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5141:, "Mesopotamia" p. 30: "Babylonian mathematicians did not hesitate to interpolate by proportional parts to approximate intermediate values. Linear interpolation seems to have been a commonplace procedure in ancient Mesopotamia, and the positional notation lent itself conveniently to the rile of three. a table essential in Babylonian algebra; this subject reached a considerably higher level in Mesopotamia than in Egypt. Many problem texts from the Old Babylonian period show that the solution of the complete three-term quadratic equation afforded the Babylonians no serious difficulty, for flexible algebraic operations had been developed. They could transpose terms in an equations by adding equals to equals, and they could
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1153:, and should a period of climatic instability ensue, collapsing central government and declining populations can occur. Alternatively, military vulnerability to invasion from marginal hill tribes or nomadic pastoralists has led to periods of trade collapse and neglect of irrigation systems. Equally, centripetal tendencies amongst city-states have meant that central authority over the whole region, when imposed, has tended to be ephemeral, and localism has fragmented power into tribal or smaller regional units. These trends have continued to the present day in Iraq.
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in the temples which they built. The
Assyrians displaced populations throughout their vast empire. This practice under the Babylonian kings was more limited, only being used to establish new populations in Babylonia itself. Though royal inscriptions from the Neo-Babylonian period don't speak of acts of destruction and deportation in the same boastful way royal inscriptions from the Neo-Assyrian period do, this does not prove that the practice ceased, or that the Babylonians were less brutal than the Assyrians, since there is evidence that the city
46:
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1125:. Both rivers are fed by numerous tributaries, and the entire river system drains a vast mountainous region. Overland routes in Mesopotamia usually follow the Euphrates because the banks of the Tigris are frequently steep and difficult. The climate of the region is semi-arid with a vast desert expanse in the north which gives way to a 15,000-square-kilometre (5,800 sq mi) region of marshes, lagoons, mudflats, and reed banks in the south. In the extreme south, the Euphrates and the Tigris unite and empty into the
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along the Tigris and
Euphrates and the branches of these rivers. Major cities, such as Ur and Uruk, took root on tributaries of the Euphrates, while others, notably Lagash, were built on branches of the Tigris. The rivers provided the further benefits of fish, used both for food and fertilizer, reeds, and clay, for building materials. With irrigation, the
3319:. The unification was tenuous and failed to last, as the Akkadians conquered Sumer in 2331 BC only a generation later. The Akkadian Empire was the first successful empire to last beyond a generation and see a peaceful succession of kings. The empire was relatively short-lived, as the Babylonians conquered them within only a few generations.
1146:
lacking in building stone, precious metals, and timber, and so historically has relied upon long-distance trade of agricultural products to secure these items from outlying areas. In the marshlands to the south of the area, a complex water-borne fishing culture has existed since prehistoric times and has added to the cultural mix.
2192:. Scholars thought that everything had some purpose in astronomy. Most of these related to religion and omens. Mesopotamian astronomers worked out a 12-month calendar based on the cycles of the moon. They divided the year into two seasons: summer and winter. The origins of astronomy as well as astrology date from this time.
2945:, or high priest of male gods was originally a woman, that of female goddesses. Thorkild Jacobsen, as well as others, have suggested that early Mesopotamian society was ruled by a "council of elders" in which men and women were equally represented, but that over time, as the status of women fell, that of men increased.
3581:, which is one of the earliest sets of laws found and one of the best preserved examples of this type of document from ancient Mesopotamia. He codified over 200 laws for Mesopotamia. Examination of the laws show a progressive weakening of the rights of women, and increasing severity in the treatment of slaves.
3528:
countries. King Sargon, for example, conquered all the cities of Sumer, some cities in Mari, and then went to war with cities in modern-day Syria. Many
Assyrian and Babylonian palace walls were decorated with pictures of the successful fights and the enemy either desperately escaping or hiding amongst reeds.
3714:, which are sculpted in high relief on two sides of a rectangular block, with the heads effectively in the round, and five legs, so that both views seem complete. Even before dominating the region, they continued the cylinder seal tradition, with designs which are often exceptionally energetic and refined.
3151:
weather was often hard on farmers. Crops were often ruined, so backup sources of food such as cows and lambs were kept. Over time the southernmost parts of
Sumerian Mesopotamia suffered from increased salinity of the soils, leading to a slow urban decline and a centring of power in Akkad, further north.
1868:
A considerable amount of
Babylonian literature was translated from Sumerian originals, and the language of religion and law long continued to be the old agglutinative language of Sumer. Vocabularies, grammars, and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students, as well as commentaries
3705:
The conquest of the whole of
Mesopotamia and much surrounding territory by the Assyrians created a larger and wealthier state than the region had known before, and very grandiose art in palaces and public places, no doubt partly intended to match the splendour of the art of the neighbouring Egyptian
3531:
The Neo-Babylonian kings used deportation as a means of control, like their predecessors, the
Assyrians. For the Neo-Babylonian kings, war was a means to obtain tribute, plunder, sought after materials such as various metals and quality wood, and prisoners of war which could be put to work as slaves
3150:
to complete farm work for them, but there were some exceptions. There were too many risks involved to make slavery practical, i.e. the escape/mutiny of the slaves. Although the rivers sustained life, they also destroyed it by frequent floods that ravaged entire cities. The unpredictable
Mesopotamian
5282:
The clay tablet with the catalog number 322 in the G. A. Plimpton
Collection at Columbia University may be the most well known mathematical tablet, certainly the most photographed one, but it deserves even greater renown. It was scribed in the Old Babylonian period between −1900 and −1600 and shows
3903:
evidence, pictorial representation of buildings, and texts on building practices. Scholarly literature usually concentrates on temples, palaces, city walls and gates, and other monumental buildings, but occasionally one finds works on residential architecture as well. Archaeological surface surveys
3492:
began to grow, their spheres of influence overlapped, creating arguments between other city-states, especially over land and canals. These arguments were recorded in tablets several hundreds of years before any major war—the first recording of a war occurred around 3200 BC, but was not common until
1825:
Akkadian gradually replaced
Sumerian as the spoken language of Mesopotamia somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC. The exact dating being a matter of debate. Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary, and scientific language in Mesopotamia until the 1st
1145:
Agriculture throughout the region has been supplemented by nomadic pastoralism, where tent-dwelling nomads herded sheep and goats (and later camels) from the river pastures in the dry summer months, out into seasonal grazing lands on the desert fringe in the wet winter season. The area is generally
3067:
The geography of southern Mesopotamia is such that agriculture is possible only with irrigation and with good drainage, a fact which had a profound effect on the evolution of early Mesopotamian civilization. The need for irrigation led the Sumerians, and later the Akkadians, to build their cities
6566:
Winter, Irene J. (1985). "After the Battle is Over: The 'Stele of the Vultures' and the Beginning of Historical Narrative in the Art of the Ancient Near East". In Kessler, Herbert L.; Simpson, Marianna Shreve. Pictorial Narrative in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Center for Advanced Study in the
6548:
Winter, Irene J. (1985). "After the Battle is Over: The 'Stele of the Vultures' and the Beginning of Historical Narrative in the Art of the Ancient Near East". In Kessler, Herbert L.; Simpson, Marianna Shreve. Pictorial Narrative in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Center for Advanced Study in the
3674:
From the many subsequent periods before the ascendency of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Mesopotamian art survives in a number of forms: cylinder seals, relatively small figures in the round, and reliefs of various sizes, including cheap plaques of moulded pottery for the home, some religious and some
3607:
Achaemenid Empire conquered the region in the 6th century BC. The main emphasis was on very durable, forms of sculpture in stone and clay. Little painting has survived, but what has suggests that painting was mainly used for geometrical and plant-based decorative schemes. Most sculpture was also
1962:
as 25/8 (3.125 instead of 3.14159~). The Babylonians are also known for the Babylonian mile, which was a measure of distance equal to about seven modern miles (11 km). This measurement for distances eventually was converted to a time-mile used for measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore,
5253:
for they were familiar with many simple forms of factoring. Egyptian algebra had been much concerned with linear equations, but the Babylonians evidently found these too elementary for much attention. In another problem in an Old Babylonian text we find two simultaneous linear equations in two
3810:
3527:
From this point forwards, warfare was incorporated into the Mesopotamian political system. At times, a neutral city acted as an arbitrator for two rival cities. This helped to form unions between cities, leading to regional states. When empires were created, they went to war more with foreign
1141:
and from the Armenian Highlands, the source of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers that give the region its name. The usefulness of irrigation depends upon the ability to mobilize sufficient labor for the construction and maintenance of canals, and this, from the earliest period, has assisted the
3215:
are limited and generally restricted to analysis of classical keys due to the country's modern political instability, although lately, there have been several published studies displaying a genealogical connection between all Iraqis and the neighboring countries, across religious, ethnic and
3306:
The geography of Mesopotamia had a profound impact on the political development of the region. Among the rivers and streams, the Sumerian people built the first cities, along with irrigation canals which were separated by vast stretches of open desert or swamp where nomadic tribes roamed.
3287:
While other studies indicate that the Iraqi-Assyrian population was found to be significantly related to other Iraqis, especially Mesopotamian Arabs, likely due to the assimilation of indigenous Assyrians with other people groups who occupied and settled Mesopotamia after the fall of the
3216:
linguistic barriers. Studies indicate that the different ethno-religious groups of Iraq (Mesopotamia) share significant similarities in genetics and that Mesopotamian Arabs, who make up the majority of Iraqis, are more genetically similar to Iraqi Kurds than other Arab populations in the
3795:
2470:
societies in the world. They developed from copper, bronze, and gold on to iron. Palaces were decorated with hundreds of kilograms of these very expensive metals. Also, copper, bronze, and iron were used for armor as well as for different weapons such as swords, daggers, spears, and
2948:
As for schooling, only royal offspring and sons of the rich and professionals, such as scribes, physicians, temple administrators, went to school. Most boys were taught their father's trade or were apprenticed out to learn a trade. Girls had to stay home with their mothers to learn
6067:
There was also an important trade route through central Asia, which coming down through Persia and Mesopotamia to the Levant, reached the sea in northern Syria . These trade routes assumed enormous importance in the earlier Middle Ages, and upon them great political issues
3404:. They all had their own governor, who had to make sure everyone paid their taxes. Governors had to call up soldiers to war and supply workers when a temple was built. He was responsible for enforcing the laws. In this way, it was easier to keep control of a large empire.
2140:
4061:). Houses are mostly known from Old Babylonian remains at Nippur and Ur. Among the textual sources on building construction and associated rituals, are Gudea's cylinders from the late 3rd millennium, as well as the Assyrian and Babylonian royal inscriptions from the
2214:
times, the astronomical reports were thoroughly scientific. How much earlier their advanced knowledge and methods were developed is uncertain. The Babylonian development of methods for predicting the motions of the planets is considered to be a major episode in the
1821:
script was adopted under Sargon's rule that significant portions of the Mesopotamian population became literate. Massive archives of texts were recovered from the archaeological contexts of Old Babylonian scribal schools, through which literacy was disseminated.
5958:
In calculating the significance of Indus contacts with Mesopotamia, it is obvious that the economic vitality of Mesopotamia is the controlling factor. Documentary evidence there vouches for vigorous commercial activity in the Sarginid and Larsa phases
1943:. The Babylonians also had theorems on how to measure the area of several shapes and solids. They measured the circumference of a circle as three times the diameter and the area as one-twelfth the square of the circumference, which would be correct if
1216:). The documented record of actual historical events — and the ancient history of lower Mesopotamia — commenced in the early-third millennium BC with cuneiform records of early dynastic kings. This entire history ends with either the arrival of the
3247:
from northern Iraq might "have stronger continuity with the original genetic stock of the Mesopotamian people, which possibly provided the basis for the ethnogenesis of various subsequent Near Eastern populations." Among northern Iraqi Assyrians,
1860:
Libraries were extant in towns and temples during the Babylonian Empire. An old Sumerian proverb averred that "he who would excel in the school of the scribes must rise with the dawn." Women as well as men learned to read and write, and for the
2180:
lists were created as a year by year association of events with planetary positions, which, when they have survived to the present day, allow accurate associations of relative with absolute dating for establishing the history of Mesopotamia.
1797:
was invented for the Sumerian language. Cuneiform literally means "wedge-shaped", due to the triangular tip of the stylus used for impressing signs on wet clay. The standardized form of each cuneiform sign appears to have been developed from
3314:
At times, one city would try to conquer and unify the region, but such efforts were resisted and failed for centuries. As a result, the political history of Sumer is one of almost constant warfare. Eventually Sumer was unified by
1136:
environment ranges from the northern areas of rain-fed agriculture to the south where irrigation of agriculture is essential. This irrigation is aided by a high water table and by melting snows from the high peaks of the northern
3720:
3001:. 17 graves have been found with very precious objects in them. It is assumed that these were royal graves. Rich of various periods, have been discovered to have sought burial in Bahrein, identified with Sumerian Dilmun.
3272:
sub-clades accounted for 11%, 30%, 12% and 24%. For Yazidis, R haplogroup subclades dominate, where R1a and R1b account for 9% and 21%, respectively. The high prevalence of R and J macrohaplogroups is attributed to
3163:
flourished as early as the third millennium BC. Cylinder seals found throughout ANE is evidence of trade between Mesopotamian cities. Starting in the 4th millennium BC, Mesopotamian civilizations also traded with
3783:
3869:
3227:
There were no significant differences in Y-DNA variation were observed among Iraqi Mesopotamian Arabs, Assyrians, or Kurds. Modern genetic studies indicate that Iraqi Mesopotamian Arabs are more related to
3744:
2040:
3773:, it was later depicted from Assyrian times as a hybrid of a human, bird, and either a bull or lion—specifically having a human head, the body of a bull or a lion, and bird wings, under the name
2203:
and some scholars have thus referred to this new approach as the first scientific revolution. This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy.
3639:
of about 3000–2800 BC, part man and part lion. A little later there are a number of figures of large-eyed priests and worshippers, mostly in alabaster and up to a foot high, who attended temple
1149:
Periodic breakdowns in the cultural system have occurred for a number of reasons. The demands for labor has from time to time led to population increases that push the limits of the ecological
3860:. The king, surrounded by his royal attendants and a high-ranking official, receives a tribute from Sua, king of Gilzanu (north-west Iran), who bows and prostrates before the king. From
2454:
along with their diagnosis and prognosis. Some treatments used were likely based off the known characteristics of the ingredients used. The others were based on the symbolic qualities.
1903:
6608:
Fensham, F. Charles (19620, "Widow, Orphan, and the Poor in Ancient near Eastern Legal and Wisdom Literature" (Journal of Near Eastern Studies Vol. 21, No. 2 (Apr. 1962)), pp. 129–139
4071:
3830:
3694:, or ones probably commemorating victories and showing feasts, are found from temples, which unlike more official ones lack inscriptions that would explain them. The fragmentary
2285:
2246:, Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system, but it is not known what arguments he used, except that he correctly theorized on tides as a result of the Moon's attraction.
3423:
became one of the main cities in Mesopotamia. It was later called Babylonia, which meant "the gateway of the gods." It became one of history's greatest centers of learning.
2195:
During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new approach to astronomy. They began studying philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the early
7768:
3706:
empire. The Assyrians developed a style of extremely large schemes of very finely detailed narrative low reliefs in stone for palaces, with scenes of war or hunting. The
5251:
5212:
3504:
guardian of the Cedar Mountain, and was later celebrated in many later poems and songs in which he was claimed to be two-thirds god and only one-third human. The later
2957:, and to look after the younger children. Some children would help with crushing grain or cleaning birds. Unusually for that time in history, women in Mesopotamia had
3683:
plaque of a naked winged goddess with the feet of a bird of prey, and attendant owls and lions. It comes from the 18th or 19th century BC, and may also be moulded.
3907:
Brick is the dominant material, as the material was freely available locally, whereas building stone had to be brought a considerable distance to most cities. The
5173:
4353:
Miquel, A.; Brice, W.C.; Sourdel, D.; Aubin, J.; Holt, P.M.; Kelidar, A.; Blanc, H.; MacKenzie, D.N.; Pellat, Ch. (2011), "ʿIrāḳ", in Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.;
1869:
on the older texts and explanations of obscure words and phrases. The characters of the syllabary were all arranged and named, and elaborate lists were drawn up.
735:
from the Byzantines. A number of primarily neo-Assyrian and Christian native Mesopotamian states existed between the 1st century BC and 3rd century AD, including
6198:
1790:. Akkadian fell into disuse, but both it and Sumerian were still used in temples for some centuries. The last Akkadian texts date from the late 1st century AD.
1981:
The roots of algebra can be traced to the ancient Babylonia who developed an advanced arithmetical system with which they were able to do calculations in an
2176:
times, temple priesthoods had attempted to associate current events with certain positions of the planets and stars. This continued to Assyrian times, when
8572:
1844:
619:
from around 10,000 BC. It has been identified as having "inspired some of the most important developments in human history, including the invention of the
4934:
It was not until the widespread use of a syllabic script was adopted under Sargon's rule that significant portions of Sumerian population became literate.
7797:
2750:
Ancient Mesopotamians had ceremonies each month. The theme of the rituals and festivals for each month was determined by at least six important factors:
6299:"A glimpse at the intricate mosaic of ethnicities from Mesopotamia: Paternal lineages of the Northern Iraqi Arabs, Kurds, Syriacs, Turkmens and Yazidis"
4839:
4775:
Thompson, William R. (2004) "Complexity, Diminishing Marginal Returns, and Serial Mesopotamian Fragmentation" (Vol 3, Journal of World-Systems Research)
9165:
8067:
6174:"N. Al-Zahery et al. "Y-chromosome and mtDNA polymorphisms in Iraq, a crossroad of the early human dispersal and of post-Neolithic migrations" (2003)"
696:, dominating the region for a century as the final independent Mesopotamian realm until the modern era. In 539 BC, Mesopotamia was conquered by the
7681:
7321:
7077:
5696:
719:
and Parthians, with western parts of the region coming under ephemeral Roman control. In 226 AD, the eastern regions of Mesopotamia fell to the
4141:
3372:, they never believed their kings were real gods. Most kings named themselves "king of the universe" or "great king". Another common name was "
3196:
1086:
676:
around 2350 BC, characterized the subsequent 2,000 years of Mesopotamian history, marked by the succession of kingdoms and empires such as the
3710:
has an outstanding collection. They produced very little sculpture in the round, except for colossal guardian figures, often the human-headed
3054:
temples owned up to one third of the available land, declining over time as royal and other private holdings increased in frequency. The word
5109:
1958:
was incorrectly taken as the product of the height and half the sum of the bases. Also, there was a recent discovery in which a tablet used
1884:. The whole story is a composite product, although it is probable that some of the stories are artificially attached to the central figure.
3341:
2758:(a waxing moon meant abundance and growth, while a waning moon was associated with decline, conservation, and festivals of the Underworld)
9160:
6767:
4427:
3432:
2199:
and began employing an internal logic within their predictive planetary systems. This was an important contribution to astronomy and the
6158:
the Silk Road passed through central Asia and Mesopotamia. When the Suez Canal was inaugurated in 1869, trade was diverted to the sea .
5894:
5855:
4985:
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4498:
5934:. Cambridge history of India: Supplementary volume (3 ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (published 1968). p. 111.
5269:
2989:, most people were buried in family graves under their houses, along with some possessions. A few have been found wrapped in mats and
1326:. They compared the genetic signatures to those of modern populations and found similarities with the DNA of people living in today's
1228:. In the long span of this period, Mesopotamia housed some of the world's most ancient highly developed, and socially complex states.
1105:
of southern Mesopotamia for at least 5,000 years. A carved elevation of a typical mudhif, dating to around 3,300 BC was discovered at
7685:
560:
7285:
By Nile and Tigris, a narrative of journeys in Egypt and Mesopotamia on behalf of the British museum between the years 1886 and 1913
4789:
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8565:
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6019:
3047:
Irrigated agriculture spread southwards from the Zagros foothills with the Samara and Hadji Muhammed culture, from about 5,000 BC.
2805:
2532:
was the first recorded. Mesopotamians believed that the world was a flat disc, surrounded by a huge, holed space, and above that,
9403:
8777:
5418:
Friedenwald, Julius; Morrison, Samuel (January 1940). "The History of the Enema with Some Notes on Related Procedures (Part I)".
3651:
period generally had large, staring eyes, and long beards on the men. Many masterpieces have been found at the Royal Cemetery at
2266:
723:. The division of the region between the Roman Byzantine Empire from 395 AD and the Sassanid Empire lasted until the 7th century
3087:, which also included the Jordan River valley and that of the Nile. Although land nearer to the rivers was fertile and good for
5600:
Encyclopedia of Cosmology (Routledge Revivals) : Historical, Philosophical, and Scientific Foundations of Modern Cosmology
5538:
3301:
2135:{\displaystyle 1+{\frac {24}{60}}+{\frac {51}{60^{2}}}+{\frac {10}{60^{3}}}={\frac {305470}{216000}}=1.41421{\overline {296}}.}
692:
asserted control over much of the ancient Near East. Subsequently, the Babylonians, who had long been overshadowed by Assyria,
6793:
5123:
3554:
City-states of Mesopotamia created the first law codes, drawn from legal precedence and decisions made by kings. The codes of
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6994:
6956:
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The Standard of Ur, 2600 BC, the Early Dynastic Period III. Shell, red limestone and lapis lazuli on wood. Discovered at the
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6373:"In search of the genetic footprints of Sumerians: a survey of Y-chromosome and mtDNA variation in the Marsh Arabs of Iraq"
2548:
described above were held in common among Mesopotamians, there were regional variations. The Sumerian word for universe is
2462:
Mesopotamian people invented many technologies including metal and copper-working, glass and lamp making, textile weaving,
1774:, which had already become common in Mesopotamia, then became the official provincial administration language of first the
4611:
Wilkinson, Tony J. (2000), "Regional approaches to Mesopotamian archaeology: the contribution of archaeological surveys",
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Some songs were written for the gods but many were written to describe important events. Although music and songs amused
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1880:, and arranged upon an astronomical principle. Each division contains the story of a single adventure in the career of
518:
5838:
Richard Bulliet; Pamela Kyle Crossley; Daniel Headrick; Steven Hirsch; Lyman Johnson; David Northup (1 January 2010).
4465:. Historical dictionaries of ancient civilizations and historical eras. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press. pp. 64–67.
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4704:
Scheffler, Thomas (2003). "'Fertile crescent', 'Orient', 'Middle East': the changing mental maps of Southeast Asia".
1950:
The volume of a cylinder was taken as the product of the area of the base and the height; however, the volume of the
585:
3079:
A map of the Fertile Crescent including the location of ancient Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
2941:, one in which the men were far more powerful than the women. For example, during the earliest Sumerian period, the
2560:. Their son was Enlil, the air god. They believed that Enlil was the most powerful god. He was the chief god of the
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4907:
An Economic Inquiry into the Nonlinear Behaviors of Nations: Dynamic Developments and the Origins of Civilizations
3307:
Communication among the isolated cities was difficult and, at times, dangerous. Thus, each Sumerian city became a
2146:
The Babylonians were not interested in exact solutions, but rather approximations, and so they would commonly use
1865:
Babylonians, this involved knowledge of the extinct Sumerian language, and a complicated and extensive syllabary.
8052:
8038:
7790:
7440:
6139:. Volume 159 of WIT transactions on the built environment. Southampton: WIT Press (published 2016). p. 111.
6091:; Hirsch, Steven W.; Johnson, Lyman L.; Northrup, David (2009). "Interregional Patterns of Culture and Contact".
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513:
193:
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5512:(January 2003). "Sennacherib, Archimedes, and the Water Screw: The Context of Invention in the Ancient World",
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from Neo-Babylonian Babylon, decorated with beasts in polychrome brick, is the most famous, now largely in the
3328:
3146:. As a result of the skill involved in farming in the Mesopotamian region, farmers did not generally depend on
1939:
was lunisolar, with three seven-day weeks of a lunar month. This form of mathematics was instrumental in early
1813:
system of cuneiform script took many years to master. Thus, only a limited number of individuals were hired as
503:
4835:
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are known to have worked most frequently within agriculture, especially in the grounds of temples or palaces.
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as an oral tradition until writing was more universal. These songs provided a means of passing on through the
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1806:, a temple dedicated to the goddess Inanna at Uruk, from a building labeled as Temple C by its excavators.
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20:
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Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi, Alberto Piazza, The History and Geography of Human Genes, p. 242
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8079:
8011:
7780:
6948:
3894:
3461:
2842:
Songs were sung to children who passed them on to their children. Thus songs were passed on through many
1101:) are in the water. Mudhif structures have been one of the traditional types of structures, built by the
27:
9321:
9308:
8917:
8529:
8204:
8184:
8026:
8016:
8006:
7706:
7696:
7475:
7328:
7256:
The historians' history of the world in twenty-five volumes, volume 01: Prolegomena; Egypt, Mesopotamia
7216:. The University of Chicago Press: Chicago and London. Revised edition completed by Erica Reiner, 1977.
4682:
Archaeology under fire: Nationalism, politics and heritage in the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East
4680:
Bahrani, Z. (1998), "Conjuring Mesopotamia: imaginative geography a world past", in Meskell, L. (ed.),
3042:
2483:
1176:
1013:
253:
3091:, portions of land farther from the water were dry and largely uninhabitable. Thus the development of
1052:
being used to describe the region after that date. It has been argued that these later euphemisms are
8992:
8807:
8156:
8001:
7571:
7366:
5668:
4379:
Sissakian, Varoujan K.; Adamo, Nasrat; Al-Ansari, Nadhir; Mukhalad, Talal; Laue, Jan (January 2020).
4248:
3549:
3280:
Many historians and anthropologists provide strong circumstantial evidence to presuppose that Iraq's
3160:
2337:
1763:
empires, but Sumerian was retained for administrative, religious, literary and scientific purposes.
1668:
1248:
1232:
1166:
933:
724:
9408:
8947:
8589:
8243:
8214:
7858:
6377:
4586:
4354:
3332:
3030:
2668:
2521:
2306:
1748:
1711:
1649:
1561:
1501:
1065:
937:, which was written in the late 2nd century AD but specifically refers to sources from the time of
546:
358:
141:
4110:
3500:
king (Ensi) of Uruk in Sumer, Gilgamesh (c. 2600 BC), was commended for military exploits against
9257:
9190:
9084:
8937:
8855:
8850:
8471:
8219:
7883:
7616:
5102:
2835:, they were also enjoyed by ordinary people who liked to sing and dance in their homes or in the
2790:
Commemoration of specific historical events (founding, military victories, temple holidays, etc.)
2250:
1419:
1413:
278:
7315:, by Percy S. P. Handcock, 1912 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries;
6572:
6554:
6207:"Population genetic diversity in an Iraqi population and gene flow across the Arabian Peninsula"
4945:
Woods C. 2006 "Bilingualism, Scribal Learning, and the Death of Sumerian". In S.L. Sanders (ed)
1872:
Many Babylonian literary works are still studied today. One of the most famous of these was the
596:. In the broader sense, the historical region of Mesopotamia also includes parts of present-day
9373:
9288:
9140:
8899:
8174:
8033:
7903:
7878:
7748:
7500:
5837:
5217:
5178:
5049:
5016:
4381:"Sea Level Changes in the Mesopotamian Plain and Limits of the Arabian Gulf: A Critical Review"
4200:
3336:
2858:
2672:
2404:
1940:
1898:
1733:
1531:
1162:
1037:
1036:
often also has a chronological connotation. It is usually used to designate the area until the
810:
486:
388:
288:
6751:
5877:
H.W.F. Saggs – Professor Emeritus of Semitic Languages at University College, Cardiff (2000).
5560:
5254:
unknown quantities, called respectively the "first silver ring" and the "second silver ring.""
4439:
3060:
was used to describe the official who organized the work of all facets of temple agriculture.
8957:
8539:
8278:
8146:
7758:
7631:
7610:
7530:
7490:
7381:
6893:
6441:
6434:
6011:
5878:
5839:
4969:
4905:
4585:
Canard, M. (2011), "al-ḎJazīra, Ḏjazīrat Aḳūr or Iḳlīm Aḳūr", in Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.;
3695:
3505:
3289:
2888:
was probably popular, with men sitting on the shoulders of other men rather than on horses.
2677:
2200:
1877:
1783:
1767:
1586:
693:
473:
298:
5075:
9363:
9175:
9135:
8614:
8373:
8255:
8189:
8151:
8047:
7973:
7968:
7893:
7741:
7359:
7251:
6386:
6310:
6218:
6084:
5265:
4488:
3841:
3612:
3596:
3563:
3466:
3446:
3274:
3253:
3249:
2814:
2800:
2661:
2512:
2479:
2357:
2349:
2227:
2167:
2147:
1771:
1377:
1090:
1056:
terms attributed to the region in the midst of various 19th-century Western encroachments.
616:
7030:
Stager, L. E. (1996). "The fury of Babylon: Ashkelon and the archaeology of destruction".
6354:
6349:
5972:
4785:
3926:
The most notable architectural remains from early Mesopotamia are the temple complexes at
3009:
2189:
1682:
8:
9262:
9170:
9145:
8952:
8927:
8315:
8273:
8199:
8074:
7996:
7525:
7495:
7480:
6913:
6567:
Visual Arts, Symposium Series IV. 16. Washington DC: National Gallery of Art. pp. 11–32.
6549:
Visual Arts, Symposium Series IV. 16. Washington DC: National Gallery of Art. pp. 11–32.
5152:
3939:
3821:
2938:
2573:
2561:
2235:
2155:
1839:
1835:
1775:
1594:
1580:
1574:
1525:
1484:
1288:
1252:
938:
701:
689:
456:
293:
258:
6390:
6314:
6222:
6204:
6121:
Eurasia's overland trade faded, and merchants, soldiers, and explorers took to the seas.
3457:. Assyrian soldiers are on a boat, chasing fleeing enemies. Some are hiding in the reeds
2411:. If a patient could not be cured physically, the Babylonian physicians often relied on
1698:
1755–1750 BC. It is the longest, best-organised, and best-preserved legal text from the
1357:), the civilization of Mesopotamia in the 7th–5th millennium BC was centered around the
9252:
9221:
9120:
8967:
8884:
8446:
8441:
8426:
8388:
8363:
8300:
8161:
8096:
7731:
7540:
7455:
6409:
6372:
6333:
6298:
6239:
6206:
6088:
5688:
5431:
5315:
5042:
5009:
4971:
Women, Crime and Punishment in Ancient Law and Society: Volume 1: The Ancient Near East
4886:
4878:
4721:
4636:
4538:
4530:
4318:
4310:
3735:
3590:
3509:
2587:
2216:
1609:
1461:
1122:
428:
363:
318:
213:
8288:
4738:
Broadbent, G., "The Ecology of the Mudhif", in: Geoffrey Broadbent and C. A. Brebbia,
2981:
have been excavated in parts of Mesopotamia, revealing information about Mesopotamian
2399:
The symptoms and diseases of a patient were treated through therapeutic means such as
9242:
9099:
9094:
9079:
9014:
8932:
8889:
8609:
8604:
8515:
8466:
8431:
8268:
8209:
8111:
8021:
7991:
7986:
7853:
7848:
7832:
7721:
7661:
7581:
7576:
7485:
7203:
7189:
7168:
7154:
7136:
7116:
7095:
7082:
7052:
7016:
6990:
6971:
6952:
6923:
6917:
6899:
6878:
6820:
6757:
6568:
6550:
6514:
6445:
6414:
6338:
6244:
6140:
6098:
5935:
5884:
5845:
5828:
Bibby, Geoffrey and Phillips, Carl (1996), "Looking for Dilmun" (Interlink Pub Group)
5809:
5802:
5692:
5628:
5603:
5566:
5509:
5457:
5389:
5299:
5116:
5082:
5053:
5020:
4975:
4911:
4890:
4816:
4815:, Case Studies in Early Societies, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 2,
4685:
4658:
4640:
4628:
4594:
4563:
4542:
4466:
4407:
4406:, Case Studies in Early Societies, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 1,
4380:
4362:
4322:
4302:
4082:
3571:
3537:
3497:
3416:
3369:
3269:
3265:
3188:
2717:
2341:
2310:
1936:
1873:
1862:
1849:
1779:
1752:
1740:
1729:
1723:
1719:
1703:
1699:
1687:
1605:
1495:
1312:
1217:
1202:
1198:
1150:
1003:
957:
906:
697:
657:, each originating from different areas, dominated Mesopotamia from the beginning of
577:
508:
373:
368:
263:
7186:
Mesopotamien – Wiege der Zivilisation. 6000 Jahre Hochkulturen an Euphrat und Tigris
7135:. Translated by Bahrani, Zainab; Van de Mieroop, Marc. University of Chicago Press.
7078:
Ancient Mesopotamia at the Dawn of Civilization: the Evolution of an Urban Landscape
6937:
Emberling, Geoff (2015). "Mesopotamian cities and urban process, 3500–1600 BCE". In
6789:
5530:
3107:
and the use of aqueducts. Early settlers of fertile land in Mesopotamia used wooden
2435:, its aetiology, its future development, and the chances of the patient's recovery.
1220:
in the late 6th century BC or with the Muslim conquest and the establishment of the
9155:
9150:
9054:
9049:
9044:
9034:
9029:
9019:
8835:
8692:
8677:
8661:
8656:
8651:
8629:
8358:
8293:
8283:
7957:
7938:
7933:
7928:
7868:
7843:
7072:
7048:
7008:
6504:
6404:
6394:
6328:
6318:
6234:
6226:
5925:
5684:
5680:
5453:
5385:
4870:
4725:
4713:
4620:
4522:
4294:
4235:
4192:
4034:
3801:
Detail of Nebuchadnezzar II's Building Inscription plaque of the Ishtar Gate, from
3657:
3436:
3084:
2900:
2536:. They believed that water was everywhere, the top, bottom and sides, and that the
2330:
2258:
2254:
1976:
1787:
1736:
1190:
1138:
987:
842:
762:
680:. The early second millennium BC saw the polarization of Mesopotamian society into
658:
589:
378:
7242:
Redistribution and Markets in the Economy of Ancient Mesopotamia: Updating Polanyi
6815:
Dunham, Sally (2005), "Ancient Near Eastern architecture", in Daniel Snell (ed.),
6465:
6271:
1322:
from the 8,000-year-old remains of early farmers found at an ancient graveyard in
45:
9330:
9089:
9064:
9059:
9039:
8987:
8977:
8972:
8962:
8942:
8912:
8864:
8860:
8830:
8456:
8421:
8310:
8305:
8224:
8135:
7873:
7726:
7638:
7626:
7550:
7545:
7535:
7470:
7445:
7430:
7417:
7405:
7312:
7245:
6942:
6733:
6323:
6180:
6134:
6092:
6080:
6042:
5929:
5127:
5113:
4956:
4211:
4086:
3955:
3916:
3731:
3691:
3648:
3628:
3408:
3229:
2862:
Jemdet Nasr Cylinder presenting a hunting scene, with two lions and an antelope.
2730:
2698:
2581:
2495:
2482:
may have been used by Sennacherib, King of Assyria, for the water systems at the
2472:
2408:
2322:
2211:
2158:
and represents some of the most advanced mathematics prior to Greek mathematics.
1756:
1621:
1615:
1599:
1507:
1478:
1437:
1431:
1366:
1358:
1308:
1300:
1225:
1206:
1172:
1142:
development of urban settlements and centralized systems of political authority.
855:
818:
728:
720:
712:
705:
677:
673:
669:
646:". It is recognised as the cradle of some of the world's earliest civilizations.
498:
403:
393:
328:
323:
248:
198:
183:
150:
7129:
7105:
6509:
6492:
4717:
3911:
is the most distinctive form, and cities often had large gateways, of which the
1856:
from ancient Mesopotamia, regarded as the earliest surviving notable literature.
9347:
9069:
8436:
8411:
7691:
7621:
7278:
6230:
5142:
4435:
4117:
3900:
3707:
3484:
villages were abandoned, indicating a rise in communal violence. An early king
3364:
The Mesopotamians believed their kings and queens were descended from the city
3261:
3257:
2978:
2722:
2491:
2274:
1955:
1932:
1928:
1662:
1657:
1402:
493:
433:
418:
338:
108:
6873:
Beaulieu, P. A. (2005). "World Hegemony, 900–300 BCE". In Snell, D. C. (ed.).
4624:
4314:
4282:
2494:
invention of later times. Later, during the Parthian or Sasanian periods, the
2392:
along with logical rules used in combining observed symptoms on the body of a
2025:
digits, and is the closest possible three-place sexagesimal representation of
1021:, is the area between the Euphrates and the Tigris from their sources down to
9357:
8869:
8717:
8624:
8509:
8461:
8451:
8416:
8368:
8345:
8320:
8084:
7913:
7908:
7785:
7586:
7435:
7004:
6938:
6518:
6399:
5334:
4632:
4598:
4502:. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 179–187.
4493:
4366:
4306:
4132:
3676:
3624:
3401:
3233:
3192:
3165:
2911:
2517:
2498:, which may have been the world's first battery, was created in Mesopotamia.
2463:
2223:
2185:
1911:, mathematical, geometric-algebraic, similar to the Euclidean geometry. From
1751:, is attested in personal names, rivers and mountains and in various crafts.
1443:
1370:
1362:
1260:
1244:
870:
408:
383:
188:
123:
7268:
6970:. Pelican History of Art (4th ed.). Penguin (now Yale History of Art).
4861:
Finkelstein, J.J. (1955). "Subartu and Subarian in Old Babylonian Sources".
3384:
When Assyria grew into an empire, it was divided into smaller parts, called
3083:
The Tigris and Euphrates River valleys form the northeastern portion of the
2427:
and assumptions, including the modern view that through the examination and
2184:
The Babylonian astronomers were very adept at mathematics and could predict
1803:
1224:
in the late 7th century AD, from which point the region came to be known as
961:
8874:
8687:
8619:
8335:
8101:
7898:
7606:
7601:
7591:
7425:
7289:
6839:
6418:
6342:
6248:
3935:
3876:
3837:
3570:, as mentioned above, who was posthumously famous for his set of laws, the
3559:
3481:
3454:
3346:
2993:. Deceased children were put in big "jars" which were placed in the family
2950:
2930:
2580:. Its cultural values and literary influence are especially evident in the
2577:
2557:
2270:
2151:
1449:
1342:
1256:
1126:
1053:
1026:
864:
716:
468:
463:
438:
178:
88:
6895:
Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary
5283:
the most advanced mathematics before the development of Greek mathematics.
3179:– east-west between Central Asia and the Mediterranean world (part of the
2150:
to approximate intermediate values. One of the most famous tablets is the
970:
was more generally applied to all the lands between the Euphrates and the
9335:
9293:
9283:
9074:
9006:
8879:
8767:
8519:
8481:
8330:
8166:
8091:
7450:
7255:
4078:
4046:
3967:
3912:
3668:
3663:
3489:
3281:
3217:
3176:
3069:
3021:
Sumerian temples functioned as banks and developed the first large-scale
2836:
2825:
2810:
2755:
2686:
2639:
2611:
2389:
2384:
in diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. The text contains a list of medical
2381:
2014:
1931:. This is the source of the 60-minute hour, the 24-hour day, and the 360-
1924:
1916:
1908:
1853:
1455:
1102:
643:
635:
536:
351:
208:
76:
7303:
5435:
3769:, initially depicted as a goddess in Sumerian times, when it was called
2490:
in the 7th century BC, although mainstream scholarship holds it to be a
2431:
of the symptoms of a patient, it is possible to determine the patient's
1185:
161:
8825:
8820:
7596:
7292:, 1920 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries;
6726:
6205:
Hayder Lazim; Eida Khalaf Almohammed; Sibte Hadi; Judith Smith (2020).
5450:
Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine
5382:
Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine
4882:
4054:
4050:
3959:
3904:
also allowed for the study of urban form in early Mesopotamian cities.
3680:
3643:
of the deity, but very few of these have survived. Sculptures from the
3640:
3620:
3485:
3308:
3200:
3100:
3092:
2919:
2896:
2843:
2643:
2591:
2541:
2467:
2428:
2373:
974:, thereby incorporating not only parts of Syria but also almost all of
913:
443:
413:
398:
226:
171:
52:
8550:
7151:
Geschichte Mesopotamiens. Von den Sumerern bis zu Alexander dem Großen
5717:
Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia",
5647:
Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia",
4950:
4534:
1876:, in twelve books, translated from the original Sumerian by a certain
9130:
8815:
8702:
8639:
8406:
8378:
8325:
7863:
7555:
7515:
4283:"Ancient Mesopotamia and Modern Iraq in the British Press, 1980–2003"
4018:
4010:
3899:
The study of ancient Mesopotamian architecture is based on available
3632:
3567:
3555:
3450:
3412:
3385:
3180:
3014:
2998:
2934:
2926:
2881:
2768:
2764:
2690:
2603:
2369:
2345:
1990:
1982:
1912:
1881:
1818:
1799:
1794:
1707:
1394:
1373:
in the southeast, which later expanded to encompass the whole region.
1304:
1221:
1114:
946:
897:, 'river') and translates to '(land) between rivers', likely being a
892:
880:
685:
654:
639:
581:
423:
273:
4874:
1295:
empires. Some of the important historical Mesopotamian leaders were
9267:
8922:
8845:
8840:
8747:
8732:
8727:
8682:
7923:
7753:
7736:
7510:
7505:
6133:
Brebbia, Carlos A.; Martinez Boquera, A., eds. (28 December 2016).
5565:. The Cosmology of Sumer & Babylon. Mohr Siebeck. p. 111.
5146:
4740:
Eco-architecture II: Harmonisation Between Architecture and Nature,
4526:
4298:
4148:
4062:
4058:
4026:
3908:
3679:
is an unusual elaborate and relatively large (20 x 15 inches)
3524:, is the oldest monument in the world that celebrates a massacre.
3513:
3397:
3373:
3316:
3075:
2962:
2784:
2653:
2615:
2607:
2537:
2447:
2412:
2326:
2302:
2243:
2234:. He supported Aristarchus of Samos' heliocentric theory where the
2231:
2207:
2196:
1994:
1817:
to be trained in its use. It was not until the widespread use of a
1810:
1633:
1569:
1544:
1296:
736:
311:
283:
268:
7271:– timeline, definition, and articles at World History Encyclopedia
6297:
Dogan, Serkan; Gurkan, Cemal; Dogan, Mustafa; et al. (2017).
5727:
4487:
1793:
Early in Mesopotamia's history, around the mid-4th millennium BC,
9024:
8752:
8742:
8707:
8697:
8383:
8340:
7520:
7465:
6647:
5318:(1945). "The History of Ancient Astronomy Problems and Methods",
4163:
4102:
4038:
4022:
4014:
4002:
3983:
3979:
3971:
3802:
3766:
3751:
3727:
3711:
3600:
3533:
3501:
3420:
3393:
3389:
3357:
3311:, independent of the others and protective of its independence.
3244:
3240:
3184:
3096:
3061:
3026:
3022:
2990:
2966:
2954:
2873:
2847:
2832:
2702:
2682:
2657:
2631:
2487:
2466:, water storage, and irrigation. They were also one of the first
2451:
2439:
2432:
2400:
2393:
2385:
2365:
2022:
1972:
1951:
1760:
1744:
1691:
1627:
1548:
1398:
1390:
1382:
1323:
1292:
1280:
1272:
1236:
1133:
1098:
1022:
902:
740:
681:
631:
243:
84:
72:
56:
7274:
5627:(Paperback ed.). Oxford : Oxford Univ. Press. p. 312.
5337:(1955). "Chaldaean Astronomy of the Last Three Centuries B.C.",
3789:
Assyrian ornaments and patterns, illustrated in a book from 1920
3072:
in Mesopotamia was comparable to that of the Canadian prairies.
3055:
966:
corresponded to a similar geographical concept. Later, the term
905:
term, with the Aramaic term itself likely being a calque of the
8772:
8722:
8644:
8263:
7918:
7165:
Mesopotamien. Die antiken Kulturen zwischen Euphrat und Tigris.
6695:
5117:
High resolution photographs, descriptions, and analysis of the
4378:
4042:
4030:
3987:
3975:
3943:
3920:
3880:
3861:
3604:
3517:
3488:
was supposed to have built the white walls around the city. As
3221:
3147:
3128:
3116:
3051:
2994:
2982:
2958:
2877:
2738:
2726:
2706:
2635:
2623:
2599:
2595:
2545:
2533:
2290:
2289:
A medical recipe concerning poisoning. Terracotta tablet, from
2222:
The only Greek-Babylonian astronomer known to have supported a
1814:
1766:
Different varieties of Akkadian were used until the end of the
1327:
1268:
1121:
rivers, both of which have their headwaters in the neighboring
1118:
1094:
1075:
983:
979:
971:
898:
624:
609:
601:
238:
100:
92:
80:
6590:
6097:(6 ed.). Cengage Learning (published 2014). p. 279.
4428:"Iraq, past, present and future: a thoroughly-modern mandate?"
4256:
3025:. The Babylonians developed the earliest system of commercial
2313:. The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is the
1070:
9125:
8762:
8757:
8737:
8476:
7460:
7228:
Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the dawn of history
6079:
4006:
3991:
3947:
3687:
3644:
3365:
3132:
3124:
3120:
3088:
2892:
2780:
2694:
2627:
2424:
2416:
2377:
2353:
2262:
2177:
2173:
1639:
1425:
1386:
1347:
1284:
1276:
1205:
period. Therein, writing emerged with a pictographic script,
1079:
950:
886:
874:
744:
650:
620:
605:
233:
202:
64:
60:
6707:
6659:
6296:
5831:
5562:
Ancient Mesopotamian Religion and Mythology: Selected Essays
5448:
H.F.J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004),
5380:
H.F.J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004),
3138:
Mesopotamian settlers were some of the first people to make
2598:, which embodied certain philosophies of life, particularly
615:
Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the
8712:
7671:
7648:
7391:
7385:
7316:
7293:
4147:
A suggested reconstruction of the appearance of a Sumerian
3995:
3963:
3927:
3636:
3616:
3521:
3477:
3470:
3256:
subclades were observed at 36% and 41% respectively, where
3212:
3143:
3139:
3112:
3108:
2885:
2619:
2540:
was born from this enormous sea. Mesopotamian religion was
2294:
2154:, created around 1900–1600 BC, which gives a table of
1331:
1264:
1263:. Mesopotamia housed historically important cities such as
1240:
1106:
975:
801:
798:
792:
783:
777:
771:
627:
597:
593:
104:
96:
68:
6683:
6671:
6635:
6623:
6611:
6537:
The Story of Us Humans, from Atoms to Today's Civilization
6493:"Siegbert Uhlig (ed.): Encyclopaedia Aethiopica. Volume 1"
3599:
as the most grand, sophisticated and elaborate in western
3566:) have been found. The most renowned of these was that of
1283:, as well as major territorial states such as the city of
7200:
The early prehistory of Mesopotamia – 500,000 to 4,500 BC
6944:
Early Cities in Comparative Perspective, 4000 BCE–1200 CE
6578:
6353: This article incorporates text available under the
4786:"Migrants from the Near East 'brought farming to Europe'"
3930:
from the 4th millennium BC, temples and palaces from the
3816:
Artist's impression of a hall in an Assyrian palace from
3388:. Each of these were named after their main cities, like
3183:), as well as north–south between the Eastern Europe and
3104:
2734:
2667:
Babylonian thought had a considerable influence on early
2553:
2239:
1319:
986:
to the west of the Euphrates and the western part of the
945:, Mesopotamia was used to designate the land east of the
7007:(1998). "Legacies in Astronomy and Celestial Omens". In
4757:
4745:
3698:
is an early example of the inscribed type. The Assyrian
3415:'s rule. He was known as "the lawmaker" and created the
2925:
Mesopotamia, as shown by successive law codes, those of
1381:
A map of 15th century BC, showing the core territory of
711:
Around 150 BC, Mesopotamia was under the control of the
704:
in 332 BC. After his death, it became part of the Greek
6132:
5739:
4655:
The archaeology of Mesopotamia. Theories and approaches
4553:
4551:
4352:
4167:
3951:
3883:
c. 870 BC, with inscription running across his midriff.
3652:
2986:
1802:. The earliest texts, 7 archaic tablets, come from the
112:
6530:
6528:
5757:
4385:
Journal of Earth Sciences and Geotechnical Engineering
3411:
in Sumer, it grew tremendously throughout the time of
2997:. Other remains have been found buried in common city
2850:
highly important information about historical events.
2681:
contains similarities to the agonistic thought of the
2572:
The numerous civilizations of the area influenced the
2238:
around its own axis which in turn revolved around the
9319:
5990:
5220:
5181:
5155:
5121:
tablet (YBC 7289) from the Yale Babylonian Collection
4557:
4461:
Lemche, Niels Peter (2004). "Assyria and Babylonia".
4242:
3619:, saw the production of sophisticated works like the
2249:
Babylonian astronomy served as the basis for much of
2043:
849:
774:
765:
129:
A modern satellite view of Mesopotamia, October 2020.
26:"The Two Rivers" redirects here. For other uses, see
7214:
Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a dead civilization
6987:
Symbols: Encyclopedia of Western Signs and Ideograms
5804:
The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character
4558:
Foster, Benjamin R.; Polinger Foster, Karen (2009),
4548:
4229:
4218:
3844:
holding a bow instead of a ring (9th-8th century BC)
3512:
period (2600–2350 BC), commemorating the victory of
2725:(1186–1172 BC) presents his daughter to the goddess
2230:(b. 190 BC). Seleucus is known from the writings of
1923:
Mesopotamian mathematics and science was based on a
1025:. Lower Mesopotamia is the area from Baghdad to the
862:
836:
825:
789:
780:
6727:
The Bronze Head of the Akkadian Period from Nineveh
6525:
5971:Wayne, Alexander; William, Violet (February 2012).
5417:
2446:. These include the symptoms for many varieties of
1747:, a language of the Zagros possibly related to the
795:
786:
768:
51:A map showing the extent of Mesopotamia. Shown are
7258:, Press of J. J. Little & Co. New York, U.S.A.
7128:
7092:Atlas de la Mésopotamie et du Proche-Orient ancien
6433:
5801:
5399:
5245:
5206:
5167:
5074:
5041:
5008:
4657:, Approaching the past, Milton Square: Routledge,
3284:share very strong links to the ancient Sumerians.
2134:
869:"(land) between the (two) rivers") comes from the
7115:, Gallimard, coll. « Folio Histoire »,
6466:"Cavalli-Sforza et al. Genetic tree of West Asia"
6272:"Cavalli-Sforza et al. Genetic tree of West Asia"
5467:
5132:
5103:Photograph, illustration, and description of the
4081:was constructed in about 575 BC by order of King
2709:was influenced by Babylonian cosmological ideas.
2442:and diseases and described their symptoms in his
1728:The earliest language written in Mesopotamia was
1702:. It is written in the Old Babylonian dialect of
923:) to translate the Hebrew and Aramaic equivalent
9355:
3726:Bronze head of an Akkadian ruler, discovered in
7113:Mésopotamie. L'écriture, la raison et les dieux
5915:Roux, Georges, (1993) "Ancient Iraq" (Penguin).
5488:"Medicine and Doctoring in Ancient Mesopotamia"
5263:
4419:
3750:Striding lions from the Processional Street of
2787:Festival (first full moon after spring equinox)
1029:and includes Kuwait and parts of western Iran.
672:in 539 BC. The rise of empires, beginning with
7179:Dictionnaire de la civilisation mésopotamienne
7163:Hrouda, Barthel and Rene Pfeilschifter; 2005.
6968:The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient
6753:A Dictionary of Ancient Near Eastern Mythology
6534:
5870:
4425:
4001:Iron Age palaces and temples are found at the
997:A further distinction is usually made between
8566:
7367:
7277: – introduction to Mesopotamia from the
7131:Mesopotamia: Writing, Reasoning, and the Gods
7015:. Oxford University Press. pp. 125–137.
6000:(London: British Museum Press, 1995), p. 109.
5785:
5771:
5044:An Introduction to the History of Mathematics
5011:An Introduction to the History of Mathematics
4604:
3655:(c. 2650 BC), including the two figures of a
3239:Dogan et. al (2017) states that contemporary
3175:For much of history, Mesopotamia served as a
2660:axioms. Logic was employed to some extent in
2340:, the Babylonians introduced the concepts of
1113:Mesopotamia encompasses the land between the
990:are also often included under the wider term
592:. Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day
554:
7221:Ancient Mesopotamia: the Eden that never was
5970:
5602:. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. p. 399.
5597:
4968:Tetlow, Elisabeth Meier (28 December 2004).
4813:Ancient Mesopotamia. The Eden that never was
4646:
4404:Ancient Mesopotamia. The Eden that never was
4372:
4348:
4346:
4344:
4224:
3938:valley such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar, the
3376:", as kings had to look after their people.
3356:669–631 BC, and three royal attendants in a
3211:Genetic studies on the modern day people of
3033:, but with a more "anything goes" approach.
2937:, across its history became more and more a
2884:feature frequently in art, and some form of
1755:came to be the dominant language during the
1307:(who established the Old Babylonian state),
831:
9161:Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire
6951:. Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press.
6094:The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History
5841:The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History
4860:
4512:
3433:Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire
3029:. It was comparable in some ways to modern
1078:river flowing through the region of modern
8573:
8559:
7374:
7360:
6891:
6782:
5793:
5733:
5376:
5374:
5296:Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy-Astrology
5107:tablet from the Yale Babylonian Collection
4675:
4673:
4589:; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.),
4357:; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.),
2761:The phase of the annual agricultural cycle
2501:
2329:, during the reign of the Babylonian king
927:. An even earlier Greek usage of the name
561:
547:
7682:Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region
6965:
6936:
6713:
6701:
6689:
6677:
6665:
6653:
6641:
6629:
6617:
6508:
6408:
6398:
6370:
6332:
6322:
6238:
6168:
6166:
5980:Journal of Business and Behavior Sciences
5662:
5660:
4763:
4751:
4703:
4610:
4580:
4578:
4562:, Princeton: Princeton University Press,
4513:Finkelstein, J.J. (1962), "Mesopotamia",
4341:
3480:phase, walled cities grew. Many isolated
2891:They also played a board game similar to
2594:can be traced back to early Mesopotamian
1887:
7506:Kassite dynasty of the Babylonian Empire
7223:. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
6984:
6872:
6584:
6458:
6043:"The Relations of History and Geography"
6003:
5745:
5719:Journal of the American Oriental Society
5669:"Axioms and Babylonian thought: A reply"
5649:Journal of the American Oriental Society
5339:Journal of the American Oriental Society
5145:both sides by like quantities to remove
4652:
3460:
3440:
3340:
3074:
3008:
2910:
2857:
2804:
2716:
2649:Babylonian thought was also based on an
2511:
2438:Esagil-kin-apli discovered a variety of
2284:
1902:
1843:
1681:
1376:
1341:
1184:
1085:
1069:
8580:
7126:
7003:
6922:(2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
6819:, Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 266–280,
6490:
6431:
6371:Al-Zahery; et al. (October 2011).
6264:
6018:. Archaeological Institute of America.
5924:
5625:Handbook to life in ancient Mesopotamia
5622:
5558:
5371:
5366:
4836:"Ancient History in depth: Mesopotamia"
4810:
4684:, London: Routledge, pp. 159–174,
4679:
4670:
4463:Historical dictionary of ancient Israel
4401:
4280:
3603:, from the 4th millennium BC until the
2773:The local mythos and its divine Patrons
2729:. The crescent moon represents the god
1743:were also spoken in early Mesopotamia.
1677:
1315:(who established the Assyrian Empire).
1303:(who established the Akkadian Empire),
1093:at night, southern Iraq. A reed house (
1017:. Upper Mesopotamia, also known as the
715:. It became a battleground between the
9356:
7029:
6892:Black, Jeremy; Green, Anthony (1992).
6814:
6596:
6440:. Twenty-First Century Books. p.
6436:Iraq: Old Land, New Nation in Conflict
6366:
6364:
6163:
5973:"Trade and Traders of Mesopotamian Ur"
5799:
5657:
5360:
5072:
5048:. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. p.
5015:. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. p.
4967:
4947:Margins of Writing, Origins of Culture
4591:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
4584:
4575:
4460:
4359:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
3302:History of institutions in Mesopotamia
2478:According to a recent hypothesis, the
688:in the south. From 900 to 612 BC, the
8554:
8241:
8133:
7955:
7830:
7403:
7355:
6912:
6770:from the original on 21 November 2021
6749:
6743:
6040:
6022:from the original on 27 December 2012
5528:
5485:
5288:
5138:
4939:
4792:from the original on 13 December 2010
4426:Milton-Edwards, Beverley (May 2003).
3730:in 1931, presumably depicting either
2675:. In particular, the Babylonian text
8535:
8477:Mesopotamian spring festival (Akitu)
7042:
6875:A Companion to the Ancient Near East
6817:A Companion to the Ancient Near East
6009:
5522:
5473:
5405:
5353:William P.D. Wightman (1951, 1953),
5039:
5006:
4778:
4485:
4252:
3520:over the neighbouring rival city of
2965:and, if they had good reason, get a
2004:–1600 BC) gives an approximation of
859:
8525:
6989:. Lidingö, Sweden: HME Publishing.
6491:Tubiana, Joseph (22 October 2012).
6361:
5673:Journal of Post Keynesian Economics
5666:
5531:"Open media to connect communities"
5420:Bulletin of the History of Medicine
5149:or to eliminate factors. By adding
4903:
4239:
4225:
4215:
3962:remains at Syrian-Turkish sites of
3445:A relief showing a campaign in the
3407:Although Babylon was quite a small
3099:of Mesopotamia. Other Mesopotamian
2776:The success of the reigning Monarch
1618:Mesopotamia (4th to 3rd century BC)
1181:Chronology of the ancient Near East
1032:In modern academic usage, the term
846:
832:
822:
13:
7066:
6850:from the original on 10 April 2021
6255:
6111:from the original on 11 April 2021
6057:from the original on 11 April 2021
5996:Shaw, Ian. & Nicholson, Paul,
5948:from the original on 10 April 2021
5897:from the original on 14 April 2021
5883:. University of California Press.
5858:from the original on 14 April 2021
5699:from the original on 3 August 2020
4924:from the original on 14 April 2021
4910:. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 23.
4613:Journal of Archaeological Research
4329:from the original on 30 April 2022
3345:A 7th-century BC relief depicting
3197:sea route between India and Europe
2876:was popular among Assyrian kings.
2396:with its diagnosis and prognosis.
1630:(2nd century BC to 3rd century AD)
1624:(3rd century BC to 3rd century AD)
912:. It is used throughout the Greek
14:
9420:
7262:
7230:. Routledge: London and New York.
6472:from the original on 14 June 2011
6278:from the original on 14 June 2011
5760:Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia
5598:Hetherington, Norriss S. (2014).
5272:from the original on 8 March 2011
4842:from the original on 28 June 2017
4454:
4033:/Van, Kalesi, Cavustepe, Ayanis,
3195:'s pioneering (1497–1499) of the
2021:, which is accurate to about six
700:. The area was next conquered by
9341:
9329:
9299:Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary
8790:
8534:
8524:
8514:
8505:
8504:
7810:2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis
7384:
6796:from the original on 1 June 2014
6348:
5998:The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt,
5541:from the original on 17 May 2019
5081:. New York: Dover Publications.
5077:A Concise History of Mathematics
4988:from the original on 22 May 2020
4155:
4140:
4124:
4109:
4094:
4070:
3868:
3858:Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III
3849:
3829:
3809:
3794:
3782:
3759:
3743:
3719:
3700:Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III
3667:and a bull's head on one of the
3595:The art of Mesopotamia rivalled
3203:in 1869 impacted on this nexus.
3103:include the control of water by
2697:, as well as a precursor to the
2415:to cleanse the patient from any
2309:period in the first half of the
1337:
761:
530:
160:
122:
44:
8289:Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialects
7712:1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq
7702:1974–1975 Shatt al-Arab clashes
7441:Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period
7081:. University of Chicago Press.
6832:
6808:
6756:. Routledge. pp. 109–110.
6719:
6602:
6560:
6542:
6484:
6425:
6290:
6126:
6073:
6053:. Boston: Littell and Co.: 70.
6034:
5964:
5918:
5909:
5822:
5788:Gender and Aging in Mesopotamia
5779:
5774:Gender and Aging in Mesopotamia
5765:
5758:Karen Rhea Nemet-Nejat (1998),
5751:
5711:
5641:
5616:
5591:
5579:from the original on 1 May 2022
5552:
5502:
5492:Grand Valley Journal of History
5479:
5442:
5411:
5347:
5328:
5320:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
5309:
5257:
5095:
5066:
5033:
5000:
4961:
4897:
4854:
4828:
4804:
4769:
4732:
4697:
4515:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
3888:
3351:
2301:The oldest Babylonian texts on
1369:in central Mesopotamia and the
194:Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period
9404:Historical regions of Anatolia
8856:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)
8851:Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)
7572:Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia
7127:Bottéro, Jean (15 June 1995).
6740:Vol. 3, No. 1 (1936), 104-110.
5808:. The Univ. of Chicago Press.
5685:10.1080/01603477.2005.11051453
5529:Twist, Jo (20 November 2005),
5428:Johns Hopkins University Press
5355:The Growth of Scientific Ideas
5234:
5221:
5195:
5182:
4506:
4479:
4395:
4274:
4186:
3329:List of Mesopotamian dynasties
3115:before planting crops such as
3036:
2916:The Babylonian marriage market
2906:
2423:was based on a logical set of
2226:model of planetary motion was
1892:
1749:Hurro-Urartuan language family
588:, in the northern part of the
16:Historical region of West Asia
1:
9238:Ancient Mesopotamian religion
8635:Tigris–Euphrates river system
7831:
7226:Postgate, J. Nicholas; 1992.
6136:Islamic Heritage Architecture
5667:Dow, Sheila C. (April 2005).
5486:Teall, Emily (October 2014).
5357:, Yale University Press p.38.
4974:. A&C Black. p. 75.
4560:Civilizations of ancient Iraq
4174:
3982:, Late Bronze Age palaces at
3575:
3295:
2863:
2818:
2590:believes that the origins of
2567:
2530:Ancient Mesopotamian religion
2508:Ancient Mesopotamian religion
2457:
2388:and often detailed empirical
1998:
1829:
1552:
1535:
1511:
1351:
1287:, the Akkadian kingdoms, the
1239:was invented, along with the
1214: late 4th millennium BC
1210:
917:
733:Muslim conquest of the Levant
662:
586:Tigris–Euphrates river system
9379:Geography of the Middle East
8068:in ISIL-controlled territory
7956:
6898:. The British Museum Press.
6324:10.1371/journal.pone.0187408
5800:Kramer, Samuel Noah (1963).
4863:Journal of Cuneiform Studies
4267:
4257:
3702:a large and solid late one.
3159:Mesopotamian trade with the
3050:In the early period down to
3013:Mining areas of the ancient
2918:by the 19th-century painter
2745:
2161:
2124:
1059:
962:
893:
881:
863:
750:
623:, the planting of the first
21:Mesopotamia (disambiguation)
7:
9304:Chicago Assyrian Dictionary
9186:Egypt-Mesopotamia relations
9181:Indus-Mesopotamia relations
8242:
8134:
7979:Council of Representatives
7717:Weapons of mass destruction
7404:
7252:Williams, Henry Smith (Ed.)
7032:Biblical Archaeology Review
6949:The Cambridge World History
6877:. Oxford University Press.
6510:10.15460/aethiopica.7.1.294
5101:Fowler and Robson, p. 368.
4718:10.1080/1350748032000140796
4486:Hogg, Hope Waddell (1911).
4243:
4230:
4219:
3895:Architecture of Mesopotamia
3206:
3170:Egypt–Mesopotamia relations
2280:
1648:(2nd to 7th centuries AD),
1233:four riverine civilizations
850:
837:
826:
10:
9425:
9389:Historical regions of Iraq
9384:Historical regions of Iran
9309:Chicago Hittite Dictionary
7707:1977 Shia uprising in Iraq
7149:Edzard, Dietz Otto; 2004.
6985:Liungman, Carl G. (2004).
6866:
6844:World History Encyclopedia
6231:10.1038/s41598-020-72283-1
6012:"Earliest Egyptian Glyphs"
4706:European Review of History
4204:
3892:
3588:
3547:
3430:
3426:
3326:
3299:
3095:became very important for
3043:Agriculture in Mesopotamia
3040:
3023:system of loans and credit
3004:
2972:
2798:
2712:
2552:, which refers to the god
2505:
2484:Hanging Gardens of Babylon
2364:introduced the methods of
2165:
1970:
1966:
1896:
1833:
1717:
1397:downstream. The states of
1385:with its two major cities
1231:The region was one of the
1177:History of the Middle East
1170:
1160:
1156:
1063:
887:
875:
814:
509:Ba'athist rule (1968–2003)
504:Republic of Iraq (1958–68)
25:
18:
9276:
9230:
9204:
9108:
9005:
8898:
8806:
8799:
8788:
8670:
8597:
8588:
8500:
8399:
8254:
8250:
8237:
8142:
8129:
7964:
7951:
7839:
7826:
7647:
7564:
7416:
7412:
7399:
7212:Oppenheim, A. Leo; 1964.
7167:München 2005 (4. Aufl.),
7013:The Legacy of Mesopotamia
6966:Frankfort, Henri (1970).
6750:Leick, Gwendolyn (2002).
6432:Spencer, William (2000).
5623:Bertman, Stephen (2005).
5246:{\displaystyle (a+b)^{2}}
5207:{\displaystyle (a-b)^{2}}
4788:. BBC. 10 November 2010.
4742:WIT Press, 2008, pp 15–26
4281:Seymour, Michael (2004).
4101:The walls of Babylon, in
3550:Mesopotamian marriage law
3277:events in the Near East.
3161:Indus Valley civilisation
2737:and the star the goddess
2656:which is compatible with
1564:(12th to 11th century BC)
1528:(16th to 11th century BC)
1504:(18th to 17th century BC)
1498:(19th to 18th century BC)
1249:Indus Valley civilization
1209:, in the Uruk IV period (
1167:Prehistory of Mesopotamia
934:The Anabasis of Alexander
725:Muslim conquest of Persia
630:, and the development of
8058:in Saddam Hussein's Iraq
7969:Administrative divisions
7311:15 February 2005 at the
7305:Mesopotamian Archaeology
7177:Joannès, Francis; 2001.
6919:A History of Mathematics
6599:, pp. 57–69, 76–77.
6400:10.1186/1471-2148-11-288
6378:BMC Evolutionary Biology
5736:, pp. 156, 169–170.
5264:Joyce, David E. (1995).
5073:Struik, Dirk J. (1987).
4653:Matthews, Roger (2003),
4593:, Leiden: Brill Online,
4361:, Leiden: Brill Online,
4179:
3818:The Monuments of Nineveh
3631:is an outstanding small
3379:
3333:List of kings of Babylon
3322:
3154:
3031:post-Keynesian economics
2853:
2794:
2522:First Babylonian dynasty
2336:Along with contemporary
1712:First Dynasty of Babylon
1583:(10th to 7th century BC)
1577:(11th to 7th century BC)
1562:Late Bronze Age collapse
1502:First Babylonian dynasty
1193:, a ruler around 2090 BC
1066:Geography of Mesopotamia
7617:Mandate for Mesopotamia
7491:First Babylonian Empire
7198:Matthews, Roger; 2005.
6535:Robert Dalling (2004),
4811:Pollock, Susan (1999),
4625:10.1023/A:1009487620969
4499:Encyclopædia Britannica
4402:Pollock, Susan (1999),
3543:
3469:, Dhi Qar Governorate,
3199:and the opening of the
2985:habits. In the city of
2502:Religion and philosophy
1739:. Along with Sumerian,
1665:(3rd to 7th century AD)
1642:(1st to 2nd century AD)
1636:(1st to 2nd century AD)
1612:(6th to 4th century BC)
1589:(7th to 6th century BC)
1420:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B
1414:Pre-Pottery Neolithic A
279:First Babylonian Empire
9141:Babylonian mathematics
7776:Insurgency (2011–2013)
7697:Iraqi–Kurdish conflict
7501:Middle Assyrian Empire
7240:Silver, Morris; 2007.
7184:Korn, Wolfgang; 2004.
6704:, pp. 66–74, 167.
5931:The Indus Civilization
5786:Rivkah Harris (2000),
5772:Rivkah Harris (2000),
5734:Black & Green 1992
5559:Lambert, W.G. (2016).
5514:Technology and Culture
5247:
5208:
5169:
4904:Guo, Rongxing (2017).
4196:
3584:
3473:
3458:
3361:
3337:List of Assyrian kings
3080:
3018:
2922:
2870:
2828:
2742:
2673:Hellenistic philosophy
2525:
2298:
2136:
1920:
1899:Babylonian mathematics
1888:Science and technology
1857:
1715:
1532:Middle Assyrian period
1410:Pre- and protohistory
1406:
1374:
1365:in the northwest, the
1346:After early starts in
1197:The prehistory of the
1194:
1163:History of Mesopotamia
1110:
1097:) and a narrow canoe (
1083:
289:Middle Assyrian Empire
115:, from north to south.
8063:in post-invasion Iraq
7769:U.S. troop withdrawal
7531:Neo-Babylonian Empire
7233:Roux, Georges; 1964.
7219:Pollock, Susan; 1999.
7045:Epilepsy in Babylonia
7043:Stol, Marten (1993).
6732:21 April 2020 at the
6085:Crossley, Pamela Kyle
6041:Bryce, James (1886).
5508:Stephanie Dalley and
5298:, Styx Publications,
5248:
5209:
5170:
5040:Eves, Howard (1969).
5007:Eves, Howard (1969).
4955:29 April 2013 at the
3932:Early Dynastic period
3840:relief of Ashur as a
3734:or Sargon's grandson
3696:Stele of the Vultures
3597:that of Ancient Egypt
3506:Stele of the Vultures
3464:
3444:
3344:
3327:Further information:
3290:Neo-Babylonian Empire
3078:
3012:
2914:
2861:
2808:
2720:
2693:, and the dialogs of
2678:Dialogue of Pessimism
2515:
2288:
2201:philosophy of science
2137:
1906:
1847:
1685:
1587:Neo-Babylonian Empire
1473:Early Dynastic period
1380:
1345:
1188:
1171:Further information:
1089:
1082:in Upper Mesopotamia.
1073:
755:The regional toponym
414:Atabegs of Azerbaijan
384:Buyid amirate of Iraq
299:Neo-Babylonian Empire
9136:Babylonian astronomy
8615:Mesopotamian Marshes
8012:Council of Ministers
7894:Mesopotamian Marshes
7322:"layered PDF format"
6725:M. E. L. Mallowan, "
6047:Littell's Living Age
5844:. Cengage Learning.
5218:
5179:
5153:
5126:12 July 2020 at the
4432:History & Policy
4287:Current Anthropology
4226:بَيْنُ ٱلْنَهْرَيْن
4216:بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن
3842:feather robed archer
3675:apparently not. The
3613:Protoliterate period
3564:Code of Lipit-Ishtar
3476:With the end of the
3467:Royal Cemetery at Ur
3453:during the reign of
3447:Mesopotamian Marshes
3275:Last Glacial Maximum
2899:, now known as the "
2815:Royal Cemetery at Ur
2801:Music of Mesopotamia
2662:Babylonian astronomy
2419:. Esagil-kin-apli's
2350:physical examination
2321:, or chief scholar,
2228:Seleucus of Seleucia
2217:history of astronomy
2168:Babylonian astronomy
2148:linear interpolation
2041:
1915:Iraq. 2003–1595 BC.
1710:, sixth king of the
1694:legal text composed
1678:Language and writing
1671:(mid-7th century AD)
1606:Achaemenid Babylonia
1318:Scientists analysed
1091:Mesopotamian Marshes
823:بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن
617:Neolithic Revolution
584:situated within the
514:Occupation (2003–11)
19:For other uses, see
9394:Geography of Kuwait
9369:Ancient Mesopotamia
9217:Destruction by ISIL
9171:Sumerian literature
9146:Akkadian literature
8582:Ancient Mesopotamia
8274:Mesopotamian Arabic
8080:Freedom of religion
7526:Neo-Assyrian Empire
7496:Old Assyrian Period
7481:Neo-Sumerian Empire
7269:Ancient Mesopotamia
6716:, pp. 141–193.
6668:, pp. 110–112.
6391:2011BMCEE..11..288A
6315:2017PLoSO..1287408D
6223:2020NatSR..1015289L
6186:on 27 December 2010
6089:Headrick, Daniel R.
5168:{\displaystyle 4ab}
4489:"Mesopotamia"
3940:Third Dynasty of Ur
3822:Austen Henry Layard
2939:patriarchal society
2574:Abrahamic religions
2444:Diagnostic Handbook
2421:Diagnostic Handbook
2362:Diagnostic Handbook
2315:Diagnostic Handbook
2156:Pythagorean triples
2152:Plimpton 322 tablet
1963:representing time.
1840:Sumerian literature
1836:Akkadian literature
1776:Neo-Assyrian Empire
1595:Classical antiquity
1581:Neo-Assyrian Empire
1575:Syro-Hittite states
1556: 1595–1155 BC
1539: 1365–1076 BC
1526:Old Assyrian period
1485:Third Dynasty of Ur
1289:Third Dynasty of Ur
1253:Indian subcontinent
982:. The neighbouring
963:biritum/birit narim
939:Alexander the Great
817:' between rivers';
702:Alexander the Great
690:Neo-Assyrian Empire
457:Early modern period
294:Neo-Assyrian Empire
259:Neo-Sumerian Empire
9399:Geography of Syria
9253:Mesopotamian myths
8205:Telecommunications
8180:Foreign Investment
8117:Wars and conflicts
8053:in pre-Saddam Iraq
8017:Presidency Council
7803:2019–2021 protests
7732:Invasion of Kuwait
7556:Sassanid Asorestan
7551:Parthian Babylonia
7546:Seleucid Babylonia
7541:Achaemenid Assyria
7456:Jemdet Nasr period
6010:Mitchell, Larkin.
5724:(1), pp. 35–47 43.
5316:Otto E. Neugebauer
5243:
5214:they could obtain
5204:
5165:
5112:2012-08-13 at the
4442:on 8 December 2010
3591:Art of Mesopotamia
3510:Early Dynastic III
3508:at the end of the
3474:
3459:
3368:, but, unlike the
3362:
3081:
3019:
2923:
2871:
2829:
2743:
2602:, in the forms of
2588:Giorgio Buccellati
2526:
2299:
2132:
1921:
1858:
1716:
1622:Parthian Babylonia
1610:Achaemenid Assyria
1492:Middle Bronze Age
1462:Jemdet Nasr period
1407:
1375:
1361:in the north, the
1291:, and the various
1195:
1123:Armenian highlands
1111:
1084:
1040:, with names like
833:بَيْن ٱلنَّهْرَيْن
429:Jalairid Sultanate
364:Rashidun Caliphate
339:Sasanian Asorestan
329:Parthian Babylonia
324:Seleucid Babylonia
319:Achaemenid Assyria
214:Jemdet Nasr Period
9317:
9316:
9268:Ziggurat (Temple)
9243:Sumerian religion
9001:
9000:
8948:Middle Babylonian
8890:Kish civilization
8786:
8785:
8610:Lower Mesopotamia
8605:Upper Mesopotamia
8548:
8547:
8496:
8495:
8492:
8491:
8482:Mandaean New Year
8233:
8232:
8125:
8124:
8107:Political parties
8002:Foreign relations
7947:
7946:
7854:Lower Mesopotamia
7849:Upper Mesopotamia
7822:
7821:
7818:
7817:
7582:Abbasid Caliphate
7577:Umayyad Caliphate
7486:Isin-Larsa period
7334:on 7 October 2005
7202:, Turnhout 2005,
7181:, Robert Laffont.
7073:Algaze, Guillermo
7022:978-0-19-814946-0
7009:Dalley, Stephanie
6996:978-91-972705-0-2
6958:978-0-521-19008-4
6929:978-0-471-54397-8
6905:978-0-7141-1705-8
6826:978-0-631-23293-3
6763:978-1-134-64102-4
6692:, pp. 71–73.
6680:, pp. 66–74.
6644:, pp. 61–66.
6632:, pp. 45–59.
6620:, pp. 24–37.
6587:, pp. 57–58.
6451:978-0-7613-1356-4
5926:Wheeler, Mortimer
5890:978-0-520-20222-1
5851:978-0-538-74438-6
5815:978-0-226-45238-8
5634:978-0-19-518364-1
5510:John Peter Oleson
5344:(3), p. 166–173 .
5294:D. Brown (2000),
5088:978-0-486-60255-4
4949:: 91–120 Chicago
4822:978-0-521-57568-3
4691:978-0-415-19655-0
4664:978-0-415-25317-8
4569:978-0-691-13722-3
4472:978-0-8108-4848-1
4413:978-0-521-57568-3
4220:Bilād ar-Rāfidayn
4083:Nebuchadnezzar II
3572:Code of Hammurabi
3538:Nebuchadnezzar II
3536:was destroyed by
3498:Early Dynastic II
3417:Code of Hammurabi
3370:ancient Egyptians
3189:Volga trade route
2961:. They could own
2809:The Queen's gold
2642:developed beyond
2576:, especially the
2480:Archimedes' screw
2338:Egyptian medicine
2311:2nd millennium BC
2305:date back to the
2127:
2111:
2098:
2078:
2058:
1947:were fixed at 3.
1937:Sumerian calendar
1874:Epic of Gilgamesh
1850:Epic of Gilgamesh
1780:Achaemenid Empire
1741:Semitic languages
1724:Sumerian language
1720:Akkadian language
1706:, purportedly by
1700:ancient Near East
1688:Code of Hammurabi
1646:Roman Mesopotamia
1496:Isin-Larsa period
1469:Early Bronze Age
1313:Tiglath-Pileser I
1218:Achaemenid Empire
1203:Lower Paleolithic
1199:Ancient Near East
1151:carrying capacity
1014:Lower Mesopotamia
1004:Upper Mesopotamia
978:and southeastern
827:Bilād ar-Rāfidayn
721:Sassanid Persians
698:Achaemenid Empire
684:in the north and
578:historical region
571:
570:
374:Abbasid Caliphate
369:Umayyad Caliphate
334:Roman Mesopotamia
264:Isin-Larsa period
9416:
9346:
9345:
9344:
9334:
9333:
9325:
9166:Sumerian cuisine
9156:Warfare in Sumer
9151:Economy of Sumer
8804:
8803:
8794:
8678:Fertile Crescent
8662:Sinjar Mountains
8657:Hamrin Mountains
8652:Zagros Mountains
8630:Taurus Mountains
8595:
8594:
8575:
8568:
8561:
8552:
8551:
8538:
8537:
8528:
8527:
8518:
8508:
8507:
8252:
8251:
8239:
8238:
8170:
8131:
8130:
7982:
7953:
7952:
7939:Sinjar Mountains
7929:Zagros Mountains
7869:Hamrin Mountains
7828:
7827:
7791:Mosul liberation
7764:Iraqi insurgency
7686:National Command
7675:
7511:Simurrum culture
7414:
7413:
7401:
7400:
7390:
7389:
7388:
7376:
7369:
7362:
7353:
7352:
7347:
7343:
7341:
7339:
7333:
7327:. Archived from
7326:
7237:, Penguin Books.
7146:
7134:
7111:
7094:, Brepols, 1996
7062:
7049:Brill Publishers
7039:
7026:
7000:
6981:
6962:
6933:
6909:
6888:
6860:
6859:
6857:
6855:
6836:
6830:
6829:
6812:
6806:
6805:
6803:
6801:
6786:
6780:
6779:
6777:
6775:
6747:
6741:
6723:
6717:
6711:
6705:
6699:
6693:
6687:
6681:
6675:
6669:
6663:
6657:
6651:
6645:
6639:
6633:
6627:
6621:
6615:
6609:
6606:
6600:
6594:
6588:
6582:
6576:
6564:
6558:
6546:
6540:
6539:
6532:
6523:
6522:
6512:
6488:
6482:
6481:
6479:
6477:
6462:
6456:
6455:
6439:
6429:
6423:
6422:
6412:
6402:
6368:
6359:
6352:
6346:
6336:
6326:
6309:(11): e0187408.
6294:
6288:
6287:
6285:
6283:
6268:
6262:
6259:
6253:
6252:
6242:
6202:
6196:
6195:
6193:
6191:
6185:
6179:. Archived from
6178:
6170:
6161:
6160:
6155:
6153:
6130:
6124:
6123:
6118:
6116:
6081:Bulliet, Richard
6077:
6071:
6070:
6064:
6062:
6038:
6032:
6031:
6029:
6027:
6007:
6001:
5994:
5988:
5987:
5977:
5968:
5962:
5961:
5955:
5953:
5922:
5916:
5913:
5907:
5906:
5904:
5902:
5874:
5868:
5867:
5865:
5863:
5835:
5829:
5826:
5820:
5819:
5807:
5797:
5791:
5790:
5783:
5777:
5776:
5769:
5763:
5762:
5755:
5749:
5743:
5737:
5731:
5725:
5715:
5709:
5708:
5706:
5704:
5664:
5655:
5645:
5639:
5638:
5620:
5614:
5613:
5595:
5589:
5588:
5586:
5584:
5556:
5550:
5549:
5548:
5546:
5526:
5520:
5506:
5500:
5499:
5483:
5477:
5471:
5465:
5454:Brill Publishers
5446:
5440:
5439:
5415:
5409:
5403:
5397:
5386:Brill Publishers
5378:
5369:
5364:
5358:
5351:
5345:
5332:
5326:
5313:
5307:
5292:
5286:
5285:
5279:
5277:
5261:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5249:
5244:
5242:
5241:
5213:
5211:
5210:
5205:
5203:
5202:
5174:
5172:
5171:
5166:
5136:
5130:
5099:
5093:
5092:
5080:
5070:
5064:
5063:
5047:
5037:
5031:
5030:
5014:
5004:
4998:
4997:
4995:
4993:
4965:
4959:
4943:
4937:
4936:
4931:
4929:
4901:
4895:
4894:
4858:
4852:
4851:
4849:
4847:
4832:
4826:
4825:
4808:
4802:
4801:
4799:
4797:
4782:
4776:
4773:
4767:
4761:
4755:
4749:
4743:
4736:
4730:
4729:
4701:
4695:
4694:
4677:
4668:
4667:
4650:
4644:
4643:
4608:
4602:
4601:
4582:
4573:
4572:
4555:
4546:
4545:
4510:
4504:
4503:
4491:
4483:
4477:
4476:
4458:
4452:
4451:
4449:
4447:
4438:. Archived from
4423:
4417:
4416:
4399:
4393:
4392:
4376:
4370:
4369:
4350:
4339:
4338:
4336:
4334:
4278:
4261:
4260:
4254:
4249:Classical Syriac
4246:
4241:
4233:
4228:
4227:
4222:
4217:
4206:
4190:
4159:
4144:
4131:The ziggurat of
4128:
4113:
4098:
4074:
3872:
3853:
3833:
3813:
3798:
3786:
3763:
3747:
3723:
3692:votive offerings
3658:Ram in a Thicket
3580:
3577:
3493:about 2500 BC.
3437:Warfare in Sumer
3355:
3353:
3085:Fertile Crescent
2901:Royal Game of Ur
2868:
2865:
2823:
2820:
2556:and the goddess
2524:, around 1800 BC
2333:(1069–1046 BC).
2331:Adad-apla-iddina
2275:Western European
2267:medieval Islamic
2255:classical Indian
2141:
2139:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2120:
2112:
2104:
2099:
2097:
2096:
2084:
2079:
2077:
2076:
2064:
2059:
2051:
2033:
2032:
2031:
2020:
2012:
2011:
2010:
2003:
2000:
1977:Square root of 2
1961:
1946:
1878:Sîn-lēqi-unninni
1788:Imperial Aramaic
1737:language isolate
1697:
1652:(2nd century AD)
1602:(6th century BC)
1557:
1554:
1540:
1537:
1522:Late Bronze Age
1516:
1513:
1416:(10,000–8700 BC)
1356:
1353:
1215:
1212:
1191:Statues of Gudea
1139:Zagros Mountains
1038:Muslim conquests
988:Zagros Mountains
965:
931:is evident from
922:
919:
896:
890:
889:
885:, 'middle') and
884:
878:
877:
868:
861:
853:
848:
840:
835:
834:
829:
824:
816:
808:
807:
804:
803:
800:
797:
794:
791:
788:
785:
782:
779:
776:
773:
770:
767:
667:
664:
659:recorded history
590:Fertile Crescent
563:
556:
549:
535:
534:
533:
359:Islamic conquest
164:
154:
136:
135:
126:
48:
9424:
9423:
9419:
9418:
9417:
9415:
9414:
9413:
9409:Regions of Asia
9354:
9353:
9352:
9342:
9340:
9328:
9320:
9318:
9313:
9272:
9226:
9200:
9109:Culture/society
9104:
8997:
8993:Muslim conquest
8963:Fall of Babylon
8894:
8795:
8782:
8666:
8584:
8579:
8549:
8544:
8488:
8472:Public holidays
8395:
8246:
8229:
8168:
8138:
8121:
7980:
7960:
7943:
7874:Iraqi Kurdistan
7864:Euphrates river
7835:
7814:
7781:War (2014–2017)
7727:Operation Opera
7673:
7643:
7639:Arab Federation
7627:Kingdom of Iraq
7560:
7536:Fall of Babylon
7471:Akkadian Empire
7446:Samarra culture
7431:Hassuna culture
7408:
7395:
7383:
7382:
7380:
7345:
7337:
7335:
7331:
7324:
7320:
7313:Wayback Machine
7288:, by Sir E. A.
7265:
7246:Antiguo Oriente
7143:
7109:
7069:
7067:Further reading
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6656:, Chapters 2–5.
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4838:. BBC History.
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3629:Guennol Lioness
3615:, dominated by
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3552:
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3382:
3350:
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3230:Iraqi-Assyrians
3209:
3157:
3045:
3039:
3007:
2975:
2909:
2866:
2856:
2821:
2803:
2797:
2748:
2715:
2699:Socratic method
2582:Book of Genesis
2570:
2544:. Although the
2510:
2504:
2496:Baghdad Battery
2460:
2372:and the use of
2323:Esagil-kin-apli
2317:written by the
2283:
2242:. According to
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2145:
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2018:
2008:
2006:
2005:
2001:
1988:
1979:
1971:Main articles:
1969:
1959:
1954:of a cone or a
1944:
1901:
1895:
1890:
1842:
1834:Main articles:
1832:
1782:: the official
1778:, and then the
1757:Akkadian Empire
1726:
1718:Main articles:
1695:
1680:
1669:Muslim conquest
1600:Fall of Babylon
1555:
1538:
1514:
1508:Minoan eruption
1481:(~2350–2100 BC)
1479:Akkadian Empire
1475:(~2900–2350 BC)
1464:(~3100–2900 BC)
1458:(~4000–3100 BC)
1452:(~6500–4000 BC)
1446:(~6000–5300 BC)
1440:(~5700–4900 BC)
1393:wedged between
1367:Samarra culture
1359:Hassuna culture
1354:
1340:
1309:Ashur-uballit I
1301:Sargon of Akkad
1213:
1207:Proto-cuneiform
1183:
1173:History of Iraq
1169:
1161:Main articles:
1159:
1068:
1062:
920:
838:Bayn an-Nahrayn
764:
760:
753:
729:Sasanian Empire
713:Parthian Empire
706:Seleucid Empire
678:Akkadian Empire
674:Sargon of Akkad
670:fall of Babylon
665:
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537:Iraq portal
531:
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499:Kingdom of Iraq
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249:Akkadian Empire
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9289:Assyriologists
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9196:List of rulers
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8938:Old Babylonian
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8195:Reconstruction
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8175:Infrastructure
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8034:Prime Minister
8031:
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7692:Saddam Hussein
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7622:Mandatory Iraq
7619:
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7611:Mamluk dynasty
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7476:Gutian dynasty
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7356:
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7349:
7346:(12.8 MB)
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7281:
7279:British Museum
7272:
7264:
7263:External links
7261:
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7249:
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7196:
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7161:
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7142:978-0226067278
7141:
7124:
7103:
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7057:
7040:
7027:
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7005:Pingree, David
7001:
6995:
6982:
6976:
6963:
6957:
6939:Yoffee, Norman
6934:
6928:
6914:Boyer, Carl B.
6910:
6904:
6889:
6884:978-1405160018
6883:
6868:
6865:
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6825:
6807:
6781:
6762:
6742:
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6714:Frankfort 1970
6706:
6702:Frankfort 1970
6694:
6690:Frankfort 1970
6682:
6678:Frankfort 1970
6670:
6666:Frankfort 1970
6658:
6654:Frankfort 1970
6646:
6642:Frankfort 1970
6634:
6630:Frankfort 1970
6622:
6618:Frankfort 1970
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5908:
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5821:
5814:
5792:
5778:
5764:
5750:
5748:, p. 228.
5738:
5726:
5710:
5679:(3): 385–391.
5656:
5640:
5633:
5615:
5608:
5590:
5572:978-3161536748
5571:
5551:
5521:
5501:
5478:
5466:
5441:
5410:
5398:
5370:
5367:Pingree (1998)
5359:
5346:
5327:
5308:
5287:
5266:"Plimpton 322"
5256:
5240:
5236:
5232:
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4853:
4827:
4821:
4803:
4777:
4768:
4766:, p. 256.
4764:Emberling 2015
4756:
4754:, p. 255.
4752:Emberling 2015
4744:
4731:
4712:(2): 253–272.
4696:
4690:
4669:
4663:
4645:
4619:(3): 219–267,
4603:
4587:Bosworth, C.E.
4574:
4568:
4547:
4527:10.1086/371676
4505:
4494:Chisholm, Hugh
4478:
4471:
4453:
4436:United Kingdom
4418:
4412:
4394:
4371:
4355:Bosworth, C.E.
4340:
4315:10.1086/383004
4299:10.1086/383004
4293:(3): 351–368.
4272:
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4133:Dur-kuriagalzu
4130:
4123:
4121:
4118:Ziggurat of Ur
4115:
4108:
4106:
4100:
4093:
4091:
4076:
4069:
3954:(Sanctuary of
3946:(Sanctuary of
3901:archaeological
3893:Main article:
3890:
3887:
3886:
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3779:
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3742:
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3725:
3718:
3708:British Museum
3625:cylinder seals
3589:Main article:
3586:
3583:
3579: 1780 BC
3545:
3542:
3428:
3425:
3381:
3378:
3324:
3321:
3300:Main article:
3297:
3294:
3208:
3205:
3156:
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3111:to soften the
3041:Main article:
3038:
3035:
3006:
3003:
2974:
2971:
2908:
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2855:
2852:
2822: 2500 BC
2799:Main article:
2796:
2793:
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2774:
2771:
2762:
2759:
2747:
2744:
2733:, the sun the
2714:
2711:
2664:and medicine.
2569:
2566:
2506:Main article:
2503:
2500:
2459:
2456:
2307:Old Babylonian
2282:
2279:
2166:Main article:
2163:
2160:
2143:
2142:
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2115:
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2091:
2087:
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2075:
2071:
2067:
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2054:
2049:
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1968:
1965:
1956:square pyramid
1929:numeral system
1897:Main article:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1831:
1828:
1768:Neo-Babylonian
1679:
1676:
1675:
1674:
1673:
1672:
1666:
1658:Late Antiquity
1655:
1654:
1653:
1643:
1637:
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1542:
1529:
1520:
1519:
1518:
1515: 1620 BC
1505:
1499:
1490:
1489:
1488:
1487:(2112–2004 BC)
1482:
1476:
1467:
1466:
1465:
1459:
1453:
1447:
1444:Halaf cultures
1441:
1435:
1429:
1428:(7500–5000 BC)
1423:
1422:(8700–6800 BC)
1417:
1355: 7500 BC
1339:
1336:
1299:(king of Ur),
1201:begins in the
1158:
1155:
1064:Main article:
1061:
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519:Recent history
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494:Mandatory Iraq
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474:Mamluk dynasty
471:
466:
460:
455:
454:
451:
450:
447:
446:
441:
436:
434:Timurid Empire
431:
426:
421:
416:
411:
406:
401:
396:
391:
386:
381:
376:
371:
366:
361:
355:
350:
349:
346:
345:
342:
341:
336:
331:
326:
321:
315:
310:
309:
306:
305:
302:
301:
296:
291:
286:
281:
276:
271:
266:
261:
256:
254:Gutian Dynasty
251:
246:
241:
236:
230:
225:
224:
221:
220:
217:
216:
211:
206:
196:
191:
186:
181:
175:
170:
169:
166:
165:
157:
156:
147:
146:
139:
128:
121:
120:
119:
109:Charax Spasinu
50:
43:
42:
41:
37:
36:
35:
34:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9421:
9410:
9407:
9405:
9402:
9400:
9397:
9395:
9392:
9390:
9387:
9385:
9382:
9380:
9377:
9375:
9374:Ancient Syria
9372:
9370:
9367:
9365:
9362:
9361:
9359:
9349:
9339:
9337:
9332:
9327:
9326:
9323:
9310:
9307:
9305:
9302:
9300:
9297:
9295:
9292:
9290:
9287:
9285:
9282:
9281:
9279:
9275:
9269:
9266:
9264:
9261:
9259:
9256:
9254:
9251:
9249:
9246:
9244:
9241:
9239:
9236:
9235:
9233:
9229:
9223:
9220:
9218:
9215:
9213:
9210:
9209:
9207:
9203:
9197:
9194:
9192:
9189:
9187:
9184:
9182:
9179:
9177:
9174:
9172:
9169:
9167:
9164:
9162:
9159:
9157:
9154:
9152:
9149:
9147:
9144:
9142:
9139:
9137:
9134:
9132:
9129:
9127:
9124:
9122:
9119:
9117:
9114:
9113:
9111:
9107:
9101:
9098:
9096:
9093:
9091:
9088:
9086:
9083:
9081:
9078:
9076:
9073:
9071:
9068:
9066:
9063:
9061:
9058:
9056:
9053:
9051:
9048:
9046:
9043:
9041:
9038:
9036:
9033:
9031:
9028:
9026:
9023:
9021:
9018:
9016:
9013:
9012:
9010:
9008:
9004:
8994:
8991:
8989:
8986:
8984:
8981:
8979:
8976:
8974:
8971:
8969:
8966:
8964:
8961:
8959:
8956:
8954:
8951:
8949:
8946:
8944:
8941:
8939:
8936:
8934:
8931:
8929:
8926:
8924:
8921:
8919:
8916:
8914:
8911:
8909:
8906:
8905:
8903:
8901:
8897:
8891:
8888:
8886:
8883:
8881:
8878:
8876:
8873:
8871:
8868:
8866:
8862:
8859:
8857:
8854:
8852:
8849:
8847:
8844:
8842:
8839:
8837:
8834:
8832:
8829:
8827:
8824:
8822:
8819:
8817:
8814:
8813:
8811:
8809:
8805:
8802:
8798:
8793:
8779:
8776:
8774:
8771:
8769:
8766:
8764:
8761:
8759:
8756:
8754:
8751:
8749:
8746:
8744:
8741:
8739:
8736:
8734:
8731:
8729:
8726:
8724:
8721:
8719:
8716:
8714:
8711:
8709:
8706:
8704:
8701:
8699:
8696:
8694:
8691:
8689:
8686:
8684:
8681:
8679:
8676:
8675:
8673:
8669:
8663:
8660:
8658:
8655:
8653:
8650:
8646:
8643:
8641:
8638:
8637:
8636:
8633:
8631:
8628:
8626:
8625:Syrian Desert
8623:
8621:
8618:
8616:
8613:
8611:
8608:
8606:
8603:
8602:
8600:
8596:
8593:
8591:
8587:
8583:
8576:
8571:
8569:
8564:
8562:
8557:
8556:
8553:
8541:
8533:
8531:
8523:
8521:
8517:
8513:
8511:
8503:
8502:
8499:
8483:
8480:
8478:
8475:
8474:
8473:
8470:
8468:
8465:
8463:
8460:
8458:
8455:
8453:
8450:
8448:
8445:
8443:
8440:
8438:
8435:
8433:
8430:
8428:
8425:
8423:
8420:
8418:
8415:
8413:
8410:
8408:
8405:
8404:
8402:
8398:
8390:
8387:
8385:
8382:
8380:
8377:
8375:
8372:
8370:
8367:
8366:
8365:
8362:
8360:
8357:
8353:
8350:
8347:
8346:Iraqi Turkmen
8344:
8342:
8339:
8337:
8334:
8332:
8329:
8327:
8324:
8322:
8319:
8317:
8314:
8312:
8309:
8307:
8304:
8303:
8302:
8299:
8295:
8292:
8290:
8287:
8285:
8282:
8280:
8277:
8275:
8272:
8271:
8270:
8267:
8265:
8262:
8261:
8259:
8257:
8253:
8249:
8245:
8240:
8236:
8226:
8223:
8221:
8218:
8216:
8213:
8211:
8208:
8206:
8203:
8201:
8198:
8196:
8193:
8191:
8188:
8186:
8183:
8181:
8178:
8176:
8173:
8171:
8165:
8163:
8160:
8158:
8155:
8153:
8150:
8148:
8145:
8144:
8141:
8137:
8132:
8128:
8118:
8115:
8113:
8110:
8108:
8105:
8103:
8100:
8098:
8095:
8093:
8090:
8086:
8083:
8081:
8078:
8076:
8073:
8069:
8066:
8065:
8064:
8061:
8059:
8056:
8054:
8051:
8050:
8049:
8046:
8040:
8037:
8036:
8035:
8032:
8028:
8025:
8024:
8023:
8020:
8018:
8015:
8013:
8010:
8009:
8008:
8005:
8003:
8000:
7998:
7995:
7993:
7990:
7988:
7985:
7983:
7981:(legislative)
7977:
7975:
7972:
7970:
7967:
7966:
7963:
7959:
7954:
7950:
7940:
7937:
7935:
7932:
7930:
7927:
7925:
7922:
7920:
7917:
7915:
7914:Syrian Desert
7912:
7910:
7909:Shatt al-Arab
7907:
7905:
7902:
7900:
7897:
7895:
7892:
7890:
7887:
7885:
7882:
7880:
7877:
7875:
7872:
7870:
7867:
7865:
7862:
7860:
7857:
7855:
7852:
7850:
7847:
7845:
7844:Faw peninsula
7842:
7841:
7838:
7834:
7829:
7825:
7811:
7808:
7804:
7801:
7800:
7799:
7796:
7792:
7789:
7787:
7786:Fall of Mosul
7784:
7783:
7782:
7779:
7777:
7774:
7770:
7767:
7765:
7762:
7760:
7759:U.S. invasion
7757:
7756:
7755:
7752:
7750:
7747:
7743:
7740:
7739:
7738:
7735:
7733:
7730:
7728:
7725:
7723:
7722:Iran–Iraq War
7720:
7718:
7715:
7713:
7710:
7708:
7705:
7703:
7700:
7698:
7695:
7693:
7690:
7687:
7683:
7680:
7679:
7676:
7670:
7668:
7665:
7663:
7660:
7658:
7655:
7654:
7652:
7650:
7646:
7640:
7637:
7633:
7630:
7629:
7628:
7625:
7623:
7620:
7618:
7615:
7612:
7608:
7605:
7603:
7600:
7598:
7595:
7593:
7590:
7588:
7587:Buyid dynasty
7585:
7583:
7580:
7578:
7575:
7573:
7570:
7569:
7567:
7563:
7557:
7554:
7552:
7549:
7547:
7544:
7542:
7539:
7537:
7534:
7532:
7529:
7527:
7524:
7522:
7519:
7517:
7514:
7512:
7509:
7507:
7504:
7502:
7499:
7497:
7494:
7492:
7489:
7487:
7484:
7482:
7479:
7477:
7474:
7472:
7469:
7467:
7464:
7462:
7459:
7457:
7454:
7452:
7449:
7447:
7444:
7442:
7439:
7437:
7436:Halaf culture
7434:
7432:
7429:
7427:
7424:
7423:
7421:
7419:
7415:
7411:
7407:
7402:
7398:
7393:
7387:
7377:
7372:
7370:
7365:
7363:
7358:
7357:
7354:
7330:
7323:
7318:
7314:
7310:
7307:
7306:
7302:
7299:
7295:
7291:
7287:
7286:
7282:
7280:
7276:
7273:
7270:
7267:
7266:
7257:
7253:
7250:
7247:
7243:
7239:
7236:
7232:
7229:
7225:
7222:
7218:
7215:
7211:
7209:
7208:2-503-50729-8
7205:
7201:
7197:
7195:
7194:3-8062-1851-X
7191:
7188:, Stuttgart,
7187:
7183:
7180:
7176:
7174:
7173:3-406-46530-7
7170:
7166:
7162:
7160:
7159:3-406-51664-5
7156:
7152:
7148:
7144:
7138:
7133:
7132:
7125:
7122:
7121:2-07-040308-4
7118:
7114:
7107:
7106:Bottéro, Jean
7104:
7101:
7100:2-503-50046-3
7097:
7093:
7090:
7088:
7087:9780226013770
7084:
7080:
7079:
7074:
7071:
7070:
7060:
7058:90-72371-63-1
7054:
7050:
7046:
7041:
7037:
7033:
7028:
7024:
7018:
7014:
7010:
7006:
7002:
6998:
6992:
6988:
6983:
6979:
6977:0-14-056107-2
6973:
6969:
6964:
6960:
6954:
6950:
6946:
6945:
6940:
6935:
6931:
6925:
6921:
6920:
6915:
6911:
6907:
6901:
6897:
6896:
6890:
6886:
6880:
6876:
6871:
6870:
6849:
6845:
6841:
6840:"Mesopotamia"
6835:
6828:
6822:
6818:
6811:
6795:
6791:
6785:
6769:
6765:
6759:
6755:
6754:
6746:
6739:
6735:
6731:
6728:
6722:
6715:
6710:
6703:
6698:
6691:
6686:
6679:
6674:
6667:
6662:
6655:
6650:
6643:
6638:
6631:
6626:
6619:
6614:
6605:
6598:
6593:
6586:
6585:Beaulieu 2005
6581:
6574:
6570:
6563:
6556:
6552:
6545:
6538:
6531:
6529:
6520:
6516:
6511:
6506:
6502:
6498:
6494:
6487:
6471:
6467:
6461:
6453:
6447:
6443:
6438:
6437:
6428:
6420:
6416:
6411:
6406:
6401:
6396:
6392:
6388:
6384:
6380:
6379:
6374:
6367:
6365:
6358:
6356:
6351:
6344:
6340:
6335:
6330:
6325:
6320:
6316:
6312:
6308:
6304:
6300:
6293:
6277:
6273:
6267:
6258:
6250:
6246:
6241:
6236:
6232:
6228:
6224:
6220:
6216:
6212:
6208:
6201:
6182:
6175:
6169:
6167:
6159:
6148:
6146:9781784662370
6142:
6138:
6137:
6129:
6122:
6110:
6106:
6104:9781305147096
6100:
6096:
6095:
6090:
6086:
6082:
6076:
6069:
6056:
6052:
6048:
6044:
6037:
6021:
6017:
6013:
6006:
5999:
5993:
5985:
5981:
5974:
5967:
5960:
5947:
5943:
5941:9780521069588
5937:
5933:
5932:
5927:
5921:
5912:
5896:
5892:
5886:
5882:
5881:
5873:
5857:
5853:
5847:
5843:
5842:
5834:
5825:
5817:
5811:
5806:
5805:
5796:
5789:
5782:
5775:
5768:
5761:
5754:
5747:
5746:Liungman 2004
5742:
5735:
5730:
5723:
5720:
5714:
5698:
5694:
5690:
5686:
5682:
5678:
5674:
5670:
5663:
5661:
5653:
5650:
5644:
5636:
5630:
5626:
5619:
5611:
5609:9781317677666
5605:
5601:
5594:
5578:
5574:
5568:
5564:
5563:
5555:
5540:
5536:
5532:
5525:
5518:
5515:
5511:
5505:
5497:
5493:
5489:
5482:
5475:
5470:
5463:
5462:90-04-13666-5
5459:
5455:
5452:, pp. 97–98,
5451:
5445:
5437:
5433:
5429:
5425:
5421:
5414:
5408:, p. 55.
5407:
5402:
5395:
5394:90-04-13666-5
5391:
5387:
5383:
5377:
5375:
5368:
5363:
5356:
5350:
5343:
5340:
5336:
5335:George Sarton
5331:
5325:(1), p. 1–38.
5324:
5321:
5317:
5312:
5305:
5304:90-5693-036-2
5301:
5297:
5291:
5284:
5271:
5267:
5260:
5238:
5230:
5227:
5224:
5199:
5191:
5188:
5185:
5162:
5159:
5156:
5148:
5144:
5140:
5135:
5129:
5125:
5122:
5120:
5115:
5111:
5108:
5106:
5098:
5090:
5084:
5079:
5078:
5069:
5061:
5059:9780030745508
5055:
5051:
5046:
5045:
5036:
5028:
5026:9780030745508
5022:
5018:
5013:
5012:
5003:
4987:
4983:
4981:9780826416285
4977:
4973:
4972:
4964:
4958:
4954:
4951:
4948:
4942:
4935:
4923:
4919:
4917:9783319487724
4913:
4909:
4908:
4900:
4892:
4888:
4884:
4880:
4876:
4872:
4868:
4864:
4857:
4841:
4837:
4831:
4824:
4818:
4814:
4807:
4791:
4787:
4781:
4772:
4765:
4760:
4753:
4748:
4741:
4735:
4727:
4723:
4719:
4715:
4711:
4707:
4700:
4693:
4687:
4683:
4676:
4674:
4666:
4660:
4656:
4649:
4642:
4638:
4634:
4630:
4626:
4622:
4618:
4614:
4607:
4600:
4596:
4592:
4588:
4581:
4579:
4571:
4565:
4561:
4554:
4552:
4544:
4540:
4536:
4532:
4528:
4524:
4520:
4516:
4509:
4501:
4500:
4495:
4490:
4482:
4474:
4468:
4464:
4457:
4441:
4437:
4433:
4429:
4422:
4415:
4409:
4405:
4398:
4390:
4386:
4382:
4375:
4368:
4364:
4360:
4356:
4349:
4347:
4345:
4328:
4324:
4320:
4316:
4312:
4308:
4304:
4300:
4296:
4292:
4288:
4284:
4277:
4273:
4259:
4250:
4245:
4237:
4232:
4221:
4213:
4209:
4202:
4201:Ancient Greek
4198:
4194:
4189:
4185:
4169:
4165:
4158:
4153:
4150:
4143:
4138:
4134:
4127:
4122:
4119:
4112:
4107:
4104:
4097:
4092:
4088:
4084:
4080:
4073:
4068:
4067:
4066:
4064:
4060:
4056:
4052:
4048:
4044:
4040:
4036:
4032:
4028:
4024:
4020:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4004:
3999:
3997:
3993:
3989:
3985:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3961:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3937:
3934:sites in the
3933:
3929:
3924:
3922:
3918:
3914:
3910:
3905:
3902:
3896:
3882:
3878:
3871:
3866:
3863:
3859:
3852:
3847:
3843:
3839:
3832:
3827:
3823:
3819:
3812:
3807:
3804:
3797:
3792:
3785:
3780:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3762:
3757:
3753:
3746:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3722:
3717:
3716:
3715:
3713:
3709:
3703:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3684:
3682:
3678:
3677:Burney Relief
3672:
3670:
3666:
3665:
3660:
3659:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3642:
3638:
3634:
3630:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3609:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3592:
3582:
3573:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3551:
3541:
3539:
3535:
3529:
3525:
3523:
3519:
3515:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3494:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3472:
3468:
3463:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3443:
3438:
3434:
3424:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3405:
3403:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3377:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3359:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3320:
3318:
3312:
3310:
3303:
3293:
3291:
3285:
3283:
3278:
3276:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3246:
3242:
3237:
3235:
3231:
3225:
3223:
3219:
3214:
3204:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3193:Vasco da Gama
3190:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3173:
3171:
3167:
3166:ancient Egypt
3162:
3152:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3136:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3077:
3073:
3071:
3065:
3063:
3059:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3044:
3034:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3016:
3011:
3002:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2970:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2946:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2904:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2889:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2860:
2851:
2849:
2845:
2840:
2838:
2834:
2827:
2816:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2789:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2766:
2763:
2760:
2757:
2753:
2752:
2751:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2723:Meli-shipak I
2719:
2710:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2679:
2674:
2670:
2669:Ancient Greek
2665:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2652:
2647:
2646:observation.
2645:
2641:
2637:
2634:. Babylonian
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2565:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2523:
2519:
2518:Burney Relief
2514:
2509:
2499:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2476:
2474:
2469:
2465:
2464:flood control
2455:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2436:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2397:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2358:prescriptions
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2334:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2296:
2292:
2287:
2278:
2276:
2272:
2271:Central Asian
2268:
2264:
2260:
2257:, Sassanian,
2256:
2252:
2247:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2236:Earth rotated
2233:
2229:
2225:
2220:
2218:
2213:
2209:
2204:
2202:
2198:
2193:
2191:
2187:
2182:
2179:
2175:
2169:
2159:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2129:
2121:
2116:
2113:
2108:
2105:
2100:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2080:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2052:
2047:
2044:
2037:
2036:
2035:
2024:
2016:
1996:
1992:
1986:
1984:
1978:
1974:
1964:
1957:
1953:
1948:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1885:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1870:
1866:
1864:
1855:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1837:
1827:
1823:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1807:
1805:
1801:
1796:
1791:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1764:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1735:
1734:agglutinative
1731:
1725:
1721:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1693:
1689:
1684:
1670:
1667:
1664:
1661:
1660:
1659:
1656:
1651:
1650:Roman Assyria
1647:
1644:
1641:
1638:
1635:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1623:
1620:
1617:
1614:
1611:
1607:
1604:
1601:
1598:
1597:
1596:
1593:
1588:
1585:
1582:
1579:
1576:
1573:
1572:
1571:
1568:
1563:
1560:
1550:
1546:
1543:
1533:
1530:
1527:
1524:
1523:
1521:
1509:
1506:
1503:
1500:
1497:
1494:
1493:
1491:
1486:
1483:
1480:
1477:
1474:
1471:
1470:
1468:
1463:
1460:
1457:
1454:
1451:
1448:
1445:
1442:
1439:
1436:
1433:
1430:
1427:
1424:
1421:
1418:
1415:
1412:
1411:
1409:
1408:
1405:are upstream.
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1379:
1372:
1371:Ubaid culture
1368:
1364:
1363:Halaf culture
1360:
1349:
1344:
1338:Periodization
1335:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1316:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1261:Ancient China
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1245:Ancient Egypt
1242:
1238:
1234:
1229:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1192:
1187:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1168:
1164:
1154:
1152:
1147:
1143:
1140:
1135:
1130:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1081:
1077:
1072:
1067:
1057:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1030:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1015:
1010:
1006:
1005:
1000:
995:
993:
989:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
964:
959:
954:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
935:
930:
926:
921: 250 BC
915:
911:
908:
904:
901:of the older
900:
895:
883:
872:
871:ancient Greek
867:
866:
857:
852:
844:
839:
828:
820:
812:
811:Ancient Greek
806:
758:
748:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
709:
707:
703:
699:
695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
660:
656:
652:
647:
645:
641:
637:
633:
629:
626:
622:
618:
613:
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
564:
559:
557:
552:
550:
545:
544:
542:
541:
538:
528:
527:
520:
517:
515:
512:
510:
507:
505:
502:
500:
497:
495:
492:
491:
488:
483:
482:
475:
472:
470:
467:
465:
462:
461:
458:
453:
452:
445:
442:
440:
437:
435:
432:
430:
427:
425:
422:
420:
417:
415:
412:
410:
409:Seljuk Empire
407:
405:
402:
400:
397:
395:
392:
390:
387:
385:
382:
380:
377:
375:
372:
370:
367:
365:
362:
360:
357:
356:
353:
348:
347:
340:
337:
335:
332:
330:
327:
325:
322:
320:
317:
316:
313:
308:
307:
300:
297:
295:
292:
290:
287:
285:
282:
280:
277:
275:
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
260:
257:
255:
252:
250:
247:
245:
242:
240:
237:
235:
232:
231:
228:
223:
222:
215:
212:
210:
207:
204:
200:
197:
195:
192:
190:
189:Halaf culture
187:
185:
182:
180:
177:
176:
173:
168:
167:
163:
159:
158:
155:
149:
148:
143:
138:
137:
125:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
47:
33:
29:
22:
9191:Royal titles
9116:Architecture
8953:Neo-Assyrian
8800:(Pre)history
8620:Persian Gulf
8581:
8374:Christianity
8256:Demographics
8190:Oil reserves
8185:Oil Industry
8152:Central Bank
8048:Human rights
7974:Constitution
7919:Tigris river
7899:Persian Gulf
7888:
7607:Ottoman Iraq
7592:Qara Qoyunlu
7426:Ubaid period
7338:19 September
7336:. Retrieved
7329:the original
7304:
7290:Wallis Budge
7284:
7241:
7235:Ancient Iraq
7234:
7227:
7220:
7213:
7199:
7185:
7178:
7164:
7150:
7130:
7112:
7091:
7076:
7044:
7035:
7031:
7012:
6986:
6967:
6943:
6918:
6894:
6874:
6852:. Retrieved
6843:
6834:
6816:
6810:
6798:. Retrieved
6790:"Livius.org"
6784:
6772:. Retrieved
6752:
6745:
6737:
6721:
6709:
6697:
6685:
6673:
6661:
6649:
6637:
6625:
6613:
6604:
6592:
6580:
6562:
6544:
6536:
6500:
6496:
6486:
6474:. Retrieved
6460:
6435:
6427:
6382:
6376:
6347:
6306:
6302:
6292:
6280:. Retrieved
6266:
6257:
6217:(1): 15289.
6214:
6210:
6200:
6188:. Retrieved
6181:the original
6157:
6150:. Retrieved
6135:
6128:
6120:
6113:. Retrieved
6093:
6075:
6066:
6059:. Retrieved
6050:
6046:
6036:
6024:. Retrieved
6015:
6005:
5997:
5992:
5983:
5979:
5966:
5957:
5950:. Retrieved
5930:
5920:
5911:
5899:. Retrieved
5879:
5872:
5860:. Retrieved
5840:
5833:
5824:
5803:
5795:
5787:
5781:
5773:
5767:
5759:
5753:
5741:
5729:
5721:
5718:
5713:
5701:. Retrieved
5676:
5672:
5651:
5648:
5643:
5624:
5618:
5599:
5593:
5581:. Retrieved
5561:
5554:
5543:, retrieved
5534:
5524:
5516:
5513:
5504:
5495:
5491:
5481:
5476:, p. 5.
5469:
5449:
5444:
5423:
5419:
5413:
5401:
5381:
5362:
5354:
5349:
5341:
5338:
5330:
5322:
5319:
5311:
5295:
5290:
5281:
5274:. Retrieved
5259:
5134:
5118:
5104:
5097:
5076:
5068:
5043:
5035:
5010:
5002:
4990:. Retrieved
4970:
4963:
4946:
4941:
4933:
4926:. Retrieved
4906:
4899:
4866:
4862:
4856:
4844:. Retrieved
4830:
4812:
4806:
4794:. Retrieved
4780:
4771:
4759:
4747:
4739:
4734:
4709:
4705:
4699:
4681:
4654:
4648:
4616:
4612:
4606:
4590:
4559:
4521:(2): 73–92,
4518:
4514:
4508:
4497:
4481:
4462:
4456:
4444:. Retrieved
4440:the original
4431:
4421:
4403:
4397:
4391:(4): 88–110.
4388:
4384:
4374:
4358:
4331:. Retrieved
4290:
4286:
4276:
4207:
4188:
4162:The alleged
4000:
3936:Diyala River
3925:
3906:
3898:
3889:Architecture
3877:Winged genie
3838:Neo-Assyrian
3817:
3774:
3770:
3704:
3685:
3673:
3662:
3656:
3635:figure from
3610:
3594:
3560:Lipit-Ishtar
3553:
3530:
3526:
3495:
3475:
3455:Ashurbanipal
3449:of southern
3406:
3383:
3363:
3347:Ashurbanipal
3313:
3305:
3286:
3279:
3238:
3226:
3210:
3174:
3158:
3137:
3082:
3066:
3056:
3049:
3046:
3020:
2977:Hundreds of
2976:
2951:housekeeping
2947:
2942:
2931:Lipit Ishtar
2924:
2915:
2890:
2872:
2869:to 2900 BC.
2841:
2837:marketplaces
2830:
2749:
2705:philosopher
2689:doctrine of
2676:
2666:
2651:open-systems
2648:
2586:
2578:Hebrew Bible
2571:
2549:
2542:polytheistic
2527:
2477:
2461:
2450:and related
2443:
2437:
2420:
2398:
2390:observations
2361:
2335:
2318:
2314:
2300:
2248:
2224:heliocentric
2221:
2205:
2194:
2183:
2171:
2144:
1993:clay tablet
1987:
1980:
1949:
1935:circle. The
1922:
1871:
1867:
1859:
1826:century AD.
1824:
1808:
1792:
1765:
1727:
1450:Ubaid period
1317:
1257:Yellow River
1230:
1196:
1148:
1144:
1131:
1127:Persian Gulf
1112:
1103:Marsh people
1049:
1045:
1041:
1033:
1031:
1027:Persian Gulf
1018:
1012:
1008:
1002:
998:
996:
991:
967:
955:
942:
932:
928:
924:
909:
865:Beth Nahrain
756:
754:
710:
694:seized power
648:
614:
573:
572:
469:Ottoman Iraq
439:Kara Koyunlu
179:Ubaid period
32:
9364:Mesopotamia
9294:Hittitology
9284:Assyriology
9205:Archaeology
9075:Old Persian
8885:Jemdet Nasr
8530:WikiProject
8331:Marsh Arabs
8316:Circassians
7997:Foreign aid
7889:Mesopotamia
7451:Uruk period
7298:layered PDF
7275:Mesopotamia
7153:, München,
7110:(in French)
6597:Stager 1996
6503:: 194–211.
6476:10 December
6282:10 December
6190:10 December
6026:29 February
6016:Archaeology
5880:Babylonians
4796:10 December
4244:miyân rudân
4208:Mesopotamíā
4205:Μεσοποταμία
4197:Mezopotamya
4079:Ishtar gate
4047:Neo-Hittite
3942:remains at
3913:Ishtar Gate
3669:Lyres of Ur
3664:Copper Bull
3641:cult images
3540:in 604 BC.
3490:city-states
3282:Marsh Arabs
3234:Iraqi Kurds
3218:Middle East
3177:trade nexus
3101:innovations
3070:food supply
3037:Agriculture
2907:Family life
2867: 3100
2844:generations
2826:Iraq Museum
2756:Lunar phase
2687:Heraclitean
2640:rationality
2630:works, and
2612:epic poetry
2382:rationality
2277:astronomy.
2015:sexagesimal
2002: 1800
1983:algorithmic
1925:sexagesimal
1917:Iraq Museum
1909:clay tablet
1893:Mathematics
1811:logographic
1772:Old Aramaic
1456:Uruk period
1054:Eurocentric
1034:Mesopotamia
992:Mesopotamia
968:Mesopotamia
929:Mesopotamia
910:birit narim
873:root words
851:miyân rudân
815:Μεσοποταμία
757:Mesopotamia
644:agriculture
636:mathematics
574:Mesopotamia
487:Modern Iraq
352:Middle Ages
209:Uruk period
151:History of
38:Mesopotamia
9358:Categories
9258:Divination
8968:Achaemenid
8933:Isin-Larsa
8826:Trialetian
8821:Mousterian
8808:Prehistory
8447:Television
8427:Literature
8389:Irreligion
8364:Secularism
8301:Minorities
8169:(currency)
8162:Corruption
8007:Government
7798:Insurgency
7597:Aq Qoyunlu
7418:Chronology
7248:5: 89–112.
6497:Aethiopica
6385:(1): 288.
5986:(2012): 2.
5703:7 December
5139:Boyer 1991
4869:(1): 1–7.
4446:9 December
4258:Bēṯ Nahrēn
4253:ܒܝܬ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ
4240:میانرودان
4175:References
4055:Tell Halaf
4019:Babylonian
3960:Bronze Age
3958:), Middle
3681:terracotta
3621:Warka Vase
3574:, created
3548:See also:
3486:Lugalbanda
3431:See also:
3309:city-state
3296:Government
3201:Suez Canal
3093:irrigation
2999:graveyards
2920:Edwin Long
2897:backgammon
2592:philosophy
2568:Philosophy
2468:Bronze Age
2458:Technology
2429:inspection
2374:empiricism
2019:1 24 51 10
1991:Babylonian
1985:fashion.
1941:map-making
1927:(base 60)
1830:Literature
1809:The early
1800:pictograms
1786:is called
1692:Babylonian
1434:(~6000 BC)
1350:(red dot,
1255:, and the
1243:valley in
1189:One of 18
914:Septuagint
860:ܒܝܬ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ
847:میانرودان
444:Aq Qoyunlu
399:Al-Mazeedi
227:Bronze Age
172:Prehistory
53:Washukanni
28:Two Rivers
9131:Cuneiform
9007:Languages
8816:Acheulean
8703:Babylonia
8640:Euphrates
8590:Geography
8467:Squatting
8432:Education
8379:Mandaeism
8348:/Turkoman
8326:Mandaeans
8311:Assyrians
8306:Armenians
8269:Languages
8157:Companies
8112:Judiciary
8022:President
7992:Elections
7987:Democracy
7833:Geography
7749:Sanctions
7667:2003–2011
7662:1968–2003
7657:1958–1968
7516:Babylonia
6573:0091-7338
6555:0091-7338
6519:2194-4024
6355:CC BY 4.0
5693:153637070
5474:Stol 1993
5406:Stol 1993
5384:, p. 99,
5189:−
5147:fractions
4891:163484083
4641:140771958
4633:1573-7756
4599:624382576
4543:222432558
4367:624382576
4323:224788984
4307:0011-3204
4268:Citations
4166:house in
4011:Khorsabad
4009:/Nimrud,
3736:Naram-Sin
3633:limestone
3608:painted.
3568:Hammurabi
3556:Urukagina
3451:Babylonia
3413:Hammurabi
3386:provinces
3181:Silk Road
3015:West Asia
2935:Hammurabi
2927:Urukagina
2882:wrestling
2848:centuries
2813:from the
2769:solstices
2765:Equinoxes
2746:Festivals
2691:dialectic
2644:empirical
2608:dialogues
2604:dialectic
2440:illnesses
2370:aetiology
2346:prognosis
2342:diagnosis
2259:Byzantine
2190:solstices
2162:Astronomy
2125:¯
2017:figures,
1913:Shaduppum
1882:Gilgamesh
1854:epic poem
1795:cuneiform
1745:Subartuan
1708:Hammurabi
1663:Asōristān
1395:Babylonia
1305:Hammurabi
1222:Caliphate
1115:Euphrates
1060:Geography
949:in north
947:Euphrates
941:. In the
751:Etymology
686:Babylonia
668:) to the
655:Akkadians
651:Sumerians
640:astronomy
582:West Asia
424:Ilkhanate
389:Marwanids
379:Hamdanids
274:Babylonia
9277:Academia
9231:Religion
9100:Urartian
9095:Sumerian
9080:Parthian
9015:Akkadian
8988:Sasanian
8978:Parthian
8973:Seleucid
8923:Simurrum
8913:Akkadian
8846:Khiamian
8836:Natufian
8748:Simurrum
8733:Kassites
8728:Hittites
8683:Adiabene
8510:Category
8359:Religion
8336:Persians
8220:Railways
8215:Airlines
8097:Military
7958:Politics
7934:Wildlife
7924:Umm Qasr
7754:Iraq War
7737:Gulf War
7649:Republic
7602:Safavids
7565:638–1958
7309:Archived
7108:; 1987.
6916:(1991).
6848:Archived
6800:10 March
6794:Archived
6774:10 March
6768:Archived
6730:Archived
6470:Archived
6419:21970613
6357:license.
6343:29099847
6303:PLOS ONE
6276:Archived
6249:32943725
6152:10 April
6115:10 April
6109:Archived
6061:10 April
6055:Archived
6020:Archived
5952:10 April
5946:Archived
5928:(1953).
5895:Archived
5856:Archived
5697:Archived
5577:Archived
5545:6 August
5539:archived
5535:BBC News
5436:44442727
5270:Archived
5143:multiply
5124:Archived
5110:Archived
4986:Archived
4953:Archived
4922:Archived
4840:Archived
4790:Archived
4333:30 April
4327:Archived
4149:ziggurat
4089:, Berlin
4063:Iron Age
4059:Karatepe
4051:Karkamis
4027:Urartian
4003:Assyrian
3909:ziggurat
3649:Akkadian
3645:Sumerian
3514:Eannatum
3398:Damascus
3374:shepherd
3317:Eannatum
3241:Assyrian
3207:Genetics
3097:settlers
3062:Villeins
2963:property
2785:New Year
2683:Sophists
2654:ontology
2632:proverbs
2616:folklore
2562:pantheon
2538:universe
2452:ailments
2448:epilepsy
2413:exorcism
2401:bandages
2386:symptoms
2327:Borsippa
2303:medicine
2281:Medicine
2244:Plutarch
2232:Plutarch
2212:Parthian
2208:Seleucid
2197:universe
2186:eclipses
2174:Sumerian
2013:in four
1995:YBC 7289
1819:syllabic
1770:period.
1761:Assyrian
1759:and the
1753:Akkadian
1730:Sumerian
1704:Akkadian
1634:Adiabene
1616:Seleucid
1570:Iron Age
1545:Kassites
1297:Ur-Nammu
1293:Assyrian
1009:Southern
999:Northern
958:Akkadian
943:Anabasis
925:Naharaim
907:Akkadian
737:Adiabene
731:and the
634:script,
464:Safavids
404:Ayyubids
394:Uqaylids
312:Iron Age
284:Kassites
269:Simurrum
142:a series
140:Part of
9348:History
9322:Portals
9263:Prayers
9248:Deities
9212:Looting
9055:Kassite
9050:Hurrian
9045:Hittite
9035:Elamite
9030:Eblaite
9025:Aramaic
9020:Amorite
8943:Kassite
8918:Gutians
8900:History
8865:Samarra
8861:Hassuna
8831:Zarzian
8753:Subartu
8743:Mitanni
8708:Chaldea
8698:Assyria
8671:Ancient
8540:Commons
8457:Smoking
8422:Culture
8417:Cuisine
8400:General
8384:Yazidis
8341:Solluba
8294:Persian
8284:Kurdish
8279:Aramaic
8244:Society
8225:Tourism
8136:Economy
7884:Islands
7859:Borders
7684: (
7674:present
7609:(incl.
7521:Assyria
7466:Subartu
7406:History
7300:format)
7011:(ed.).
6941:(ed.).
6867:Sources
6854:21 July
6410:3215667
6387:Bibcode
6334:5669434
6311:Bibcode
6240:7499422
6219:Bibcode
6068:turned.
5498:(1): 3.
5119:root(2)
5105:root(2)
4992:20 June
4883:1359052
4846:21 July
4726:6707201
4496:(ed.).
4236:Persian
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4164:Abraham
4135:in 2010
4103:Babylon
4049:sites (
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4035:Armavir
4023:Babylon
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3984:Hattusa
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3803:Babylon
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3767:Lamassu
3752:Babylon
3728:Nineveh
3712:lamassu
3605:Persian
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3502:Humbaba
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3419:. Soon
3394:Samaria
3390:Nineveh
3358:chariot
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3245:Yazidis
3185:Baghdad
3129:turnips
3027:banking
3005:Economy
2991:carpets
2973:Burials
2967:divorce
2955:cooking
2874:Hunting
2735:Shamash
2727:Nannaya
2713:Culture
2658:ergodic
2546:beliefs
2488:Nineveh
2433:disease
2394:patient
2366:therapy
2117:1.41421
2028:√
2023:decimal
2007:√
1973:Algebra
1967:Algebra
1952:frustum
1863:Semitic
1815:scribes
1628:Osroene
1549:Babylon
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1251:in the
1237:writing
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903:Aramaic
894:potamos
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9065:Median
9060:Luwian
9040:Gutian
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8841:Nemrik
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8718:Gutium
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8520:Portal
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7340:2005
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6569:ISSN
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6478:2010
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6192:2010
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6028:2012
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