Babylon - Knowledge

2057: 1323: 3042: 3100: 3119: 3179: 5162:, pp. 88–89: "Preventing uprisings on the fringes of the empire was a major concern for Assyrian kings, and a number of policies developed to meet this need, among them mass deportations. When new territory was conquered or a rebellious vassal crushed, an increased imperial presence in the trouble spot was often complemented by the removal of large numbers of the indigenous population to the imperial core, effectively breaking up the rebellious population and reducing the potential for future resistance. This practice was effective, and continued throughout the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian empires until 539 BC and Cyrus's conquest of Babylon. The majority of the immigrant population were not slaves (Yamauchi 2002: 365), and some did rise to high status positions at the core of the empire (a possibility reflected in the career of the biblical Daniel, who rises to the status of trusted royal confidant)." 3141: 3074: 1297: 1661: 1689: 1132:

more, because I thought that I should have distinguished some traces, however imperfect, of many of the principal structures of Babylon. I imagined, I should have said: "Here were the walls, and such must have been the extent of the area. There stood the palace, and this most assuredly was the tower of Belus." – I was completely deceived: instead of a few insulated mounds, I found the whole face of the country covered with vestiges of building, in some places consisting of brick walls surprisingly fresh, in others merely of a vast succession of mounds of rubbish of such indeterminate figures, variety and extent, as to involve the person who should have formed any theory in inextricable confusion.

1238: 2512: 2205:. Babylon's walls were considered impenetrable. The only way into the city was through one of its many gates, or through the Euphrates River. Metal grates were installed underwater, allowing the river to flow through the city walls while preventing intrusion. The Persians devised a plan to enter the city via the river. During a Babylonian national feast, Cyrus' troops upstream diverted the Euphrates River, allowing Cyrus' soldiers to enter the city through the lowered water. The Persian army conquered the outlying areas of the city while the majority of Babylonians at the city center were unaware of the breach. The account was elaborated upon by 1250: 2234: 3160: 1624: 2801: 113: 85: 2725: 772: 106: 2085: 1122: 2783: 1653: 78: 1508: 61: 1421: 4946:

Sumu-abum to Babylon was much more complex. It was long been noted that many of Sumu-abum's year names are identical or virtually identical to the year names of Sumu-la-el, whom we know for certain was king of Babylon. Goddeeris (2002:319–320) sums these parallels up as follows: Sa 1 and 2 / Sl 5 and 6: building the wall of Babylon. Sa 9 / Sl 'b': building the wall of Dilbat. Sa 13/14 / Sl 20/21: the destruction and seizure of Kazallu."

6650: 950: 1319:. Work began in 1879, continuing until 1882, and was prompted by widespread looting of the site. Using industrial scale digging in search of artifacts, Rassam recovered a large quantity of cuneiform tablets and other finds. The zealous excavation methods, common at the time, caused significant damage to the archaeological context. Many tablets had appeared on the market in 1876 before Rassam's excavation began. 1937: 2589:, and an amphitheater constructed in the city's Hellenistic era. In 1982, the government minted a set of seven coins, displaying iconic features of Babylon. A Babylon International Festival was held in September 1987, and annually thereafter until 2002, excepting 1990 and 1991, to showcase this work. The proposed reconstruction of the Hanging Gardens and the great ziggurat never took place. 1971:, and suppressed only by the complete destruction of the city of Babylon. In 689 BC, its walls, temples and palaces were razed, and the rubble was thrown into the Arakhtu, the sea bordering the earlier Babylon on the south. The destruction of the religious center shocked many, and the subsequent murder of Sennacherib by two of his own sons while praying to the god 2641: 2698:, one of the most famous monuments from antiquity US military vehicles crushed 2,600-year-old brick pavements, archaeological fragments were scattered across the site, more than 12 trenches were driven into ancient deposits and military earth-moving projects contaminated the site for future generations of scientists. 5940:

Mesopotamian cities—and with plenty of obelisks and the odd sphinx. To this mixture is added, often and willingly, something of Ottoman architecture, showing cupolas and minarets, clearly useful in picturing an unchangeable Near East which therefore needed to retain elements of remote antiquity in a modern age."

3041: 2585:, began the "Archaeological Restoration of Babylon Project": reconstructing features of the ancient city atop its ruins. These features included the Southern Palace of Nebuchadnezzar, with 250 rooms, five courtyards, and a 30-meter (100') entrance arch. The project reinforced the Processional Way, the 2714:

In April 2006, Colonel John Coleman, former Chief of Staff for the I Marine Expeditionary Force, offered to issue an apology for the damage done by military personnel under his command. He also claimed that the US presence had deterred far greater damage by other looters. An April 2006 article stated

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A topographical survey at the site was conducted in 1974, followed in 1977 by a review of the stratigraphical position of the main monuments and reconsideration of ancient water levels, by the Turin Centre for Archaeological Research and Excavations in the Middle East and Asia, and the Iraqi-Italian

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From the accounts of modern travellers, I had expected to have found on the site of Babylon more, and less, than I actually did. Less, because I could have formed no conception of the prodigious extent of the whole ruins, or of the size, solidity, and perfect state, of some of the parts of them; and

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period, sign placement was relatively fluid and so the KI sign could be seen as the determinative, with the name of the city as BAR.BAR, perhaps pronounced Babbar. Paul-Alain Beaulieu proposes that the original name could mean "shining" "glowing" or "white". It would be likely that it was later read

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one of whose year names mentions building two temples there. Babylon was ruled by ensi (governors) for the empire. Some of the known governors were Abba, Arši-aḫ, Itūr-ilum, Murteli, Unabatal, and Puzur-Tutu. After that nothing is heard of the city until the time of Sumu-la-El. After around 1950 BC

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The site covers an area of about 1,000 hectares (3¾ sq. mi.), with about 450 hectares (1¾ sq. mi.) within the several kilometer (mile) long city walls, containing a number of mounds, the most prominent of which are Kasr, Merkes (13 meters; 43' above the plain), Homera, Ishin-Aswad, Sahn, Amran, and

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world, or any form of imperialist evil. It is believed that Babylon actively seeks to exploit and oppress the people of the world, specifically people of African descent. It is believed by Rastafarians that Babylon attempts to forbid the smoking of ganja because this sacred herb opens minds to the

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After Hezekiah, the king of Judah, became ill, Baladan, king of Babylon, sent a letter and gifts to him. Hezekiah showed all of his treasures to the delegation, and the prophet Isaiah later said to him: "Behold, the days are coming when everything that is in your house, and what your fathers have

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Thousands of people reside in Babylon within the perimeter of the ancient outer city walls, and communities in and around them are "rapidly developing from compact, dense settlements to sprawling suburbia despite laws restricting constructions". Modern villages include Zwair West, Sinjar Village,

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By 1155 BC, after continued attacks and annexing of territory by the Assyrians and Elamites, the Kassites were deposed in Babylon. An Akkadian south Mesopotamian dynasty then ruled for the first time. However, Babylon remained weak and subject to domination by Assyria. Its ineffectual native

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at Babylon. The work was conducted daily from 1899 until 1917. A major problem for Koldewey was the large scale mining of baked bricks, which began in the 19th century and which were mainly sourced from the time of Nebuchadnezzar II. At the time, excavations for brick mining, for various building

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Liverani 2016, pp. 21–22. "In practice, the solution adopted to visualize cities which were in fact unknown was a mixture of classical (Greek) and Egyptian elements, with long colonnades, even built on more than one level—which will then prove totally foreign to the unfired brick architecture of

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Vedeler (2006), pp. 8–15. "However, this later tradition is almost certainly a simplification or even a reworking of the actual events surrounding Sumu-abum, who was never regarded as an actual ancestor to the other kings of the Babylon I dynasty (Edzard 1957:122); in reality the relationship of

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The earliest known mention of Babylon as a small town appears on a clay tablet from the reign of Shar-Kali-Sharri (2217–2193 BC) of the Akkadian Empire. References to the city of Babylon can be found in Akkadian and Sumerian literature from the late third millennium BC. One of the earliest is a

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Christianity eventually became marginalized. Ibn Hawqal (10th century) and the Arab scholar, al-Qazwini (13th century), describe Babylon (Babil) as a small village. The latter described a well referred to as the 'Dungeon of Daniel' that was visited by Christians and Jews during holidays. The

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During the restoration efforts in Babylon, the Iraqi State Organization for Antiquities and Heritage conducted extensive research, excavation and clearing, but wider publication of these archaeological activities has been limited. Most of the known tablets from all modern excavations remain

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The prophet Daniel lived in Babylon for most of his life. Nebuchadnezzar made Daniel ruler over the entire province of Babylon for having interpreted his dream. Years later, Belshazzar held a banquet, at which fingers of a hand appeared and wrote on a wall. Daniel was called to provide an

2069: 1560:, had built Babylon "in front of Akkad" (ABC 19:51). A later chronicle states that Sargon "dug up the dirt of the pit of Babylon, and made a counterpart of Babylon next to Akkad". (ABC 20:18–19). Van de Mieroop has suggested that those sources may refer to the much later Assyrian king 2537:

By 1905, there were several villages in Babylon, one of which was Qwaresh with about 200 households located within the boundaries of the ancient inner city walls. The village grew due to the need for laborers during the German Oriental Society excavations between 1899–1917.

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A number of Iraqi excavations have occurred at Babylon, the earliest in 1938. From 1979–1981 excavation and restoration work was conducted at the Ninmah Temple, Istar Temple, and the Southern Palace. Occasional excavations and restorations continued in the 1970s and 1980s.

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that acts as a trading and diplomatic nexus between many different cultures. Many stories focus on the theme of different societies and cultures uniting, respecting differences, and learning from each other rather than fighting or looking on each other with prejudice and

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The Book of Isaiah says the following regarding Babylon: "It will be like Sodom and Gomorrah when God overthrew them. It will never be inhabited or lived in for all generations; no Arab will pitch his tent there; no shepherds will make their flocks lie down there." The

2646: 2642: 733:. It was perhaps the first city to reach a population above 200,000. Estimates for the maximum extent of its area range from 890 (3½ sq. mi.) to 900 ha (2,200 acres). The main sources of information about Babylon—excavation of the site itself, references in 6161: 2643: 2702:

A US military spokesman claimed that engineering operations were discussed with the "head of the Babylon museum". The head of the Iraqi State Board for Heritage and Antiquities, Donny George, said that the "mess will take decades to sort out" and criticised

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is involved in research and conservation. The SBAH Provincial Inspectorate Headquarters is located within the boundaries of the ancient inner city walls on the east side. Several staff members and their families reside in subsidized housing in this area.

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1. However, there are questions about whether the Hanging Gardens of Babylon even existed, as there is no mention within any extant Babylonian texts of its existence. After the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the city came under the rule of the

2931:("Calneh" is now sometimes translated not as a proper name but as the phrase "all of them"). Another story is given in Genesis 11, which describes a united human race, speaking one language, migrating to Shinar to establish a city and tower—the 6153: 2765:. Some cultivate dates, citrus fruits, figs, fodder for livestock and limited cash crops, although income from the land alone is not enough to sustain a family. Both Shi'a and Sunni Muslims live in Sinjar village, with mosques for both groups. 616:. Babylon was merely a religious and cultural centre at this point and neither an independent state nor a large city, subject to the Akkadian Empire. After the collapse of the Akkadian Empire, the south Mesopotamian region was dominated by the 2268:

has traditionally been seen by biblical scholars as corroborative evidence of this policy, although the interpretation is disputed because the text identifies only Mesopotamian sanctuaries but makes no mention of Jews, Jerusalem, or Judea.

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Maurice, Thomas, "Observations on the ruins of Babylon, as recently visited and described by Claudius James Rich, Esq. resident for the East India Company at Bagdad; with illustrative engravings", London: John Murray, Albemarle Street,

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Before modern archaeological excavations in Mesopotamia, the appearance of Babylon was largely a mystery, and typically envisioned by Western artists as a hybrid between ancient Egyptian, classical Greek, and contemporary Ottoman culture.

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The State Board of Antiquities and Heritage (SBAH) is the main authority responsible for the conservation of the archeological site. They are assisted by Antiquity and Heritage Police, and maintain a permanent presence there. The

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in 1883, Herodotus' account of Babylon has largely been considered to represent Greek folklore rather than an authentic voyage to Babylon. However, recently, Dalley and others have suggested taking Herodotus' account seriously.

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Pedersén, Olof, "Excavated and Unexcavated Libraries in Babylon", Babylon: Wissenskultur in Orient und Okzident, edited by Eva Cancik-Kirschbaum, Margarete van Ess and Joachim Marzahn, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 47-68,

2307:, over-taxation and the strain of numerous wars led to a deterioration of Babylon's main shrines and canals, and the destabilization of the surrounding region. There were numerous attempts at rebellion and in 522 BC ( 2100:, Babylon escaped Assyrian rule, and the allied Medo-Babylonian armies destroyed the Assyrian Empire between 626 BC and 609 BC. Babylon thus became the capital of the Neo-Babylonian (sometimes called the Chaldean) Empire. 2216:

and with buildings on top, and a hundred gates to the city. He writes that the Babylonians wear turbans and perfume and bury their dead in honey, that they practice ritual prostitution, and that three tribes among them

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says that Babylon will "never again be inhabited" and that "no one will live there, nor will anyone of mankind reside in it" and that it will be a land in which "no one of mankind passes". The territories of Babylon,

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Hussein installed a portrait of himself and Nebuchadnezzar at the entrance to the ruins and inscribed his name on many of the bricks, in imitation of Nebuchadnezzar. One frequent inscription reads: "This was built by

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in May 1856. Few antiquities from the Fresnel mission made it to France. Subsequent efforts to recover the lost antiquities from the Tigris, including a Japanese expedition in 1971–72, have been largely unsuccessful.

2690:'s Near East department, John Curtis described how parts of the archaeological site were levelled to create a landing area for helicopters, and parking lots for heavy vehicles. Curtis wrote of the occupation forces: 2315:) and 482 BC (Bel-shimani and Shamash-eriba) native Babylonian kings briefly regained independence. However, these revolts were quickly repressed and Babylon remained under Persian rule for two centuries, until 1456:—present an incomplete and sometimes contradictory picture of the ancient city, even at its peak in the sixth century BC. Babylon was described, perhaps even visited, by a number of classical historians including 5784: 4542:, Macmillan and Co., 1914. "Up to the present time only about half the work has been accomplished, although since it began we have worked daily, both summer and winter, with from 200 to 250 workmen" (p. v). 2939:

stored up to this day, will be carried to Babylon; nothing will be left." Some 200 years later, Nebuchadnezzar, the king of Babylon, invaded Judah, laid siege to Jerusalem and deported the Jews to Babylon.

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Institute of Archaeological Sciences. The focus was on clearing up issues raised by re-examination of the old German data. Additional work in 1987–1989 concentrated on the area surrounding the Ishara and

1154:, which has shifted slightly since ancient times. The local water table has risen, making excavation of lower levels difficult. Prior to the heavy use of baked bricks in the reign of Neo-Babylonian ruler 6316:

Al-Assadi, Hind A., and Najah A. Abd, "Application of Georadar Method to Investigate Shallow Artifacts for Al-Maabid Area in Babylon Archaeological City", The Iraqi Geological Journal, pp. 288-295, 2024

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Once again, Babylon was besieged by the Assyrians, starved into surrender and its allies were defeated. Ashurbanipal celebrated a "service of reconciliation", but did not venture to "take the hands" of

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A reconstruction of the blue-tiled Ishtar Gate, Pergamon Museum, Berlin, which was the northern entrance to Babylon. It was named for the goddess of love and war. Bulls and dragons, symbols of the god

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Al-Kassar, Awwad Abdul-Kareem, "Views and conclusions about the excavations of the northern part of the procession street for the year 1981" Sumer 41, Arabic section, pp. 137–138, 1985 (in Arabic)

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completely removed the village of Qwaresh, displacing its residents. He later constructed a modern palace in that area called Saddam Hill, over some of the old ruins, in the pyramidal style of a

5737: 1847:, and the Elamites appropriated territory in eastern Mesopotamia. The Amorite dynasty remained in power in Babylon, which again became a small city state. After the destruction of the city the 5359:

Nissen, Hans J. and Heine, Peter, "Alexander and the Seleucids in Babylonia (331–141 BCE)", From Mesopotamia to Iraq: A Concise History, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 114-119, 2009

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was a loan translation of the Semitic folk etymology, and not the original name. The re-translation of the Semitic name into Sumerian would have taken place at the time of the "Neo-Sumerian"

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Babylon was initially a minor city-state, and controlled little surrounding territory. Its first four Amorite rulers did not assume the title of king. The older and more powerful states of

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was conducted by Heinrich J. Lenzen in 1956 and Hansjörg Schmid in 1962, working the Hellenistic, Parthian, Sasanian, and Arabic levels of the site. Lenzen's work dealt primarily with the

4412:"Potts 2020. 'Un coup terrible de la fortune:' A. Clément and the Qurna disaster of 1855. in Finkel, I.L. and Simpson, St J., eds. In Context: The Reade Festschrift. Oxford: Archaeopress" 2943:

interpretation of the writings, upon which he explained that God had put an end to Belshazzar's kingdom. Belshazzar was killed that very night, and Darius the Mede took over the kingdom.

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Claudius J. Rich, "Second memoir on Babylon; containing an inquiry into the correspondence between the ancient descriptions of Babylon, and the remains still visible on the site", 1818

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Rients de Boer. "Beginnings of Old Babylonian Babylon: Sumu-Abum and Sumu-La-El." Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 70, The American Schools of Oriental Research, 2018, pp. 53–86

1723:. Both are credited with building the walls of Babylon. In any case, the records describe Sumu-la-El's military successes establishing a regional sphere of influence for Babylon. 2935:. God halts construction of the tower by scattering humanity across the earth and confusing their communication so they are unable to understand each other in the same language. 1203:

Babil – a mound about 25 meters (80') high at the northern end of the site. Its bricks have been subject to looting since ancient times. It held a palace built by Nebuchadnezzar.

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reopened the site to tourists. Over 35,000 people visited in 2017. An oil pipeline runs through an outer wall of the city. In July 2019, the site of Babylon was inscribed as a

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in 2019. The site receives thousands of visitors each year, almost all of whom are Iraqis. Construction is rapidly increasing, which has caused encroachments upon the ruins.

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founded the short-lived Old Babylonian Empire in the 16th century BC. He built Babylon into a major city and declared himself its king. Southern Mesopotamia became known as

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Isḥaq, Danial, "The excavations at the southern part of the procession street and the Nabû ša ḫarê temple", Sumer 41, pp. 30–33, Arabic section, pp. 48–54, Figs. 1–18, 1985

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Asshur and the Land of Nimrod: Being an Account of the Discoveries Made in the Ancient Ruins of Nineveh, Asshur, Sepharvaim, Calah, Babylon, Borsippa, Cuthah, and Van, etc

3622: 2347:, occupying Babylon. Under Alexander, Babylon again flourished as a center of learning and commerce. However, following Alexander's death in 323 BC in the palace of 5781: 3030:. Other scholars suggest that Babylon in the book of Revelation has a symbolic significance that extends beyond mere identification with the first century Roman empire. 3601: 3356:

Beaulieu, Paul-Alain (2017). A History of Babylon, 2200 BC – AD 75. Blackwell History of the Ancient World. Wiley. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-119-45907-1. Retrieved 2022-08-27.

6154:"Bible Gateway passage: Isaiah 13:19–20, Jeremiah 49:17–18, Jeremiah 49:13, Zephaniah 2:9, Ezekiel 26:14, Ezekiel 26:19–21, Jeremiah 49:33 – English Standard Version" 4488:

Rawlinson, Henry C., "On the Birs Nimrud, or the Great Temple of Borsippa", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 18, pp. 1–34, 1861

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Travels and researches in Chaldaea and Susiana: with an account of excavations at Warka, the "Erech" of Nimrod, and Shush, "Shushan the Palace" of Esther, in 1849-52

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as the major religious centers of southern Mesopotamia. Hammurabi's empire destabilized after his death. The far south of Mesopotamia broke away, forming the native

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but grew in popularity in the Late 2nd Millennium BC and was in widespread usage in the 1st Millennium BC. The spelling E.KI also appears in the 1st Millennium BC.

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The site of Babylon has been a cultural asset to Iraq since the creation of the modern Iraqi state in 1921. The site was officially protected and excavated by the

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Qwaresh, and Al-Jimjmah, among which the first two are better off economically. Most residents primarily depend on daily wage earning or have government jobs in

6594: 6472: 6017: 6481: 2597:, son of Nebuchadnezzar, to glorify Iraq". These bricks became sought after as collectors' items after Hussein's downfall. Similar projects were conducted at 1284:

river in May 1855. They had been carrying over 200 crates of artifacts from various excavation missions, when they were attacked by Tigris river pirates near

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and remained prominent for over two centuries. Many important archaeological discoveries have been made that can provide a better understanding of that era.

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in the 9th century BC, entering and appropriating areas of Babylonia for themselves. The Arameans briefly ruled in Babylon during the late 11th century BC.

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Damerji, Moayad Said Basim, "Babylon – ka.dingir.ra – “gate of god”. The story of a city killed by legends and oblivion", Mesopotamia 47, pp. 1–102, 2012

1591:, claimed to have access to manuscripts from Babylonian archives, which date the founding of Babylon to 2286 BC, under the reign of its first king, 4538:, "Das wieder erstehende Babylon, die bisherigen Ergebnisse der deutschen Ausgrabungen", J.C. Hinrichs, 1913; Agnes Sophia Griffith Johns (translator), 3532: 927:, and there are no other examples of Sumerian place-names being replaced with Akkadian translations. He deduced that it later transformed into Akkadian 5729: 6054: 6722: 4655:

Douglas Frayne, "Babylon", Old Babylonian Period (2003-1595 B.C.): Early Periods, Volume 4, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 323-438, 1990

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for the siege of Troy (1229 BC), which would date Babylon's foundation to 2231 BC. All of these dates place Babylon's foundation in the

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Die Orientalische Stadt: Kontinuitat. Wandel. Bruch. 1 Internationale Colloquium der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft. 9–10. Mai 1996 in Halle/Saale

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Da Riva, Rocío, "Urban Religion in First Millennium BCE Babylonia", in Naming and Mapping the Gods in the Ancient Mediterranean, pp.763-790, 2022

2667: 496: 1862:, considered as his son. Marduk was later elevated to a higher status and Shamash lowered, perhaps reflecting Babylon's rising political power. 5888: 2161: 1982:

hastened to rebuild the old city and make it his residence for part of the year. After his death, Babylonia was governed by his elder son, the

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Al-Gailani Werr, L., 1988. Studies in the chronology and regional style of Old Babylonian Cylinder Seals. Bibliotheca Mesopotamica, Volume 23.

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Al-Suba’ai, ‘Ata Allha Mohammed, "Ishtar temple and the residential quarter west of the temple", Sumer 41, pp. 63–66, Arabic pp. 101–107, 1985

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of the Jews, the result of an imperial technique of pacification, used also by the Assyrians, in which ethnic groups in conquered areas were

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According to medieval Arabic writings, Babylon was a popular site to extract bricks, which were used to build cities from Baghdad to Basra.

5176: 1288:. Recovery efforts, assisted by the Ottoman authorities and British Residence in Baghdad, loaded the equivalent of 80 crates on a ship for 6465:

Modern Wars and Ancient Governance: Archaeology and Textual Finds from First Millennium BCE Babylon – Odette Boivin – ANE Today – Nov 2022

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for causing "terrible damage" to the site. Poland resolved in 2004 to place the city under Iraq control, and commissioned a report titled

5839: 5206: 5031: 3492: 5062: 3454: 1476:. These reports are of variable accuracy and some of the content was politically motivated, but these still provide useful information. 6587: 6567: 5650: 4169: 961:, likely in the Akkadian language, refers to an unknown lord who was the governor (ENSI) of BAR.KI.BAR and constructed the temple for 5988: 5815: 1882:

took power in the city of Babylon, renaming it Karduniash, ushering in a dynasty that lasted for 435 years, until 1160 BC.

1742:'s short-lived empire about a century later. Hammurabi (r. 1792–1750 BC) is famous for codifying the laws of Babylonia into the 970:

as Babbir, and then Babbil by swapping the consonant r with l. The earliest unambiguous mention to the city Babylon came from one of

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empires. The last known habitation of the town dates from the 11th century, when it was referred to as the "small village of Babel".

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Kamil, Ahmed Mohammed, "Excavation at the northeastern part of the inner wall", Sumer 41, pp. 20–21, Arabic section, pp. 36–42, 1985

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With the recovery of Babylonian independence, a new era of architectural activity ensued, particularly during the reign of his son

1087:("to speak foolish, excited, or confusing talk"), is popularly thought to derive from this name but there is no direct connection. 978:. However, the original form of the name (Babbar/Babbir) was not forgotten, as seen from the phonetic spelling ba-ab-bí-lum in the 3374:

Finkel, Irving and Seymour, Michael (2008). Babylon: City of Wonders. London: British Museum Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-7141-1171-1.

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F. Wetzel and F.H. Weisbach, "Das Hauptheiligtum des Marduk in Babylon: Esagila und Etemenanki", WVDOG, vol. 59, pp. 1–36, 1938

6509: 6459: 6250:. Exhibition organized by British Museum, Musée du Louvre & Réunion des Musées Nationaux, and Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. 5760: 2820:, the word "Babylon" in various languages has acquired a generic meaning of a large, bustling diverse city. Examples include: 2292:

were revitalized, and Babylonian scholars completed maps of constellations. The city became the administrative capital of the

6727: 6682: 6580: 6389: 6373: 6335: 6265: 6232: 5468: 5403: 5148: 5100: 5056: 5025: 4634: 4154: 3305: 1599:, who, according to Pliny, stated that astronomical observations commenced at Babylon 490 years before the Greek era of 1378: 299: 5339: 4567:

R. Koldewey, "Das Ischtar-Tor in Babylon Nach Den Ausgrabungen Durch Die Deutsche Orient Gesellschaft", WVDOG, vol. 32, 1918

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Pedersén, O., "Work on a Digital Model of Babylon Using Archaeological and Textual Evidence", Mesopotamia 46, pp. 9–22, 2011

3595: 3311: 2438:. Coins from the Parthian, Sasanian and Arabic periods excavated in Babylon demonstrate the continuity of settlement there. 1688: 1660: 6603: 3773:, ed. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. Vorderasiatisches Museum (Kleine Schriften 4), 2nd ed., Putbus 1990, p. 2 2686:. US forces occupied the site for some time and caused irreparable damage to the archaeological record. In a report of the 1226:

explored the site briefly in 1827. In 1829, he completed a map of Babylon which includes the location of several villages.

6464: 1158:(605-562 BC), construction at Babylon was primarily of unbaked brick, with the occasional use of baked bricks or bitumen. 753:—present an incomplete and sometimes contradictory picture of the ancient city, even at its peak in the sixth century BC. 5312: 4793: 4782: 4771: 4760: 4749: 4738: 4709: 4664: 3250: 2898:(2021), depicts Babylon on its greatest extent and is shown to be protected and aided in its development by the eternals. 958: 526: 6439: 4822:

Farouk N. H. Al-Rawi, Nabopolassar's Restoration Work on the Wall "Imgur-Enlil at Babylon, Iraq, vol. 47, pp. 1–13, 1985

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G. Bergamini, "Preliminary report on the 1988–1989 operations at Babylon Shu-Anna", Mesopotamia, vol. 25, pp. 5–12, 1990

2711:, which it presented at a meeting in December 2004. In 2005, the site was handed over to the Iraqi Ministry of Culture. 6322:

Alwan, Kamil Shihab, "The Vaulted Structures or the so-called Hanging Gardens", Sumer 35, pp. 127–136, 1979 (in Arabic)

5261: 5231: 4021: 3785:

I studied inscriptions from before the flood: ancient Near Eastern, literary, and linguistic approaches to Genesis 1–11

2430:. Christianity was introduced to Mesopotamia in the 1st and 2nd centuries, and Babylon was the seat of a Bishop of the 2134: 1207:

Subsequent excavation, looting, and reconstruction have reduced these original heights found by the German excavators.

676: 391:

Sumerian, Akkadian, Amorite, Kassite, Assyrian, Chaldean, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sasanian, Muslim caliphate

105: 3991: 2530:, as well as measurements of its latitude. Beauchamp's memoir, published in English translation in 1792, provoked the 1916:

kings were unable to prevent new waves of foreign West Semitic settlers from the deserts of the Levant, including the

6436:

Nasir, Mohammad, "The so-called Summer Palace (Nebuchadnezzar’s life palace)" Sumer 35, pp. 150–159, 1979 (in Arabic)

6427: 6415: 6247: 5961: 5593: 5378: 5124: 4680: 4599: 4391: 4356: 3792: 3486: 3448: 3420: 2805: 5918: 1656:

A map showing the Babylonian territory upon Hammurabi's ascension in 1792 BC and upon his death in 1750 BC

1538: 821: 6469: 6075: 3424: 2718:

Two museums and a library, containing replicas of artifacts and local maps and reports, were raided and destroyed.

1304: 6105: 5854:

Maryam U. Musa, "The Situation of the Babylon Archaeological Site until 2006", in Cancik-Kirschbaum et al. (2011).

4993: 3344: 1676:(about 65 km or 40 mi north of Babylon on the map above) either during, or shortly before, the reign of 1639:

The first attested mention of Babylon was in the late 3rd millennium BC during the Akkadian Empire reign of ruler

1479:

Historical knowledge of early Babylon must be pieced together from epigraphic remains found elsewhere, such as at

1377:, stored in private houses, with Sumerian literature and lexical documents. The German archaeologists fled before 4501: 4467:"The Report of The Japan Mission For The Survey of Under-Water Antiquities At Qurnah: The First Season (1971-72)" 3220: 3209: 3006:

refers to Babylon many centuries after it ceased to be a major political center. The city is personified by the "

2495:

travelled to the village of Babil in Babylon in the 17th century and noted the existence of both baked and dried

2280:(Babylonia in the south and Athura in the north), as well as a center of learning and scientific advancement. In 1385: 1366: 77: 6528:, Issued in connection with an exhibition held Nov. 18, 2008-Mar. 15, 2009, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 4711:

G. Bergamini, "Preliminary Report on the 1987 Season of Excavations at Babylon, Iraq", Sumer 47, pp. 30-34, 1995

2511: 2397:

relinquished his conquests east of the Euphrates river, which became again the Roman Empire's eastern boundary.

5020:

Cuneiform Texts in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Vol. IV. Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 288–290.

4856: 4343:

J. Oppert, "Expédition scientifique en Mésopotamie exécutée par ordre du gouvernement de 1851 à 1854", Tome I:

4226:

Travels in Chaldaea: Including a Journey from Bussorah to Bagdad, Hillah and Babylon, Performed on Foot in 1827

4090: 2559: 2060:

A cuneiform cylinder from reign of Nebuchadnezzar II, honoring the exorcism and reconstruction of the ziggurat

2038:

was appointed as ruler of the city. Ashurbanipal did collect texts from Babylon for inclusion in his extensive

1227: 4304: 4288: 1615:. However, cuneiform records have not been found to correspond with these classical, post-cuneiform accounts. 2107:(604–561 BC). Nebuchadnezzar ordered the complete reconstruction of the imperial grounds, including the 793: 667:

domination. After the Assyrians destroyed and then rebuilt it, Babylon became the capital of the short-lived

6523: 6470:– The Babylonian Akītu Festival and the Ritual Humiliation of the King – Sam Mirelman – ANE Today – Sep 2022 4611: 4040:, Stephanie (1994). "Nineveh, Babylon and the Hanging Gardens: Cuneiform and Classical Sources Reconciled". 2983:, Babylon symbolizes worldliness and evil. Prophecies sometimes symbolically link the kings of Babylon with 1196:

remains are here. Most of the remains of the ziggurat Etemenanki were heaped here when it was demolished by

6697: 5810: 4180:

van de Mieroop, Marc, "Reading Babylon", American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 107, no. 2, pp. 257–75, 2003

3185: 2675: 2390: 1338: 1308: 6046: 4740:

Abdul-Razzak, Wahbi, "Ishtar gate and the inner wall" Sumer 41, pp. 19, 22, Arabic section pp. 34–35, 1985

3717: 1350:

projects, including the Hindiya dam were under way. The primary efforts of the dig involved the temple of

2165: 2118:—the most prominent of eight gates around Babylon. A reconstruction of the Ishtar Gate is located in the 1257:, depicts Alexander the Great's uncontested entry into the city of Babylon, envisioned with pre-existing 6347: 2832: 1516:

tablet describing the Akkadian king Šar-kali-šarri laying the foundations in Babylon of new temples for

1237: 974:

year names, spelled as KA.DINGIR.KI, indicating that the folk etymology was already widely known in the

6549: 6490: 6018:"Bible Gateway passage: 2 Kings 24-25, 2 Chronicles 36, Jeremiah 39:1-10 – New American Standard Bible" 4551: 4213:

Claudius J. Rich, "Narrative of a journey to the site of Babylon in 1811", Posthumous compilation, 1839

3052: 2531: 2527: 2483:, a 12th-century traveller, mentions Babylon, but it is not clear if he went there. Others referred to 2130: 1258: 1219: 672: 617: 2570:. Babylonian images periodically appear on Iraqi postcards and stamps. In the 1960s, a replica of the 2404:, and who continued to refer to their homeland as Babylon. Examples of their culture are found in the 6349:

Koldewey, Robert, "Pflastersteine Von Aiburschabu In Babylon", J. C. Hinrichs'sch Buchhandlung, 1901

5976: 5896: 4613:

Di Chiara, Anita, et al., "An archaeomagnetic study of the Ishtar Gate, Babylon", Plos one 19.1, 2024

4300: 2715:

that UN officials and Iraqi leaders have plans to restore Babylon, making it into a cultural center.

2551: 2447: 1170:

of Nebuchadnezzar II. It lies in the center of the site and rises to 19 meters (62') above the plain.

1041: 1030: 705: 195: 181: 6532: 6354: 6314: 6139: 4691:

Schmidt, J., "Das Bīt Akītu von Babylon. Mit einem Beitrag von B. Finster", BaM 33, pp. 281–31, 2002

2145:

speculated that he had discovered its foundations, but many historians disagree about the location.

1249: 4773:

Alwan, Kamil Shihab, "The Vaulted Structure", Sumer 41, pp. 58–59, Arabic section, pp. 94–97., 1985

3225: 3190: 2586: 2516: 1720: 1719:, whose dates may be concurrent with those of Sumu-abum, is usually given as the progenitor of the 1346: 1105:

Ancient records in some situations use "Babylon" as a name for other cities, including cities like

475: 28: 5865: 5483: 4522: 4323:

L'expédition scientifique et artistique de Mésopotamie et de Médie, 1851-1855 / Maurice Pillet,...

1904:, following his eighth campaign against Mitanni. Kassite Babylon eventually became subject to the 6677: 4466: 4437: 4002: 3921: 3748: 3019: 2534:

to direct its agents in Baghdad and Basra to acquire Mesopotamian relics for shipment to London.

2233: 2039: 522: 516: 21: 6554: 3942: 3061: 2359:

soon began. Babylon declined somewhat in importance but remained active throughout this period.

907:, writing in the 1870s, postulated that the Semitic name was a loan-translation of the original 6619: 6518: 5951: 5092: 3015: 3011: 2979:

tradition, Babylon symbolizes an oppressor against which righteous believers must struggle. In

2435: 1905: 1604: 416: 221: 5831: 5198: 5015: 4751:

Ali, Shah Mohammed, "The Southern Palace", Sumer 41, pp. 52–54, Arabic section pp. 77–82, 1985

4624: 4539: 3783:

Gelb, I. J. (1994). "The Name of Babylon". In Hess, Richard S.; Tsumura, David Toshio (eds.).

3476: 901:) is a determinative indicating that the previous signs are to be understood as a place name. 6308:

Abdul-Razzak, Wahbi, "Ishtar gate and its inner wall" Sumer 35, pp. 112–117, 1979 (in Arabic)

5046: 4594:

F. Wetzel et al., "Das Babylon der Spätzeit", WVDOG, vol. 62, Gebr. Mann, 1957 (1998 reprint

3438: 3109: 3090: 2800: 2659: 2629: 2226: 2176: 2051: 1964: 1808:, coalescing them into one kingdom, ruled from Babylon. Hammurabi also invaded and conquered 1465: 1370: 1018: 990: 668: 632: 570: 566: 3638: 2487:

as Babylon or New Babylon and described various structures encountered in the region as the

6344:

Kamil, Ahmed Mohammed, "The inner wall of Babylon", Sumer 35, pp. 137–149, 1979 (in Arabic)

5642: 3481:. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta. Vol. 136. Leuven: Peeters Publishers. p. 233. 3131: 2770: 2651: 2356: 2172: 1623: 1608: 1436:

The main sources of information about Babylon—excavation of the site itself, references in

1425: 1173:

Amran Ibn Ali – about 22 meters (72') high and at the south of the site. It is the site of

1064: 209: 5805: 4720:

G. Bergamini, "Excavations in Shu-anna Babylon 1987", Mesopotamia, vol. 23, pp. 5–17, 1988

4252: 2972:

are all predicted in the Bible to become like Sodom and Gomorrah, or uninhabited forever.

1326: 989:

Another attested spelling for the city of Babylon is TIN.TIR.KI, attested sparsely in the

8: 4284: 3125: 2872: 2792: 2754: 2704: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2316: 2253: 2168: 1952: 1821: 1565: 1525: 1361:

and hundreds of recovered tablets, were sent back to Germany, where Koldewey's colleague

1231: 1197: 1182: 979: 936: 799: 758: 621: 444: 4224: 4189: 3742: 1074: 6433:

Nasir, Mohammad, "The Temple of Ishtar of Agade", Sumer 35, pp. 61–81, 1979 (in Arabic)

6127: 5085: 5017:

The Ebabbar Temple Archive and Other Texts from the Fourth to the First Millennium B.C.

4985: 4852: 4700:

G. Bergamini, "Levels of Babylon Reconsidered", Mesopotamia, vol. 12, pp. 111–152, 1977

4065: 3902: 3894: 3713: 2999: 2492: 2480: 2475:

European travellers, in many cases, could not discover the city's location, or mistook

2465: 2431: 2368: 2308: 1592: 1429: 966: 582: 5173:"British Museum – Cuneiform tablet with part of the Babylonian Chronicle (605–594 BC)" 3703:

Wilfred G. Lambert, "Babylon: Origins"; in Cancik-Kirschbaum et al. (2011), pp. 71–76.

2709:

Report Concerning the Condition of the Preservation of the Babylon Archaeological Site

2149:

has argued that the hanging gardens were actually located near the Assyrian capital,

565:. Its rulers established two important empires in antiquity, the 19th–16th century BC 6460:

Iranian archaeologists to perform survey in Babylon - Tehran Times - January 29, 2023

6423: 6411: 6385: 6331: 6283: 6261: 6243: 6228: 5957: 5672: 5589: 5582: 5464: 5399: 5374: 5239: 5144: 5120: 5096: 5052: 5021: 4977: 4676: 4630: 4595: 4533: 4387: 4352: 4230: 4211: 4200: 4150: 4103: 4057: 3906: 3886: 3815: 3798: 3788: 3752: 3723: 3630: 3482: 3444: 3416: 3404: 3301: 3254: 3056: 3048: 2988: 2804:"The Walls of Babylon and the Temple of Bel (Or Babel)", by 19th-century illustrator 2747: 2563: 2405: 2312: 2293: 2138: 2104: 1987: 1744: 1155: 908: 578: 574: 558: 167: 153: 6649: 5730:"Lost cities #1: Babylon – how war almost erased 'mankind's greatest heritage site'" 5509:

John Curtis, "The Present Condition of Babylon"; in Cancik-Kirschbaum et al. (2011).

4553:

R. Koldewey, "Die Tempel von Babylon und Borsippa", WVDOG, vol. 15, pp. 37–49, 1911

2141:. Whether the gardens actually existed is a matter of dispute. German archaeologist 1831:

After the reign of Hammurabi, the whole of southern Mesopotamia came to be known as

1748:. He conquered all of the cities and city states of southern Mesopotamia, including 1692:

Linescan camera image of the cylinder seal above, reversed to resemble an impression

911:

name. However, the "gate of god" interpretation is increasingly viewed as a Semitic

6672: 6629: 6506: 5757: 5136: 4969: 4915: 4848: 4379: 4086: 4049: 4037: 3878: 3291: 3283: 3214: 3169: 3007: 2948: 2567: 2416: 2157: 2146: 1941: 1640: 1584: 1580: 1557: 1265: 971: 609: 259: 247: 6296:

A Social and Economic Survey of the Reign of Samsuiluna of Babylon (1794–1712 BC).

6260:. Translated from Italian to English by Ailsa Campbell. Boston: De Gruyter, 2016. 5989:"Bible Gateway passage: 2 Kings 20:12-19, Isaiah 39 – New American Standard Bible" 4513:

Julian Reade, "Hormuzd Rassam and his discoveries", Iraq, vol. 55, pp. 39–62, 1993

4348: 4344: 4321: 4269: 3623:"In Beleaguered Babylon, Doing Battle Against Time, Water and Modern Civilization" 2522:

The eighteenth century saw an increasing flow of travellers to Babylon, including

2212:

Herodotus also described a moat, an enormously tall and broad wall, cemented with

1998:. Shamash-shum-ukin enlisted the help of other peoples against Assyria, including 1963:

of Assyria, Babylonia was in a constant state of revolt, led by a chieftain named

771: 6702: 6513: 6476: 5843: 5819: 5788: 5764: 5563: 5433:

Julian E. Reade, "Disappearance and rediscovery"; in Finkel & Seymour, eds.,

5335: 5319: 4890: 4535: 3533:"'It Was Like Magic': Iraqis Visit Babylon And Other Heritage Sites For 1st Time" 3300:. The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 1 Part 1. Cambridge University Press. 3295: 3150: 3081: 3003: 2908: 2894: 2849: 2671: 2555: 2523: 2385:

for nine centuries, until after AD 650. Although it was captured briefly by

2378: 2374: 2194: 2188: 2142: 2119: 2077: 2031: 1879: 1844: 1612: 1546: 1342: 1277: 1245:, where hundreds of cases of antiquities from Fresnel's mission were lost in 1855 1242: 1151: 1060: 1049: 1010: 1005: 983: 904: 701: 693: 689: 656: 613: 408: 233: 139: 6311:

Ali, Shah Mohammed, "The Southern Palace", Sumer 35, pp. 82–93, 1979 (in Arabic)

1276:

heavily excavated Babylon from 1852 to 1854. Much of their work was lost in the

1121: 6572: 6253: 6223:

Cancik-Kirschbaum, Eva, Margarete van Ess, & Joachim Marzahn, eds. (2011).

4497: 3230: 2932: 2782: 2687: 2617: 2594: 2582: 2547: 2488: 2452:

In the mid-7th century, Mesopotamia was conquered and settled by the expanding

2427: 2400:

However, Babylon maintained its own culture and people, who spoke varieties of

2382: 2348: 2265: 2202: 2084: 1875: 1316: 1312: 1254: 1163: 923:, of unknown meaning and origin, as there were other similarly named places in 912: 899: 404: 6543: 4234: 3922:"Eine syllabische Schreibung des Namens Babylon in einem Ur III-Text aus Umma" 3882: 2299:

The early Persian kings had attempted to maintain the religious ceremonies of

1333:

on either side of the processional street. Ancient Babylon, Mesopotamia, Iraq.

1300:

Original tiles of the processional street. Ancient Babylon, Mesopotamia, Iraq.

6666: 6355:"The Ancient Middle Eastern Capital City – Reflection and Navel of the World" 6287: 5141:

The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon: an elusive World Wonder traced,

4981: 4486: 4107: 4061: 3965: 3890: 3756: 3727: 3719:

The history of Esarhaddon (son of Sennacherib) King of Assyria, B.C. 681-668;

3634: 2965: 2853: 2663: 1990:, who eventually started a civil war in 652 BC against his own brother, 1665: 1628: 1507: 1362: 1269: 1234:

made some soundings during a brief visit in 1850 before abandoning the site.

1223: 1215: 1137: 877: 624:, which encompassed the whole of Mesopotamia, including the town of Babylon. 314: 301: 6486: 6404: 5610:"Iraq's ancient city of Babylon gets long-overdue international recognition" 5269: 3871:

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London

3802: 2816:

Due to Babylon's historical significance as well as references to it in the

1652: 573:. Babylon was also used as a regional capital of other empires, such as the 188: 5243: 3027: 2980: 2920: 2861: 2578: 2457: 2419: 2257: 2097: 1991: 1901: 1777: 1273: 997: 697: 586: 6560: 6445: 4626:

Antiquity on Display: Regimes of the Authentic in Berlin's Pergamon Museum

4383: 4006: 5910: 5832:

Monuments to Self: Baghdad's grands projects in the age of Saddam Hussein

5521:

John Curtis, "The Site of Babylon Today"; in Finkel & Seymour, eds.,

3670: 2695: 2625: 2571: 2423: 2289: 2115: 2073: 2023: 1960: 1825: 1813: 1781: 1492: 1473: 1389: 1358: 1193: 916: 784: 652: 605: 542: 287: 4576:

F. Wetzel, "Die Stadtmauren von Babylon", WVDOG, vol. 48, pp. 1–83, 1930

6525:

Beyond Babylon: art, trade, and diplomacy in the second millennium B.C.

6399: 6380:

Mommsen, Theodor; Dickson, William Purdie; Haverfield, Francis (2004).

5485:

Champdor, Albert, "Babylon", translated from French by Elsa Coult, 1958

5048:

With Arrow, Sword, and Spear: A History of Warfare in the Ancient World

4989: 4957: 4813:"Excavations in Iraq 1981–1982, Iraq, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 199–224, 1983 4675:

Hansjörg Schmid, "Der Tempelturm Etemenanki in Babylon", Zabern, 1995,

4069: 3566:"Ancient city of Babylon heads list of new Unesco world heritage sites" 3287: 3023: 2883: 2836: 2332: 2328: 2304: 2281: 2260:, Cyrus later issued a decree permitting captive people, including the 2108: 2061: 2015: 1979: 1797: 1716: 1393: 1167: 942: 811: 685: 628: 412: 6359:

Stanford Presidential Lectures and Symposia in the Humanities and Arts

6277: 3898: 3866: 3820:

Geschichte Mesopotamiens. Von den Sumerern bis zu Alexander dem Großen

3744:

The Origin of Semitic Civilisation, Chiefly Upon Philological Evidence

1607:

wrote that Babylon was built 1002 years before the date given by

1381:

in 1917, and again, many objects went missing in the following years.

1354:

and the processional way leading up to it, as well as the city wall.

1150:

Babil. It is roughly bisected by the Shatt Al-Hillah, a branch of the

557:. Babylon functioned as the main cultural and political centre of the 6441:

Sollberger, Edmond, "Babylon’s beginnings", Sumer 41, pp. 10–13, 1985

6382:

The provinces of the Roman Empire: from Caesar to Diocletian, Vol. II

5782:

US colonel offers Iraq an apology of sorts for devastation of Babylon

4666:

Lenzen, H. J., "The Greek theatre in Babylon", Sumer 15, pp. 39, 1959

3086: 2992: 2887: 2876: 2868: 2844: 2412: 2285: 2218: 2206: 2035: 1885: 1871: 1832: 1793: 1739: 1708: 1677: 1600: 1561: 1517: 1461: 1445: 1437: 1420: 1374: 1285: 815: 742: 734: 711:

It has been estimated that Babylon was the largest city in the world

644: 640: 562: 538: 486: 342: 4973: 4836: 4411: 4053: 3840: 2678:

were criticized for building the military base "Camp Alpha", with a

1222:

in Baghdad, excavated Babylon in 1811–12 and again in 1817. Captain

60: 6076:"Bible Gateway passage: Isaiah 13:19-20 – English Standard Version" 5536:

Babylon Journal; Ancient King's Instructions to Iraq: Fix My Palace

3841:"What's in a Name? Babylon and its Designations throughout History" 2683: 2621: 2496: 2476: 2352: 2273: 2245: 2111: 1968: 1917: 1889: 1848: 1785: 1669: 1596: 1453: 1311:

worked there briefly in 1854. The next excavation was conducted by

1289: 1106: 1095: 750: 660: 636: 604:

The earliest known mention of Babylon as a small town appears on a

590: 6279:

The idea of Babylon: archaeology and representation in Mesopotamia

4326:(in French). Bibliothèque nationale de France: É. Champion (Paris) 965:, indicating that the city could very well be Babylon. During the 651:

as the region's holy city. The empire waned under Hammurabi's son

6639: 2984: 2890:

that uses allusions to ancient Biblical themes to discuss gossip.

2787: 2679: 2598: 2500: 2484: 2461: 2409: 2401: 2394: 2277: 2213: 2150: 2068: 2011: 2007: 1995: 1983: 1972: 1956: 1945: 1925: 1921: 1893: 1855: 1712: 1697: 1681: 1576: 1496: 1457: 1449: 1401: 1174: 1110: 746: 554: 36: 1530: 1162:

Kasr – also called Palace or Castle, it was the location of the

949: 6210:(New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2014), 506, 684 3996: 2976: 2957: 2928: 2924: 2912: 2828: 2762: 2751: 2602: 2453: 2386: 2300: 2198: 2123: 2089: 2003: 1859: 1836: 1801: 1789: 1769: 1765: 1711:, who declared independence from the neighboring city-state of 1680:. It depicts the king making an animal offering to the sun god 1673: 1632: 1488: 1484: 1469: 1351: 1330: 1281: 1192:

Homera – a reddish-colored mound on the west side. Most of the

1178: 962: 859: 754: 648: 631:

with the rise of the first Babylonian Empire, now known as the

594: 546: 276: 6365:"Die altorientalische Hauptstadt – Abbild und Nabel der Wel". 5949: 5584:

The Rape of Mesopotamia: Behind the Looting of the Iraq Museum

4438:"The Qurnah Disaster: Archaeology & Piracy in Mesopotamia" 2335:

king of the Persian Empire, was defeated by the forces of the

1936: 202: 6634: 6614: 5463:. Great Britain: Bloomsbury Academic. pp. Ch. 2, p. 21. 3204: 2969: 2817: 2610: 2606: 2222: 2129:

Nebuchadnezzar is also credited with the construction of the

2019: 1912:

to the east, with both powers vying for control of the city.

1897: 1840: 1805: 1773: 1753: 1735: 1644:

Amorite kingdoms will appear in Uruk and Larsa in the south.

1521: 1441: 1373:. These included 967 clay tablets, with 564 tablets from the 924: 791: 738: 598: 577:. Babylon was one of the most important urban centres of the 6047:"Bible Gateway passage: Daniel 5 – English Standard Version" 3511: 3509: 3014:, and drunk on the blood of the righteous. Some scholars of 2682:

and other facilities on ancient Babylonian ruins during the

2628:

line constructed over Babylon, but plans were halted by the

1828:, he forced his successor to pay tribute late in his reign. 1524:. Babylon also appears in the administrative records of the 1125:

A map of ruins in 1905, with locations and names of villages

6446:"Experts: Iraq invasion harmed historic Babylon - NBC News" 5911:"Maps and Plans: Excavations and Investigations at Babylon" 5488: 5440: 3106:

The Daughters of Jerusalem Weeping by the Waters of Babylon

2961: 2953: 2916: 2574:

and a reconstruction of Ninmakh Temple were built on site.

2261: 1999: 1909: 1817: 1809: 1761: 1749: 1731: 1727: 1480: 1186: 1091: 664: 550: 6175: 5294: 2670:

in September 2003. US forces under the command of General

775:

A map of Babylon, with major areas and modern-day villages

6496: 3506: 3385:

Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census

2808: – influenced by early archaeological investigations 2175:

the Jews to Babylon. The defeat was also recorded in the

1858:, the sun-god of Sippar, treated as a supreme deity, and 1444:, descriptions in other classical writing, especially by 741:, descriptions in other classical writing, especially by 6379: 5670: 5153: 4191:

Claudius J. Rich, "Memoir on the Ruins of Babylon", 1815

3845:

Journal of the Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies

2389:

in AD 116 to be part of the newly conquered province of

1528:, which collected in-kind tax payments and appointed an 1440:

texts found elsewhere in Mesopotamia, references in the

737:

texts found elsewhere in Mesopotamia, references in the

679:, allegedly existing between approximately 600 BC and AD 5412: 5262:"Herodotus' Description of Babylon and the Babylonians" 4912:

The Seven Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World

4376:

The Conquest of Assyria: Excavations in an Antique Land

3787:. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. pp. 266–269. 2613:, to demonstrate the magnificence of Arab achievement. 2156:

Nebuchadnezzar is also notoriously associated with the

1757: 1369:. The Koldewey expedition recovered artifacts from the 1113:

for a short period after the Assyrian sack of Babylon.

6555:

Babylon wrecked by war, The Guardian, January 15, 2005

6258:

Imagining Babylon: The Modern Story of an Ancient City

4305:

Exploration in the Bible Lands During the 19th Century

4121: 2469:

grave-shrine of Amran ibn Ali was visited by Muslims.

2303:, who was the most important god, but by the reign of 2264:, to return to their own lands. The text found on the 1253:"Entry of Alexander into Babylon", a 1665 painting by 915:

to explain an unknown original non-Semitic placename.

887: 881: 871: 857: 845: 833: 827: 804: 174: 160: 49: 6708:

Populated places established in the 3rd millennium BC

2566:, also officially called the Iraqi Republic, and the 2221:. The hundred gates can be considered a reference to 1631:

relief. The figure could be an aspect of the goddess

553:, about 85 kilometers (55 miles) south of modern day 6545:

Iraq elections: The palace that Nebuchadnezzar built

5557:

Saddam removed from ancient Babylon 'brick by brick'

5165: 4250: 4092:

Babylon as a name for other cities including Nineveh

3929:

NABU: Nouvelles Assyriologiques Brèves et Utilitaire

2875:

name for "Babylon") is a real estate development in

2865:

takes place in New York City, decades in the future.

2662:, the area around Babylon came under the control of 2381:, Babylon (like Assyria) became a province of these 1738:

overshadowed Babylon until it became the capital of

240: 146: 6713:

Populated places disestablished in the 10th century

6568:

UNESCO Final Report on Damage Assessment in Babylon

5398:. Great Britain: Bloomsbury Academic. p. 158. 2995:, appears as the foremost ruler in this narrative. 2351:, his empire was divided amongst his generals, the 1892:era, and as a result, Kassite Babylon began paying 1854:Texts from Old Babylon often include references to 1392:theatre, and Schmid focused on the temple ziggurat 1280:, when a transport ship and four rafts sank on the 745:, and second-hand descriptions, citing the work of 6403: 6369:. Saarbrücker Druckerei und Verlag: 109–124. 1997. 6328:The City of Babylon: A History c. 2000 BC – AD 116 5581: 5579: 5084: 4378:(1st ed.). Routledge. pp. 344–9, 350–3. 4289:Discoveries among the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon 3282: 3217: – Legendary tunnel under the river Euphrates 2460:followed. Babylon was dissolved as a province and 2193:In 539 BC, the Neo-Babylonian Empire fell to 2164:to the capital. According to the Hebrew Bible, he 2072:Detail of a relief from the reconstruction of the 1959:domination or direct control. During the reign of 1448:, and second-hand descriptions citing the work of 4435: 2635: 2137:, said to have been built for his homesick wife, 1404:temples in the Shu-Anna city-quarter of Babylon. 20:"Babilu" redirects here. Not to be confused with 6664: 6602: 6561:"Experts: Iraq invasion harmed historic Babylon" 6507:Site Photographs of Babylon – Oriental Institute 3409:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 2209:and is mentioned in parts of the Hebrew Bible. 1955:(911–609 BC), Babylonia was under constant 832:). This would correspond to the Sumerian phrase 5806:Unesco intends to put the magic back in Babylon 5640: 4345:"Rélation du voyage et résultat de l'expédition 4307:", Philadelphia: A. J. Holman and Company, 1903 3712: 3597:Bringing Babylon back from the dead - CNN Video 3443:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 95. 1672:. This seal was probably made in a workshop at 1595:. A similar figure is found in the writings of 65:A reconstructed portion of the ruins of Babylon 6482:The Babylon Project – Freie Universität Berlin 6282:(Doctoral thesis). University College London. 5889:"Babylon Ruins Reopen in Iraq, to Controversy" 5517: 5515: 5505: 5503: 5238:. Vol. Book 1. Harvard University Press. 5051:. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 47–48. 4841:Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 3699: 3697: 3695: 3693: 3691: 982:, and the spellings Pambalu and Babalu in the 893: 865: 851: 839: 819: 6588: 6225:Babylon: Wissenskultur in Orient und Okzident 5429: 5427: 4081: 4079: 2911:, Babel (Babylon) is described as founded by 2276:, Babylon became the capital city of the 9th 2237:A Babylonian soldier in the Achaemenid army, 1081: 6298:PhD dissertation accepted at Yale, May 2006. 5814:, April 21, 2006. Retrieved April 19, 2008. 5641:McCarthy, Rory; Kennedy, Maev (2005-01-15). 5225: 5223: 4830: 4828: 4373: 4019: 3253:for more discussion on dating events in the 3012:scarlet beast with seven heads and ten horns 2548:Kingdom of Iraq under British Administration 2272:Under Cyrus and the subsequent Persian king 1820:to the northwest. After a conflict with the 1432:listing rulers of Babylon grouped by dynasty 1072: 1021: 627:The town became part of a small independent 5953:Chanting Down Babylon: The Rastafari Reader 5950:Samuel Murrell; Spencer; McFarlane (1998). 5795:, April 15, 2006. Retrieved April 19, 2008. 5636: 5634: 5512: 5500: 3688: 6595: 6581: 6502:Iraq Image – Babylon Satellite Observation 5424: 5119:, p. 165. University of California Press. 4076: 3392:. Archived from the original on 2008-02-11 2835:belief system, denoting the materialistic 2746:In May 2009, the provincial government of 2201:, with a military engagement known as the 1109:within Babylon's sphere of influence, and 1079:, "to confuse"). The modern English verb, 919:in 1955 argued that the original name was 620:for a few decades, before the rise of the 5220: 5082: 5013: 4834: 4825: 4349:Déchiffrement des inscriptions cuneiforms 3776: 537:was an ancient city located on the lower 5721: 5631: 5044: 4291:", New York: Harper & Brothers, 1853 4139: 3838: 3340: 3338: 3336: 3334: 3332: 3330: 3328: 3147:Figured Apocalypse of the Dukes of Savoy 2799: 2781: 2735:Panoramic view of ruins in Babylon, 2005 2639: 2510: 2232: 2083: 2067: 2055: 2045: 1935: 1924:in the 11th century BC, and finally the 1870:In 1595 BC, the city was sacked by 1687: 1659: 1651: 1647: 1622: 1506: 1419: 1365:reconstructed them into displays at the 1321: 1295: 1248: 1236: 1120: 957:A fragmentary inscription dating to the 948: 770: 6723:Populated places on the Euphrates River 6275: 6181: 5956:. Temple University Press. p. 24. 5727: 5673:"History lost in dust of war-torn Iraq" 5671:Bajjaly, Joanne Farchakh (2005-04-25). 5494: 5446: 5418: 5368: 5300: 5159: 4464: 4246: 4244: 4127: 4100:Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale 3919: 3864: 3530: 3515: 3478:Late Achaemenid and Hellenistic Babylon 3436: 3377: 2362: 2284:Persia, the ancient Babylonian arts of 655:, and Babylon spent long periods under 527:question marks, boxes, or other symbols 6665: 6519:1901–1906 Jewish Encyclopedia, Babylon 6325: 6238:Finkel, I. L. and M. J. Seymour, eds. 5700: 5458: 5393: 5229: 5199:"ABC 5 (Jerusalem Chronicle) – Livius" 4958:"The Foreign Gifts Offered to Pharaoh" 4955: 4622: 4319: 4267: 4222: 4102:. SAOC. Vol. 62. pp. 25–33. 4085: 4036: 3979:BC: The Archaeology of the Bible Lands 3722:. Trübner & Co. pp. 135–136. 3430: 3387:(1987), St. David's University Press ( 2777: 2694:They caused substantial damage to the 6576: 6398: 5886: 5866:"Bringing Babylon back from the dead" 5863: 4859:from the original on 14 November 2021 4460: 4458: 4436:Samuel D. Pfister (20 January 2021). 4405: 4403: 4369: 4367: 4365: 4315: 4313: 4229:. Henry Colburn and Richard Bentley. 3981:. BBC Publications 1977, pp. 198–199. 3860: 3858: 3834: 3832: 3830: 3828: 3740: 3665: 3663: 3661: 3659: 3657: 3620: 3576:from the original on 29 November 2019 3560: 3558: 3526: 3524: 3325: 3278: 3276: 3274: 2902: 2322: 1975:was considered an act of atonement. 1835:. From this time, Babylon supplanted 1696:According to a Babylonian king list, 1635:, Babylonian goddess of sex and love. 886:(-r) followed by the genitive suffix 6533:Visiting the ancient city of Babylon 6352: 5342:from the original on 6 December 2010 4241: 3782: 3474: 2666:troops, before being handed over to 1045: 1034: 199: 185: 6197:, Inter-varsity Press, 1985, p. 383 5903: 5758:Heritage News from around the world 4962:The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 4837:"Herodotus' Description of Babylon" 3769:Liane Jakob-Rost, Joachim Marzahn: 3531:Fordham, Alice (23 February 2021). 3468: 3251:Chronology of the ancient Near East 2541: 2182: 1571: 1502: 1428:of fragment K. 8532, a part of the 1357:Artifacts, including pieces of the 1053: 1022: 1009: 237: 143: 13: 6648: 6563:. Associated Press. July 10, 2009. 6302: 5709:from the original on March 3, 2016 5014:Spar, Ira; Jursa, Michael (2014). 4893:, 2nd series, Vol. 1, 1888, p. 11. 4853:10.1111/j.2041-5370.1986.tb00185.x 4455: 4400: 4362: 4310: 3855: 3825: 3654: 3555: 3521: 3271: 2441: 2369:Babylonia § Persian Babylonia 2135:Seven Wonders of the Ancient World 1940:Sennacherib of Assyria during his 1931: 677:Seven Wonders of the Ancient World 14: 6739: 6453: 6363:– originally published in German 6242:. Oxford University Press, 2009. 6114:from the original on 24 June 2021 5580:Lawrence Rothfield (1 Aug 2009). 4409: 3051:ordering the construction of the 3033: 2624:. In 2003, he intended to have a 2225:. Following the pronouncement of 2022:dwelling in the deserts south of 2014:of southern Mesopotamia, and the 1908:(1365–1053 BC) to the north, and 1865: 1812:to the east, and the kingdoms of 1511:Brick structures in Babylon, 2016 16:Ancient Mesopotamian city in Iraq 6200: 6187: 6146: 6097: 6068: 6039: 6010: 5981: 5970: 5943: 5933: 5921:from the original on 5 July 2020 5887:Myers, Steven Lee (2 May 2009). 5880: 5876:from the original on 2017-06-06. 5857: 5848: 5824: 5798: 5774: 5751: 5703:"Damage seen to ancient Babylon" 5701:Leeman, Sue (January 16, 2005). 5694: 5664: 5602: 5573: 5549: 5528: 5477: 5452: 5387: 5362: 5353: 5328: 5306: 5034:from the original on 2020-05-18. 4629:. OUP Oxford. pp. 163–183. 4268:Loftus, William Kennett (1857). 3425:Historical urban community sizes 3257:, including the Sack of Babylon. 3177: 3158: 3139: 3117: 3098: 3072: 3040: 2723: 2654:video on conservation of Babylon 1098:literature, the name appears as 111: 104: 83: 76: 59: 6718:1811 archaeological discoveries 6693:Former populated places in Iraq 6542:Video of reconstructed palace: 6164:from the original on 2022-06-02 6086:from the original on 2022-06-02 6057:from the original on 2022-06-02 6028:from the original on 2022-06-02 5999:from the original on 2022-06-02 5740:from the original on 2020-04-13 5683:from the original on 2018-07-08 5653:from the original on 2016-09-20 5620:from the original on 2021-10-21 5588:. University of Chicago Press. 5285: 5276: 5250:from the original on 2023-03-16 5209:from the original on 2019-05-05 5191: 5130: 5109: 5076: 5065:from the original on 2020-05-19 5038: 5007: 4996:from the original on 2021-11-16 4949: 4939: 4930: 4921: 4905: 4896: 4880: 4871: 4816: 4807: 4798: 4787: 4776: 4765: 4754: 4743: 4732: 4723: 4714: 4703: 4694: 4685: 4669: 4658: 4649: 4616: 4605: 4588: 4579: 4570: 4559: 4545: 4527: 4516: 4507: 4491: 4480: 4429: 4337: 4294: 4278: 4274:. Robert Carter & Brothers. 4261: 4216: 4205: 4194: 4183: 4174: 4163: 4133: 4089:, Stephanie (18–22 July 2005). 4030: 4023:Dictionary of Pāli Proper Names 4013: 3984: 3971: 3959: 3935: 3913: 3809: 3763: 3741:Sayce, Archibald Henry (1872). 3734: 3706: 3614: 3604:from the original on 2022-01-07 3588: 3543:from the original on 2021-02-23 3495:from the original on 2015-10-15 3457:from the original on 2020-05-18 3314:from the original on 2020-05-19 3243: 3210:Cities of the ancient Near East 2796:, depicting the fall of Babylon 1568:, rather than Sargon of Akkad. 1386:German Archaeological Institute 1367:Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin 1345:conducted the first scientific 1181:that also contained shrines to 783:is the Latin representation of 581:, until its decline during the 352:9 km (3.5 sq mi) 112: 84: 6688:History of Babylon Governorate 6330:. Cambridge University Press. 5728:Marozzi, Justin (2016-08-08). 3368: 3359: 3350: 2741: 2636:Under US and Polish occupation 2114:, and the construction of the 1705: 19th or 18th century BC 1210: 1142:Memoir on the Ruins of Babylon 1116: 850:) is the logogram for "gate", 635:, in the 17th century BC. The 1: 6227:. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter. 5864:Damon, Arawa (4 April 2013). 5230:Godley, Alfred Denis (1920). 4504:", Curts & Jennings, 1897 4251:World Monuments Fund (2015). 3839:Beaulieu, Paul-Alain (2019). 3747:. Harrison and Sons. p. 3440:The Ancient Mesopotamian City 3437:Mieroop, Marc van de (1997). 3264: 3128:receiving the keys of Babylon 2506: 2238: 2034:. An Assyrian governor named 1978:Consequently, his successor, 1701: 1550: 931:, and that the Sumerian name 723: 712: 569:, and the 7th–6th century BC 378: 365: 6728:World Heritage Sites in Iraq 6683:Archaeological sites in Iraq 6604:World Heritage Sites in Iraq 6217: 6104:"Jeremiah Chapters 50, 51". 5838:. Retrieved April 19, 2008. 5811:International Herald Tribune 5338:. Wsu.edu:8080. 1999-06-06. 5045:Bradford, Alfred S. (2001). 4254:Babylon Site Management Plan 3822:, Beck, Munich 2004, p. 121. 3671:"Management Plan of Babylon" 3221:Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets 2676:I Marine Expeditionary Force 1944:, relief from his palace in 1851:rose to control the region. 888: 882: 872: 858: 846: 834: 828: 805: 798:), derived from the native ( 203: 189: 175: 161: 50: 7: 5771:. Retrieved April 19, 2008. 5336:"Mesopotamia: The Persians" 5091:. Wm. B. Eerdmans. p. 5083:von Soden, Wolfram (1994). 4026:. Vol. 2. p. 280. 4020:Malalasekera, G.P. (1938). 3198: 2991:, sometimes conflated with 2852:series set on a futuristic 1603:, indicating 2243 BC. 585:. Nearby ancient sites are 241: 147: 10: 6744: 6326:Dalley, Stephanie (2021). 6268:. Originally published as 5842:December 10, 2005, at the 5461:A Short History of Babylon 5396:A Short History of Babylon 5325:. Retrieved July 23, 2011. 4540:The Excavations at Babylon 4098:. Proceedings of the 51st 3621:Arraf, Jane (2021-02-06). 3297:Prolegomena and Prehistory 3053:Hanging Gardens of Babylon 2831:music as a concept in the 2554:, and its successors: the 2532:British East India Company 2528:Pierre-Joseph de Beauchamp 2445: 2366: 2186: 2131:Hanging Gardens of Babylon 2049: 1618: 1415: 1347:archaeological excavations 1220:British East India Company 894: 866: 852: 840: 820: 792: 675:were ranked as one of the 673:Hanging Gardens of Babylon 671:, from 626 to 539 BC. The 463:Cultural: (iii), (vi) 445:UNESCO World Heritage Site 251: 225: 213: 171: 157: 34: 18: 6646: 6610: 6537:Ancient History Et Cetera 4425:– via Academia.edu. 3883:10.1017/S0041977X00022102 2968:, Hazor, and the sons of 2581:government of Iraq under 2552:Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq 2550:, which later became the 2448:Muslim conquest of Persia 2319:'s entry in 331 BC. 1707:) with a chieftain named 1082: 1073: 506: 502: 492: 482: 467: 459: 451: 442: 438: 430: 422: 400: 395: 387: 374: 361: 356: 348: 338: 330: 293: 283: 279:, Babil Governorate, Iraq 272: 132: 70: 58: 47: 6294:Vedeler, Harold Torger. 6107:Prophecy against Babylon 5643:"Babylon wrecked by war" 5371:Trajan: Optimus Princeps 5369:Bennett, Julian (1997). 5236:Herodotus, The Histories 4877:Vedeler (2006), pp. 7–8. 4835:MacGinnis, John (1986). 4416:Archaeopress Archaeology 4320:Pillet, Maurice (1922). 3236: 3226:List of Kings of Babylon 3191:Pieter Bruegel the Elder 2456:Empire, and a period of 1888:was weakened during the 1721:First Babylonian dynasty 1375:Middle Babylonian period 1259:Hellenistic architecture 766: 264:Karanduniash, Karduniash 35:Not to be confused with 29:Babylon (disambiguation) 6276:Seymour, M. J. (2006). 4223:Mignan, Robert (1829). 4143:Babylon: The Great City 4140:Pedersen, Olof (2021). 4003:Oxford University Press 3865:Lambert, W. G. (1984). 3020:New Testament "Babylon" 1967:, in alliance with the 1951:During the rule of the 1700:rule in Babylon began ( 1379:oncoming British troops 1339:German Oriental Society 1230:visited there in 1849. 810:, meaning "gate of the 757:inscribed Babylon as a 647:, and Babylon eclipsed 612:(2217–2193 BC), of the 22:Babalu (disambiguation) 6654: 6620:Ahwar of Southern Iraq 5818:June 12, 2006, at the 5459:Radner, Karen (2020). 5394:Radner, Karen (2020). 5268:. 2017. Archived from 5115:Saggs, H.W.F. (2000). 4956:Aldred, Cyril (1970). 4009:on September 29, 2020. 3055:to please his consort 3016:apocalyptic literature 2809: 2797: 2700: 2655: 2577:In February 1978, the 2519: 2327:In October of 331 BC, 2249: 2093: 2081: 2065: 1948: 1906:Middle Assyrian Empire 1693: 1685: 1657: 1636: 1605:Stephanus of Byzantium 1554: 23rd century BC 1512: 1433: 1334: 1301: 1262: 1246: 1134: 1126: 1059:), interpreted in the 1000:, the name appears as 954: 776: 515:This article contains 6652: 6410:. Thames and Hudson. 6384:. Gorgias Press LLC. 6353:Maul, Stefan (1997). 5769:World Heritage Alert! 5614:Middle East Institute 4918:, Vol. 4, p. 526–527. 4384:10.4324/9781315862859 4374:Larsen, M.T. (1996). 3999:UK English Dictionary 3851:– via Academia. 3149:– Escorial E Vit.5 – 2803: 2785: 2692: 2660:2003 invasion of Iraq 2649: 2630:2003 invasion of Iraq 2514: 2436:Arab/Islamic conquest 2434:until well after the 2236: 2227:Archibald Henry Sayce 2177:Babylonian Chronicles 2092:, decorated the gate. 2087: 2071: 2059: 2052:Neo-Babylonian Empire 2046:Neo-Babylonian Empire 1939: 1691: 1663: 1655: 1648:Old Babylonian period 1626: 1510: 1466:Quintus Curtius Rufus 1423: 1371:Old Babylonian period 1325: 1299: 1252: 1240: 1129: 1124: 991:Old Babylonian period 959:Early Dynastic Period 952: 774: 669:Neo-Babylonian Empire 633:Old Babylonian Empire 571:Neo-Babylonian Empire 567:Old Babylonian Empire 315:32.54250°N 44.42111°E 133:Alternative name 123:Show map of Near East 6195:New Testament Survey 5804:Gettleman, Jeffrey. 5705:. The Boston Globe. 5525:(2009); pp. 213–220. 4623:Bilsel, Can (2012). 3947:oracc.iaas.upenn.edu 3920:Koslova, N. (1998). 3166:The Walls of Babylon 3132:Johann Georg Platzer 2771:World Monuments Fund 2652:World Monuments Fund 2363:Renewed Persian rule 2219:eat nothing but fish 1609:Hellanicus of Lesbos 1426:Leonard William King 1384:Further work by the 1241:The location of the 545:, within modern-day 27:For other uses, see 6698:Hebrew Bible cities 6539:, 17 November 2014. 6531:Osama S. M. Amin, " 5497:, pp. 169–173. 5449:, pp. 148–151. 5303:, pp. 107–115. 4887:Records of the Past 4442:Bible History Daily 3867:"Studies in Marduk" 3518:, pp. 140–142. 3365:Finkel (1988) P.58. 3126:Alexander the Great 3064:ené-Antoine Houasse 2793:Nuremberg Chronicle 2778:Cultural importance 2755:World Heritage Site 2426:of the philosopher 2357:decades of fighting 2345:Battle of Gaugamela 2341:Alexander the Great 2317:Alexander the Great 1953:Neo-Assyrian Empire 1822:Old Assyrian period 1566:Neo-Assyrian Empire 1534:as local governor. 1526:Third Dynasty of Ur 1232:Austen Henry Layard 1198:Alexander the Great 937:Third Dynasty of Ur 864:) means "god", and 759:World Heritage Site 720: 1670 BC 622:Third Dynasty of Ur 311: / 120:Babylon (Near East) 44: 6655: 6512:2009-04-27 at the 6475:2023-06-30 at the 6206:Craig R. Koester, 6184:, pp. 91–101. 5893:The New York Times 5787:2011-09-19 at the 5780:Cornwell, Rupert. 5763:2016-02-02 at the 5562:2017-10-18 at the 5437:(2009); pp. 13–30. 5323:The British Museum 5318:2011-12-01 at the 5179:on 30 October 2014 5087:The Ancient Orient 4347:", 1863 Tome II: " 3977:Magnus Magnusson, 3627:The New York Times 3383:Tertius Chandler. 3186:The Tower of Babel 3000:Book of Revelation 2903:Biblical narrative 2810: 2798: 2656: 2520: 2493:Pietro della Valle 2481:Benjamin of Tudela 2466:Church of the East 2432:Church of the East 2337:Ancient Macedonian 2323:Hellenistic period 2309:Nebuchadnezzar III 2250: 2094: 2082: 2066: 1949: 1896:to the Pharaoh of 1878:. Thereafter, the 1694: 1686: 1658: 1637: 1629:Queen of the Night 1513: 1434: 1430:Dynastic Chronicle 1335: 1302: 1263: 1247: 1218:, working for the 1127: 972:Shar-Kali-Sharri's 955: 777: 731: 320 BC 608:from the reign of 583:Hellenistic period 541:river in southern 517:special characters 483:Reference no. 320:32.54250; 44.42111 42: 6660: 6659: 6391:978-1-59333-026-2 6337:978-1-316-50177-1 6270:Immaginare Babele 6266:978-1-61451-602-6 6233:978-3-11-022212-8 5830:McBride, Edward. 5470:978-1-8386-0169-0 5405:978-1-8386-0169-0 5149:978-0-19-966226-5 5102:978-0-8028-0142-5 5058:978-0-275-95259-4 5027:978-1-57506-327-0 4636:978-0-19-957055-3 4351:", 1859 (also as 4156:978-3-96327-136-6 3816:Dietz-Otto Edzard 3475:Boiy, T. (2004). 3307:978-0-521-29821-6 3292:Hammond, N. G. L. 3284:Edwards, I. E. S. 3255:2nd millennium BC 3049:Nebuchadnezzar II 2989:Nebuchadnezzar II 2647: 2406:Babylonian Talmud 2313:Nebuchadnezzar IV 2162:deported en masse 2105:Nebuchadnezzar II 1988:Shamash-shum-ukin 1745:Code of Hammurabi 1539:Weidner Chronicle 1315:on behalf of the 1156:Nebuchadnezzar II 1067:", from the verb 876:) represents the 579:ancient Near East 575:Achaemenid Empire 559:Akkadian-speaking 523:rendering support 510: 509: 92:Shown within Iraq 6735: 6630:Citadel of Erbil 6597: 6590: 6583: 6574: 6573: 6564: 6546: 6449: 6421: 6409: 6395: 6370: 6362: 6341: 6291: 6211: 6204: 6198: 6193:Merrill Tenney, 6191: 6185: 6179: 6173: 6172: 6170: 6169: 6150: 6144: 6143: 6137: 6133: 6131: 6123: 6121: 6119: 6101: 6095: 6094: 6092: 6091: 6072: 6066: 6065: 6063: 6062: 6043: 6037: 6036: 6034: 6033: 6014: 6008: 6007: 6005: 6004: 5985: 5979: 5974: 5968: 5967: 5947: 5941: 5937: 5931: 5930: 5928: 5926: 5907: 5901: 5900: 5895:. Archived from 5884: 5878: 5877: 5861: 5855: 5852: 5846: 5828: 5822: 5802: 5796: 5778: 5772: 5755: 5749: 5748: 5746: 5745: 5725: 5719: 5718: 5716: 5714: 5698: 5692: 5691: 5689: 5688: 5668: 5662: 5661: 5659: 5658: 5638: 5629: 5628: 5626: 5625: 5606: 5600: 5599: 5587: 5577: 5571: 5553: 5547: 5546:, 19 April 1989. 5532: 5526: 5519: 5510: 5507: 5498: 5492: 5486: 5481: 5475: 5474: 5456: 5450: 5444: 5438: 5431: 5422: 5416: 5410: 5409: 5391: 5385: 5384: 5366: 5360: 5357: 5351: 5350: 5348: 5347: 5332: 5326: 5310: 5304: 5298: 5292: 5289: 5283: 5280: 5274: 5273: 5258: 5256: 5255: 5227: 5218: 5217: 5215: 5214: 5195: 5189: 5188: 5186: 5184: 5175:. Archived from 5169: 5163: 5157: 5151: 5137:Stephanie Dalley 5134: 5128: 5113: 5107: 5106: 5090: 5080: 5074: 5073: 5071: 5070: 5042: 5036: 5035: 5011: 5005: 5004: 5002: 5001: 4953: 4947: 4943: 4937: 4934: 4928: 4925: 4919: 4916:George Rawlinson 4909: 4903: 4900: 4894: 4884: 4878: 4875: 4869: 4868: 4866: 4864: 4832: 4823: 4820: 4814: 4811: 4805: 4802: 4796: 4791: 4785: 4780: 4774: 4769: 4763: 4758: 4752: 4747: 4741: 4736: 4730: 4727: 4721: 4718: 4712: 4707: 4701: 4698: 4692: 4689: 4683: 4673: 4667: 4662: 4656: 4653: 4647: 4646: 4644: 4643: 4620: 4614: 4609: 4603: 4592: 4586: 4583: 4577: 4574: 4568: 4563: 4557: 4556: 4549: 4543: 4531: 4525: 4520: 4514: 4511: 4505: 4495: 4489: 4484: 4478: 4477: 4475: 4474: 4462: 4453: 4452: 4450: 4448: 4433: 4427: 4426: 4424: 4423: 4407: 4398: 4397: 4371: 4360: 4341: 4335: 4334: 4332: 4331: 4317: 4308: 4298: 4292: 4282: 4276: 4275: 4265: 4259: 4258: 4248: 4239: 4238: 4220: 4214: 4209: 4203: 4198: 4192: 4187: 4181: 4178: 4172: 4167: 4161: 4160: 4148: 4137: 4131: 4125: 4119: 4118: 4116: 4114: 4097: 4083: 4074: 4073: 4034: 4028: 4027: 4017: 4011: 4010: 4005:. Archived from 3988: 3982: 3975: 3969: 3963: 3957: 3956: 3954: 3953: 3939: 3933: 3932: 3926: 3917: 3911: 3910: 3862: 3853: 3852: 3836: 3823: 3813: 3807: 3806: 3780: 3774: 3767: 3761: 3760: 3738: 3732: 3731: 3710: 3704: 3701: 3686: 3685: 3683: 3681: 3667: 3652: 3651: 3649: 3648: 3642: 3637:. Archived from 3618: 3612: 3611: 3610: 3609: 3600:, 3 April 2013, 3592: 3586: 3585: 3583: 3581: 3562: 3553: 3552: 3550: 3548: 3528: 3519: 3513: 3504: 3503: 3501: 3500: 3472: 3466: 3465: 3463: 3462: 3434: 3428: 3414: 3408: 3400: 3398: 3397: 3381: 3375: 3372: 3366: 3363: 3357: 3354: 3348: 3342: 3323: 3322: 3320: 3319: 3280: 3258: 3247: 3215:Euphrates Tunnel 3181: 3170:Antonio Tempesta 3162: 3143: 3121: 3102: 3076: 3044: 3008:Whore of Babylon 2949:Book of Jeremiah 2927:—all of them in 2727: 2648: 2568:Republic of Iraq 2542:Iraqi government 2393:, his successor 2379:Sassanid Empires 2311:), 521 BC ( 2243: 2240: 2183:Persian conquest 2169:Solomon's Temple 2158:Babylonian exile 2147:Stephanie Dalley 2064:by Nabopolassar. 1965:Merodach-Baladan 1706: 1703: 1641:Shar-Kali-Sharri 1585:George Syncellus 1581:Diodorus Siculus 1572:Classical dating 1558:short chronology 1555: 1552: 1503:Early references 1424:Illustration by 1337:A team from the 1266:Fulgence Fresnel 1145: 1144:(1815), pp. 1–2. 1138:Claudius J. Rich 1085: 1084: 1078: 1077: 1055: 1047: 1042:Imperial Aramaic 1036: 1031:Classical Syriac 1025: 1024: 1013: 897: 896: 891: 885: 875: 869: 868: 863: 855: 854: 849: 843: 842: 837: 831: 825: 824: 808: 797: 796: 732: 728: 725: 721: 717: 714: 682: 610:Shar-Kali-Sharri 383: 380: 370: 367: 326: 325: 323: 322: 321: 316: 312: 309: 308: 307: 304: 253: 244: 239: 227: 215: 206: 201: 196:Classical Syriac 192: 187: 182:Imperial Aramaic 178: 173: 164: 159: 150: 145: 124: 115: 114: 108: 96: 95:Show map of Iraq 87: 86: 80: 63: 53: 45: 41: 32: 25: 6743: 6742: 6738: 6737: 6736: 6734: 6733: 6732: 6663: 6662: 6661: 6656: 6644: 6606: 6601: 6559: 6544: 6514:Wayback Machine 6477:Wayback Machine 6456: 6448:. 10 July 2009. 6444: 6418: 6392: 6364: 6338: 6305: 6303:Further reading 6254:Liverani, Mario 6220: 6215: 6214: 6205: 6201: 6192: 6188: 6180: 6176: 6167: 6165: 6152: 6151: 6147: 6135: 6134: 6125: 6124: 6117: 6115: 6103: 6102: 6098: 6089: 6087: 6074: 6073: 6069: 6060: 6058: 6045: 6044: 6040: 6031: 6029: 6016: 6015: 6011: 6002: 6000: 5987: 5986: 5982: 5975: 5971: 5964: 5948: 5944: 5938: 5934: 5924: 5922: 5909: 5908: 5904: 5885: 5881: 5862: 5858: 5853: 5849: 5844:Wayback Machine 5829: 5825: 5820:Wayback Machine 5803: 5799: 5793:The Independent 5789:Wayback Machine 5779: 5775: 5765:Wayback Machine 5756: 5752: 5743: 5741: 5726: 5722: 5712: 5710: 5699: 5695: 5686: 5684: 5669: 5665: 5656: 5654: 5639: 5632: 5623: 5621: 5608: 5607: 5603: 5596: 5578: 5574: 5564:Wayback Machine 5554: 5550: 5533: 5529: 5520: 5513: 5508: 5501: 5493: 5489: 5482: 5478: 5471: 5457: 5453: 5445: 5441: 5432: 5425: 5417: 5413: 5406: 5392: 5388: 5381: 5367: 5363: 5358: 5354: 5345: 5343: 5334: 5333: 5329: 5320:Wayback Machine 5311: 5307: 5299: 5295: 5290: 5286: 5281: 5277: 5260: 5253: 5251: 5228: 5221: 5212: 5210: 5197: 5196: 5192: 5182: 5180: 5171: 5170: 5166: 5158: 5154: 5135: 5131: 5114: 5110: 5103: 5081: 5077: 5068: 5066: 5059: 5043: 5039: 5028: 5012: 5008: 4999: 4997: 4974:10.2307/3856046 4954: 4950: 4944: 4940: 4935: 4931: 4926: 4922: 4910: 4906: 4901: 4897: 4891:Archibald Sayce 4885: 4881: 4876: 4872: 4862: 4860: 4833: 4826: 4821: 4817: 4812: 4808: 4803: 4799: 4792: 4788: 4781: 4777: 4770: 4766: 4759: 4755: 4748: 4744: 4737: 4733: 4728: 4724: 4719: 4715: 4708: 4704: 4699: 4695: 4690: 4686: 4674: 4670: 4663: 4659: 4654: 4650: 4641: 4639: 4637: 4621: 4617: 4610: 4606: 4593: 4589: 4584: 4580: 4575: 4571: 4564: 4560: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4536:Robert Koldewey 4532: 4528: 4521: 4517: 4512: 4508: 4496: 4492: 4485: 4481: 4472: 4470: 4469:. pp. 1–45 4463: 4456: 4446: 4444: 4434: 4430: 4421: 4419: 4408: 4401: 4394: 4372: 4363: 4342: 4338: 4329: 4327: 4318: 4311: 4299: 4295: 4283: 4279: 4266: 4262: 4249: 4242: 4221: 4217: 4210: 4206: 4199: 4195: 4188: 4184: 4179: 4175: 4168: 4164: 4157: 4146: 4138: 4134: 4126: 4122: 4112: 4110: 4095: 4084: 4077: 4054:10.2307/4200384 4035: 4031: 4018: 4014: 3990: 3989: 3985: 3976: 3972: 3964: 3960: 3951: 3949: 3943:"ribo/babylon7" 3941: 3940: 3936: 3924: 3918: 3914: 3863: 3856: 3837: 3826: 3814: 3810: 3795: 3781: 3777: 3768: 3764: 3739: 3735: 3714:Ernest A. Budge 3711: 3707: 3702: 3689: 3679: 3677: 3669: 3668: 3655: 3646: 3644: 3619: 3615: 3607: 3605: 3594: 3593: 3589: 3579: 3577: 3572:. 5 July 2019. 3564: 3563: 3556: 3546: 3544: 3529: 3522: 3514: 3507: 3498: 3496: 3489: 3473: 3469: 3460: 3458: 3451: 3435: 3431: 3402: 3401: 3395: 3393: 3388: 3382: 3378: 3373: 3369: 3364: 3360: 3355: 3351: 3343: 3326: 3317: 3315: 3308: 3281: 3272: 3267: 3262: 3261: 3248: 3244: 3239: 3201: 3194: 3182: 3173: 3163: 3154: 3151:Fall of Babylon 3144: 3135: 3122: 3113: 3103: 3094: 3082:Fall of Babylon 3077: 3068: 3065: 3045: 3036: 3010:", riding on a 3004:Christian Bible 2909:Book of Genesis 2905: 2886:" is a song by 2850:science fiction 2806:William Simpson 2780: 2744: 2739: 2738: 2737: 2736: 2733: 2728: 2672:James T. Conway 2640: 2638: 2587:Lion of Babylon 2556:Arab Federation 2544: 2524:Carsten Niebuhr 2517:Lion of Babylon 2509: 2450: 2444: 2442:Muslim conquest 2383:Persian Empires 2371: 2365: 2325: 2241: 2195:Cyrus the Great 2191: 2189:Fall of Babylon 2185: 2143:Robert Koldewey 2120:Pergamon Museum 2078:Pergamon Museum 2054: 2048: 1994:, who ruled in 1934: 1932:Assyrian period 1880:Kassite dynasty 1874:, ruler of the 1868: 1845:Sealand Dynasty 1704: 1664:Old Babylonian 1650: 1621: 1613:23rd century BC 1574: 1553: 1547:Sargon of Akkad 1541:(also known as 1505: 1418: 1343:Robert Koldewey 1305:Henry Rawlinson 1278:Qurnah Disaster 1243:Qurnah Disaster 1213: 1152:Euphrates river 1147: 1136: 1119: 1061:Book of Genesis 976:Sargonic period 953:Babylon in 1932 905:Archibald Sayce 769: 730: 726: 719: 715: 680: 614:Akkadian Empire 532: 531: 530: 521:Without proper 447: 415:, recent Iraqi 409:Robert Koldewey 381: 368: 319: 317: 313: 310: 305: 302: 300: 298: 297: 268: 128: 127: 126: 125: 122: 121: 118: 117: 116: 99: 98: 97: 94: 93: 90: 89: 88: 66: 54: 40: 33: 26: 19: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6741: 6731: 6730: 6725: 6720: 6715: 6710: 6705: 6700: 6695: 6690: 6685: 6680: 6678:Amorite cities 6675: 6658: 6657: 6647: 6645: 6643: 6642: 6637: 6632: 6627: 6622: 6617: 6611: 6608: 6607: 6600: 6599: 6592: 6585: 6577: 6571: 6570: 6565: 6557: 6552: 6540: 6529: 6521: 6516: 6504: 6499: 6484: 6479: 6467: 6462: 6455: 6454:External links 6452: 6451: 6450: 6442: 6437: 6434: 6431: 6416: 6396: 6390: 6377: 6371: 6350: 6345: 6342: 6336: 6323: 6320: 6317: 6312: 6309: 6304: 6301: 6300: 6299: 6292: 6273: 6251: 6236: 6219: 6216: 6213: 6212: 6199: 6186: 6174: 6145: 6096: 6067: 6038: 6009: 5980: 5969: 5962: 5942: 5932: 5902: 5899:on 2017-08-06. 5879: 5856: 5847: 5823: 5797: 5773: 5750: 5720: 5693: 5663: 5630: 5601: 5594: 5572: 5570:20 April 2003. 5548: 5544:New York Times 5527: 5511: 5499: 5487: 5476: 5469: 5451: 5439: 5423: 5421:, p. 148. 5411: 5404: 5386: 5379: 5361: 5352: 5327: 5313:Cyrus Cylinder 5305: 5293: 5291:Jeremiah 50–51 5284: 5275: 5272:on 2017-05-05. 5219: 5203:www.livius.org 5190: 5164: 5152: 5129: 5108: 5101: 5075: 5057: 5037: 5026: 5006: 4948: 4938: 4929: 4920: 4904: 4895: 4879: 4870: 4824: 4815: 4806: 4797: 4786: 4775: 4764: 4753: 4742: 4731: 4722: 4713: 4702: 4693: 4684: 4668: 4657: 4648: 4635: 4615: 4604: 4587: 4578: 4569: 4558: 4544: 4526: 4515: 4506: 4498:Hormuzd Rassam 4490: 4479: 4454: 4428: 4399: 4392: 4361: 4336: 4309: 4301:H V. Hilprecht 4293: 4277: 4260: 4240: 4215: 4204: 4193: 4182: 4173: 4162: 4155: 4132: 4130:, p. 175. 4120: 4075: 4029: 4012: 3983: 3970: 3958: 3934: 3912: 3854: 3824: 3808: 3793: 3775: 3762: 3733: 3705: 3687: 3653: 3613: 3587: 3554: 3520: 3505: 3487: 3467: 3449: 3429: 3376: 3367: 3358: 3349: 3324: 3306: 3269: 3268: 3266: 3263: 3260: 3259: 3241: 3240: 3238: 3235: 3234: 3233: 3231:Tomb of Daniel 3228: 3223: 3218: 3212: 3207: 3200: 3197: 3196: 3195: 3183: 3176: 3174: 3164: 3157: 3155: 3153:, 15th century 3145: 3138: 3136: 3123: 3116: 3114: 3104: 3097: 3095: 3078: 3071: 3069: 3063: 3046: 3039: 3035: 3034:Babylon in art 3032: 2933:Tower of Babel 2904: 2901: 2900: 2899: 2891: 2880: 2866: 2858: 2841: 2779: 2776: 2743: 2740: 2734: 2730: 2729: 2722: 2721: 2720: 2688:British Museum 2658:Following the 2637: 2634: 2618:Saddam Hussein 2616:In the 1980s, 2595:Saddam Hussein 2583:Saddam Hussein 2564:Ba'athist Iraq 2560:Iraqi Republic 2543: 2540: 2508: 2505: 2499:cemented with 2489:Tower of Babel 2446:Main article: 2443: 2440: 2367:Main article: 2364: 2361: 2349:Nebuchadnezzar 2324: 2321: 2294:Persian Empire 2266:Cyrus Cylinder 2203:Battle of Opis 2187:Main article: 2184: 2181: 2050:Main article: 2047: 2044: 1942:Babylonian war 1933: 1930: 1876:Hittite Empire 1867: 1866:Middle Babylon 1864: 1649: 1646: 1620: 1617: 1573: 1570: 1545:) states that 1537:The so-called 1504: 1501: 1417: 1414: 1329:(sirrush) and 1317:British Museum 1313:Hormuzd Rassam 1255:Charles LeBrun 1228:William Loftus 1212: 1209: 1205: 1204: 1201: 1190: 1177:, a temple of 1171: 1164:Neo-Babylonian 1128: 1118: 1115: 984:Kassite period 913:folk etymology 768: 765: 618:Gutian Dynasty 525:, you may see 513: 512: 511: 508: 507: 504: 503: 500: 499: 494: 490: 489: 484: 480: 479: 469: 465: 464: 461: 457: 456: 453: 449: 448: 443: 440: 439: 436: 435: 432: 428: 427: 424: 420: 419: 405:Hormuzd Rassam 402: 401:Archaeologists 398: 397: 393: 392: 389: 385: 384: 382: 1000 AD 376: 372: 371: 369: 1894 BC 363: 359: 358: 354: 353: 350: 346: 345: 340: 336: 335: 332: 328: 327: 295: 291: 290: 285: 281: 280: 274: 270: 269: 267: 266: 257: 245: 231: 219: 207: 193: 179: 165: 151: 136: 134: 130: 129: 119: 110: 109: 103: 102: 101: 100: 91: 82: 81: 75: 74: 73: 72: 71: 68: 67: 64: 56: 55: 48: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6740: 6729: 6726: 6724: 6721: 6719: 6716: 6714: 6711: 6709: 6706: 6704: 6701: 6699: 6696: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6670: 6668: 6651: 6641: 6638: 6636: 6633: 6631: 6628: 6626: 6623: 6621: 6618: 6616: 6613: 6612: 6609: 6605: 6598: 6593: 6591: 6586: 6584: 6579: 6578: 6575: 6569: 6566: 6562: 6558: 6556: 6553: 6551: 6547: 6541: 6538: 6534: 6530: 6527: 6526: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6515: 6511: 6508: 6505: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6494: 6493: 6488: 6485: 6483: 6480: 6478: 6474: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6463: 6461: 6458: 6457: 6447: 6443: 6440: 6438: 6435: 6432: 6429: 6428:0-500-27384-7 6425: 6419: 6417:0-500-02095-7 6413: 6408: 6407: 6401: 6397: 6393: 6387: 6383: 6378: 6374: 6372: 6368: 6360: 6356: 6351: 6348: 6346: 6343: 6339: 6333: 6329: 6324: 6321: 6318: 6315: 6313: 6310: 6307: 6306: 6297: 6293: 6289: 6285: 6281: 6280: 6274: 6271: 6267: 6263: 6259: 6255: 6252: 6249: 6248:0-19-538540-3 6245: 6241: 6237: 6234: 6230: 6226: 6222: 6221: 6209: 6203: 6196: 6190: 6183: 6178: 6163: 6159: 6158:Bible Gateway 6155: 6149: 6141: 6129: 6113: 6109: 6108: 6100: 6085: 6081: 6080:Bible Gateway 6077: 6071: 6056: 6052: 6051:Bible Gateway 6048: 6042: 6027: 6023: 6022:Bible Gateway 6019: 6013: 5998: 5994: 5993:Bible Gateway 5990: 5984: 5978: 5977:Genesis 10:10 5973: 5965: 5963:9781566395847 5959: 5955: 5954: 5946: 5936: 5920: 5916: 5912: 5906: 5898: 5894: 5890: 5883: 5875: 5871: 5867: 5860: 5851: 5845: 5841: 5837: 5836:MetropolisMag 5833: 5827: 5821: 5817: 5813: 5812: 5807: 5801: 5794: 5790: 5786: 5783: 5777: 5770: 5766: 5762: 5759: 5754: 5739: 5735: 5731: 5724: 5708: 5704: 5697: 5682: 5678: 5674: 5667: 5652: 5648: 5644: 5637: 5635: 5619: 5615: 5611: 5605: 5597: 5595:9780226729435 5591: 5586: 5585: 5576: 5569: 5565: 5561: 5558: 5552: 5545: 5541: 5537: 5534:Paul Lewis, " 5531: 5524: 5518: 5516: 5506: 5504: 5496: 5491: 5484: 5480: 5472: 5466: 5462: 5455: 5448: 5443: 5436: 5430: 5428: 5420: 5415: 5407: 5401: 5397: 5390: 5382: 5380:0-415-16524-5 5376: 5373:. Routledge. 5372: 5365: 5356: 5341: 5337: 5331: 5324: 5321: 5317: 5314: 5309: 5302: 5297: 5288: 5279: 5271: 5267: 5263: 5249: 5245: 5241: 5237: 5233: 5232:"Ch. 178-200" 5226: 5224: 5208: 5204: 5200: 5194: 5178: 5174: 5168: 5161: 5156: 5150: 5146: 5142: 5138: 5133: 5126: 5125:0-520-20222-8 5122: 5118: 5112: 5104: 5098: 5094: 5089: 5088: 5079: 5064: 5060: 5054: 5050: 5049: 5041: 5033: 5029: 5023: 5019: 5018: 5010: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4975: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4959: 4952: 4942: 4933: 4924: 4917: 4913: 4908: 4899: 4892: 4888: 4883: 4874: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4831: 4829: 4819: 4810: 4801: 4794: 4790: 4783: 4779: 4772: 4768: 4761: 4757: 4750: 4746: 4739: 4735: 4726: 4717: 4710: 4706: 4697: 4688: 4682: 4681:3-8053-1610-0 4678: 4672: 4665: 4661: 4652: 4638: 4632: 4628: 4627: 4619: 4612: 4608: 4601: 4600:3-7861-2001-3 4597: 4591: 4582: 4573: 4566: 4562: 4552: 4548: 4541: 4537: 4534: 4530: 4523: 4519: 4510: 4503: 4499: 4494: 4487: 4483: 4468: 4465:Namio Egami. 4461: 4459: 4443: 4439: 4432: 4417: 4413: 4410:Potts, D. T. 4406: 4404: 4395: 4393:9781317949954 4389: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4370: 4368: 4366: 4359:) (in French) 4358: 4357:0-543-74939-8 4354: 4350: 4346: 4340: 4325: 4324: 4316: 4314: 4306: 4302: 4297: 4290: 4286: 4281: 4273: 4272: 4264: 4256: 4255: 4247: 4245: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4227: 4219: 4212: 4208: 4201: 4197: 4190: 4186: 4177: 4170: 4166: 4158: 4152: 4145: 4144: 4136: 4129: 4124: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4094: 4093: 4088: 4082: 4080: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4033: 4025: 4024: 4016: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3998: 3993: 3987: 3980: 3974: 3967: 3962: 3948: 3944: 3938: 3930: 3923: 3916: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3861: 3859: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3835: 3833: 3831: 3829: 3821: 3817: 3812: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3794:9780931464881 3790: 3786: 3779: 3772: 3766: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3745: 3737: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3720: 3715: 3709: 3700: 3698: 3696: 3694: 3692: 3676: 3672: 3666: 3664: 3662: 3660: 3658: 3643:on 2021-12-28 3641: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3617: 3603: 3599: 3598: 3591: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3561: 3559: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3527: 3525: 3517: 3512: 3510: 3494: 3490: 3488:9789042914490 3484: 3480: 3479: 3471: 3456: 3452: 3450:9780191588457 3446: 3442: 3441: 3433: 3426: 3422: 3421:0-88946-207-0 3418: 3412: 3406: 3391: 3386: 3380: 3371: 3362: 3353: 3345: 3341: 3339: 3337: 3335: 3333: 3331: 3329: 3313: 3309: 3303: 3299: 3298: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3279: 3277: 3275: 3270: 3256: 3252: 3246: 3242: 3232: 3229: 3227: 3224: 3222: 3219: 3216: 3213: 3211: 3208: 3206: 3203: 3202: 3192: 3188: 3187: 3180: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3161: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3142: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3127: 3120: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3101: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3083: 3075: 3070: 3066: 3059: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3043: 3038: 3037: 3031: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3018:believe this 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2996: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2973: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2950: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2897: 2896: 2892: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2867: 2864: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2854:space station 2851: 2847: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2823: 2822: 2821: 2819: 2814: 2807: 2802: 2795: 2794: 2789: 2784: 2775: 2772: 2766: 2764: 2758: 2756: 2753: 2749: 2732: 2726: 2719: 2716: 2712: 2710: 2706: 2705:Polish troops 2699: 2697: 2691: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2668:Polish forces 2665: 2661: 2653: 2633: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2614: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2590: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2575: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2539: 2535: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2518: 2513: 2504: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2473: 2470: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2449: 2439: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2418: 2414: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2398: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2370: 2360: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2320: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2297: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2270: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2252:According to 2247: 2242: 470 BC 2235: 2231: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2215: 2210: 2208: 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