386: 3303:, Zapotec, and 3252: 3246: 3244:Writing systems 3158: 3152: 3119: 3113: 3091:Coastal areas: 3009: 3003: 2964: 2878:for fibers and 2821: 2811: 2806: 2217:San José Mogote 2126: 2120: 1989:(also known as 1889:Mérida, Yucatán 1871: 1863:Central America 1799: 1752: 1671: 1666: 1610:San José Mogote 1548:Preclassic Maya 1462: 1456: 1426: 1398: 1370:Late Preclassic 1317: 1311: 1259: 1227:Lake Petén Itzá 1137: 1135:Bodies of water 1034:dormant volcano 1030:Pico de Orizaba 1018: 977: 906:Middle American 904:Located on the 883: 877: 864:linguistic area 841:human sacrifice 833:Ritual and myth 807:writing systems 686:anthropological 592: 591: 590: 587: 582: 573: 568: 559: 554: 545: 540: 531: 526: 517: 512: 494: 223:in present-day 179:, and parts of 161:Central America 130: 119: 113: 110: 67: 65: 55: 43: 32: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8532: 8522: 8521: 8516: 8511: 8506: 8501: 8496: 8491: 8486: 8481: 8464: 8463: 8461: 8460: 8458:Physical Earth 8441: 8438: 8437: 8435: 8434: 8429: 8424: 8419: 8414: 8409: 8404: 8399: 8394: 8388: 8386: 8380: 8379: 8377: 8376: 8371: 8365: 8363: 8357: 8356: 8354: 8353: 8348: 8343: 8338: 8332: 8330: 8324: 8323: 8321: 8320: 8315: 8310: 8309: 8308: 8297: 8295: 8288: 8287: 8285: 8284: 8279: 8278: 8277: 8272: 8270:Mariana Trench 8267: 8257: 8252: 8250:Atlantic Ocean 8247: 8242: 8241: 8240: 8229: 8227: 8221: 8220: 8217: 8216: 8214: 8213: 8211:Southern Ocean 8208: 8207: 8206: 8201: 8199:East China Sea 8191: 8190: 8189: 8179: 8178: 8177: 8176: 8175: 8170: 8165: 8155: 8150: 8145: 8140: 8133:Atlantic Ocean 8130: 8124: 8122: 8115: 8114: 8112: 8111: 8110: 8109: 8104: 8094: 8093: 8092: 8087: 8077: 8072: 8067: 8066: 8065: 8060: 8059: 8058: 8053: 8038: 8032: 8030: 8020: 8014: 8013: 8010: 8009: 8007: 8006: 8005: 8004: 7994: 7989: 7984: 7979: 7974: 7969: 7968: 7967: 7962: 7951: 7949: 7943: 7942: 7940: 7939: 7937:Remote Oceania 7934: 7929: 7924: 7919: 7918: 7917: 7907: 7906: 7905: 7900: 7899: 7898: 7893: 7888: 7872: 7870: 7864: 7863: 7861: 7860: 7855: 7854: 7853: 7852: 7851: 7846: 7831: 7826: 7821: 7816: 7811: 7810: 7809: 7807:Western Canada 7804: 7799: 7797:Eastern Canada 7794: 7789: 7784: 7779: 7774: 7769: 7764: 7759: 7754: 7749: 7744: 7739: 7734: 7729: 7724: 7719: 7714: 7704: 7699: 7694: 7689: 7684: 7678: 7676: 7670: 7669: 7667: 7666: 7661: 7656: 7651: 7646: 7645: 7644: 7639: 7634: 7624: 7623: 7622: 7621: 7620: 7610: 7609: 7608: 7598: 7597: 7596: 7586: 7581: 7571: 7570: 7569: 7568: 7567: 7557: 7552: 7547: 7542: 7532: 7531: 7530: 7525: 7520: 7519: 7518: 7513: 7511:South Caucasus 7508: 7506:North Caucasus 7498: 7488: 7482: 7480: 7474: 7473: 7471: 7470: 7469: 7468: 7467: 7466: 7461: 7456: 7446: 7445: 7444: 7439: 7429: 7428: 7427: 7417: 7416: 7415: 7413:South Caucasus 7405: 7395: 7394: 7393: 7388: 7383: 7373: 7372: 7371: 7366: 7356: 7351: 7350: 7349: 7344: 7334: 7333: 7332: 7331: 7330: 7315: 7314: 7313: 7308: 7307: 7306: 7291: 7290: 7289: 7284: 7282:Aralkum Desert 7279: 7269: 7263: 7261: 7255: 7254: 7252: 7251: 7250: 7249: 7239: 7234: 7233: 7232: 7221: 7219: 7213: 7212: 7210: 7209: 7208: 7207: 7202: 7197: 7196: 7195: 7190: 7180: 7170: 7169: 7168: 7167: 7166: 7161: 7156: 7151: 7136: 7130: 7128: 7119: 7113: 7112: 7110: 7109: 7108: 7107: 7097: 7092: 7087: 7082: 7081: 7080: 7073:Africa-Eurasia 7069: 7067: 7061: 7060: 7058: 7057: 7052: 7047: 7042: 7037: 7032: 7026: 7024: 7018: 7017: 7015: 7014: 7013: 7012: 7007: 7002: 6997: 6987: 6982: 6977: 6972: 6966: 6964: 6958: 6957: 6942: 6941: 6934: 6927: 6919: 6910: 6909: 6902: 6900: 6898: 6897: 6896: 6895: 6890: 6880: 6875: 6870: 6869: 6868: 6863: 6853: 6848: 6843: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6823: 6817: 6814: 6813: 6806:Cultural areas 6802: 6801: 6794: 6787: 6779: 6773: 6772: 6764: 6757: 6751: 6746: 6737: 6728: 6719: 6714: 6707: 6706:External links 6704: 6702: 6701: 6693:|journal= 6675: 6662: 6656: 6643: 6633: 6627: 6606: 6553: 6539: 6520: 6477: 6468: 6399: 6385: 6365: 6356: 6342: 6304: 6290: 6268: 6262: 6249: 6235: 6220: 6212:|journal= 6194: 6181: 6167: 6145: 6131: 6114: 6105: 6099: 6086: 6072: 6052: 6046: 6025: 6019:(in Spanish). 6017:Acta Americana 6009: 6004: 5983: 5973: 5960: 5954: 5941: 5935: 5914: 5897: 5882: 5873: 5867: 5853:Diamond, Jared 5849: 5843: 5828: 5822: 5804: 5795: 5777: 5759: 5753: 5740: 5712:10.2307/415477 5690:Campbell, Lyle 5686: 5672: 5656:Campbell, Lyle 5652: 5638: 5625: 5615: 5613: 5610: 5607: 5606: 5560: 5553: 5535: 5523: 5511: 5499: 5487: 5475: 5459: 5447: 5421: 5407:. 2018-06-21. 5405:Science | AAAS 5392: 5363: 5334: 5322: 5310: 5261: 5246: 5218: 5203: 5185: 5166: 5153: 5144: 5131: 5114: 5102: 5087: 5058: 5046: 5036: 5034:, p. 100. 5024: 5012: 4997: 4966: 4952: 4949:(10.1 KB) 4916: 4914:, p. 248. 4904: 4865: 4819: 4794: 4789:10.1101/684431 4771: 4746: 4734: 4722: 4710: 4703: 4685: 4673: 4669:Kirchhoff 1943 4661: 4649: 4636: 4613: 4601: 4583: 4561: 4549: 4547:, p. 762. 4537: 4525: 4513: 4483: 4471: 4442: 4417: 4405: 4376: 4353: 4346: 4323: 4300: 4299: 4297: 4294: 4293: 4292: 4287: 4282: 4277: 4272: 4267: 4262: 4257: 4252: 4247: 4242: 4236: 4235: 4221: 4207: 4191: 4188: 4167:Main article: 4164: 4161: 4098: 4095: 4094: 4093: 4078: 4067: 4057:xoloitzcuintle 4045: 4011: 4010: 3996: 3982: 3968: 3910: 3907: 3851: 3848: 3782:Main article: 3779: 3776: 3760: 3757: 3693:Main article: 3690: 3687: 3674: 3671: 3623:is one of the 3621:xoloitzcuintle 3607:Maya mythology 3595:Aztec religion 3576: 3573: 3552:(mushroom) in 3513:fixed nitrogen 3503:, forming the 3423: 3420: 3385: 3382: 3248:Main article: 3245: 3242: 3193:lunar eclipses 3154:Main article: 3151: 3148: 3115:Main article: 3112: 3109: 3108: 3107: 3089: 3062: 3055: 3032: 3002: 2999: 2963: 2960: 2923:. The lack of 2838:living in the 2810: 2807: 2805: 2802: 2799: 2798: 2749: 2746: 2742: 2741: 2696: 2693: 2689: 2688: 2647: 2644: 2640: 2639: 2606: 2603: 2599: 2598: 2549: 2546: 2540: 2539: 2517: 2514: 2510: 2509: 2497:; Gulf Coast: 2447: 2444: 2440: 2439: 2377: 2374: 2373:Early Classic 2370: 2369: 2366: 2363: 2357: 2356: 2348:; Gulf Coast: 2330:Piedras Negras 2299: 2296: 2292: 2291: 2241: 2238: 2234: 2233: 2202: 2201:2000–1000 BCE 2199: 2195: 2194: 2180: 2177: 2171: 2170: 2164: 2163:3500–1800 BCE 2161: 2155: 2154: 2151: 2148: 2142: 2141: 2138: 2135: 2122:Main article: 2119: 2116: 1870: 1867: 1853:to the south. 1809:, 10th century 1798: 1795: 1751: 1748: 1716:Motagua valley 1670: 1667: 1665: 1662: 1635:Zapotec empire 1550:sites include 1455: 1452: 1448:pollen samples 1425: 1422: 1416:-style fluted 1397: 1394: 1313:Main article: 1310: 1307: 1258: 1255: 1207:Lake Nicaragua 1180:Grijalva River 1172:Gulf of Mexico 1136: 1133: 1124:Gulf of Mexico 1103:in Nicaragua. 1101:Lake Cocibolca 1079:in Guatemala, 1017: 1014: 976: 973: 949:Gulf of Mexico 879:Main article: 876: 873: 872: 871: 857: 830: 820: 814: 787:Record keeping 784: 777:natural rubber 762: 749: 633:Paul Kirchhoff 600:Middle America 589: 588: 583: 576: 574: 569: 562: 560: 555: 548: 546: 541: 534: 532: 527: 520: 518: 513: 506: 504: 497: 496: 495: 493: 490: 132: 131: 46: 44: 37: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8531: 8520: 8517: 8515: 8512: 8510: 8507: 8505: 8502: 8500: 8497: 8495: 8492: 8490: 8487: 8485: 8482: 8480: 8477: 8476: 8474: 8459: 8455: 8451: 8443: 8442: 8439: 8433: 8430: 8428: 8425: 8423: 8420: 8418: 8415: 8413: 8410: 8408: 8405: 8403: 8400: 8398: 8395: 8393: 8390: 8389: 8387: 8385: 8381: 8375: 8372: 8370: 8367: 8366: 8364: 8362: 8358: 8352: 8349: 8347: 8344: 8342: 8339: 8337: 8334: 8333: 8331: 8329: 8325: 8319: 8316: 8314: 8311: 8307: 8304: 8303: 8302: 8299: 8298: 8296: 8294: 8289: 8283: 8280: 8276: 8273: 8271: 8268: 8266: 8263: 8262: 8261: 8260:Pacific Ocean 8258: 8256: 8253: 8251: 8248: 8246: 8243: 8239: 8236: 8235: 8234: 8231: 8230: 8228: 8226: 8222: 8212: 8209: 8205: 8202: 8200: 8197: 8196: 8195: 8194:Pacific Ocean 8192: 8188: 8185: 8184: 8183: 8180: 8174: 8171: 8169: 8166: 8164: 8161: 8160: 8159: 8156: 8154: 8151: 8149: 8148:Caribbean Sea 8146: 8144: 8141: 8139: 8136: 8135: 8134: 8131: 8129: 8126: 8125: 8123: 8121: 8116: 8108: 8105: 8103: 8100: 8099: 8098: 8095: 8091: 8090:by population 8088: 8086: 8083: 8082: 8081: 8078: 8076: 8073: 8071: 8068: 8064: 8063:South America 8061: 8057: 8054: 8052: 8049: 8048: 8047: 8046:North America 8044: 8043: 8042: 8039: 8037: 8034: 8033: 8031: 8029: 8024: 8021: 8019: 8015: 8003: 8000: 7999: 7998: 7997:Southern Cone 7995: 7993: 7990: 7988: 7985: 7983: 7980: 7978: 7975: 7973: 7972:Andean States 7970: 7966: 7963: 7961: 7958: 7957: 7956: 7953: 7952: 7950: 7948: 7947:South America 7944: 7938: 7935: 7933: 7930: 7928: 7925: 7923: 7920: 7916: 7913: 7912: 7911: 7908: 7904: 7901: 7897: 7894: 7892: 7889: 7887: 7884: 7883: 7882: 7879: 7878: 7877: 7874: 7873: 7871: 7869: 7865: 7859: 7856: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7842: 7841: 7840: 7837: 7836: 7835: 7832: 7830: 7827: 7825: 7822: 7820: 7817: 7815: 7812: 7808: 7805: 7803: 7800: 7798: 7795: 7793: 7790: 7788: 7785: 7783: 7780: 7778: 7775: 7773: 7770: 7768: 7765: 7763: 7760: 7758: 7755: 7753: 7750: 7748: 7745: 7743: 7740: 7738: 7735: 7733: 7730: 7728: 7725: 7723: 7720: 7718: 7715: 7713: 7710: 7709: 7708: 7705: 7703: 7700: 7698: 7695: 7693: 7690: 7688: 7685: 7683: 7680: 7679: 7677: 7675: 7674:North America 7671: 7665: 7662: 7660: 7657: 7655: 7652: 7650: 7647: 7643: 7640: 7638: 7637:Low Countries 7635: 7633: 7630: 7629: 7628: 7625: 7619: 7616: 7615: 7614: 7613:South-western 7611: 7607: 7604: 7603: 7602: 7601:South-eastern 7599: 7595: 7592: 7591: 7590: 7589:South-central 7587: 7585: 7582: 7580: 7579:Mediterranean 7577: 7576: 7575: 7572: 7566: 7563: 7562: 7561: 7558: 7556: 7553: 7551: 7548: 7546: 7545:British Isles 7543: 7541: 7538: 7537: 7536: 7533: 7529: 7526: 7524: 7521: 7517: 7514: 7512: 7509: 7507: 7504: 7503: 7502: 7499: 7497: 7494: 7493: 7492: 7489: 7487: 7484: 7483: 7481: 7479: 7475: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7457: 7455: 7452: 7451: 7450: 7447: 7443: 7442:Levantine Sea 7440: 7438: 7435: 7434: 7433: 7430: 7426: 7423: 7422: 7421: 7418: 7414: 7411: 7410: 7409: 7406: 7404: 7401: 7400: 7399: 7396: 7392: 7389: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7378: 7377: 7374: 7370: 7367: 7365: 7362: 7361: 7360: 7357: 7355: 7352: 7348: 7345: 7343: 7340: 7339: 7338: 7335: 7329: 7326: 7325: 7324: 7321: 7320: 7319: 7316: 7312: 7309: 7305: 7302: 7301: 7300: 7297: 7296: 7295: 7292: 7288: 7285: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7274: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7265: 7264: 7262: 7260: 7256: 7248: 7245: 7244: 7243: 7240: 7238: 7235: 7231: 7228: 7227: 7226: 7223: 7222: 7220: 7218: 7214: 7206: 7203: 7201: 7198: 7194: 7191: 7189: 7186: 7185: 7184: 7181: 7179: 7176: 7175: 7174: 7171: 7165: 7162: 7160: 7157: 7155: 7152: 7150: 7147: 7146: 7145: 7142: 7141: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7134:Mediterranean 7132: 7131: 7129: 7127: 7123: 7120: 7118: 7114: 7106: 7103: 7102: 7101: 7098: 7096: 7093: 7091: 7088: 7086: 7083: 7079: 7076: 7075: 7074: 7071: 7070: 7068: 7066: 7062: 7056: 7053: 7051: 7048: 7046: 7043: 7041: 7038: 7036: 7033: 7031: 7028: 7027: 7025: 7023: 7019: 7011: 7008: 7006: 7003: 7001: 6998: 6996: 6993: 6992: 6991: 6988: 6986: 6983: 6981: 6978: 6976: 6973: 6971: 6968: 6967: 6965: 6963: 6959: 6955: 6951: 6947: 6940: 6935: 6933: 6928: 6926: 6921: 6920: 6917: 6894: 6891: 6889: 6886: 6885: 6884: 6881: 6879: 6876: 6874: 6871: 6867: 6864: 6862: 6859: 6858: 6857: 6854: 6852: 6849: 6847: 6844: 6842: 6839: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6819: 6818: 6815: 6811: 6807: 6800: 6795: 6793: 6788: 6786: 6781: 6780: 6777: 6769: 6765: 6763: 6762: 6758: 6755: 6752: 6750: 6747: 6741: 6738: 6732: 6729: 6723: 6720: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6710: 6709: 6698: 6686: 6678: 6672: 6668: 6663: 6659: 6653: 6649: 6644: 6641: 6637: 6634: 6630: 6624: 6620: 6616: 6612: 6607: 6603: 6599: 6594: 6589: 6584: 6579: 6575: 6571: 6567: 6563: 6559: 6554: 6550: 6546: 6542: 6536: 6532: 6528: 6527: 6521: 6517: 6513: 6508: 6503: 6499: 6495: 6491: 6487: 6483: 6478: 6474: 6469: 6455: 6451: 6447: 6443: 6439: 6435: 6431: 6427: 6423: 6420:(4): 403–34. 6419: 6415: 6408: 6404: 6400: 6396: 6392: 6388: 6382: 6378: 6374: 6370: 6366: 6362: 6357: 6353: 6349: 6345: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6323: 6322: 6317: 6313: 6309: 6305: 6301: 6297: 6293: 6287: 6283: 6279: 6278: 6273: 6269: 6265: 6259: 6255: 6250: 6246: 6242: 6238: 6236:0-8135-1562-9 6232: 6228: 6227: 6221: 6217: 6205: 6197: 6191: 6187: 6182: 6178: 6174: 6170: 6164: 6160: 6159: 6154: 6150: 6146: 6142: 6138: 6134: 6128: 6124: 6120: 6115: 6111: 6106: 6102: 6096: 6092: 6087: 6083: 6079: 6075: 6069: 6065: 6061: 6057: 6053: 6049: 6043: 6039: 6035: 6031: 6026: 6022: 6018: 6014: 6010: 6007: 6001: 5997: 5993: 5989: 5984: 5981: 5977: 5974: 5972:2 vols. in 3. 5969: 5965: 5964:Gamio, Manuel 5961: 5957: 5951: 5947: 5942: 5938: 5932: 5928: 5924: 5920: 5915: 5904: 5900: 5894: 5890: 5889: 5883: 5879: 5874: 5870: 5864: 5860: 5859: 5854: 5850: 5846: 5840: 5836: 5835: 5829: 5825: 5819: 5815: 5814: 5809: 5805: 5801: 5796: 5792: 5788: 5784: 5780: 5778:9780195108156 5774: 5770: 5769: 5764: 5760: 5756: 5750: 5746: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5725: 5721: 5717: 5713: 5709: 5706:(3): 530–58. 5705: 5701: 5700: 5695: 5691: 5687: 5683: 5679: 5675: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5657: 5653: 5649: 5645: 5641: 5635: 5631: 5626: 5622: 5617: 5616: 5595: 5591: 5587: 5582: 5577: 5573: 5572: 5564: 5556: 5550: 5546: 5539: 5532: 5531:Duverger 1999 5527: 5520: 5515: 5508: 5503: 5496: 5495:Leyenaar 2001 5491: 5485:, p. 30. 5484: 5479: 5472: 5468: 5463: 5456: 5451: 5435: 5431: 5425: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5396: 5381: 5377: 5373: 5367: 5352: 5348: 5344: 5338: 5331: 5326: 5319: 5314: 5306: 5302: 5298: 5294: 5289: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5265: 5257: 5250: 5235: 5231: 5230: 5222: 5214: 5210: 5206: 5204:0-07-029325-2 5200: 5196: 5189: 5181: 5177: 5170: 5163: 5157: 5148: 5141: 5135: 5128: 5124: 5118: 5112:, p. 30. 5111: 5106: 5098: 5091: 5077:on 2021-05-11 5076: 5072: 5068: 5062: 5055: 5050: 5040: 5033: 5028: 5021: 5016: 5010:, p. 25. 5009: 5004: 5002: 4987:on 2012-02-15 4983: 4976: 4970: 4962: 4956: 4938:on 2012-11-09 4934: 4927: 4920: 4913: 4908: 4900: 4896: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4880: 4876: 4869: 4851: 4846: 4841: 4837: 4830: 4823: 4808: 4804: 4798: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4775: 4760: 4756: 4750: 4743: 4738: 4731: 4726: 4719: 4714: 4706: 4700: 4696: 4689: 4682: 4677: 4670: 4665: 4658: 4653: 4646: 4640: 4633: 4632:0-19-860652-4 4629: 4625: 4624: 4617: 4610: 4605: 4597: 4593: 4587: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4565: 4559:, p. 55. 4558: 4553: 4546: 4541: 4534: 4533:Carrasco 2001 4529: 4516: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4487: 4474: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4446: 4432: 4428: 4421: 4408: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4380: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4357: 4349: 4343: 4339: 4338: 4330: 4328: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4310:"Mesoamerica" 4305: 4301: 4291: 4288: 4286: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4276: 4275:Latin America 4273: 4271: 4268: 4266: 4263: 4261: 4258: 4256: 4253: 4251: 4248: 4246: 4243: 4241: 4238: 4237: 4233: 4222: 4219: 4208: 4205: 4194: 4187: 4185: 4180: 4176: 4170: 4160: 4156: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4127:Mesoamerican 4123: 4122:Ramirez Codex 4119: 4118: 4114: 4109: 4104: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4065: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4032: 4028: 4027: 4026: 4022: 4020: 4016: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3997: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3983: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3969: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3955: 3954: 3953: 3951: 3946: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3924: 3920: 3915: 3906: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3871: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3854:Mesoamerican 3847: 3843: 3839: 3837: 3832: 3830: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3795: 3790: 3785: 3775: 3770: 3766: 3756: 3754: 3748: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3723: 3719: 3712: 3707: 3702: 3696: 3689:Autosacrifice 3686: 3684: 3680: 3679:autosacrifice 3670: 3667: 3663: 3657: 3655: 3650: 3646: 3637: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3617: 3613: 3608: 3604: 3603:Maya religion 3600: 3596: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3572: 3569: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3542: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3526:known as the 3525: 3521: 3516: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3505:Three Sisters 3502: 3498: 3494: 3489: 3487: 3481: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3419: 3417: 3413: 3407: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3394:Mesoamerican 3391: 3390:Maya numerals 3381: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3357: 3350: 3348: 3343: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3328: 3326: 3321: 3316: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3256: 3251: 3241: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3221: 3218: 3212: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3189: 3187: 3183: 3175: 3170: 3162: 3157: 3147: 3143: 3141: 3136: 3128: 3123: 3118: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3087: 3086:Motagua River 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3060: 3056: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3022: 3021: 3018: 3015: 3008: 2998: 2996: 2990: 2988: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2959: 2955: 2953: 2948: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2925:draft animals 2922: 2917: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2890: 2885: 2884:Breadnut tree 2881: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2848:Guilá Naquitz 2845: 2841: 2837: 2830: 2825: 2820: 2816: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2750: 2748:1821–present 2747: 2745:Postcolonial 2744: 2743: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2697: 2694: 2691: 2690: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2648: 2646:1200–1521 CE 2645: 2642: 2641: 2638: 2637:Joya de Cerén 2634: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2607: 2604: 2601: 2600: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2553: 2550: 2547: 2545: 2542: 2541: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2515: 2512: 2511: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2445: 2443:Late Classic 2442: 2441: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2375: 2372: 2371: 2367: 2364: 2362: 2359: 2358: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2300: 2297: 2294: 2293: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2251:; Maya area: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2240:1000–400 BCE 2239: 2236: 2235: 2232: 2231: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2203: 2200: 2197: 2196: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2178: 2176: 2173: 2172: 2169: 2165: 2162: 2160: 2157: 2156: 2152: 2149: 2147: 2144: 2143: 2132: 2125: 2115: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2088: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2065: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2010: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1979: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1916: 1912: 1904: 1896: 1892: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1877: 1866: 1864: 1860: 1859:Isla Cerritos 1854: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1819:Maya lowlands 1816: 1808: 1803: 1794: 1792: 1791:Maya collapse 1788: 1784: 1780: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1760: 1756: 1747: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1703: 1701: 1695: 1692: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1669:Early Classic 1661: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1638: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1611: 1607: 1602: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1583: 1581: 1577: 1576:Dzibilchaltun 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1528: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1470: 1466: 1461: 1451: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1440: 1435: 1431: 1421: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1406:North America 1403: 1393: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1366: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1329: 1328:pre-Columbian 1325: 1321: 1316: 1306: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1254: 1252: 1251:Lake Xolotlan 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1203: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1184:Motagua River 1181: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1146:in Honduras. 1145: 1141: 1132: 1129: 1128:Pacific Ocean 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1104: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1045: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1013: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 987: 983: 972: 970: 966: 962: 958: 954: 953:Caribbean Sea 950: 946: 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 922: 918: 914: 913:South America 910: 907: 898: 891: 887: 882: 869: 866:defined by a 865: 861: 858: 855: 851: 846: 842: 838: 834: 831: 828: 824: 821: 818: 815: 812: 808: 804: 800: 796: 792: 788: 785: 782: 778: 774: 770: 766: 763: 761: 757: 753: 750: 748: 747:digging stick 744: 740: 736: 732: 728: 724: 720: 717: 713: 709: 706: 705: 704: 701: 699: 698:United States 695: 691: 687: 683: 678: 674: 670: 666: 662: 658: 654: 650: 646: 642: 638: 634: 631: 628: 620: 616: 611: 607: 605: 601: 597: 586: 580: 575: 572: 566: 561: 558: 552: 547: 544: 538: 533: 530: 529:Joya de Cerén 524: 519: 516: 510: 505: 503: 499: 498: 489: 487: 483: 479: 474: 472: 468: 464: 460: 456: 452: 447: 445: 441: 440:Nahua peoples 437: 433: 428: 423: 421: 417: 413: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 389: 385: 381: 376: 374: 370: 366: 362: 358: 354: 349: 347: 343: 339: 335: 334: 329: 325: 321: 317: 313: 309: 305: 301: 297: 293: 289: 285: 281: 277: 273: 269: 265: 261: 257: 253: 249: 244: 242: 238: 234: 230: 226: 222: 218: 214: 209: 205: 201: 197: 192: 190: 186: 182: 178: 174: 170: 166: 162: 158: 157:North America 154: 153:cultural area 150: 146: 138: 128: 125: 117: 106: 103: 99: 96: 92: 89: 85: 82: 78: 75: – 74: 73:"Mesoamerica" 70: 69:Find sources: 63: 59: 53: 52: 47:This article 45: 41: 36: 35: 30: 26: 22: 8456: / 8454:List of seas 8452: / 8417:Global South 8402:Global North 8336:Atlantic Rim 8275:Ring of Fire 8255:Indian Ocean 8245:Arctic Ocean 8187:Persian Gulf 8182:Indian Ocean 8163:Adriatic Sea 8128:Arctic Ocean 7960:Amazon Basin 7955:Amazon Plain 7927:Near Oceania 7732:Mid-Atlantic 7696: 7682:Aridoamerica 7642:Northwestern 7555:Northwestern 7528:Southeastern 7420:Greater Iran 7359:Southeastern 7354:Pacific Asia 7323:Pacific Asia 7311:Northeastern 7267:Asia–Pacific 7010:Fourth World 7000:Second World 6892: 6888:Aridoamerica 6866:Southeastern 6861:Northeastern 6759: 6744:(in Spanish) 6735:(in Spanish) 6726:(in Spanish) 6712:Maya Culture 6666: 6647: 6639: 6614: 6565: 6561: 6525: 6489: 6485: 6472: 6461:. Retrieved 6417: 6413: 6405:(May 2005). 6372: 6360: 6325: 6320: 6310:(1950–82) . 6276: 6253: 6225: 6185: 6157: 6149:Miller, Mary 6118: 6109: 6090: 6059: 6033: 6023:(1): 92–107. 6020: 6016: 5987: 5979: 5967: 5945: 5922: 5907:. Retrieved 5887: 5877: 5857: 5833: 5812: 5799: 5767: 5744: 5703: 5697: 5659: 5629: 5620: 5612:Bibliography 5598:. Retrieved 5570: 5563: 5544: 5538: 5526: 5514: 5502: 5490: 5478: 5462: 5450: 5438:. Retrieved 5424: 5413:. Retrieved 5404: 5395: 5384:. Retrieved 5375: 5366: 5355:. Retrieved 5346: 5337: 5325: 5313: 5281:(1): 42–49. 5278: 5274: 5264: 5255: 5249: 5238:. Retrieved 5228: 5221: 5194: 5188: 5169: 5161: 5156: 5147: 5140:Chilam Balam 5134: 5126: 5117: 5105: 5096: 5090: 5079:. Retrieved 5075:the original 5070: 5061: 5054:Diamond 1999 5049: 5039: 5032:Diamond 1999 5027: 5020:Diamond 1999 5015: 5008:O'Brien 2005 4989:. Retrieved 4982:the original 4969: 4955: 4940:. Retrieved 4933:the original 4919: 4907: 4882: 4878: 4868: 4857:. Retrieved 4835: 4822: 4811:. Retrieved 4797: 4774: 4763:. Retrieved 4749: 4737: 4725: 4713: 4694: 4688: 4676: 4664: 4652: 4644: 4639: 4621: 4616: 4604: 4595: 4586: 4573: 4564: 4552: 4540: 4528: 4518:, retrieved 4497:Anthropology 4496: 4486: 4476:, retrieved 4454: 4445: 4434:. Retrieved 4431:Smarthistory 4430: 4420: 4410:, retrieved 4388: 4379: 4366: 4356: 4336: 4313: 4304: 4172: 4157: 4126: 4115: 4060: 4023: 4012: 4006: 3992: 3978: 3964: 3947: 3928: 3872: 3853: 3844: 3840: 3833: 3825: 3812:Lowland Maya 3772: 3749: 3718:bloodletting 3715: 3676: 3665: 3658: 3642: 3629:Quetzalcoatl 3610: 3570: 3549: 3545: 3539: 3523: 3517: 3501:common beans 3490: 3483: 3426: 3416:Tres Zapotes 3408: 3393: 3354: 3351: 3347:Ficus amacus 3346: 3344: 3329: 3325:pictographic 3317: 3313:Latin script 3292:hieroglyphic 3280:logosyllabic 3277: 3222: 3213: 3190: 3184:and the two 3179: 3174:emblem glyph 3144: 3132: 3111:Architecture 3019: 3010: 2991: 2983: 2956: 2949: 2941:domesticated 2918: 2887: 2833: 2658:Tzintzuntzan 2650:Tenochtitlan 2605:900–1200 CE 2548:900–1519 CE 2338:Rio Amarillo 2273:Takalik Abaj 2249:Tres Zapotes 2243:Olmec area: 2230:Los Naranjos 2227: 2213:Chalcatzingo 2146:Paleo-Indian 2089: 2066: 2026:Tzintzuntzan 2011: 2003:Aztec Empire 1980: 1909: 1872: 1855: 1847:Chichen Itza 1812: 1764: 1750:Late Classic 1744:Tikal Hiatus 1704: 1696: 1687: 1639: 1603: 1584: 1529: 1497:Takalik Abaj 1493:Tres Zapotes 1474: 1437: 1427: 1399: 1396:Paleo-Indian 1367: 1347:Paleo-Indian 1344: 1271:La Mosquitia 1260: 1257:Biodiversity 1235:Lake Atitlán 1219:Tenochtitlan 1215:Lake Texcoco 1211:Lake Chapala 1204: 1168:Pasion River 1149: 1105: 1061:Popocatépetl 1046: 1026:Sierra Madre 1019: 990:Quintana Roo 978: 937:sub-tropical 932: 916: 903: 859: 839:, including 832: 822: 816: 803:hieroglyphic 799:pictographic 786: 765:Architecture 764: 751: 707: 702: 694:Oasisamerica 690:Aridoamerica 663:lowlands of 624: 619:Los Naranjos 603: 595: 593: 475: 459:Chichén Itzá 448: 424: 388:Aguada fénix 377: 350: 331: 288:paleo-Indian 245: 213:civilization 193: 144: 143: 120: 114:October 2022 111: 101: 94: 87: 80: 68: 56:Please help 51:verification 48: 8479:Mesoamerica 8432:Global West 8392:Global East 8351:Pacific Rim 8293:waterbodies 8282:World Ocean 8107:New Zealand 7987:The Guianas 7876:Australasia 7819:West Indies 7747:New England 7727:Great Lakes 7697:Mesoamerica 7584:Middle East 7560:Scandinavia 7449:Middle East 7287:Caspian Sea 7193:Great Lakes 7173:Sub-Saharan 7159:Middle East 7022:Hemispheres 7005:Third World 6995:First World 6948:'s primary 6893:Mesoamerica 6846:Great Basin 6153:Taube, Karl 5519:Šprajc 2011 5347:www.ted.com 4659:, p. . 3971:Can Tzicnal 3923:Teotihuacan 3883:El Castillo 3627:of the god 3541:teōnanācatl 3474:mathematics 3453:Indian food 3297:Maya script 3238:Mixe people 3209:astronomers 2809:Subsistence 2678:Mixco Viejo 2633:Kaminaljuyú 2544:Postclassic 2519:Maya area: 2449:Maya area: 2446:600–900 CE 2425:Teotihuacan 2389:Chunchucmil 2379:Maya area: 2376:200–600 CE 2365:200–900 CE 2346:Teotihuacan 2322:San Bartolo 2285:Monte Albán 2277:Kaminaljuyú 2265:Xunantunich 2100:Uto-Aztecan 2018:P'urhépecha 1956:El Salvador 1954:resided in 1940:Mixco Viejo 1915:Kaminaljuyú 1869:Postclassic 1720:Petén Basin 1631:Monte Albán 1599:Teotihuacán 1580:San Bartolo 1552:Kaminaljuyú 1412:blades and 1390:Postclassic 1363:Postclassic 1335:Petén Basin 1261:Almost all 1239:Lake Izabal 1192:Hondo River 1069:Mexico City 984:, southern 760:rabbit hair 719:agriculture 653:El Salvador 630:ethnologist 596:Mesoamerica 557:Casa Blanca 502:El Salvador 427:Teotihuacan 408:Monte Albán 394:in Mexico; 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