Babylonia - Knowledge

5772: 4504: 4837: 4722: 5623: 5214:(a capable soldier but poor diplomat who alienated the political elite), occupying himself with the more congenial work of excavating the foundation records of the temples and determining the dates of their builders. He also spent time outside Babylonia, rebuilding temples in the Assyrian city of Harran, and also among his Arab subjects in the deserts to the south of Mesopotamia. Nabonidus and Belshazzar's Assyrian heritage is also likely to have added to this resentment. In addition, Mesopotamian military might had usually been concentrated in the martial state of Assyria. Babylonia had always been more vulnerable to conquest and invasion than its northern neighbour, and without the might of Assyria to keep foreign powers in check and Mesopotamia dominant, Babylonia was ultimately exposed. 5588: 6222:

taken as the product of the base and the height, however, the volume of the frustum of a cone or a square pyramid was incorrectly taken as the product of the height and half the sum of the bases. Also, there was a recent discovery in which a tablet used π as 3 and 1/8. The Babylonians are also known for the Babylonian mile, which was a measure of distance equal to about 11 kilometres (7 mi) today. This measurement for distances eventually was converted to a time-mile used for measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore, representing time. (Eves, Chapter 2) The Babylonians used also space time graphs to calculate the velocity of Jupiter. This is an idea that is considered highly modern, traced to the 14th century England and France and anticipating integral calculus.

3356: 132: 3101: 4826: 3813: 36: 6463: 5322: 3331:, remaining the long-dominant deity in northern Mesopotamian Assyria). The city of Babylon became known as a "holy city" where any legitimate ruler of southern Mesopotamia had to be crowned, and the city was also revered by Assyria for these religious reasons. Hammurabi turned what had previously been a minor administrative town into a large, powerful and influential city, extended its rule over the entirety of southern Mesopotamia, and erected a number of buildings. 5233:. Astyages' army betrayed him to his enemy, and Cyrus established himself at Ecbatana, thus putting an end to the empire of the Medes and making the Persian faction dominant among the Iranic peoples. Three years later Cyrus had become king of all Persia, and was engaged in a campaign to put down a revolt among the Assyrians. Meanwhile, Nabonidus had established a camp in the desert of his colony of Arabia, near the southern frontier of his kingdom, leaving his son 3703: 369: 10618: 2597: 6439:

without saying, "We are only a test ˹for you˺, so do not abandon ˹your˺ faith." Yet people learned ˹magic˺ that caused a rift ˹even˺ between husband and wife; although their magic could not harm anyone except by Allah's Will. They learned what harmed them and did not benefit them—although they already knew that whoever buys into magic would have no share in the Hereafter. Miserable indeed was the price for which they sold their souls, if only they knew!

3178:). He conducted major building work in Babylon, expanding it from a small town into a great city worthy of kingship. A very efficient ruler, he established a bureaucracy, with taxation and centralized government. Hammurabi freed Babylon from Elamite dominance, and indeed drove the Elamites from southern Mesopotamia entirely, invading Elam itself. He then systematically conquered southern Mesopotamia, including the cities of Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna, Kish, 10628: 8936: 3155:, and then on only one single clay tablet. Under these kings, Babylonia remained a small nation which controlled very little territory, and was overshadowed by neighbouring kingdoms that were both older, larger, and more powerful, such as; Isin, Larsa, Assyria to the north and Elam to the east in ancient Iran. The Elamites occupied huge swathes of southern Mesopotamia, and the early Amorite rulers were largely held in vassalage to Elam. 7985: 3525: 4008: 9498: 739: 5143: 10638: 10648: 3955:. Kurigalzu launched a campaign which resulted in the abject defeat and capture of Ḫur-batila, who appears in no other inscriptions. He went on to conquer the eastern lands of Elam. This took his army to the Elamite capital, the city of Susa, which was sacked. After this a puppet ruler was placed on the Elamite throne, subject to Babylonia. Kurigalzu I maintained friendly relations with Assyria, 4998: 6157:(2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, and 30), making calculations easier. Additionally, unlike the Egyptians and Romans, the Babylonians had a true place-value system, where digits written in the left column represented larger values (much as in our base-ten system: 734 = 7×100 + 3×10 + 4×1). Among the Babylonians' mathematical accomplishments were the determination of the 7075: 5171:(560–556 BC) also had a short reign. He was the son in law of Nebuchadnezzar II, and it is unclear if he was a Chaldean or native Babylonian who married into the dynasty. He campaigned in Aram and Phoenicia, successfully maintaining Babylonian rule in these regions. Neriglissar died young however, and was succeeded by his son 4149:(1157–1155 BC) was finally overthrown and the Kassite dynasty ended after Ashur-dan I conquered yet more of northern and central Babylonia, and the equally powerful Shutruk-Nahhunte pushed deep into the heart of Babylonia itself, sacking the city and slaying the king. Poetical works have been found lamenting this disaster. 4224:, and recovering the sacred statue of Marduk that had been carried off from Babylon during the fall of the Kassites. Shortly afterwards, the king of Elam was assassinated and his kingdom disintegrated into civil war. However, Nebuchadnezzar failed to extend Babylonian territory further, being defeated a number of times by 2993:, gradually gaining control over most of southern Mesopotamia, where they formed a series of small kingdoms, while the Assyrians reasserted their independence in the north. The states of the south were unable to stem the Amorite advance, and for a time may have relied on their fellow Akkadians in Assyria for protection. 4398:, another nomadic Northwest Semitic-speaking people described in Assyrian annals as the "Kaldu". The Chaldeans settled in the far southeast of Babylonia, joining the already long extant Arameans and Suteans. By 850 BC the migrant Chaldeans had established a small territory in the extreme southeast of Mesopotamia. 3128:, of which it had initially been a territory, turning his newly acquired lands into a state in its own right. His reign was concerned with establishing statehood amongst a sea of other minor city-states and kingdoms in the region. However, Sumu-abum appears never to have bothered to give himself the title of 5209:

A number of factors arose which would ultimately lead to the fall of Babylon. The population of Babylonia became restive and increasingly disaffected under Nabonidus. He excited a strong feeling against himself by attempting to centralize the polytheistic religion of Babylonia in the temple of Marduk

3645:

The movement of Mursili's troops was around 800 km from the conquered Aleppo to reach the Euphrates, located to the east, skirting around Assyria, and then to the south along the course of the river to reach finally Babylon. His conquest of Babylon brought to an end the dynasty of Hammurabi, and

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The Chaldean tribe had lost control of Babylonia decades before the end of the era that sometimes bears their name, and they appear to have blended into the general populace of Babylonia even before this (for example, Nabopolassar, Nebuchadnezzar II and their successors always referred to themselves

3334:

The Amorite-ruled Babylonians, like their predecessor states, engaged in regular trade with the Amorite and Canaanite city-states to the west, with Babylonian officials or troops sometimes passing to the Levant and Canaan, and Amorite merchants operating freely throughout Mesopotamia. The Babylonian

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The Babylonians might have been familiar with the general rules for measuring the areas. They measured the circumference of a circle as three times the diameter and the area as one-twelfth the square of the circumference, which would be correct if π were estimated as 3. The volume of a cylinder was

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A considerable amount of Babylonian literature was translated from Sumerian originals, and the language of religion and law long continued to be written in the old agglutinative language of Sumer. Vocabularies, grammars, and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students, as well as

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We find in a whole constellation of disciplines. ... There was a real common ground among these forms of knowledge ... an approach involving analysis of particular cases, constructed only through traces, symptoms, hints. ... In short, we can speak about a symptomatic or divinatory paradigm which

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Bronze Age to Early Iron Age Mesopotamian culture is sometimes summarized as "Assyro-Babylonian", because of the close ethnic, linguistic and cultural interdependence of the two political centers. The term "Babylonia", especially in writings from around the early 20th century, was formerly used to

4844:

In 620 BC Nabopolassar seized control over much of Babylonia with the support of most of the inhabitants, with only the city of Nippur and some northern regions showing any loyalty to the beleaguered Assyrian king. Nabopolassar was unable to utterly secure Babylonia, and for the next four years he

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of the Arabian Peninsula and the Canaanites-Phoenicians. After a bitter struggle Babylon was sacked and its allies vanquished, Shamash-shum-ukim being killed in the process. Elam was destroyed once and for all, and the Babylonians, Persians, Chaldeans, Arabs, Medes, Elamites, Arameans, Suteans and

2974:) in the late 22nd century BC, and ejected the Gutians from southern Mesopotamia in 2161 BC as suggested by surviving tablets and astronomy simulations. They also seem to have gained ascendancy over much of the territory of the Akkadian speaking kings of Assyria in northern Mesopotamia for a time. 6438:

They ˹instead˺ followed the magic promoted by the devils during the reign of Solomon. Never did Solomon disbelieve, rather the devils disbelieved. They taught magic to the people, along with what had been revealed to the two angels, Hârût and Mârût, in Babylon. The two angels never taught anyone

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in northwest Assyria for a time, however, by 599 BC Assyrian imperial records from this region also fell silent. The fate of Ashur-uballit II remains unknown, and he may have been killed attempting to regain Harran, at Carchemish, or continued to fight on, eventually disappearing into obscurity.

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as Babylonia), but already by the time Babylon was founded, this was no longer a spoken language, having been wholly subsumed by Akkadian. The earlier Akkadian and Sumerian traditions played a major role in the descendant Babylonian and Assyrian culture, and the region would remain an important

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and Parthian times, the astronomical reports were of a thoroughly scientific character; how much earlier their advanced knowledge and methods were developed is uncertain. The Babylonian development of methods for predicting the motions of the planets is considered to be a major episode in the

5956:

There were libraries in most towns and temples; an old Sumerian proverb averred that "he who would excel in the school of the scribes must rise with the dawn". Women as well as men learned to read and write, and in Semitic times, this involved knowledge of the extinct Sumerian language, and a

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Past scholars originally extrapolated from this text that it means he defeated the invading Amorites to the south and Elamites to the east, but there is no explicit record of that, and some scholars believe the Assyrian kings were merely giving preferential trade agreements to the south.

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The Egyptians attempted to remain in the Near East, possibly in an effort to aid in restoring Assyria as a secure buffer against Babylonia and the Medes and Persians, or to carve out an empire of their own. Nebuchadnezzar II campaigned against the Egyptians and drove them back over the

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Despite the loss of territory, general military weakness, and evident reduction in literacy and culture, the Kassite dynasty was the longest-lived dynasty of Babylon, lasting until 1155 BC, when Babylon was conquered by Shutruk-Nakhunte of Elam, and reconquered a few years later by the

4019:

succeeded the throne of Assyria in 1327 BC, Kurigalzu II attacked Assyria in an attempt to reassert Babylonian power. After some impressive initial successes he was ultimately defeated, and lost yet more territory to Assyria. Between 1307 BC and 1232 BC his successors, such as

5202:(Kharranu). His father's origins remain unknown. Information regarding Nabonidus is chiefly derived from a chronological tablet containing the annals of Nabonidus, supplemented by another inscription of Nabonidus where he recounts his restoration of the temple of the Moon-god 4386:, who ruled from 941 BC. Babylonia remained weak during this period, with whole areas of Babylonia now under firm Aramean and Sutean control. Babylonian rulers were often forced to bow to pressure from Assyria and Elam, both of which had appropriated Babylonian territory. 4177:. His dynasty was to remain in power for some 125 years. The new king successfully drove out the Elamites and prevented any possible Kassite revival. Later in his reign he went to war with Assyria, and had some initial success, briefly capturing the south Assyrian city of 2865:. The influence of Sumerian on Akkadian and vice versa is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a massive scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence. This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the third millennium as a 5781:

could be oriented toward past present or future, depending on the form of knowledge called upon. Toward future ... that was the medical science of symptoms, with its double character, diagnostic, explaining past and present, and prognostic, suggesting likely future. ...

3637:"And then he marched to Aleppo, and he destroyed Aleppo and brought captives and possessions of Aleppo to Ḫattuša. Then, however, he marched to Babylon, and he destroyed Babylon, and he defeated the Hurrian troops, and he brought captives and possessions of Babylon to 4993:

where he founded a new capital. The fighting continued, as the Assyrian king held out against the alliance until 607 BC, when he was eventually ejected by the Medes, Babylonians, Scythians and their allies, and prevented in an attempt to regain the city the same year.

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also campaigned against the Sealand Dynasty, finally wholly conquering the far south of Mesopotamia for Babylon, destroying its capital Dur-Enlil in the process. From there Agum III extended farther south still, invading what was many centuries later to be called the

5029:, whose dynasty had been installed as vassals of Assyria in 671 BC, belatedly tried to aid Egypt's former Assyrian masters, possibly out of fear that Egypt would be next to succumb to the new powers without Assyria to protect them, having already been ravaged by the 6141:

from the last three or four centuries BC. In respect of content there is scarcely any difference between the two groups of texts. Thus Babylonian mathematics remained stale in character and content, with very little progress or innovation, for nearly two millennia.

4602:, a Chaldean malka (chieftain) of the far southeast of Mesopotamia, then fomented revolt against Assyrian domination, assisted by strong Elamite support. Marduk-apla-iddina managed to take the throne of Babylon itself between 721 and 710 BC whilst the Assyrian king 4669:

on the throne in Babylon. However, Marduk-apla-iddina returned from exile in Elam, and briefly deposed Marduk-zakir-shumi, whereupon Esarhaddon was forced to attack and defeat him. Marduk-apla-iddina once more fled to his masters in Elam, where he died in exile.

5260:(October), Gobryas having acted for him in his absence. Gobryas was now made governor of the province of Babylon, and a few days afterwards Belshazzar the son of Nabonidus died in battle. A public mourning followed, lasting six days, and Cyrus' son 5758:. The Babylonian GU text arranges stars in 'strings' that lie along declination circles and thus measure right-ascensions or time-intervals, and also employs the stars of the zenith, which are also separated by given right-ascensional differences. 5044:(605–562 BC), whose reign of 43 years made Babylon once more the ruler of much of the civilized world, taking over portions of the former Assyrian Empire, with the eastern and northeastern portion being taken by the Medes and the far north by the 4572:

were also in servitude to Tiglath-Pileser III, until in 729 BC the Assyrian king decided to rule Babylon directly as its king instead of allowing Babylonian kings to remain as vassals of Assyria as his predecessors had done for two hundred years.

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parts of southeast Anatolia from the 21st century BC, and from the latter part of the 20th century BC had asserted itself over the northeast Levant and central Mesopotamia. After a protracted struggle over decades with the powerful Assyrian kings

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4 is the length and 5 is the diagonal. What is the breadth? Its size is not known. 4 times 4 is 16. And 5 times 5 is 25. You take 16 from 25 and there remains 9. What times what shall I take in order to get 9? 3 times 3 is 9. 3 is the breadth.

6153:. From this we derive the modern-day usage of 60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an hour, and 360 (60 × 6) degrees in a circle. The Babylonians were able to make great advances in mathematics for two reasons. First, the number 60 has many 3318:

From before 3000 BC until the reign of Hammurabi, the major cultural and religious center of southern Mesopotamia had been the ancient city of Nippur, where the god Enlil was supreme. Hammurabi transferred this dominance to Babylon, making

3414:. By the end of his reign Babylonia had shrunk to the small and relatively weak nation it had been upon its foundation, although the city itself was far larger and opulent than the small town it had been prior to the rise of Hammurabi. 5256:, two days after the capture of Sippar, "the soldiers of Cyrus entered Babylon without fighting." Nabonidus was dragged from his hiding place, where the services continued without interruption. Cyrus did not arrive until the 3rd of 3785:

It is not clear precisely when Kassite rule of Babylon began, but the Indo-European Hittites from Anatolia did not remain in Babylonia for long after the sacking of the city, and it is likely the Kassites moved in soon afterwards.

4259:(1115–1076 BC), who annexed huge swathes of Babylonian territory, thus further expanding the Assyrian Empire. Following this a terrible famine gripped Babylon, inviting attacks and migrations from the northwest Semitic tribes of 5134:

itself. After securing his empire, which included marrying a Median princess, he devoted himself to maintaining the empire and conducting numerous impressive building projects in Babylon. He is credited with building the fabled

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succeeded his father in 1138 BC, and successfully repelled Elamite attacks on Babylonia during his 8-year reign. He too made attempts to attack Assyria, but also met with failure at the hands of the still reigning Ashur-Dan I.

3194:, and Eridu. His conquests gave the region stability after turbulent times, and coalesced the patchwork of small states into a single nation; it is only from the time of Hammurabi that southern Mesopotamia acquired the name 4584:

of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and the still spoken (by Assyrians and Mandeans) Mesopotamian Aramaic began to slowly overlay and supplant Akkadian as the spoken language of the general populace of both Assyria and Babylonia.

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From this point on the coalition of Babylonians, Chaldeans, Medes, Persians, Scythians, Cimmerians and Sagartians fought in unison against a civil war ravaged Assyria. Major Assyrian cities such as Ashur, Arbela (modern

4681:(681–669 BC) ruled Babylon personally, he completely rebuilt the city, bringing rejuvenation and peace to the region. Upon his death, and in an effort to maintain harmony within his vast empire (which stretched from the 4370:

The south Mesopotamian dynasty was replaced by another Kassite Dynasty (Dynasty VI; 1003–984 BC) which also seems to have regained control over Babylon itself. The Elamites deposed this brief Kassite revival, with king

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It was during the reign of Sin-shar-ishkun that Assyria's vast empire began to unravel, and many of its former subject peoples ceased to pay tribute, most significantly for the Assyrians; the Babylonians, Chaldeans,

4173:, with the first native Akkadian-speaking south Mesopotamian dynasty to rule Babylonia, with Marduk-kabit-ahheshu becoming only the second native Mesopotamian to sit on the throne of Babylon, after the Assyrian king 3763:. Most divine attributes ascribed to the Amorite kings of Babylonia disappeared at this time; the title "god" was never given to a Kassite sovereign. Babylon continued to be the capital of the kingdom and one of the 5271:

to return to their own homes, carrying with them their sacred temple vessels. The permission to do so was embodied in a proclamation, whereby the conqueror endeavored to justify his claim to the Babylonian throne.

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along with glass vases bearing the name of Sargon; this could explain the excessive minuteness of some of the writing on the Assyrian tablets, and a lens may also have been used in the observation of the heavens.

5390:, and reigned from October 522 BC to August 520 BC, when Darius took the city by storm, during this period Assyria to the north also rebelled. A few years later, probably 514 BC, Babylon again revolted under the 4741:) should be the seat of the immense empire. He raised a major revolt against his brother, Ashurbanipal. He led a powerful coalition of peoples also resentful of Assyrian subjugation and rule, including Elam, the 4535:

attacked him and retook northern Babylonia, forcing a border treaty in Assyria's favour upon him. However, he was allowed to remain on the throne, and successfully stabilised the part of Babylonia he controlled.

4777:(622–612 BC) ousted him as ruler of Assyria and Babylonia in 622 BC. However, he too was beset by constant unremitting civil war in the Assyrian heartland. Babylonia took advantage of this and rebelled under 4544:

in 761 BC. Babylonia appears to have been in a state of chaos during this time, with the north occupied by Assyria, its throne occupied by foreign Chaldeans, and civil unrest prominent throughout the land.

3579:, as it is taken as a fixed point in the discussion. Suggestions for its precise date vary by as much as 230 years, corresponding to the uncertainty regarding the length of the "Dark Age" of the much later 5210:

at Babylon, and while he had thus alienated the local priesthoods, the military party also despised him on account of his antiquarian tastes. He seemed to have left the defense of his kingdom to his son

5727:, which lists the first and last visible risings of Venus over a period of about 21 years and is the earliest evidence that the phenomena of a planet were recognized as periodic. The oldest rectangular 3425:, both of whom were in too weak a position to make any attempt to regain the many territories lost after the death of Hammurabi, contenting themselves with peaceful building projects in Babylon itself. 2962:(2334–2154 BC) saw the Akkadian Semites and Sumerians of Mesopotamia unite under one rule, and the Akkadians fully attain ascendancy over the Sumerians and indeed come to dominate much of the ancient 2871:. Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as the spoken language of Mesopotamia somewhere around the turn of the third and the second millennium BC (the precise timeframe being a matter of debate). From 6080:

and some scholars have thus referred to this new approach as the first scientific revolution. This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy.

5067:, erstwhile allies of Babylonia under Nabopolassar, now became a threat, and Nebuchadnezzar II was forced to march into Anatolia and rout their forces, ending the northern threat to his Empire. 4903:

In 615 BC, while the Assyrian king was fully occupied fighting rebels in both Babylonia and Assyria itself, Cyaxares launched a surprise attack on the Assyrian heartlands, sacking the cities of

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was forced to contend with an occupying Assyrian army encamped in Babylonia trying to unseat him. However, the Assyrian king, Sin-shar-ishkun was plagued by constant revolts among his people in

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document the application of mathematics to the variation in the length of daylight over a solar year. Centuries of Babylonian observations of celestial phenomena are recorded in the series of

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fled to his allies in Elam. The Sealand Dynasty region still remained independent, and the Kassite king seems to have been unable to finally conquer it. Ulamburiash began making treaties with

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and Anatolia. The Hittite Empire of the northern and western Levant and eastern Anatolia had been largely annexed by the Middle Assyrian Empire, and its heartland finally overrun by invading

3050:(1920–1881 BC) succeeded as king in Assyria in 1920 BC, he eventually withdrew Assyria from the region, preferring to concentrate on continuing the vigorous expansion of Assyrian colonies in 4352:

was deposed by marauding Arameans in 1026 BC, and the heart of Babylonia, including the capital city itself descended into anarchic state, and no king was to rule Babylon for over 20 years.

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Babylonia remained in a state of chaos as the 10th century BC drew to a close. A further migration of nomads from the Levant occurred in the early 9th century BC with the arrival of the

4340:. Arameans settled much of the countryside in eastern and central Babylonia and the Suteans in the western deserts, with the weak Babylonian kings being unable to stem these migrations. 4220:(1124–1103 BC) was the most famous ruler of this dynasty. He fought and defeated the Elamites and drove them from Babylonian territory, invading Elam itself, sacking the Elamite capital 5299:

ceased to refer to a race of people, and instead specifically to a social class of priests educated in classical Babylonian literature, particularly Astronomy and Astrology. By the mid

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Southern Mesopotamia had no natural, defensible boundaries, making it vulnerable to attack. After the death of Hammurabi, his empire began to disintegrate rapidly. Under his successor

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says: "A second angel followed and said, 'Fallen! Fallen is Babylon the Great,' which made all the nations drink the maddening wine of her adulteries". Other examples can be found in

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commentaries on the older texts and explanations of obscure words and phrases. The characters of the syllabary were all arranged and named, and elaborate lists of them were drawn up.

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Nebuchadnezzar II may have also had to contend with remnants of the Assyrian resistance. Some sections of the Assyrian army and administration may have still continued in and around

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from the southeastern Levant who invaded Babylonia and sacked Uruk. He describes having "annihilated their extensive forces", then constructed fortresses in a mountain region called

4098:(1188–1172 BC) seems to have had a peaceful reign. Despite not being able to regain northern Babylonia from Assyria, no further territory was lost, Elam did not threaten, and the 5571:

history, and not only in reference to the later city-state of Babylon proper. This geographic usage of the name "Babylonia" has generally been replaced by the more accurate term

4244:. In the later years of his reign, Nebuchadnezzar I devoted himself to peaceful building projects and securing Babylonia's borders against the Assyrians, Elamites and Arameans. 4044:(who were both also losing swathes of territory to the resurgent Assyrians), in a failed attempt to stop Assyrian expansion. This expansion, nevertheless, continued unchecked. 3684:

After the conquest, Mursili I did not attempt to convert the whole region he had occupied from Aleppo to Babylon as a part of his kingdom; he instead made an alliance with the

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However, Assyria soon descended into a series of brutal internal civil wars which were to cause its downfall. Ashur-etil-ilani was deposed by one of his own generals, named

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in the month of June, where the Babylonians were defeated; and immediately afterwards Sippar surrendered to the invader. Nabonidus fled to Babylon, where he was pursued by

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Sturt W. Manning et al., Integrated Tree-Ring-Radiocarbon High-Resolution Timeframe to Resolve Earlier Second Millennium BCE Mesopotamian Chronology, PlosONE July 13, 2016

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and who managed to kill the last Chaldean king, Labashi-Marduk, and took the reign, there is a fair amount of information available. Nabonidus (hence his son, the regent

4409:, Babylon found itself once again under the domination and rule of its fellow Mesopotamian state for the next three centuries. Adad-nirari II twice attacked and defeated 3973:(1365–1050 BC) to the north was now encroaching into northern Babylonia, and as a symbol of peace, the Babylonian king took the daughter of the powerful Assyrian king 306: 281: 267: 3011:

The freedom of the Akkadians and their children I established. I purified their copper. I established their freedom from the border of the marshes and Ur and Nippur,

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Babylonia experienced short periods of relative power, but in general proved to be relatively weak under the long rule of the Kassites, and spent long periods under

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fell to the alliance during 614 BC. Sin-shar-ishkun somehow managed to rally against the odds during 613 BC, and drove back the combined forces ranged against him.

3918: 2966:. The empire eventually disintegrated due to economic decline, climate change, and civil war, followed by attacks by the language isolate speaking Gutians from the 4255:(1098–1081 BC) also went to war with Assyria. Some initial success in these conflicts gave way to a catastrophic defeat at the hands of the powerful Assyrian king 8000: 5809:

although the earliest medical prescriptions appear in Sumerian during the Third Dynasty of Ur period. The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is the

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of Anatolia, although the evidence for its genetic affiliation is meager due to the scarcity of extant texts. That said, several Kassite leaders may have borne

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and assumptions, including the modern view that through the examination and inspection of the symptoms of a patient, it is possible to determine the patient's

5697:, that are realistic if somewhat clumsy. The paucity of stone in Babylonia made every pebble precious, and led to a high perfection in the art of gem-cutting. 1127: 3790:

took the throne for the Kassites in 1595 BC, and ruled a state that extended from Iran to the middle Euphrates; The new king retained peaceful relations with

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in the government, making him king of Babylon. He reserved for himself the fuller title of "king of the (other) provinces" of the empire. It was only when

5279:, who was assumed to be wrathful at the impiety of Nabonidus in removing the images of the local gods from their ancestral shrines to his capital Babylon. 3147:, each of whom ruled in the same vague manner as Sumu-abum, with no reference to kingship of Babylon itself being made in any written records of the time. 3903:

named after himself, transferring administrative rule from Babylon. Both of these kings continued to struggle unsuccessfully against the Sealand Dynasty.

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Manning, S.W.; Kromer, B.; Kuniholm, P.I.; Newton, M.W. (2001). "Anatolian Tree Rings and a New Chronology for the East Mediterranean Bronze-Iron Ages".

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in northwestern Assyria in 605 BC. The seat of empire was thus transferred to Babylonia for the first time since Hammurabi over a thousand years before.

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of Mari. The Kassites, like the Amorite rulers who had preceded them, were not originally native to Mesopotamia. Rather, they had first appeared in the

10179: 9309: 4960: 4146: 3388:, who regarded king Mut-Ashkur as both a foreign Amorite and a former lackey of Babylon. After six years of civil war in Assyria, a native king named 8279: 8115: 8084: 5075:. However, an attempt to take Egypt itself as his Assyrian predecessors had succeeded in doing failed, mainly due to a series of rebellions from the 4301:

regarded as vassals of Assyria. After 1050 BC the Middle Assyrian Empire descended into a period of civil war, followed by constant warfare with the

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succeeded Karaindash, and briefly invaded Elam before being eventually defeated and ejected by its king Tepti Ahar. He then had to contend with the

9793: 4721: 3952: 3944: 4948: 4512: 4355:

However, in southern Mesopotamia (a region corresponding with the old Dynasty of the Sealand), Dynasty V (1025–1004 BC) arose, this was ruled by

3070:, and eventually southern Mesopotamia fell to the Amorites. During the first centuries of what is called the "Amorite period", the most powerful 8136:; its remains, language, history, religion, commerce, law, art, and literature, by Morris Jastrow Jr. ... with map and 164 illustrations, 1915 3930: 3291:

and Assyria. This was made by order of Hammurabi after the expulsion of the Elamites and the settlement of his kingdom. In 1901, a copy of the

8208: 7287:

Al-Gailani Werr, L., 1988. Studies in the chronology and regional style of Old Babylonian Cylinder Seals. Bibliotheca Mesopotamica, Volume 23.

6409:

concludes his letter with this advice: "She who is in Babylon , chosen together with you, sends you her greetings, and so does my son Mark." (

3339:, great-grandson of Hammurabi, still titled himself "king of the land of the Amorites". Ammi-Ditana's father and son also bore Amorite names: 5386:

Immediately after Darius seized Persia, Babylonia briefly recovered its independence under a native ruler, Nidinta-Bel, who took the name of

2806:. The Babylonian Empire rapidly fell apart after the death of Hammurabi and reverted to a small kingdom centered around the city of Babylon. 2240: 1422: 1297: 19:

This article is about the ancient (pre-539 BC) empires. For the region called Babylonia by Jewish sources in the later, Talmudic period, see

3948: 2858:, and the Akkadian-speakers who would go on to form Akkad, Assyria and Babylonia appearing somewhere between the 35th and 30th century BC. 5988:

The brief resurgence of Babylonian culture in the 7th to 6th centuries BC was accompanied by a number of important cultural developments.

9304: 5442:

conquered the region into the Parthian Empire in 150 BC, and the region became something of a battleground between Greeks and Parthians.

1627: 8009: 7974: 7725:

Aaboe, A. (1992). Babylonian mathematics, astrology, and astronomy. In J. Boardman, I. Edwards, E. Sollberger, & N. Hammond (Eds.),

4758:

Canaanites were violently subjugated, with Assyrian troops exacting savage revenge on the rebelling peoples. An Assyrian governor named

2861:

During the 3rd millennium BC, an intimate cultural symbiosis occurred between Sumerian and Akkadian-speakers, which included widespread

7442:

Ginzburg stresses the significance of Babylonian medicine in his discussion of the conjectural paradigm as evidenced by the methods of

5980:. The whole story is a composite product, and it is probable that some of the stories are artificially attached to the central figure. 4653:

to invade and subjugate Elam and to sack Babylon, laying waste to the region and largely destroying the city. While praying to the god

3853: 6201:, and a people acquainted with the sun-dial, the clepsydra, the lever and the pulley, must have had no mean knowledge of mechanics. A 4165:

The Elamites did not remain in control of Babylonia long, instead entering into an ultimately unsuccessful war with Assyria, allowing

4141:(1179–1133 BC) resumed expansionist policies and conquered further parts of northern Babylonia from both kings, and the Elamite ruler 4088:

from retaking Babylonia, which, apart from its northern reaches, had mostly shrugged off Assyrian domination during a short period of

10683: 9797: 7147: 6198: 5428:

and that the ruins of the old city became a quarry for the builders of the new seat of government, but the recent publication of the

4877: 4560:(745–727 BC) Babylonia came under renewed attack. Babylon was invaded and sacked and Nabonassar reduced to vassalage. His successors 2632: 767: 5198:) was, at least from the mother's side, neither Chaldean nor Babylonian, but ironically Assyrian, hailing from its final capital of 10169: 9360: 8709: 4364: 2126: 5622: 5351: 4332:, and during the 11th century BC large swathes of the Babylonian countryside was appropriated and occupied by these newly arrived 3771:

were all-powerful, and the only place where the right to inheritance of the short lived old Babylonian empire could be conferred.

3451:. The Hittites did not remain for long, but the destruction wrought by them finally enabled their Kassite allies to gain control. 2813:, the Babylonian state retained the written Akkadian language (the language of its native populace) for official use, despite its 8921: 7710: 6042: 4422: 3124:

appropriated a tract of land which included the then relatively small city of Babylon from the neighbouring minor city-state of

6133:

Babylonian mathematical texts are plentiful and well edited. In respect of time they fall in two distinct groups: one from the

5123:

and other South Arabian peoples who dwelt in the deserts to the south of the borders of Mesopotamia were then also subjugated.

4645:

on the throne. However, Merodach-Baladan and his Elamite protectors continued to unsuccessfully agitate against Assyrian rule.

4000:, who invaded and sacked Babylon, slew Nazi-Bugaš, annexed Babylonian territory for the Middle Assyrian Empire, and installed 9485: 8272: 7706: 7629: 7419: 7369: 7328: 7000: 6934: 6888: 6861: 6825: 6798: 6771: 6741: 6606: 6350:, Babylonian philosophy was a highly developed system of thought with a unique approach to knowledge and a focus on writing, 4981:(612–605 BC). He was offered the chance of accepting a position of vassalage by the leaders of the alliance according to the 4527:

tribe who had a century or so earlier settled in a small region in the far southeastern corner of Mesopotamia, bordering the

4359:, leader of a Kassite clan, and was in effect a separate state from Babylon. The state of anarchy allowed the Assyrian ruler 9463: 6520: 5587: 4977:

House to house fighting continued in Nineveh, and an Assyrian general and member of the royal household, took the throne as

4876:. Cyaxares had also taken advantage of the Assyrian destruction of the formerly regionally dominant pre-Iranian Elamite and 4749:, the Babylonians, Chaldeans and Suteans of southern Mesopotamia, the Arameans of the Levant and southwest Mesopotamia, the 9921: 9828: 7359: 7101:

Schneider, Thomas (2003). "Kassitisch und Hurro-Urartäisch. Ein Diskussionsbeitrag zu möglichen lexikalischen Isoglossen".

5775:

Medical recipe concerning poisoning. Terracotta tablet, from Nippur, Iraq, 18th century BC. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul

3378:

Both the Babylonians and their Amorite rulers were driven from Assyria to the north by an Assyrian-Akkadian governor named

3007:–1975 BC) of the Old Assyrian period (2025–1750 BC) in a known inscription describes his exploits to the south as follows: 7232: 5033:. The Assyrians fought on with Egyptian aid until what was probably a final decisive victory was achieved against them at 9823: 9051: 8702: 8335: 8196: 6001: 3576: 2121: 1966: 942: 4084:(1216–1189 BC), as he too remained a vassal of Assyria until 1193 BC. However, he was able to prevent the Assyrian king 10698: 10174: 10090: 9813: 9778: 8166: 6064:

During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new approach to astronomy. They began studying

5976:, and arranged upon an astronomical principle. Each division contains the story of a single adventure in the career of 4198:

took the throne in 1127 BC, and also attempted an invasion of Assyria, his armies seem to have skirted through eastern

2946:) between the 29th and 25th centuries BC. Traditionally, the major religious center of all Mesopotamia was the city of 725: 8217: 4054:(1243–1207 BC) routed his armies, sacked and burned Babylon and set himself up as king, ironically becoming the first 10218: 8778: 8187: 7756: 7603: 7578: 7553: 7528: 6979: 6958: 6706: 4970:

However, the alliance launched a renewed combined attack the following year, and after five years of fierce fighting

4773:

in 623 BC, who also set himself up as king in Babylon. After only one year on the throne amidst continual civil war,

79: 57: 7152: 7121: 5968:

There are many Babylonian literary works whose titles have come down to us. One of the most famous of these was the

4985:. However, he refused and managed to successfully fight his way out of Nineveh and to the northern Assyrian city of 4488:

who was merely a boy. Adad-nirari III eventually killed Baba-aha-iddina and ruled there directly until 800 BC until

1726: 50: 10306: 10291: 9887: 9875: 9442: 8265: 8023: 7116: 5723:'. The oldest significant astronomical text that we possess is Tablet 63 of 'Enūma Anu Enlil', the Venus tablet of 5206:

at Harran; as well as by a proclamation of Cyrus issued shortly after his formal recognition as king of Babylonia.

3926: 1132: 8063: 7157: 7126: 4363:(1019–1013 BC) the opportunity to attack Babylonia in 1018 BC, and he invaded and captured the Babylonian city of 3844:

of southern Mesopotamia remained independent of Babylonia and like Assyria was in native Akkadian-speaking hands.

3399:, and went on to appropriate former Babylonian and Amorite territory in central Mesopotamia, as did his successor 10703: 10164: 10150: 9902: 9552: 8143: 6628: 6476: 6394:

are more likely figurative, or cryptic references possibly to pagan Rome, or some other archetype. The legendary

2024: 1721: 720: 400: 20: 8098: 7968: 5157:

succeeded to the throne and reigned for only two years. Little contemporary record of his rule survives, though

4375:

founding Dynasty VII (984–977 BC). However, this dynasty too fell, when the Arameans once more ravaged Babylon.

9768: 9355: 9339: 5484:, which emerged in Assyria and Upper Mesopotamia the first century, had become the dominant religion among the 1749: 710: 8471: 4974:

was sacked in late 612 BC after a prolonged siege, in which Sin-shar-ishkun was killed defending his capital.

4762:

was placed on the throne to rule on behalf of the Assyrian king. Upon Ashurbanipal's death in 627 BC, his son

4649:, an Elamite, murdered the Assyrian prince and briefly took the throne. This led the infuriated Assyrian king 3355: 10688: 9381: 7912: 7727: 7046:

Eder, Christian., Assyrische Distanzangaben und die absolute Chronologie Vorderasiens, AoF 31, 191–236, 2004.

4725:

Babylonian prisoners under the surveillance of an Assyrian guard, reign of Ashurbanipal 668–630 BC, Nineveh,

3768: 3201:

Hammurabi turned his disciplined armies eastwards and invaded the region which a thousand years later became

2625: 2509: 1007: 760: 4523:

ascended the throne in 780 BC, taking advantage of a period of civil war in Assyria. He was a member of the

9914: 9391: 9126: 8669: 5653:; Babylonian, Sumerian and Assyrian temples were massive structures of crude brick which were supported by 5454: 5253: 1142: 540: 8239: 8112: 8081: 6014:

still occupied a conspicuous place in Babylonian society. Astronomy was of old standing in Babylonia. The

4923:), Nabopolassar was still pinned down in southern Mesopotamia and thus not involved in this breakthrough. 4852:

The stalemate ended in 615 BC, when Nabopolassar entered the Babylonians and Chaldeans into alliance with

4552:

overthrew the Chaldean usurpers in 748 BC, and successfully stabilised Babylonia, remaining untroubled by

3745:

elite that later ruled over the Hurrians of central and eastern Anatolia, while others had Semitic names.

3681:, written long after the events, mentions that the image of Marduk was in exile around twenty-four years. 3621:

kingdom to avenge the death of his father, but his main geopolitical target was Babylon. The Mesopotamian

3112:). Hammurabi holds his hands over his mouth as a sign of prayer (relief on the upper part of the stele of 10463: 10228: 10191: 10123: 9892: 9447: 9329: 9324: 9259: 8935: 5934:

and related ailments along with their diagnosis and prognosis. Later Babylonian medicine resembles early

5755: 5613: 5084: 3937:) as security outposts, and "he dug wells and settled people on fertile lands, to strengthen the guard". 3248:

for control of Mesopotamia and dominance of the Near East. Assyria had extended control over much of the

2986: 1986: 7834:"Ancient Babylonian astronomers calculated Jupiter's position from the area under a time-velocity graph" 6420: 6231: 6030:

could be foretold. There are dozens of cuneiform records of original Mesopotamian eclipse observations.

5542:-speaking and largely Christian populace of southern and central Mesopotamia (with the exception of the 4282:

was not so friendly to Assyria, prompting the Assyrian king to invade Babylonia and depose him, placing

2878:

until the rise of the Akkadian Empire in the 24th century BC, Mesopotamia had been dominated by largely

1731: 10641: 10316: 10296: 10138: 10128: 10118: 9818: 9808: 9587: 9452: 9061: 6424: 6416: 6395: 5136: 3600:

middle chronology: 1595 BC (probably the most commonly used, and often seen as having the most support)

2514: 2484: 460: 24: 8029: 5175:(556 BC), who was still a boy. He was deposed and killed during the same year in a palace conspiracy. 4840:

Panorama view of the reconstructed Southern Palace of Nebuchadnezzar II, 6th century BC, Babylon, Iraq

3410:

made a vain attempt to recapture the Sealand Dynasty for Babylon, but met defeat at the hands of king

10268: 10113: 9683: 9478: 9136: 8951: 7088: 7059: 6053:

astronomy. Neo-Babylonian astronomy can thus be considered the direct predecessor of much of ancient

5833: 5539: 5535: 5406:, however, still continued to be kept in repair and to be a center of Babylonian religious feelings. 4577: 4170: 3951:

took the throne of Elam, he began raiding the Babylonia, taunting Kurigalzu to do battle with him at

3755:

This new foreign dominion offers a striking analogy to the roughly contemporary rule of the Semitic

3175: 2938:, although Semitic Akkadian names began to appear on the king lists of some of these states (such as 2795: 2464: 2253: 2190: 1756: 1477: 7659: 6972:

The Archaeology of Syria. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies (ca. 16,000–300 BC)

5275:

Cyrus now claimed to be the legitimate successor of the ancient Babylonian kings and the avenger of

3646:

although the Hittite text, Telipinu Proclamation, does not mention Samsu-ditana, and the Babylonian

1025: 10355: 10326: 9970: 9091: 8733: 8205: 6588: 6134: 6076:

within their predictive planetary systems. This was an important contribution to astronomy and the

5926:

Esagil-kin-apli discovered a variety of illnesses and diseases and described their symptoms in his

5802: 5712: 5538:

in the seventh century AD. Asōristān was dissolved as a geopolitical entity in 637, and the native

5450: 5439: 5379:, that the old tradition was broken and the claim of Babylon to confer legitimacy on the rulers of 4900:

who had both also been subjugated by Assyria, joined the alliance, as did regional Aramean tribes.

4099: 3730: 3647: 3622: 3580: 3095: 2618: 2600: 2537: 2084: 2036: 2001: 1791: 997: 753: 565: 348: 44: 8182: 4507:

Prism of Sennacherib (705–681 BC), containing records of his military campaigns, culminating with

3276:, giving Babylonia control over Assyria's centuries-old Hattian and Hurrian colonies in Anatolia. 3132:, suggesting that Babylon itself was still only a minor town or city, and not worthy of kingship. 3100: 2294: 10723: 10693: 10583: 10331: 9995: 9728: 9401: 9334: 9228: 9081: 8999: 8994: 8420: 6598: 6034: 5321: 4383: 3734: 3726: 3440: 2274: 2031: 1884: 1716: 1615: 1310: 1167: 485: 8234: 6621:

Woods C. 2006 "Bilingualism, Scribal Learning, and the Death of Sumerian". In S.L. Sanders (ed)

4713:(669–627 BC), in the more senior position as king of Assyria and overlord of Shamash-shum-ukin. 4317:, allowing Babylonia to once more largely free itself from the Assyrian yoke for a few decades. 3969:

ascended to the throne in 1359 BC, he retained friendly relations with Egypt, but the resurgent

3431:

was to be the last Amorite ruler of Babylon. Early in his reign he came under pressure from the

1382: 10286: 10145: 10015: 9990: 9860: 9612: 9432: 9284: 9043: 7927: 7455: 6559: 6406: 6296: 6128: 5935: 5896: 4325: 4321: 4233: 4229: 3970: 3583:, resulting in the shift of the entire Bronze Age chronology of Mesopotamia with regard to the 3439:

originating in the mountains of what is today northwest Iran. Babylon was then attacked by the

2606: 2582: 2139: 1641: 1012: 693: 595: 495: 61: 7480: 7411: 6851: 6815: 6690: 6169:

well before Pythagoras, as evidenced by this tablet translated by Dennis Ramsey and dating to

4622:

vassal colonies in ancient Iran. Marduk-apla-iddina II was eventually defeated and ejected by

3447:

in 1595 BC. Shamshu-Ditana was overthrown following the "sack of Babylon" by the Hittite king

10651: 10390: 10258: 9870: 9743: 9722: 9642: 9602: 9493: 9101: 8587: 8073: 8046: 8018: 7996: 7952: 6788: 6301: 6077: 6058: 5973: 5430: 5147: 4830: 4816: 4666: 4599: 4445:, subjugated the Aramean, Sutean and Chaldean tribes settled within Babylonia, and installed 3630: 2830: 1821: 1457: 1092: 680: 505: 8055: 7990:

One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the

7403: 6878: 6761: 6119:, Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system, but it is not known what arguments he used. 5398:; on this occasion, after its capture by the Persians, the walls were partly destroyed. The 4825: 1971: 10485: 10367: 10301: 10263: 10159: 10085: 10080: 10005: 9853: 9471: 9319: 9279: 8758: 7845: 7833: 6720:

Robert William Rogers, A History of Babylonia and Assyria, Volume I, Eaton and Mains, 1900.

6545: 6410: 6100: 5997: 5849: 5845: 5706: 5493: 5346: 5268: 4982: 4733:

Despite being an Assyrian himself, Shamash-shum-ukin, after decades subject to his brother

4641:(705–681 BC) succeeded Sargon II, and after ruling directly for a while, he placed his son 4446: 4279: 4166: 4130: 4058:

Mesopotamian to rule the Mesopotamian populated state, its previous rulers having all been

3992:(who was half Assyrian, and the grandson of the Assyrian king) in 1333 BC, a usurper named 3812: 3738: 3163:

Babylon remained a minor town in a small state until the reign of its sixth Amorite ruler,

2499: 2269: 1946: 1911: 1709: 1442: 1362: 1072: 1067: 852: 5579:

in more recent writing, referring to the pre-Assyro-Babylonian Mesopotamian civilization.

8: 10427: 10385: 10311: 10186: 10108: 9637: 9607: 9592: 9406: 9314: 9289: 9096: 9071: 8623: 8568: 8482: 8389: 8367: 8105:

and the Fight between Bel and the Dragon, as told by Assyrian Tablets from Nineveh, 1921

7959:(Many deities' names are now read differently, but this detailed 1906 work is a classic.) 7459: 6922: 6375: 6347: 6210: 6166: 6150: 6108: 5951: 5627: 5555: 5409: 5191: 4557: 4450: 4402: 4329: 4195: 4037: 3584: 3304: 3245: 2971: 2803: 2799: 2474: 1826: 1435: 1377: 1032: 987: 663: 500: 465: 199: 7849: 6405:

Early Christians sometimes referred to Rome as Babylon. For instance, the writer of the

5903:. If a patient could not be cured physically, the Babylonian physicians often relied on 4785:(chieftain) of the Chaldeans, who had settled in southeastern Mesopotamia by c. 850 BC. 4492:

was crowned. However, he too was subjugated by Adad-Nirari III. The next Assyrian king,

3367:(1749–1712 BC) the far south of Mesopotamia was lost to a native Akkadian-speaking king 2765:. It was often involved in rivalry with the older ethno-linguistically related state of 10678: 10558: 10553: 10538: 10500: 10475: 10412: 10273: 10208: 9843: 9652: 9567: 9396: 9365: 9264: 9111: 9028: 8331: 7967: 7869: 7768: 7647: 6652: 6524: 6158: 6089: 5939: 5617: 5387: 5316: 4884:

peoples from three centuries of the Assyrian yoke and regional Elamite domination. The

4430: 4372: 4310: 4271: 4188: 4134: 4085: 4077:

succeeded as Assyrian governor/kings,also subject to Tukulti-Ninurta I until 1216 BC.

4070: 4029: 3908: 2572: 2504: 2489: 2479: 2459: 2424: 2399: 2374: 2257: 1816: 1781: 1691: 1646: 1602: 1447: 1107: 992: 635: 570: 525: 420: 10400: 6378:

as a symbol of excess and dissolute power. Many references are made to Babylon in the

5891:

The symptoms and diseases of a patient were treated through therapeutic means such as

5720: 4379: 4011:

Map of Eurasia around 1300 BC showing the Babylonian Empire under the Kassite dynasty.

3625:, written after 1500 BC, mentions briefly the sack of Babylon as: "During the time of 10627: 10578: 10543: 10380: 10321: 10223: 10133: 10103: 10098: 9965: 9960: 9944: 9833: 9773: 9693: 9688: 9597: 9386: 9243: 9238: 9223: 9158: 9076: 9033: 8753: 8748: 8614: 8604: 8162: 7873: 7861: 7752: 7702: 7635: 7625: 7599: 7574: 7549: 7524: 7473: 7433: 7425: 7415: 7404: 7365: 7324: 7025: 6996: 6975: 6954: 6930: 6884: 6857: 6821: 6794: 6767: 6737: 6702: 6602: 6363: 6359: 6237: 6057:

and astronomy, which in turn is the historical predecessor of the European (Western)

6054: 5969: 5837: 5806: 5693:, there was greater use of three-dimensional figures—the earliest examples being the 5425: 5395: 5338: 5292: 5249: 5041: 4990: 4706: 4642: 4565: 4541: 4466: 4426: 4294: 4256: 4252: 4225: 4211: 4174: 4160: 4074: 4066: 4051: 3960: 3870: 3722: 3300: 3292: 3113: 3035:

These policies, whether military, economic or both, were continued by his successors

2847:

Mesopotamia had already enjoyed a long history before the emergence of Babylon, with

2826: 2814: 2710: 2693: 2494: 2394: 2220: 2195: 1996: 1906: 1896: 1871: 1412: 1372: 1232: 1222: 1077: 977: 952: 812: 800: 715: 580: 575: 470: 299: 185: 167: 162: 107: 8040: 5742:, contains catalogues of stars and constellations as well as schemes for predicting 4126:

seemed (initially) to have little impact on Babylonia (or indeed Assyria and Elam).

4062:

Amorites and Kassites. Kashtiliash himself was taken to Ashur as a prisoner of war.

2862: 2041: 10470: 10405: 10395: 10069: 10050: 10045: 10040: 9980: 9955: 9299: 9294: 9198: 9193: 9188: 9178: 9173: 9163: 8979: 8836: 8821: 8805: 8800: 8795: 8773: 8664: 7853: 7621: 7616:

M. J. Geller (2004). H. F. J. Horstmanshoff; Marten Stol; Cornelis Tilburg (eds.).

7595: 7570: 7545: 7520: 7443: 7316: 7021: 6391: 6374:

Babylonia, and particularly its capital city Babylon, has long held a place in the

6292: 6038: 5923:, its aetiology and future development, and the chances of the patient's recovery. 5826: 5716: 5694: 5689:

cones for torches were also embedded in the plaster. In Babylonia, in place of the

5673:

and enameled tiles. The walls were brilliantly coloured, and sometimes plated with

5481: 5104: 5080: 4978: 4770: 4763: 4520: 4508: 4442: 4434: 4410: 4283: 4248: 4217: 4154: 4142: 3966: 3799: 3729:, and is thought to have been either a language isolate or possibly related to the 3715: 3629:, the Hittites marched on Akkad." More details can be found in another source, the 3436: 2967: 2822: 2651: 2434: 2185: 2170: 2150: 2091: 1976: 1936: 1836: 1804: 1736: 1671: 1572: 1552: 1462: 1317: 1217: 1162: 1117: 1102: 585: 8033:. Vol. 3 (9th ed.). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 182–194. 8022: 7494:

R D. Biggs (2005). "Medicine, Surgery, and Public Health in Ancient Mesopotamia".

7345:

The Heavenly Writing: Divination, Horoscopy, and Astronomy in Mesopotamian Culture

5942:

show the influence of late Babylonian medicine in terms of both content and form.

2200: 10568: 10533: 10422: 10417: 10336: 10247: 9985: 9838: 9750: 9738: 9662: 9657: 9647: 9582: 9557: 9542: 9529: 9517: 9233: 9208: 9203: 9183: 9131: 9121: 9116: 9106: 9086: 9056: 9008: 9004: 8974: 8681: 8650: 8645: 8635: 8345: 8224: 8212: 8150: 8133: 8119: 8102: 8088: 8067: 7451: 6731: 6632: 6592: 6462: 6355: 6333: 6325: 6138: 6084: 5900: 5818: 5743: 5485: 5477: 5435: 5417: 5416:, and died there in 323 BCE. Babylonia and Assyria then became part of the Greek 5326: 5312: 5300: 5222: 5218: 5187: 5072: 4857: 4569: 4561: 4497: 4485: 4473: 4454: 4438: 4360: 4349: 4081: 4025: 3997: 3974: 3841: 3834: 3830: 3803: 3794:, the native Mesopotamian king of Assyria, but successfully went to war with the 3721:

The ethnic affiliation of the Kassites is unclear. Still, their language was not

3372: 2959: 2762: 2707: 2577: 2469: 2364: 2319: 2235: 2210: 2066: 2046: 2006: 1951: 1841: 1696: 1592: 1587: 1582: 1567: 1292: 1277: 1212: 1062: 1002: 867: 783: 705: 610: 600: 535: 530: 455: 405: 390: 357: 286: 230: 8240:

Recordings of modern scholars reading Babylonian poetry in the original language

4661:

in 681 BC, Sennacherib was soon murdered by his own sons. The new Assyrian king

3752:

and their rule lasted for 576 years, the longest dynasty in Babylonian history.

10548: 10523: 9803: 9733: 9213: 8619: 7394:(1984). "Morelli, Freud, and Sherlock Holmes: Clues and Scientific Method". In 7391: 6946: 6399: 6050: 5786: 5646: 5500: 5489: 5473: 5469: 5413: 5376: 5172: 4794: 4742: 4726: 4646: 4553: 4532: 4493: 4489: 4453:(819–813 BC) as his vassals. It was during the late 850's BC, in the annals of 4406: 4275: 4095: 4047: 4021: 3982: 3978: 3943:

succeeded the throne, and soon came into conflict with Elam, to the east. When

3826: 3795: 3678: 3677:, the Kassite king, claims he returned the images; and another later text, the 3528: 3280: 3279:

One of Hammurabi's most important and lasting works was the compilation of the

3258: 2713: 2567: 2439: 2324: 2279: 2143: 1916: 1866: 1597: 1367: 1180: 1037: 967: 887: 700: 640: 625: 545: 7699:

Women, Crime, and Punishment in Ancient Law and Society: The Ancient Near East

6236:

The origins of Babylonian philosophy can be traced back to early Mesopotamian

5884:

along with logical rules used in combining observed symptoms on the body of a

2977:

Followed by the collapse of the Sumerian "Ur-III" dynasty at the hands of the

2761:

in Akkadian), a deliberate archaism in reference to the previous glory of the

10672: 10621: 10573: 10563: 10528: 10480: 10457: 10432: 10196: 10025: 10020: 9897: 9698: 9547: 9013: 8861: 8768: 8527: 8523: 8356: 8004: 7991: 7963: 7787: 7447: 7399: 7312: 6698: 6387: 6096: 5592: 5108: 5022: 4936: 4774: 4589: 4581: 4356: 4115: 3900: 3857: 3760: 3603:

long chronology: 1651 BC (favored by some astronomical events reconstruction)

3262: 2755:

and afterwards, Babylonia was retrospectively called "the country of Akkad" (

2717: 2532: 2369: 2289: 2284: 2111: 2056: 2051: 1811: 1786: 1776: 1766: 1651: 1562: 1557: 1527: 1482: 1452: 1417: 1227: 1197: 817: 615: 590: 395: 8244: 7857: 6197:. Tablets of squares and cubes, calculated from 1 to 60, have been found at 6193:

of 3600 were formed from the unit of 60, corresponding with a degree of the

2384: 2329: 1956: 1926: 10447: 10213: 10010: 9718: 9713: 9703: 9537: 9018: 8831: 8763: 8660: 7956: 7865: 7639: 7437: 6686: 6351: 6202: 6046: 5631: 5626:

Man and woman, Old-Babylonian fired clay plaque from Southern Mesopotamia.

5551: 5531:

in the north, Mesopotamia remained under largely Persian control until the

5524: 5446: 5052: 4778: 4734: 4710: 4537: 4528: 4414: 4298: 4119: 4016: 4001: 3989: 3912: 3655: 3651: 3626: 3550: 3428: 3311:

in Elam, where it had later been taken as plunder. That copy is now in the

3288: 3148: 3089: 2895: 2774: 2547: 2542: 2429: 2414: 2314: 2304: 2299: 2225: 2215: 2155: 2096: 2061: 1861: 1771: 1761: 1522: 1517: 1187: 1097: 837: 675: 670: 645: 385: 8447: 8257: 4484:

to the Persians, Armenians and Greeks), acting as regent to his successor

3749: 3654:

concludes that there is no doubt that both sources refer to Mursili I and

3406:

Amorite rule survived in a much reduced Babylon, Samshu-iluna's successor

2777:. Babylonia briefly became the major power in the region after Hammurabi ( 10631: 10593: 10442: 10278: 10203: 10000: 9562: 9437: 9427: 9218: 9150: 9023: 8911: 8725: 8489: 8377: 8327: 8289: 7395: 6594:

Syntactic Change in Akkadian: The Evolution of Sentential Complementation

6468: 6344: 6281: 6253: 6146: 6073: 5881: 5876:

in diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. The text contains a list of medical

5873: 5747: 5724: 5547: 5520: 5504: 5368: 5261: 5168: 5162: 5161:

later stated that he was deposed and murdered in 560 BC by his successor

5154: 5107:

and deported a sizeable part of the population to Babylonia. Cities like

5088: 4944: 4702: 4650: 4638: 4477: 4210:) from the west. However, this bold move met with defeat at the hands of 4182: 4138: 4092:

in the Assyrian empire, in the years after the death of Tukulti-Ninurta.

4033: 3993: 3940: 3896: 3845: 3791: 3422: 3418: 3368: 3364: 3344: 3336: 3324: 3234: 3024: 3016: 2907: 2725: 2354: 2309: 2264: 2205: 2175: 2165: 2071: 1991: 1661: 1577: 1507: 1467: 1252: 1122: 982: 832: 743: 558: 415: 7732: 7410:. Bloomington, IN: History Workshop, Indiana University Press. pp. 6880:

The Laws of Hammurabi: At the Confluence of Royal and Scribal Traditions

6447: 2798:) created a short-lived empire, succeeding the earlier Akkadian Empire, 368: 9708: 8969: 8964: 8229: 8159:

Philosophy before the Greeks. The Pursuit of Truth in Ancient Babylonia

8060: 7567:

Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine

7517:

Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine

6314: 6285: 6065: 5865: 5686: 5276: 5234: 5211: 5195: 5064: 5034: 4893: 4869: 4802: 4678: 4662: 4611: 4549: 4202:(modern Syria) and then made an attempt to attack the Assyrian city of 3904: 3892: 3702: 3454: 3371:

who ejected the Amorite-ruled Babylonians. The south became the native

3266: 3136: 3071: 2867: 2552: 2359: 2180: 1856: 1656: 1472: 1352: 1322: 1202: 1057: 791: 650: 620: 605: 433: 378: 8694: 7902:

Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia",

7886:

Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia",

6626: 5972:, in twelve books, translated from the original Sumerian by a certain 4069:

was placed on the throne to rule as viceroy to Tukulti-Ninurta I, and

10518: 10490: 10437: 9975: 9667: 9274: 8959: 8783: 8509: 8126: 8095: 6953:. Routledge. p. 13, Table 1.1 "Chronology of the Ancient Near East". 6853:

Lost Cities, Ancient Tombs: A History of the World in 100 Discoveries

6444: 6430:

Babylon is mentioned in the Quran in verse 102 of chapter 2 of Surah

6382:, both literally (historical) and allegorically. The mentions in the 6322: 6277: 6245: 6011: 6007: 5977: 5958: 5861: 5841: 5728: 5434:

has shown that urban life was still very much the same well into the

5391: 5380: 5179: 5127: 5100: 5099:

of the Levant. The Babylonian king crushed these rebellions, deposed

5076: 5060: 5045: 5030: 5002: 4940: 4897: 4885: 4798: 4759: 4627: 4623: 4607: 4603: 4481: 4306: 4260: 4237: 4178: 4089: 3963:(1374–1360 BC) succeeded him, and continued his diplomatic policies. 3806: 3610: 3572: 3545: 3468: 3448: 3407: 3379: 3340: 3225:. To the west, he conquered the Amorite states of the Levant (modern 3164: 3151:

was the first of these Amorite rulers to be regarded officially as a

3121: 3036: 2997: 2989:

people, began to migrate into southern Mesopotamia from the northern

2963: 2752: 2557: 2454: 2444: 1941: 1921: 1332: 1327: 1082: 1052: 1042: 927: 912: 630: 137: 5375:

acquired the Persian throne and ruled it as a representative of the

4709:

as a subject king in Babylon, and his youngest, the highly educated

4050:'s (1242–1235 BC) reign ended catastrophically as the Assyrian king 3852:, a king with a distinctly Sumerian name, around 1450 BC, whereupon 3335:

monarchy's western connections remained strong for quite some time.

3104:

Hammurabi (standing), depicted as receiving his royal insignia from

2970:

to the northeast. Sumer rose up again with the Third Dynasty of Ur (

2834:

cultural center, even under its protracted periods of outside rule.

10035: 9865: 9848: 9622: 9617: 9411: 9066: 8989: 8984: 8891: 8876: 8871: 8826: 8533: 8518: 8514: 8498: 8464: 8452: 8440: 8415: 6657: 6329: 6257: 6249: 6162: 6116: 6104: 6069: 5931: 5904: 5822: 5798: 5746:

and the settings of the planets, lengths of daylight measured by a

5739: 5666: 5654: 5650: 5596: 5543: 5508: 5421: 5372: 5330: 5230: 5226: 5158: 5116: 5096: 5026: 4916: 4889: 4853: 4682: 4333: 4314: 4302: 4251:(1103–1100 BC), who lost territory to Assyria. The second of them, 4111: 3865: 3697: 3685: 3666: 3661:

The Hittites, when sacking Babylon, removed the images of the gods

3524: 3444: 3432: 3400: 3253: 3249: 3222: 3183: 3144: 3079: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 2982: 2939: 2818: 2741: 2562: 2389: 2106: 2101: 1676: 1666: 1512: 1402: 1397: 1342: 1337: 1272: 1267: 1087: 947: 937: 932: 907: 842: 518: 490: 475: 6402:

are seen as symbols of luxurious and arrogant power respectively.

5005:

exhibited in the British Museum. The king is shown praying to the

4737:, declared that the city of Babylon (and not the Assyrian city of 4592:

was declared king of Babylon in 727 BC, but died whilst besieging

4161:

Early Iron Age – Native rule, second dynasty of Isin, 1155–1026 BC

4007: 10495: 10452: 9632: 9577: 9168: 8896: 8886: 8851: 8841: 8592: 8557: 8551: 8545: 8435: 8403: 8382: 7771:(1945). "The History of Ancient Astronomy Problems and Methods", 6431: 6310: 6306: 6273: 6194: 6154: 6019: 5920: 5892: 5885: 5877: 5857: 5600: 5512: 5399: 5342: 5142: 4971: 4964: 4873: 4846: 4820: 4738: 4658: 4654: 4593: 4524: 4458: 4395: 4337: 4286:

on the throne as his vassal. Assyrian domination continued until

4264: 4241: 4214:

who then forced a treaty in his favour upon the Babylonian king.

4123: 4041: 3922: 3886: 3787: 3779: 3775: 3742: 3711: 3674: 3670: 3638: 3533: 3218: 3214: 3191: 3125: 3105: 3063: 2955: 2943: 2810: 2778: 2766: 2721: 2419: 2344: 2160: 1961: 1901: 1851: 1846: 1831: 1681: 1622: 1547: 1542: 1537: 1497: 1387: 1357: 1347: 1262: 1247: 1152: 1147: 1047: 972: 957: 902: 872: 862: 450: 189: 172: 149: 8138:(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; 8107:(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; 8039: 7790:(1955). "Chaldaean Astronomy of the Last Three Centuries B.C.", 7429: 6033:

Babylonian astronomy was the basis for much of what was done in

4324:

Babylonia soon began to suffer further repeated incursions from

3829:

succeeded him and drew up a peace treaty with the Assyrian king

1207: 10375: 10030: 8916: 8866: 8788: 6383: 6337: 6265: 6241: 6214: 6015: 5751: 5690: 5670: 5465: 5458: 5403: 5199: 5092: 4986: 4956: 4932: 4920: 4912: 4881: 4865: 4754: 4698: 4694: 4619: 4425:

in mid Mesopotamia. He made further gains over Babylonia under

4199: 4103: 3882: 3874: 3861: 3756: 3706:

The extent of the Babylonian Empire during the Kassite dynasty.

3662: 3618: 3614: 3575:

is considered crucial to the various calculations of the early

3328: 3320: 3312: 3238: 3230: 3210: 3187: 3179: 3140: 3109: 3067: 3040: 3020: 2990: 2947: 2927: 2923: 2887: 2449: 2379: 2339: 2334: 2230: 2116: 2011: 1981: 1891: 1636: 1632: 1532: 1487: 1407: 1282: 1257: 962: 922: 917: 897: 892: 847: 445: 7701:

Continuum International Publishing Group Ltd. (31 March 2005)

7565:

H. F. J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004),

7515:

H. F. J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004),

6906: 6904: 6902: 6900: 6291:

It is possible that Babylonian philosophy had an influence on

4469:

are first mentioned in the pages of written recorded history.

4418: 3673:

and they took them to their kingdom. The later inscription of

3323:

supreme in the pantheon of southern Mesopotamia (with the god

2958:

during the reign of Hammurabi in the mid-18th century BC. The

10588: 9572: 9269: 8906: 8901: 8881: 8398: 6379: 6318: 6269: 6206: 5916: 5908: 5869: 5528: 5516: 5131: 5120: 5112: 5014: 4952: 4928: 4908: 4904: 4861: 4790: 4750: 4746: 4690: 4686: 4462: 4207: 4203: 4107: 3956: 3934: 3389: 3296: 3284: 3226: 3083: 2951: 2931: 2919: 2911: 2903: 2879: 2848: 2829:

for religious use (as did Assyria which also shared the same

2733: 2404: 2349: 1931: 1686: 1492: 1392: 1287: 1242: 1237: 1192: 1157: 1112: 882: 857: 807: 440: 409: 272: 8157: 8061:

Legends of Babylon and Egypt in Relation to Hebrew Tradition

7933: 7918: 6240:, which embodied certain philosophies of life, particularly 5367:

A year before Cyrus' death, in 529 BCE, he elevated his son

5267:

One of the first acts of Cyrus accordingly was to allow the

4997: 4382:

in 977 BC, ushering in Dynasty VIII. Dynasty IX begins with

4232:, for control of formerly Hittite-controlled territories in 4080:

Babylon did not begin to recover until late in the reign of

3798:, and twenty-four years after, the Hittites took the sacred 136:

The extent of the Babylonian Empire at the start and end of

10709:

States and territories disestablished in the 6th century BC

9783: 9760: 9503: 9497: 8856: 8394: 8139: 8108: 8077: 6897: 6261: 6027: 5682: 5678: 5674: 5662: 5642: 5635: 5532: 5245: 5006: 4615: 4367:

and some south central regions of Mesopotamia for Assyria.

4221: 3833:, and had a largely uneventful reign, as did his successor 3688:, and then a Kassite dynasty was established in Babylonia. 3571:

The date of the sack of Babylon by the Hittites under king

3498: 3308: 3206: 3202: 3075: 3012: 2978: 2935: 2915: 2899: 2891: 2770: 2737: 2729: 2684: 2681: 2675: 2409: 1502: 1137: 827: 822: 332: 327: 140:'s reign, located in what today is modern day Iraq and Iran 8013:. Vol. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 5657:, the rain being carried off by drains. One such drain at 5244:

In 539 BC Cyrus invaded Babylonia. A battle was fought at

4880:

nations and the subsequent anarchy in Assyria to free the

4810: 3848:

managed to attack it and conquered parts of the land from

10719:

States and territories established in the 19th century BC

10714:

States and territories established in the 17th century BC

6340:

is also known to have studied philosophy in Mesopotamia.

6112: 6095:

The only Babylonian astronomer known to have supported a

6023: 5359: 5203: 5010: 4540:, another Chaldean, succeeded him in 769 BC and his son, 4413:

of Babylonia, annexing a large area of land north of the

3907:

also strengthened diplomatic ties with the Assyrian king

2666: 2660: 7813: 7315:(1998), "Legacies in Astronomy and Celestial Omens", in 7246: 5938:

in many ways. In particular, the early treatises of the

3977:

in marriage. He also maintained friendly relations with

3090:

First Babylonian dynasty – Amorite dynasty, 1894–1595 BC

2842: 7681: 7679: 7677: 7675: 7673: 7671: 7669: 7271: 7269: 7267: 7265: 7263: 7261: 7207: 7205: 7203: 7201: 5665:. The use of brick led to the early development of the 5658: 5303:(312–150 BC) period this term too had fallen from use. 2883: 6111:

around its own axis which in turn revolved around the

5603:. This seal was probably made in a workshop at Sippar. 4606:(722–705 BC) were otherwise occupied in defeating the 4247:

Nebuchadnezzar was succeeded by his two sons, firstly

3244:

Hammurabi then entered into a protracted war with the

2954:

was supreme, and it would remain so until replaced by

2756: 2701: 114: 7618:

West Meets East: Early Greek and Babylonian Diagnosis

5420:. It has long been maintained that the foundation of 4849:, and was thus prevented from ejecting Nabopolassar. 4519:

Babylonia briefly fell to another foreign ruler when

4328:

nomadic peoples migrating from the Levant during the

2678: 2654: 7666: 7475:

Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization

7290: 7258: 7198: 7171: 6970:

Akkermans, Peter M.M.G.; Schwartz, Glenn M. (2003).

6458: 6103:(b. 190 BC). Seleucus is known from the writings of 5217:

It was in the sixth year of Nabonidus (549 BC) that

3802:, he recovered it and declared the god equal to the 3633:, a Hittite text from around 1520 BC, which states: 3455:

The sack of Babylon and ancient Near East chronology

3375:, remaining free of Babylon for the next 272 years. 2672: 2663: 2657: 7062:, New Edition, Oxford University Press, pp. 97, 98. 6951:

The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy

6927:

A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC

6817:

The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy

6018:was a Babylonian invention of great antiquity; and 5930:. These include the symptoms for many varieties of 4181:before ultimately suffering defeat at the hands of 3359:

Cylinder seal, ca. 18th–17th century BC. Babylonia.

2669: 7472: 4856:, an erstwhile vassal of Assyria, and king of the 4766:(627–623 BC) became ruler of Babylon and Assyria. 4278:(1075–1056 BC) of Assyria, however, his successor 4040:, allied with the empires of the Hittites and the 2825:, not being native Mesopotamians. It retained the 6793:. Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 71. 6787:Publishing, Britannica Educational (2010-04-01). 6649:The Double Eclipse at the Downfall of Old Babylon 6107:. He supported the heliocentric theory where the 5017:and is depicted as being the closest to the Moon. 4004:(1345–1324 BC) as his vassal ruler of Babylonia. 3650:does not mention a specific Hittite king either, 10670: 5461:, after which the Parthians reasserted control. 5165:for conducting himself in an "improper manner". 4626:of Assyria, and fled to his protectors in Elam. 4145:eventually conquered most of eastern Babylonia. 3691: 7721: 7719: 7717: 6856:. Disney Electronic Content. pp. 144–145. 4513:Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago 4476:was reduced to vassalage by the Assyrian queen 4343: 4157:, part of the larger Late Bronze Age collapse. 8235:Bibliography of Babylonian Astronomy/Astrology 7731:(The Cambridge Ancient History, pp. 276–292). 7189: 7091:, New Edition, Oxford University Press, p. 99. 6790:Mesopotamia: The World's Earliest Civilization 6587: 5424:diverted the population to the new capital of 4441:(859–824 BC) sacked Babylon itself, slew king 3587:. Possible dates for the sack of Babylon are: 99: 9479: 8710: 8273: 8249: 7470: 7364:. Oxford University Press. pp. 296–297. 7361:The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy 7323:, Oxford University Press, pp. 125–137, 6670: 6642: 6640: 5836:, the Babylonians introduced the concepts of 5567:also include Southern Mesopotamia's earliest 5554:in contrast to northern Mesopotamia where an 4673: 2626: 761: 7978:(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 7831: 7714: 7615: 4389: 3915:and protected Babylonian borders with Elam. 9305:Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire 8287: 7070: 7068: 6583: 6581: 6579: 6165:). They also demonstrated knowledge of the 6068:dealing with the ideal nature of the early 4556:of Assyria. However, with the accession of 4137:(1158 BC). The long reigning Assyrian king 4129:War resumed under subsequent kings such as 3283:, which improved the much earlier codes of 3120:Around 1894 BC, an Amorite chieftain named 2740:). It emerged as an Akkadian populated but 9486: 9472: 8717: 8703: 8324:Late Chalcolithic 4-5 / Early Jezirah 1-3 8280: 8266: 8037: 7749:Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy-Astrology 7511: 7509: 7493: 7307: 7305: 6849: 6786: 6766:. Oxford University Press. pp. 8–10. 6637: 6386:tend to be historical or prophetic, while 6317:doctrine of contrasts, and the dialogs of 5825:, during the reign of the Babylonian king 5480:, which began in 226 CE, and by this time 5178:Of the reign of the last Babylonian king, 4437:also forced Babylonia into vassalage, and 3767:of western Asia, where the priests of the 2633: 2619: 768: 754: 130: 9794:Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region 8127:The Civilization of Babylonia and Assyria 7832:Ossendrijver, Mathieu (29 January 2016). 7100: 7094: 6974:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6656: 6145:The Babylonian system of mathematics was 5983: 5291:on inscriptions), and during the Persian 5225:" in Elam, revolted against his suzerain 4633: 4465:dwelling in some northern regions of the 80:Learn how and when to remove this message 9618:Kassite dynasty of the Babylonian Empire 7969:"Babylonian and Assyrian Religion" 7962: 7904:Journal of the American Oriental Society 7888:Journal of the American Oriental Society 7792:Journal of the American Oriental Society 7406:The Sign of Three: Dupin, Holmes, Peirce 7390: 7351: 7342: 7065: 7054: 7052: 6813: 6729: 6576: 6137:period (1830–1531 BC), the other mainly 5770: 5621: 5586: 5320: 5141: 4996: 4835: 4824: 4720: 4502: 4006: 3811: 3701: 3354: 3099: 43:This article includes a list of general 8724: 7506: 7479:. University of Chicago Press. p. 7458:'s logic of making educated guesses or 7311: 7302: 6876: 6646: 6232:Babylonian literature § Philosophy 6043:astronomy in the medieval Islamic world 5607: 5599:. The king makes an animal offering to 5438:(150 BCE to 226 CE). The Parthian king 4811:Neo-Babylonian Empire (Chaldean Empire) 4580:was introduced by the Assyrians as the 3959:and the Hittites throughout his reign. 10671: 8096:The Babylonian Legends of the Creation 6883:. Oxford University Press. p. 2. 6664: 6623:Margins of Writing, Origins of Culture 5329:, circa 480 BC. Relief of the tomb of 5126:In 567 BC he went to war with Pharaoh 3895:built a bas-relief temple in Uruk and 3158: 3086:, together with Assyria in the north. 16:Ancient Akkadian region in Mesopotamia 10353: 10245: 10067: 9942: 9515: 9467: 8698: 8680: 8659: 8649: 8567: 8538: 8470: 8446: 8261: 8248: 8017: 7995: 7957:The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria 7819: 7806:William P. D. Wightman (1951, 1953), 7741: 7733:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 7685: 7357: 7296: 7275: 7252: 7211: 7177: 7049: 6759: 6755: 6753: 6736:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 69. 6733:A History of Babylon, 2200 BC – AD 75 6673:Assyrian Royal Inscriptions, Volume 1 6354:, divination, and law. It was also a 5582: 5412:conquered Babylon in 333 BCE for the 5040:Nabopolassar was followed by his son 4401:From 911 BC with the founding of the 3233:) including the powerful kingdoms of 2843:Pre-Babylonian Sumero-Akkadian period 10647: 10589:Mesopotamian spring festival (Akitu) 8161:. Princeton University Press. 2015. 8050:. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 7496:Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies 7194:. British Museum Press. p. 117. 6763:Babylonia: A Very Short Introduction 6685: 6615: 5264:accompanied the corpse to the tomb. 5186:, 556–539 BC) who is the son of the 4716: 3933:, in the desert to the west (modern 3718:of what is today northwestern Iran. 3613:, the Hittite king, first conquered 2851:civilization emerging in the region 29: 10637: 7229:History of Phoenicia – Part IV 7076:A History of Babylon, 2200 BC-AD 75 6850:Geographic, National (2021-11-30). 6730:Beaulieu, Paul-Alain (2018-02-05). 6002:Chronology of the ancient Near East 5507:independent Neo-Assyrian states of 5229:, "king of the Manda" or Medes, at 5150:(Chaldean Empire) and its neighbors 4630:was then declared king in Babylon. 3899:(1415–1390 BC) built a new capital 3710:The Kassite dynasty was founded by 3577:chronology of the ancient Near East 3265:, Hammurabi forced their successor 1967:Western Mexico Shaft Tomb Tradition 13: 6750: 6675:. Otto Harrassowitz. pp. 7–8. 5888:with its diagnosis and prognosis. 5496:or the languages of their rulers. 5476:for "the land of Assyria") in the 5306: 5221:, the Achaemenid Persian "king of 4472:Upon the death of Shalmaneser II, 49:it lacks sufficient corresponding 14: 10735: 8176: 8038:Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). 7737:doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521227179.010 6991:Sagona, A.; Zimansky, P. (2009). 4348:The ruling Babylonian dynasty of 3860:, which then was ruling southern 10684:2nd-millennium BC establishments 10646: 10636: 10626: 10617: 10616: 9922:2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis 9496: 9443:Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary 8934: 7983: 7078:, Wiley Blackwell, pp. 118, 119. 6461: 6321:, as well as a precursor to the 5907:to cleanse the patient from any 5337:Babylonia was absorbed into the 4378:Babylonian rule was restored by 4171:Dynasty IV of Babylon, from Isin 4169:(1155–1139 BC) to establish the 4065:An Assyrian governor/king named 3927:ancient Semitic-speaking peoples 3523: 3435:, a people speaking an apparent 2882:cities and city states, such as 2769:in the north of Mesopotamia and 2650: 2596: 2595: 1368:Kingdom of the Vandals and Alans 737: 367: 304: 279: 265: 34: 10401:Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialects 9824:1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq 9814:1974–1975 Shatt al-Arab clashes 9553:Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period 8197:The Chaldean account of Genesis 8072:(a searchable facsimile at the 7946: 7896: 7880: 7825: 7800: 7781: 7773:Journal of Near Eastern Studies 7762: 7691: 7609: 7584: 7559: 7534: 7487: 7464: 7384: 7336: 7281: 7217: 7183: 7140: 7109: 7081: 7040: 7031: 7006: 6985: 6964: 6940: 6916: 6870: 6843: 6834: 6807: 6780: 6723: 6714: 6477:Timeline of the Assyrian Empire 6358:intellectual culture, based on 5767:Medical diagnosis and prognosis 5468:of Babylonia was absorbed into 5445:There was a brief interlude of 5146:Eurasia around 600 BC, showing 4705:), he installed his eldest son 4576:It was during this period that 3591:ultra-short chronology: 1499 BC 2817:-speaking Amorite founders and 2787:–1752 BC middle chronology, or 401:Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period 21:Talmudic academies in Babylonia 9684:Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia 9000:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) 8995:Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) 8230:Babylonian Astronomy/Astrology 7810:, Yale University Press p. 38. 7808:The Growth of Scientific Ideas 7153:Encyclopædia Britannica Online 7148:"Iranian art and architecture" 7122:Encyclopædia Britannica Online 7074:Beaulieu, Paul-Alain, (2018). 6877:Barmash, Pamela (2020-09-24). 6814:Liverani, Mario (2013-12-04). 6679: 6552: 6538: 6513: 6489: 6390:apocalyptic references to the 6122: 6099:model of planetary motion was 5991: 5915:was based on a logical set of 5641:In Babylonia, an abundance of 3731:Hurro-Urartian language family 3606:ultra-long chronology: 1736 BC 3597:low middle chronology: 1587 BC 1: 9943: 9382:Ancient Mesopotamian religion 8779:Tigris–Euphrates river system 7924:, pp. vii–viii, 187–188. 7728:The Cambridge Ancient History 7158:Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 7127:Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 6840:Oppenheim Ancient Mesopotamia 6521:"Aliraqi – Babylonian Empire" 6506: 6305:contains similarities to the 6225: 6170: 6037:, in classical, in Sasanian, 5945: 5880:and often detailed empirical 5732: 5482:East Syriac Rite Christianity 4287: 3817: 3782:domination and interference. 3769:ancient Mesopotamian religion 3748:The Kassites renamed Babylon 3692:Kassite dynasty, 1595–1155 BC 3482: 3393: 3382: 3270: 3168: 3001: 2872: 2852: 2788: 2781: 2745: 10180:in ISIL-controlled territory 10068: 7935:Philosophy before the Greeks 7920:Philosophy before the Greeks 7347:, Cambridge University Press 7343:Rochberg, Francesca (2004), 7103:Altorientalische Forschungen 6546:"Babylonian Empire – Livius" 5700: 5558:endures to the present day. 5488:, who had never adopted the 5360: 4344:Period of chaos, 1026–911 BC 4228:(1133–1115 BC), king of the 3864:, and Assyria to the north. 2757: 2702: 115: 7: 10354: 10246: 10091:Council of Representatives 9829:Weapons of mass destruction 9516: 9448:Chicago Assyrian Dictionary 9330:Egypt-Mesopotamia relations 9325:Indus-Mesopotamia relations 8188:From under the Dust of Ages 8070:, by Leonard W. King, 1918 7117:"India: Early Vedic period" 7089:The Kingdom of the Hittites 7060:The Kingdom of the Hittites 6454: 6161:correctly to seven places ( 5761: 5711:Tablets dating back to the 5614:Architecture of Mesopotamia 5449:conquest (the provinces of 5383:ceased to be acknowledged. 4614:who had attacked Assyria's 4274:signed a peace treaty with 3737:, and they may have had an 10: 10740: 9819:1977 Shia uprising in Iraq 9453:Chicago Hittite Dictionary 8027:. In Baynes, T. S. (ed.). 7105:(in German) (30): 372–381. 7024::10.1126/science.1066112. 6820:. Routledge. p. 242. 6599:Oxford University Press US 6396:Hanging Gardens of Babylon 6229: 6126: 5995: 5957:complicated and extensive 5949: 5856:introduced the methods of 5797:(i.e., Akkadian) texts on 5704: 5611: 5561: 5350: 5325:Babylonian soldier of the 5310: 5241:) in command of the army. 5137:Hanging Gardens of Babylon 5119:were also subjugated. The 5083:and the former kingdom of 4814: 4674:Restoration and rebuilding 4102:now affecting the Levant, 3695: 3350: 3269:to pay tribute to Babylon 3167:, during 1792–1750 BC (or 3093: 2987:Northwest Semitic-speaking 2985:("Westerners"), a foreign 2837: 2697: 716:Ba'athist rule (1968–2003) 711:Republic of Iraq (1958–68) 100: 25:Babylonia (disambiguation) 18: 10699:Former monarchies of Asia 10612: 10511: 10366: 10362: 10349: 10254: 10241: 10076: 10063: 9951: 9938: 9759: 9676: 9528: 9524: 9511: 9420: 9374: 9348: 9252: 9149: 9042: 8950: 8943: 8932: 8814: 8741: 8732: 8677: 8656: 8644: 8641: 8634: 8631: 8613: 8603: 8586: 8579: 8577: 8543: 8531: 8522: 8513: 8508: 8480: 8463: 8434: 8419: 8414: 8393: 8388: 8376: 8366: 8354: 8344: 8326: 8323: 8313: 8308: 8303: 8296: 8255: 8250:Links to related articles 8192:William St. Chad Boscawen 8024:"Babylon–Babylonia" 7321:The Legacy of Mesopotamia 6369: 5834:ancient Egyptian medicine 5805:in the first half of the 5536:Muslim conquest of Persia 5341:in 539 BCE, becoming the 5252:, and on the 16th day of 4449:(855–819 BC) followed by 4390:Assyrian rule, 911–619 BC 3911:and the Egyptian Pharaoh 3594:short chronology: 1531 BC 3556: 3539: 3517: 3474: 3466: 3461: 3023:, as far as the City of ( 1757:Indus Valley Civilisation 320: 244: 240: 227: 217: 213: 205: 195: 181: 155: 145: 129: 124: 94: 10170:in Saddam Hussein's Iraq 10081:Administrative divisions 8305:Northwestern Mesopotamia 7697:Tatlow, Elisabeth Meier 6482: 6135:First Babylonian dynasty 5832:Along with contemporary 5803:First Babylonian dynasty 5731:dates back to Babylonia 5649:, led to greater use of 4100:Late Bronze Age collapse 3581:Late Bronze Age collapse 3186:, Ur, Uruk, Umma, Adab, 3114:Hammurabi's code of laws 3096:First Babylonian dynasty 2821:successors, who spoke a 2538:Ancient Maritime History 9729:Mandate for Mesopotamia 9603:First Babylonian Empire 8030:Encyclopædia Britannica 8010:Encyclopædia Britannica 7975:Encyclopædia Britannica 7858:10.1126/science.aad8085 7190:H. W. F. Saggs (2000). 7087:Bryce, Trevor, (2005). 7058:Bryce, Trevor, (2005). 6691:"The Time of Confusion" 6072:and began employing an 6035:ancient Greek astronomy 4781:, a previously unknown 4531:and southwestern Elam. 4384:Ninurta-kudurri-usur II 486:First Babylonian Empire 156:Official languages 64:more precise citations. 10704:History of Mesopotamia 9888:Insurgency (2011–2013) 9809:Iraqi–Kurdish conflict 9613:Middle Assyrian Empire 9285:Babylonian mathematics 8465:Middle Hittite Kingdom 8206:Babylonian Mathematics 8019:Sayce, Archibald Henry 7997:Sayce, Archibald Henry 7471:Leo Oppenheim (1977). 7456:Charles Sanders Peirce 6760:Bryce, Trevor (2016). 6671:A. K. Grayson (1972). 6647:Khalisi, Emil (2020), 6452: 6407:First Epistle of Peter 6299:. The Babylonian text 6297:Hellenistic philosophy 6183: 6129:Babylonian mathematics 6041:and Syrian astronomy, 5984:Neo-Babylonian culture 5791: 5776: 5719:tablets known as the ' 5638: 5604: 5546:) gradually underwent 5402:, the great temple of 5334: 5151: 5130:, and briefly invaded 5018: 4841: 4833: 4730: 4634:Destruction of Babylon 4516: 4496:then made a vassal of 4230:Middle Assyrian Empire 4012: 3996:deposed him, enraging 3971:Middle Assyrian Empire 3823: 3707: 3643: 3540:Commanders and leaders 3469:Campaigns of Mursili I 3441:Indo-European-speaking 3360: 3117: 3054:at the expense of the 3029: 2751:. During the reign of 2607:Post-classical History 2583:Cradle of Civilization 1642:Greco-Bactrian Kingdom 1343:Massylii Confederation 496:Middle Assyrian Empire 23:. For other uses, see 10175:in post-invasion Iraq 9881:U.S. troop withdrawal 9643:Neo-Babylonian Empire 8588:Neo-Babylonian Empire 8421:Old Babylonian Empire 8336:Early Dynastic period 8183:Old Babylonian Period 8074:University of Georgia 8047:Catholic Encyclopedia 8001:Babylonia and Assyria 7953:Theophilus G. Pinches 7751:, Styx Publications, 7592:Epilepsy in Babylonia 7542:Epilepsy in Babylonia 7358:Evans, James (1998). 6995:. London: Routledge. 6929:. Malden: Blackwell. 6436: 6302:Dialogue of Pessimism 6230:Further information: 6178: 6078:philosophy of science 6059:scientific revolution 5778: 5774: 5713:Old Babylonian period 5625: 5612:Further information: 5590: 5499:Apart from the small 5431:Babylonian Chronicles 5324: 5311:Further information: 5148:Neo-Babylonian Empire 5145: 5000: 4839: 4831:Neo-Babylonian Empire 4828: 4817:Neo-Babylonian Empire 4724: 4667:Marduk-zakir-shumi II 4665:placed a puppet king 4600:Marduk-apla-iddina II 4509:Babylon's destruction 4506: 4322:East Semitic-speaking 4010: 3877:, and conquering the 3815: 3741:elite similar to the 3705: 3635: 3631:Telepinu Proclamation 3557:Casualties and losses 3358: 3327:, and to some degree 3103: 3009: 2831:Mesopotamian religion 2720:based in the city of 1353:Kingdom of Mauretania 621:Atabegs of Azerbaijan 591:Buyid amirate of Iraq 506:Neo-Babylonian Empire 182:Common languages 10689:Achaemenid satrapies 10124:Council of Ministers 10006:Mesopotamian Marshes 9280:Babylonian astronomy 8759:Mesopotamian Marshes 8315:Southern Mesopotamia 8310:Northern Mesopotamia 7590:Marten Stol (1993), 7540:Marten Stol (1993), 7225:"World Wide Sechool" 6209:, was discovered by 6205:lens, turned on the 6101:Seleucus of Seleucia 6090:history of astronomy 6006:Among the sciences, 5998:Babylonian astronomy 5911:. Esagil-kin-apli's 5846:physical examination 5817:, or chief scholar, 5707:Babylonian astronomy 5608:Art and architecture 5494:Hellenistic religion 5457:; 116–118 AD) under 5377:Zoroastrian religion 4983:Babylonian Chronicle 4548:The Babylonian king 4447:Marduk-zakir-shumi I 4429:later in his reign. 4167:Marduk-kabit-ahheshu 4131:Marduk-apla-iddina I 4122:, northern Iran and 3988:He was succeeded by 3295:was discovered on a 2724:in central-southern 2191:Senegambia Megaliths 1443:Proto-Indo-Europeans 1383:Kingdom of the Aurès 1363:Kingdom of Ouarsenis 721:Occupation (2003–11) 10386:Mesopotamian Arabic 10192:Freedom of religion 9638:Neo-Assyrian Empire 9608:Old Assyrian Period 9593:Neo-Sumerian Empire 9361:Destruction by ISIL 9315:Sumerian literature 9290:Akkadian literature 8726:Ancient Mesopotamia 8569:Neo-Assyrian Empire 8483:Bronze Age Collapse 8416:Old Hittite Kingdom 8390:Old Assyrian period 8368:Third Dynasty of Ur 8218:Babylonian Numerals 8056:Ancient Mesopotamia 7850:2016Sci...351..482O 7822:, pp. 107–108. 7624:. pp. 11–186. 7460:abductive reasoning 7255:, pp. 105–106. 7020:(5551): 2532–2535. 6376:Abrahamic religions 6348:Marc Van de Mieroop 6211:Austen Henry Layard 6167:Pythagorean theorem 5952:Akkadian literature 5928:Diagnostic Handbook 5913:Diagnostic Handbook 5854:Diagnostic Handbook 5852:. In addition, the 5811:Diagnostic Handbook 5669:and column, and of 5628:Sulaymaniyah museum 5556:Assyrian continuity 5410:Alexander the Great 4558:Tiglath-Pileser III 4511:. Exhibited at the 4451:Marduk-balassu-iqbi 4403:Neo-Assyrian Empire 4330:Bronze Age collapse 4196:Ninurta-nadin-shumi 4133:(1171–1159 BC) and 4038:Shagarakti-Shuriash 3947:, the successor of 3816:Map of Mesopotamia 3735:Indo-European names 3585:Egyptian chronology 3417:He was followed by 3305:Jean-Vincent Scheil 3281:Babylonian law code 3246:Old Assyrian Empire 3159:Empire of Hammurabi 3135:He was followed by 2972:Neo-Sumerian Empire 2804:Old Assyrian Empire 2800:Third Dynasty of Ur 1827:Ancestral Puebloans 1338:Kingdom of Blemmyes 1033:Aegean Civilization 664:Early modern period 501:Neo-Assyrian Empire 466:Neo-Sumerian Empire 219:• Established 200:Babylonian religion 10317:Telecommunications 10292:Foreign Investment 10229:Wars and conflicts 10165:in pre-Saddam Iraq 10129:Presidency Council 9915:2019–2021 protests 9844:Invasion of Kuwait 9668:Sassanid Asorestan 9663:Parthian Babylonia 9658:Seleucid Babylonia 9653:Achaemenid Assyria 9568:Jemdet Nasr period 9397:Mesopotamian myths 8425:Southern Akkadians 8332:Jemdet Nasr period 8223:2007-09-27 at the 8211:2005-04-25 at the 8149:2006-09-21 at the 8132:2006-09-21 at the 8118:2006-02-19 at the 8101:2005-03-14 at the 8087:2006-02-19 at the 8066:2005-02-15 at the 8054:The History Files 7797:(3), pp. 166–173 . 7769:Otto E. Neugebauer 6923:van de Mieroop, M. 6689:(27 August 1992), 6631:2013-04-29 at the 6601:. pp. 20–21. 6244:, in the forms of 6159:square root of two 5940:Hippocratic Corpus 5777: 5681:, as well as with 5639: 5618:Art of Mesopotamia 5605: 5583:Babylonian culture 5388:Nebuchadnezzar III 5335: 5317:Achaemenid Assyria 5152: 5019: 4888:from north of the 4842: 4834: 4731: 4588:The Assyrian king 4517: 4431:Tukulti-Ninurta II 4373:Mar-biti-apla-usur 4311:Neo-Hittite states 4272:Marduk-shapik-zeri 4189:Itti-Marduk-balatu 4135:Zababa-shuma-iddin 4086:Enlil-kudurri-usur 4071:Kadashman-Harbe II 4030:Kadashman-Enlil II 4013: 3909:Ashur-bel-nisheshu 3824: 3708: 3361: 3118: 3074:in the south were 2573:Ancient Literature 2122:Indigenous Peoples 1782:Satavahana Dynasty 1388:Kingdom of Makuria 1358:Kingdom of Nobatia 1348:Kingdom of Numidia 1328:Nasamones Chiefdom 1323:Garamantes Kingdom 1108:Barbarian Kingdoms 636:Jalairid Sultanate 571:Rashidun Caliphate 546:Sasanian Asorestan 536:Parthian Babylonia 531:Seleucid Babylonia 526:Achaemenid Assyria 421:Jemdet Nasr Period 10666: 10665: 10660: 10659: 10608: 10607: 10604: 10603: 10594:Mandaean New Year 10345: 10344: 10237: 10236: 10219:Political parties 10114:Foreign relations 10059: 10058: 9966:Lower Mesopotamia 9961:Upper Mesopotamia 9934: 9933: 9930: 9929: 9694:Abbasid Caliphate 9689:Umayyad Caliphate 9598:Isin-Larsa period 9461: 9460: 9412:Ziggurat (Temple) 9387:Sumerian religion 9145: 9144: 9092:Middle Babylonian 9034:Kish civilization 8930: 8929: 8754:Lower Mesopotamia 8749:Upper Mesopotamia 8692: 8691: 8687: 8686: 8615:Macedonian Empire 8605:Achaemenid Empire 8478:c. 1200–1150 BCE 8461:c. 1400–1200 BCE 8432:c. 1600–1400 BCE 8412:c. 1800–1600 BCE 8374:c. 2000–1800 BCE 8364:c. 2100–2000 BCE 8352:c. 2200–2100 BCE 8342:c. 2350–2200 BCE 8321:c. 3500–2350 BCE 8041:"Babylonia" 7844:(6272): 482–484. 7747:D. Brown (2000), 7707:978-0-8264-1628-5 7631:978-90-04-13666-3 7421:978-0-253-35235-4 7371:978-0-19-509539-5 7330:978-0-19-814946-0 7317:Dalley, Stephanie 7001:978-0-415-28916-0 6935:978-0-631-22552-2 6890:978-0-19-752542-5 6863:978-1-4262-2199-6 6827:978-1-134-75084-9 6800:978-1-61530-208-6 6773:978-0-19-872647-0 6743:978-1-4051-8898-2 6625:: 91–120 Chicago 6608:978-0-19-953222-3 6343:According to the 6284:developed beyond 6238:wisdom literature 6055:Greek mathematics 5970:Epic of Gilgamesh 5807:2nd millennium BC 5801:date back to the 5426:Lower Mesopotamia 5396:Nebuchadnezzar IV 5358: 5339:Achaemenid Empire 5293:Achaemenid Empire 5042:Nebuchadnezzar II 4991:Upper Mesopotamia 4717:Babylonian revolt 4707:Shamash-shum-ukin 4643:Ashur-nadin-shumi 4566:Nabu-suma-ukin II 4542:Nabu-shuma-ishkun 4467:Arabian Peninsula 4427:Nabu-shuma-ukin I 4417:and the towns of 4295:Marduk-ahhe-eriba 4267:from the Levant. 4257:Tiglath-Pileser I 4253:Marduk-nadin-ahhe 4226:Ashur-resh-ishi I 4212:Ashur-resh-ishi I 4175:Tukulti-Ninurta I 4075:Adad-shuma-iddina 4067:Enlil-nadin-shumi 4052:Tukulti-Ninurta I 3961:Kadashman-Enlil I 3871:Arabian Peninsula 3569: 3568: 3513: 3512: 3443:, Anatolia-based 3301:Jacques de Morgan 3293:Code of Hammurabi 2827:Sumerian language 2815:Northwest Semitic 2711:Akkadian-speaking 2643: 2642: 2221:Sahelian Kingdoms 2196:Pre-Imperial Mali 1872:St. Johns culture 1413:Kingdom of Altava 1408:Kingdom of Alodia 1378:Kingdom of Masuna 1373:Kingdom of Capsus 1223:Kingdom of Simien 978:Achaemenid Empire 778: 777: 581:Abbasid Caliphate 576:Umayyad Caliphate 541:Roman Mesopotamia 471:Isin-Larsa period 341: 340: 316: 315: 312: 311: 300:Achaemenid Empire 292: 291: 90: 89: 82: 10731: 10650: 10649: 10640: 10639: 10630: 10620: 10619: 10364: 10363: 10351: 10350: 10282: 10243: 10242: 10094: 10065: 10064: 10051:Sinjar Mountains 10041:Zagros Mountains 9981:Hamrin Mountains 9940: 9939: 9903:Mosul liberation 9876:Iraqi insurgency 9798:National Command 9787: 9623:Simurrum culture 9526: 9525: 9513: 9512: 9502: 9501: 9500: 9488: 9481: 9474: 9465: 9464: 9310:Sumerian cuisine 9300:Warfare in Sumer 9295:Economy of Sumer 8948: 8947: 8938: 8822:Fertile Crescent 8806:Sinjar Mountains 8801:Hamrin Mountains 8796:Zagros Mountains 8774:Taurus Mountains 8739: 8738: 8719: 8712: 8705: 8696: 8695: 8665:Byzantine Empire 8540:Middle Babylonia 8506:c. 1150–911 BCE 8299: 8298: 8282: 8275: 8268: 8259: 8258: 8246: 8245: 8172: 8051: 8043: 8034: 8026: 8014: 7989: 7987: 7986: 7979: 7971: 7940: 7931: 7925: 7916: 7910: 7909:(1), pp. 35–47 . 7900: 7894: 7884: 7878: 7877: 7829: 7823: 7817: 7811: 7804: 7798: 7785: 7779: 7766: 7760: 7745: 7739: 7723: 7712: 7695: 7689: 7683: 7664: 7663: 7657: 7653: 7651: 7643: 7622:Brill Publishers 7620:. Vol. 27. 7613: 7607: 7596:Brill Publishers 7588: 7582: 7571:Brill Publishers 7563: 7557: 7546:Brill Publishers 7538: 7532: 7521:Brill Publishers 7513: 7504: 7503: 7491: 7485: 7484: 7478: 7468: 7462: 7454:in the light of 7444:Giovanni Morelli 7441: 7409: 7388: 7382: 7381: 7379: 7378: 7355: 7349: 7348: 7340: 7334: 7333: 7309: 7300: 7294: 7288: 7285: 7279: 7273: 7256: 7250: 7244: 7243: 7241: 7240: 7231:. Archived from 7221: 7215: 7209: 7196: 7195: 7187: 7181: 7175: 7169: 7168: 7166: 7164: 7144: 7138: 7137: 7135: 7133: 7113: 7107: 7106: 7098: 7092: 7085: 7079: 7072: 7063: 7056: 7047: 7044: 7038: 7035: 7029: 7010: 7004: 6989: 6983: 6968: 6962: 6944: 6938: 6920: 6914: 6908: 6895: 6894: 6874: 6868: 6867: 6847: 6841: 6838: 6832: 6831: 6811: 6805: 6804: 6784: 6778: 6777: 6757: 6748: 6747: 6727: 6721: 6718: 6712: 6711: 6683: 6677: 6676: 6668: 6662: 6661: 6660: 6644: 6635: 6619: 6613: 6612: 6585: 6574: 6573: 6571: 6570: 6556: 6550: 6549: 6542: 6536: 6535: 6533: 6532: 6523:. Archived from 6517: 6500: 6493: 6471: 6466: 6465: 6450: 6421:Revelation 16:19 6392:Whore of Babylon 6293:Greek philosophy 6175: 6172: 6051:Western European 5974:Sin-liqi-unninni 5829:(1069–1046 BC). 5827:Adad-apla-iddina 5789: 5744:heliacal risings 5737: 5734: 5717:cuneiform script 5695:Statues of Gudea 5363: 5357:romanized: 5356: 5354: 4979:Ashur-uballit II 4961:Kar Ashurnasipal 4771:Sin-shumu-lishir 4764:Ashur-etil-ilani 4521:Marduk-apla-usur 4443:Nabu-apla-iddina 4435:Ashurnasirpal II 4411:Shamash-mudammiq 4405:(911–605 BC) by 4292: 4289: 4284:Adad-apla-iddina 4249:Enlil-nadin-apli 4218:Nebuchadnezzar I 4155:Nebuchadnezzar I 4147:Enlil-nadin-ahhe 4143:Shutruk-Nakhunte 4060:non-Mesopotamian 3967:Burna-Buriash II 3919:Kadašman-Ḫarbe I 3822: 3819: 3800:statue of Marduk 3716:Zagros Mountains 3665:and his consort 3527: 3484: 3476: 3475: 3459: 3458: 3437:language isolate 3398: 3395: 3387: 3384: 3275: 3272: 3176:short chronology 3174:–1686 BC in the 3173: 3170: 3006: 3003: 2981:in 2002 BC, the 2968:Zagros Mountains 2877: 2874: 2857: 2854: 2823:language isolate 2796:short chronology 2793: 2790: 2786: 2783: 2760: 2750: 2747: 2705: 2699: 2691: 2690: 2687: 2686: 2683: 2680: 2677: 2674: 2671: 2668: 2665: 2662: 2659: 2656: 2635: 2628: 2621: 2599: 2598: 2241:African Kingdoms 2092:Ortoiroid People 1805:Northern America 1628:Bactria–Margiana 1423:African Kingdoms 1398:Nemencha Kingdom 1393:Kingdom of Hodna 1298:African Kingdoms 1198:Kingdom of Kerma 1103:Migration Period 943:Israel and Judah 780: 779: 770: 763: 756: 742: 741: 740: 566:Islamic conquest 371: 361: 343: 342: 308: 307: 296: 295: 283: 282: 269: 268: 262: 261: 246: 245: 134: 119: 118: 111: 103: 102: 92: 91: 85: 78: 74: 71: 65: 60:this article by 51:inline citations 38: 37: 30: 10739: 10738: 10734: 10733: 10732: 10730: 10729: 10728: 10669: 10668: 10667: 10662: 10661: 10656: 10600: 10584:Public holidays 10507: 10358: 10341: 10280: 10250: 10233: 10092: 10072: 10055: 9986:Iraqi Kurdistan 9976:Euphrates river 9947: 9926: 9893:War (2014–2017) 9839:Operation Opera 9785: 9755: 9751:Arab Federation 9739:Kingdom of Iraq 9672: 9648:Fall of Babylon 9583:Akkadian Empire 9558:Samarra culture 9543:Hassuna culture 9520: 9507: 9495: 9494: 9492: 9462: 9457: 9416: 9370: 9344: 9253:Culture/society 9248: 9141: 9137:Muslim conquest 9107:Fall of Babylon 9038: 8939: 8926: 8810: 8728: 8723: 8693: 8688: 8682:Sassanid Empire 8651:Parthian Empire 8646:Seleucid Empire 8636:Seleucid Empire 8555: 8549: 8526: 8517: 8346:Akkadian Empire 8292: 8286: 8251: 8225:Wayback Machine 8213:Wayback Machine 8179: 8169: 8151:Wayback Machine 8134:Wayback Machine 8120:Wayback Machine 8103:Wayback Machine 8089:Wayback Machine 8068:Wayback Machine 7984: 7982: 7949: 7944: 7943: 7932: 7928: 7917: 7913: 7901: 7897: 7893:(1), pp. 35–47. 7885: 7881: 7830: 7826: 7818: 7814: 7805: 7801: 7786: 7782: 7767: 7763: 7746: 7742: 7724: 7715: 7696: 7692: 7684: 7667: 7655: 7654: 7645: 7644: 7632: 7614: 7610: 7589: 7585: 7564: 7560: 7539: 7535: 7514: 7507: 7492: 7488: 7469: 7465: 7452:Sherlock Holmes 7422: 7392:Ginzburg, Carlo 7389: 7385: 7376: 7374: 7372: 7356: 7352: 7341: 7337: 7331: 7310: 7303: 7295: 7291: 7286: 7282: 7274: 7259: 7251: 7247: 7238: 7236: 7223: 7222: 7218: 7210: 7199: 7188: 7184: 7176: 7172: 7162: 7160: 7146: 7145: 7141: 7131: 7129: 7115: 7114: 7110: 7099: 7095: 7086: 7082: 7073: 7066: 7057: 7050: 7045: 7041: 7036: 7032: 7011: 7007: 6990: 6986: 6969: 6965: 6947:Liverani, Mario 6945: 6941: 6921: 6917: 6909: 6898: 6891: 6875: 6871: 6864: 6848: 6844: 6839: 6835: 6828: 6812: 6808: 6801: 6785: 6781: 6774: 6758: 6751: 6744: 6728: 6724: 6719: 6715: 6709: 6701:, p. 266, 6684: 6680: 6669: 6665: 6645: 6638: 6633:Wayback Machine 6620: 6616: 6609: 6586: 6577: 6568: 6566: 6558: 6557: 6553: 6544: 6543: 6539: 6530: 6528: 6519: 6518: 6514: 6509: 6504: 6503: 6495:Freedom = Akk. 6494: 6490: 6485: 6467: 6460: 6457: 6451: 6445:Surah Al-Baqara 6443: 6425:Revelation 18:2 6417:Revelation 14:8 6372: 6326:Socratic method 6309:thought of the 6295:, particularly 6234: 6228: 6189:of 600 and the 6173: 6149:, or a base 60 6131: 6125: 6115:. According to 6004: 5996:Main articles: 5994: 5986: 5954: 5948: 5864:and the use of 5819:Esagil-kin-apli 5813:written by the 5790: 5785: 5764: 5754:, shadows, and 5735: 5721:Enūma Anu Enlil 5709: 5703: 5620: 5610: 5591:Old Babylonian 5585: 5577:Sumero-Akkadian 5564: 5540:Eastern Aramaic 5486:Assyrian people 5478:Sasanian Empire 5436:Parthian Empire 5418:Seleucid Empire 5327:Achaemenid army 5319: 5313:Fall of Babylon 5309: 5307:Fall of Babylon 5301:Seleucid Empire 5219:Cyrus the Great 4858:Iranian peoples 4823: 4815:Main articles: 4813: 4801:, Arameans and 4719: 4676: 4636: 4578:Eastern Aramaic 4570:Nabu-mukin-zeri 4562:Nabu-nadin-zeri 4498:Marduk-bel-zeri 4486:Adad-nirari III 4474:Baba-aha-iddina 4455:Shalmaneser III 4439:Shalmaneser III 4392: 4380:Nabû-mukin-apli 4361:Ashur-nirari IV 4350:Nabu-shum-libur 4346: 4290: 4280:Kadašman-Buriaš 4163: 4082:Adad-shuma-usur 4026:Kadashman-Turgu 3998:Ashur-uballit I 3981:, ruler of the 3975:Ashur-uballit I 3842:Sealand Dynasty 3835:Kashtiliash III 3831:Puzur-Ashur III 3820: 3700: 3694: 3679:Marduk Prophesy 3509:Hittite victory 3501: 3462:Sack of Babylon 3457: 3412:Damqi-ilishu II 3396: 3385: 3373:Sealand Dynasty 3353: 3273: 3171: 3161: 3153:king of Babylon 3130:King of Babylon 3098: 3092: 3019:of the goddess 3004: 2960:Akkadian Empire 2875: 2855: 2845: 2840: 2791: 2784: 2773:to the east in 2763:Akkadian Empire 2748: 2653: 2649: 2639: 2588: 2587: 2578:Ancient Warfare 2528: 2520: 2519: 2260: 2246: 2245: 2146: 2132: 2131: 2087: 2077: 2076: 2027: 2017: 2016: 1887: 1877: 1876: 1807: 1797: 1796: 1792:Middle Kingdoms 1752: 1742: 1741: 1712: 1702: 1701: 1618: 1608: 1607: 1593:Eurasian Nomads 1588:Five Barbarians 1583:Four Barbarians 1568:Pannonian Avars 1438: 1436:Eurasian Steppe 1428: 1427: 1313: 1303: 1302: 1293:Nilotic Peoples 1218:Kingdom of Axum 1213:Kingdom of Kush 1208:Kingdom of Dʿmt 1183: 1173: 1172: 1028: 1018: 1017: 803: 784:Ancient history 774: 744:Iraq portal 738: 736: 731: 730: 706:Kingdom of Iraq 696: 686: 685: 666: 656: 655: 561: 551: 550: 521: 511: 510: 456:Akkadian Empire 436: 426: 425: 406:Samarra culture 391:Hassuna culture 381: 359: 352: 337: 305: 287:Akkadian Empire 280: 266: 233: 220: 188: 177: 141: 120: 113: 112: 105: 97: 86: 75: 69: 66: 56:Please help to 55: 39: 35: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 10737: 10727: 10726: 10724:Former empires 10721: 10716: 10711: 10706: 10701: 10696: 10694:Ancient Levant 10691: 10686: 10681: 10664: 10663: 10658: 10657: 10655: 10654: 10644: 10634: 10624: 10613: 10610: 10609: 10606: 10605: 10602: 10601: 10599: 10598: 10597: 10596: 10591: 10581: 10576: 10571: 10566: 10561: 10556: 10551: 10546: 10541: 10536: 10531: 10526: 10521: 10515: 10513: 10509: 10508: 10506: 10505: 10504: 10503: 10498: 10493: 10488: 10483: 10473: 10468: 10467: 10466: 10461: 10455: 10450: 10445: 10440: 10435: 10430: 10425: 10420: 10410: 10409: 10408: 10403: 10398: 10393: 10388: 10378: 10372: 10370: 10360: 10359: 10347: 10346: 10343: 10342: 10340: 10339: 10334: 10329: 10324: 10322:Transportation 10319: 10314: 10312:Stock Exchange 10309: 10307:Reconstruction 10304: 10299: 10294: 10289: 10287:Infrastructure 10284: 10276: 10271: 10266: 10261: 10255: 10252: 10251: 10239: 10238: 10235: 10234: 10232: 10231: 10226: 10221: 10216: 10211: 10206: 10201: 10200: 10199: 10194: 10189: 10184: 10183: 10182: 10172: 10167: 10157: 10156: 10155: 10154: 10153: 10146:Prime Minister 10143: 10142: 10141: 10131: 10126: 10116: 10111: 10106: 10101: 10096: 10088: 10083: 10077: 10074: 10073: 10061: 10060: 10057: 10056: 10054: 10053: 10048: 10043: 10038: 10033: 10028: 10023: 10018: 10013: 10008: 10003: 9998: 9993: 9988: 9983: 9978: 9973: 9968: 9963: 9958: 9952: 9949: 9948: 9936: 9935: 9932: 9931: 9928: 9927: 9925: 9924: 9919: 9918: 9917: 9907: 9906: 9905: 9900: 9890: 9885: 9884: 9883: 9878: 9873: 9863: 9858: 9857: 9856: 9854:1991 uprisings 9846: 9841: 9836: 9831: 9826: 9821: 9816: 9811: 9806: 9804:Saddam Hussein 9801: 9790: 9789: 9781: 9776: 9771: 9765: 9763: 9757: 9756: 9754: 9753: 9748: 9747: 9746: 9736: 9734:Mandatory Iraq 9731: 9726: 9723:Mamluk dynasty 9716: 9711: 9706: 9701: 9696: 9691: 9686: 9680: 9678: 9674: 9673: 9671: 9670: 9665: 9660: 9655: 9650: 9645: 9640: 9635: 9630: 9625: 9620: 9615: 9610: 9605: 9600: 9595: 9590: 9588:Gutian dynasty 9585: 9580: 9575: 9570: 9565: 9560: 9555: 9550: 9545: 9540: 9534: 9532: 9522: 9521: 9509: 9508: 9491: 9490: 9483: 9476: 9468: 9459: 9458: 9456: 9455: 9450: 9445: 9440: 9435: 9433:Assyriologists 9430: 9424: 9422: 9418: 9417: 9415: 9414: 9409: 9404: 9399: 9394: 9389: 9384: 9378: 9376: 9372: 9371: 9369: 9368: 9363: 9358: 9352: 9350: 9346: 9345: 9343: 9342: 9340:List of rulers 9337: 9332: 9327: 9322: 9317: 9312: 9307: 9302: 9297: 9292: 9287: 9282: 9277: 9272: 9267: 9262: 9256: 9254: 9250: 9249: 9247: 9246: 9241: 9236: 9231: 9229:Proto-Armenian 9226: 9221: 9216: 9214:Middle Persian 9211: 9206: 9201: 9196: 9191: 9186: 9181: 9176: 9171: 9166: 9161: 9155: 9153: 9147: 9146: 9143: 9142: 9140: 9139: 9134: 9129: 9124: 9119: 9114: 9109: 9104: 9102:Neo-Babylonian 9099: 9094: 9089: 9084: 9082:Old Babylonian 9079: 9074: 9069: 9064: 9059: 9054: 9052:Early Dynastic 9048: 9046: 9040: 9039: 9037: 9036: 9031: 9026: 9021: 9016: 9011: 9002: 8997: 8992: 8987: 8982: 8977: 8972: 8967: 8962: 8956: 8954: 8945: 8941: 8940: 8933: 8931: 8928: 8927: 8925: 8924: 8919: 8914: 8909: 8904: 8899: 8894: 8889: 8884: 8879: 8874: 8869: 8864: 8859: 8854: 8849: 8844: 8839: 8834: 8829: 8824: 8818: 8816: 8812: 8811: 8809: 8808: 8803: 8798: 8793: 8792: 8791: 8786: 8776: 8771: 8766: 8761: 8756: 8751: 8745: 8743: 8736: 8730: 8729: 8722: 8721: 8714: 8707: 8699: 8690: 8689: 8685: 8684: 8679: 8675: 8674: 8658: 8657:63 BCE–224 CE 8654: 8653: 8648: 8643: 8639: 8638: 8633: 8629: 8628: 8620:Ancient Greeks 8612: 8608: 8607: 8602: 8598: 8597: 8585: 8581: 8580: 8578: 8576: 8572: 8571: 8566: 8562: 8561: 8542: 8537: 8530: 8521: 8512: 8507: 8503: 8502: 8495: 8479: 8475: 8474: 8472:Middle Assyria 8469: 8467: 8462: 8458: 8457: 8445: 8433: 8429: 8428: 8418: 8413: 8409: 8408: 8392: 8387: 8375: 8371: 8370: 8365: 8361: 8360: 8353: 8349: 8348: 8343: 8339: 8338: 8325: 8322: 8318: 8317: 8312: 8307: 8302: 8297: 8294: 8293: 8285: 8284: 8277: 8270: 8262: 8256: 8253: 8252: 8243: 8242: 8237: 8232: 8227: 8215: 8203: 8194: 8185: 8178: 8177:External links 8175: 8174: 8173: 8168:978-0691157184 8167: 8155: 8124: 8093: 8058: 8052: 8035: 8015: 8005:Chisholm, Hugh 7980: 7966:, ed. (1911). 7964:Chisholm, Hugh 7960: 7948: 7945: 7942: 7941: 7939:, p. 218. 7926: 7911: 7895: 7879: 7824: 7812: 7799: 7780: 7778:(1), pp. 1–38. 7761: 7740: 7713: 7690: 7688:, p. 107. 7665: 7630: 7608: 7583: 7558: 7533: 7505: 7486: 7463: 7420: 7400:Sebeok, Thomas 7383: 7370: 7350: 7335: 7329: 7313:Pingree, David 7301: 7299:, p. 108. 7289: 7280: 7278:, p. 106. 7257: 7245: 7216: 7214:, p. 105. 7197: 7182: 7180:, p. 104. 7170: 7139: 7108: 7093: 7080: 7064: 7048: 7039: 7030: 7005: 6993:Ancient Turkey 6984: 6963: 6939: 6915: 6910:Georges Roux, 6896: 6889: 6869: 6862: 6842: 6833: 6826: 6806: 6799: 6779: 6772: 6749: 6742: 6722: 6713: 6707: 6678: 6663: 6636: 6614: 6607: 6589:Deutscher, Guy 6575: 6551: 6537: 6511: 6510: 6508: 6505: 6502: 6501: 6487: 6486: 6484: 6481: 6480: 6479: 6473: 6472: 6456: 6453: 6441: 6400:Tower of Babel 6371: 6368: 6227: 6224: 6174: 1900 BC 6151:numeral system 6127:Main article: 6124: 6121: 6074:internal logic 5993: 5990: 5985: 5982: 5950:Main article: 5947: 5944: 5936:Greek medicine 5787:Carlo Ginzburg 5783: 5763: 5760: 5756:intercalations 5736: 1100 BC 5705:Main article: 5702: 5699: 5645:, and lack of 5609: 5606: 5584: 5581: 5569:pre-Babylonian 5563: 5560: 5501:2nd century BC 5490:Zoroastrianism 5474:Middle Persian 5308: 5305: 5173:Labashi-Marduk 5103:, the king of 4907:(the Biblical 4812: 4809: 4727:British Museum 4718: 4715: 4675: 4672: 4647:Nergal-ushezib 4635: 4632: 4554:Ashur-nirari V 4533:Shalmaneser IV 4494:Shamshi-Adad V 4490:Ninurta-apla-X 4407:Adad-nirari II 4391: 4388: 4345: 4342: 4291: 1050 BC 4276:Ashur-bel-kala 4162: 4159: 4096:Meli-Shipak II 4048:Kashtiliash IV 4022:Nazi-Maruttash 3983:Hittite Empire 3979:Suppiluliuma I 3827:Burnaburiash I 3821: 1450 BC 3796:Hittite Empire 3696:Main article: 3693: 3690: 3608: 3607: 3604: 3601: 3598: 3595: 3592: 3567: 3566: 3563: 3559: 3558: 3554: 3553: 3548: 3542: 3541: 3537: 3536: 3531: 3529:Hittite Empire 3520: 3519: 3515: 3514: 3511: 3510: 3507: 3503: 3502: 3493: 3491: 3487: 3486: 3480: 3472: 3471: 3464: 3463: 3456: 3453: 3397: 1735 BC 3386: 1740 BC 3352: 3349: 3274: 1751 BC 3259:Shamshi-Adad I 3160: 3157: 3094:Main article: 3091: 3088: 3046:However, when 2950:where the god 2876: 5400 BC 2856: 5400 BC 2844: 2841: 2839: 2836: 2749: 1894 BC 2641: 2640: 2638: 2637: 2630: 2623: 2615: 2612: 2611: 2610: 2609: 2603: 2590: 2589: 2586: 2585: 2580: 2575: 2570: 2568:Historiography 2565: 2560: 2555: 2550: 2545: 2540: 2535: 2529: 2526: 2525: 2522: 2521: 2518: 2517: 2512: 2507: 2502: 2497: 2492: 2487: 2482: 2477: 2472: 2467: 2462: 2457: 2452: 2447: 2442: 2437: 2432: 2427: 2422: 2417: 2412: 2407: 2402: 2397: 2392: 2387: 2382: 2377: 2372: 2367: 2362: 2357: 2352: 2347: 2342: 2337: 2332: 2327: 2322: 2317: 2312: 2307: 2302: 2297: 2292: 2287: 2282: 2277: 2272: 2267: 2261: 2254:Southeast Asia 2252: 2251: 2248: 2247: 2244: 2243: 2238: 2233: 2228: 2223: 2218: 2213: 2208: 2203: 2198: 2193: 2188: 2183: 2178: 2173: 2168: 2163: 2158: 2153: 2147: 2144:Central Africa 2138: 2137: 2134: 2133: 2130: 2129: 2124: 2119: 2114: 2109: 2104: 2099: 2094: 2088: 2083: 2082: 2079: 2078: 2075: 2074: 2069: 2064: 2059: 2054: 2049: 2044: 2039: 2034: 2028: 2023: 2022: 2019: 2018: 2015: 2014: 2009: 2004: 1999: 1994: 1989: 1984: 1979: 1974: 1969: 1964: 1959: 1954: 1949: 1944: 1939: 1934: 1929: 1924: 1919: 1914: 1909: 1904: 1899: 1894: 1888: 1883: 1882: 1879: 1878: 1875: 1874: 1869: 1864: 1859: 1854: 1849: 1844: 1839: 1834: 1829: 1824: 1819: 1814: 1808: 1803: 1802: 1799: 1798: 1795: 1794: 1789: 1784: 1779: 1774: 1769: 1764: 1759: 1753: 1748: 1747: 1744: 1743: 1740: 1739: 1734: 1729: 1724: 1719: 1713: 1708: 1707: 1704: 1703: 1700: 1699: 1694: 1692:Fergana Valley 1689: 1684: 1679: 1674: 1669: 1664: 1659: 1654: 1649: 1647:Yavana Kingdom 1644: 1639: 1630: 1625: 1619: 1614: 1613: 1610: 1609: 1606: 1605: 1600: 1598:Nomadic Empire 1595: 1590: 1585: 1580: 1575: 1570: 1565: 1560: 1555: 1550: 1545: 1540: 1535: 1530: 1525: 1520: 1515: 1510: 1505: 1500: 1495: 1490: 1485: 1480: 1475: 1470: 1465: 1460: 1455: 1450: 1445: 1439: 1434: 1433: 1430: 1429: 1426: 1425: 1420: 1415: 1410: 1405: 1400: 1395: 1390: 1385: 1380: 1375: 1370: 1365: 1360: 1355: 1350: 1345: 1340: 1335: 1330: 1325: 1320: 1314: 1309: 1308: 1305: 1304: 1301: 1300: 1295: 1290: 1285: 1280: 1275: 1270: 1265: 1260: 1255: 1250: 1245: 1240: 1235: 1230: 1225: 1220: 1215: 1210: 1205: 1200: 1195: 1190: 1184: 1181:Horn of Africa 1179: 1178: 1175: 1174: 1171: 1170: 1165: 1160: 1155: 1150: 1145: 1140: 1135: 1130: 1125: 1120: 1115: 1110: 1105: 1100: 1095: 1090: 1085: 1080: 1075: 1070: 1065: 1060: 1055: 1050: 1045: 1040: 1035: 1029: 1024: 1023: 1020: 1019: 1016: 1015: 1010: 1005: 1000: 995: 990: 985: 980: 975: 970: 965: 960: 955: 950: 945: 940: 935: 930: 925: 920: 915: 910: 905: 900: 895: 890: 885: 880: 875: 870: 865: 860: 855: 850: 845: 840: 835: 830: 825: 820: 815: 810: 804: 799: 798: 795: 794: 787: 786: 776: 775: 773: 772: 765: 758: 750: 747: 746: 733: 732: 729: 728: 726:Recent history 723: 718: 713: 708: 703: 701:Mandatory Iraq 697: 692: 691: 688: 687: 684: 683: 681:Mamluk dynasty 678: 673: 667: 662: 661: 658: 657: 654: 653: 648: 643: 641:Timurid Empire 638: 633: 628: 623: 618: 613: 608: 603: 598: 593: 588: 583: 578: 573: 568: 562: 557: 556: 553: 552: 549: 548: 543: 538: 533: 528: 522: 517: 516: 513: 512: 509: 508: 503: 498: 493: 488: 483: 478: 473: 468: 463: 461:Gutian Dynasty 458: 453: 448: 443: 437: 432: 431: 428: 427: 424: 423: 418: 413: 403: 398: 393: 388: 382: 377: 376: 373: 372: 364: 363: 354: 353: 346: 339: 338: 336: 335: 330: 324: 322: 318: 317: 314: 313: 310: 309: 302: 293: 290: 289: 284: 276: 275: 270: 258: 257: 252: 242: 241: 238: 237: 234: 231:Disestablished 228: 225: 224: 221: 218: 215: 214: 211: 210: 207: 203: 202: 197: 193: 192: 183: 179: 178: 176: 175: 170: 165: 159: 157: 153: 152: 147: 143: 142: 135: 127: 126: 125:1890 BC–224 CE 122: 121: 98: 95: 88: 87: 42: 40: 33: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10736: 10725: 10722: 10720: 10717: 10715: 10712: 10710: 10707: 10705: 10702: 10700: 10697: 10695: 10692: 10690: 10687: 10685: 10682: 10680: 10677: 10676: 10674: 10653: 10645: 10643: 10635: 10633: 10629: 10625: 10623: 10615: 10614: 10611: 10595: 10592: 10590: 10587: 10586: 10585: 10582: 10580: 10577: 10575: 10572: 10570: 10567: 10565: 10562: 10560: 10557: 10555: 10552: 10550: 10547: 10545: 10542: 10540: 10537: 10535: 10532: 10530: 10527: 10525: 10522: 10520: 10517: 10516: 10514: 10510: 10502: 10499: 10497: 10494: 10492: 10489: 10487: 10484: 10482: 10479: 10478: 10477: 10474: 10472: 10469: 10465: 10462: 10459: 10458:Iraqi Turkmen 10456: 10454: 10451: 10449: 10446: 10444: 10441: 10439: 10436: 10434: 10431: 10429: 10426: 10424: 10421: 10419: 10416: 10415: 10414: 10411: 10407: 10404: 10402: 10399: 10397: 10394: 10392: 10389: 10387: 10384: 10383: 10382: 10379: 10377: 10374: 10373: 10371: 10369: 10365: 10361: 10357: 10352: 10348: 10338: 10335: 10333: 10330: 10328: 10325: 10323: 10320: 10318: 10315: 10313: 10310: 10308: 10305: 10303: 10300: 10298: 10295: 10293: 10290: 10288: 10285: 10283: 10277: 10275: 10272: 10270: 10267: 10265: 10262: 10260: 10257: 10256: 10253: 10249: 10244: 10240: 10230: 10227: 10225: 10222: 10220: 10217: 10215: 10212: 10210: 10207: 10205: 10202: 10198: 10195: 10193: 10190: 10188: 10185: 10181: 10178: 10177: 10176: 10173: 10171: 10168: 10166: 10163: 10162: 10161: 10158: 10152: 10149: 10148: 10147: 10144: 10140: 10137: 10136: 10135: 10132: 10130: 10127: 10125: 10122: 10121: 10120: 10117: 10115: 10112: 10110: 10107: 10105: 10102: 10100: 10097: 10095: 10093:(legislative) 10089: 10087: 10084: 10082: 10079: 10078: 10075: 10071: 10066: 10062: 10052: 10049: 10047: 10044: 10042: 10039: 10037: 10034: 10032: 10029: 10027: 10026:Syrian Desert 10024: 10022: 10021:Shatt al-Arab 10019: 10017: 10014: 10012: 10009: 10007: 10004: 10002: 9999: 9997: 9994: 9992: 9989: 9987: 9984: 9982: 9979: 9977: 9974: 9972: 9969: 9967: 9964: 9962: 9959: 9957: 9956:Faw peninsula 9954: 9953: 9950: 9946: 9941: 9937: 9923: 9920: 9916: 9913: 9912: 9911: 9908: 9904: 9901: 9899: 9898:Fall of Mosul 9896: 9895: 9894: 9891: 9889: 9886: 9882: 9879: 9877: 9874: 9872: 9871:U.S. invasion 9869: 9868: 9867: 9864: 9862: 9859: 9855: 9852: 9851: 9850: 9847: 9845: 9842: 9840: 9837: 9835: 9834:Iran–Iraq War 9832: 9830: 9827: 9825: 9822: 9820: 9817: 9815: 9812: 9810: 9807: 9805: 9802: 9799: 9795: 9792: 9791: 9788: 9782: 9780: 9777: 9775: 9772: 9770: 9767: 9766: 9764: 9762: 9758: 9752: 9749: 9745: 9742: 9741: 9740: 9737: 9735: 9732: 9730: 9727: 9724: 9720: 9717: 9715: 9712: 9710: 9707: 9705: 9702: 9700: 9699:Buyid dynasty 9697: 9695: 9692: 9690: 9687: 9685: 9682: 9681: 9679: 9675: 9669: 9666: 9664: 9661: 9659: 9656: 9654: 9651: 9649: 9646: 9644: 9641: 9639: 9636: 9634: 9631: 9629: 9626: 9624: 9621: 9619: 9616: 9614: 9611: 9609: 9606: 9604: 9601: 9599: 9596: 9594: 9591: 9589: 9586: 9584: 9581: 9579: 9576: 9574: 9571: 9569: 9566: 9564: 9561: 9559: 9556: 9554: 9551: 9549: 9548:Halaf culture 9546: 9544: 9541: 9539: 9536: 9535: 9533: 9531: 9527: 9523: 9519: 9514: 9510: 9505: 9499: 9489: 9484: 9482: 9477: 9475: 9470: 9469: 9466: 9454: 9451: 9449: 9446: 9444: 9441: 9439: 9436: 9434: 9431: 9429: 9426: 9425: 9423: 9419: 9413: 9410: 9408: 9405: 9403: 9400: 9398: 9395: 9393: 9390: 9388: 9385: 9383: 9380: 9379: 9377: 9373: 9367: 9364: 9362: 9359: 9357: 9354: 9353: 9351: 9347: 9341: 9338: 9336: 9333: 9331: 9328: 9326: 9323: 9321: 9318: 9316: 9313: 9311: 9308: 9306: 9303: 9301: 9298: 9296: 9293: 9291: 9288: 9286: 9283: 9281: 9278: 9276: 9273: 9271: 9268: 9266: 9263: 9261: 9258: 9257: 9255: 9251: 9245: 9242: 9240: 9237: 9235: 9232: 9230: 9227: 9225: 9222: 9220: 9217: 9215: 9212: 9210: 9207: 9205: 9202: 9200: 9197: 9195: 9192: 9190: 9187: 9185: 9182: 9180: 9177: 9175: 9172: 9170: 9167: 9165: 9162: 9160: 9157: 9156: 9154: 9152: 9148: 9138: 9135: 9133: 9130: 9128: 9125: 9123: 9120: 9118: 9115: 9113: 9110: 9108: 9105: 9103: 9100: 9098: 9095: 9093: 9090: 9088: 9085: 9083: 9080: 9078: 9075: 9073: 9070: 9068: 9065: 9063: 9060: 9058: 9055: 9053: 9050: 9049: 9047: 9045: 9041: 9035: 9032: 9030: 9027: 9025: 9022: 9020: 9017: 9015: 9012: 9010: 9006: 9003: 9001: 8998: 8996: 8993: 8991: 8988: 8986: 8983: 8981: 8978: 8976: 8973: 8971: 8968: 8966: 8963: 8961: 8958: 8957: 8955: 8953: 8949: 8946: 8942: 8937: 8923: 8920: 8918: 8915: 8913: 8910: 8908: 8905: 8903: 8900: 8898: 8895: 8893: 8890: 8888: 8885: 8883: 8880: 8878: 8875: 8873: 8870: 8868: 8865: 8863: 8860: 8858: 8855: 8853: 8850: 8848: 8845: 8843: 8840: 8838: 8835: 8833: 8830: 8828: 8825: 8823: 8820: 8819: 8817: 8813: 8807: 8804: 8802: 8799: 8797: 8794: 8790: 8787: 8785: 8782: 8781: 8780: 8777: 8775: 8772: 8770: 8769:Syrian Desert 8767: 8765: 8762: 8760: 8757: 8755: 8752: 8750: 8747: 8746: 8744: 8740: 8737: 8735: 8731: 8727: 8720: 8715: 8713: 8708: 8706: 8701: 8700: 8697: 8683: 8676: 8672: 8671: 8666: 8662: 8655: 8652: 8647: 8640: 8637: 8630: 8626: 8625: 8621: 8616: 8610: 8609: 8606: 8600: 8599: 8595: 8594: 8589: 8583: 8582: 8574: 8573: 8570: 8564: 8563: 8560: 8559: 8554: 8553: 8548: 8547: 8541: 8536: 8535: 8529: 8525: 8520: 8516: 8511: 8505: 8504: 8501: 8500: 8496: 8493: 8491: 8485: 8484: 8477: 8476: 8473: 8468: 8466: 8460: 8459: 8455: 8454: 8449: 8443: 8442: 8437: 8431: 8430: 8426: 8422: 8417: 8411: 8410: 8407: 8405: 8400: 8396: 8391: 8386: 8384: 8379: 8373: 8372: 8369: 8363: 8362: 8359: 8358: 8351: 8350: 8347: 8341: 8340: 8337: 8333: 8329: 8320: 8319: 8316: 8311: 8306: 8301: 8300: 8295: 8291: 8283: 8278: 8276: 8271: 8269: 8264: 8263: 8260: 8254: 8247: 8241: 8238: 8236: 8233: 8231: 8228: 8226: 8222: 8219: 8216: 8214: 8210: 8207: 8204: 8202: 8198: 8195: 8193: 8189: 8186: 8184: 8181: 8180: 8170: 8164: 8160: 8156: 8154: 8152: 8148: 8145: 8141: 8135: 8131: 8128: 8125: 8123: 8121: 8117: 8114: 8110: 8104: 8100: 8097: 8094: 8092: 8090: 8086: 8083: 8079: 8075: 8069: 8065: 8062: 8059: 8057: 8053: 8049: 8048: 8042: 8036: 8032: 8031: 8025: 8020: 8016: 8012: 8011: 8006: 8002: 7998: 7993: 7992:public domain 7981: 7977: 7976: 7970: 7965: 7961: 7958: 7954: 7951: 7950: 7938: 7936: 7930: 7923: 7921: 7915: 7908: 7905: 7899: 7892: 7889: 7883: 7875: 7871: 7867: 7863: 7859: 7855: 7851: 7847: 7843: 7839: 7835: 7828: 7821: 7816: 7809: 7803: 7796: 7793: 7789: 7788:George Sarton 7784: 7777: 7774: 7770: 7765: 7758: 7757:90-5693-036-2 7754: 7750: 7744: 7738: 7734: 7730: 7729: 7722: 7720: 7718: 7711: 7708: 7704: 7700: 7694: 7687: 7682: 7680: 7678: 7676: 7674: 7672: 7670: 7661: 7649: 7641: 7637: 7633: 7627: 7623: 7619: 7612: 7605: 7604:90-72371-63-1 7601: 7597: 7593: 7587: 7580: 7579:90-04-13666-5 7576: 7572: 7568: 7562: 7555: 7554:90-72371-63-1 7551: 7547: 7543: 7537: 7530: 7529:90-04-13666-5 7526: 7522: 7518: 7512: 7510: 7501: 7497: 7490: 7482: 7477: 7476: 7467: 7461: 7457: 7453: 7449: 7448:Sigmund Freud 7445: 7439: 7435: 7431: 7427: 7423: 7417: 7413: 7408: 7407: 7401: 7397: 7393: 7387: 7373: 7367: 7363: 7362: 7354: 7346: 7339: 7332: 7326: 7322: 7318: 7314: 7308: 7306: 7298: 7293: 7284: 7277: 7272: 7270: 7268: 7266: 7264: 7262: 7254: 7249: 7235:on 2007-01-01 7234: 7230: 7226: 7220: 7213: 7208: 7206: 7204: 7202: 7193: 7186: 7179: 7174: 7159: 7155: 7154: 7149: 7143: 7128: 7124: 7123: 7118: 7112: 7104: 7097: 7090: 7084: 7077: 7071: 7069: 7061: 7055: 7053: 7043: 7034: 7027: 7023: 7019: 7015: 7009: 7002: 6998: 6994: 6988: 6981: 6980:0-521-79666-0 6977: 6973: 6967: 6960: 6959:9781134750917 6956: 6952: 6948: 6943: 6936: 6932: 6928: 6924: 6919: 6913: 6907: 6905: 6903: 6901: 6892: 6886: 6882: 6881: 6873: 6865: 6859: 6855: 6854: 6846: 6837: 6829: 6823: 6819: 6818: 6810: 6802: 6796: 6792: 6791: 6783: 6775: 6769: 6765: 6764: 6756: 6754: 6745: 6739: 6735: 6734: 6726: 6717: 6710: 6708:9780141938257 6704: 6700: 6699:Penguin Books 6696: 6692: 6688: 6687:Roux, Georges 6682: 6674: 6667: 6659: 6654: 6650: 6643: 6641: 6634: 6630: 6627: 6624: 6618: 6610: 6604: 6600: 6596: 6595: 6590: 6584: 6582: 6580: 6565: 6561: 6555: 6547: 6541: 6527:on 2015-02-21 6526: 6522: 6516: 6512: 6498: 6492: 6488: 6478: 6475: 6474: 6470: 6464: 6459: 6449: 6446: 6440: 6435: 6433: 6428: 6426: 6422: 6418: 6414: 6412: 6408: 6403: 6401: 6397: 6393: 6389: 6388:New Testament 6385: 6381: 6377: 6367: 6365: 6361: 6357: 6353: 6349: 6346: 6345:assyriologist 6341: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6324: 6320: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6304: 6303: 6298: 6294: 6289: 6288:observation. 6287: 6283: 6279: 6276:. Babylonian 6275: 6271: 6267: 6263: 6259: 6255: 6251: 6247: 6243: 6239: 6233: 6223: 6219: 6216: 6212: 6208: 6204: 6200: 6196: 6192: 6188: 6182: 6177: 6168: 6164: 6160: 6156: 6152: 6148: 6143: 6140: 6136: 6130: 6120: 6118: 6114: 6110: 6109:Earth rotated 6106: 6102: 6098: 6093: 6091: 6086: 6081: 6079: 6075: 6071: 6067: 6062: 6060: 6056: 6052: 6048: 6047:Central Asian 6044: 6040: 6036: 6031: 6029: 6025: 6021: 6017: 6013: 6009: 6003: 5999: 5989: 5981: 5979: 5975: 5971: 5966: 5962: 5960: 5953: 5943: 5941: 5937: 5933: 5929: 5924: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5910: 5906: 5902: 5898: 5894: 5889: 5887: 5883: 5879: 5875: 5871: 5867: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5851: 5850:prescriptions 5847: 5843: 5839: 5835: 5830: 5828: 5824: 5820: 5816: 5812: 5808: 5804: 5800: 5796: 5788: 5782: 5773: 5769: 5768: 5759: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5741: 5730: 5726: 5722: 5718: 5714: 5708: 5698: 5696: 5692: 5688: 5684: 5680: 5676: 5672: 5668: 5664: 5660: 5656: 5652: 5648: 5644: 5637: 5633: 5629: 5624: 5619: 5615: 5602: 5598: 5594: 5593:Cylinder Seal 5589: 5580: 5578: 5574: 5570: 5559: 5557: 5553: 5549: 5545: 5541: 5537: 5534: 5530: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5514: 5510: 5506: 5502: 5497: 5495: 5491: 5487: 5483: 5479: 5475: 5471: 5467: 5462: 5460: 5456: 5452: 5448: 5443: 5441: 5437: 5433: 5432: 5427: 5423: 5419: 5415: 5411: 5407: 5405: 5401: 5397: 5393: 5389: 5384: 5382: 5378: 5374: 5370: 5365: 5362: 5353: 5348: 5345:of Babirush ( 5344: 5340: 5332: 5328: 5323: 5318: 5314: 5304: 5302: 5298: 5294: 5290: 5287:and never as 5286: 5280: 5278: 5273: 5270: 5269:Jewish exiles 5265: 5263: 5259: 5255: 5251: 5247: 5242: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5228: 5224: 5220: 5215: 5213: 5207: 5205: 5201: 5197: 5193: 5189: 5185: 5181: 5176: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5149: 5144: 5140: 5138: 5133: 5129: 5124: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5068: 5066: 5062: 5057: 5054: 5049: 5047: 5043: 5038: 5036: 5032: 5028: 5024: 5016: 5012: 5008: 5004: 4999: 4995: 4992: 4988: 4984: 4980: 4975: 4973: 4968: 4966: 4962: 4958: 4954: 4950: 4949:Nibarti-Ashur 4946: 4942: 4938: 4937:Dur Sharrukin 4934: 4930: 4924: 4922: 4918: 4914: 4910: 4906: 4901: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4850: 4848: 4838: 4832: 4827: 4822: 4818: 4808: 4806: 4804: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4786: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4775:Sinsharishkun 4772: 4767: 4765: 4761: 4756: 4752: 4748: 4744: 4740: 4736: 4728: 4723: 4714: 4712: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4671: 4668: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4631: 4629: 4625: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4595: 4591: 4590:Shalmaneser V 4586: 4583: 4582:lingua franca 4579: 4574: 4571: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4551: 4546: 4543: 4539: 4534: 4530: 4526: 4522: 4514: 4510: 4505: 4501: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4487: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4470: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4399: 4397: 4387: 4385: 4381: 4376: 4374: 4368: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4357:Simbar-shipak 4353: 4351: 4341: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4323: 4318: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4268: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4245: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4190: 4186: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4158: 4156: 4150: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4127: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4116:Mediterranean 4113: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4078: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4063: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4018: 4009: 4005: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3986: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3901:Dur-Kurigalzu 3898: 3894: 3890: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3858:ancient Egypt 3855: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3838: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3814: 3810: 3808: 3805: 3804:Kassite deity 3801: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3783: 3781: 3777: 3772: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3761:ancient Egypt 3758: 3753: 3751: 3746: 3744: 3740: 3739:Indo-European 3736: 3732: 3728: 3727:Indo-European 3724: 3719: 3717: 3713: 3704: 3699: 3689: 3687: 3682: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3671:Esagil temple 3668: 3664: 3659: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3642: 3640: 3634: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3617:, capital of 3616: 3612: 3605: 3602: 3599: 3596: 3593: 3590: 3589: 3588: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3564: 3561: 3560: 3555: 3552: 3549: 3547: 3544: 3543: 3538: 3535: 3532: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3521: 3516: 3508: 3505: 3504: 3500: 3497:, modern-day 3496: 3492: 3489: 3488: 3481: 3478: 3477: 3473: 3470: 3465: 3460: 3452: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3424: 3420: 3415: 3413: 3409: 3404: 3402: 3392:seized power 3391: 3381: 3376: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3357: 3348: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3332: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3316: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3277: 3268: 3264: 3263:Ishme-Dagan I 3260: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3242: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3205:, conquering 3204: 3199: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3166: 3156: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3133: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3115: 3111: 3108:(or possibly 3107: 3102: 3097: 3087: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3044: 3042: 3038: 3033: 3028: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3008: 2999: 2994: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2975: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2870: 2869: 2864: 2859: 2850: 2835: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2807: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2759: 2754: 2744:-ruled state 2743: 2739: 2735: 2732:and parts of 2731: 2728:(present-day 2727: 2723: 2719: 2718:cultural area 2715: 2712: 2709: 2704: 2695: 2689: 2647: 2636: 2631: 2629: 2624: 2622: 2617: 2616: 2614: 2613: 2608: 2604: 2602: 2594: 2593: 2592: 2591: 2584: 2581: 2579: 2576: 2574: 2571: 2569: 2566: 2564: 2561: 2559: 2556: 2554: 2551: 2549: 2546: 2544: 2541: 2539: 2536: 2534: 2533:Human History 2531: 2530: 2524: 2523: 2516: 2513: 2511: 2508: 2506: 2503: 2501: 2498: 2496: 2493: 2491: 2488: 2486: 2483: 2481: 2478: 2476: 2473: 2471: 2468: 2466: 2463: 2461: 2458: 2456: 2453: 2451: 2448: 2446: 2443: 2441: 2438: 2436: 2433: 2431: 2428: 2426: 2425:Mueang Pahang 2423: 2421: 2418: 2416: 2413: 2411: 2408: 2406: 2403: 2401: 2398: 2396: 2393: 2391: 2388: 2386: 2383: 2381: 2378: 2376: 2373: 2371: 2370:Gangga Negara 2368: 2366: 2363: 2361: 2358: 2356: 2353: 2351: 2348: 2346: 2343: 2341: 2338: 2336: 2333: 2331: 2328: 2326: 2323: 2321: 2318: 2316: 2313: 2311: 2308: 2306: 2303: 2301: 2298: 2296: 2293: 2291: 2288: 2286: 2283: 2281: 2278: 2276: 2273: 2271: 2270:Austronesians 2268: 2266: 2263: 2262: 2259: 2255: 2250: 2249: 2242: 2239: 2237: 2234: 2232: 2229: 2227: 2224: 2222: 2219: 2217: 2214: 2212: 2209: 2207: 2204: 2202: 2201:Djenné-Djenno 2199: 2197: 2194: 2192: 2189: 2187: 2184: 2182: 2179: 2177: 2174: 2172: 2169: 2167: 2164: 2162: 2159: 2157: 2154: 2152: 2149: 2148: 2145: 2141: 2136: 2135: 2128: 2125: 2123: 2120: 2118: 2115: 2113: 2110: 2108: 2105: 2103: 2100: 2098: 2095: 2093: 2090: 2089: 2086: 2081: 2080: 2073: 2070: 2068: 2065: 2063: 2060: 2058: 2055: 2053: 2050: 2048: 2045: 2043: 2040: 2038: 2035: 2033: 2030: 2029: 2026: 2021: 2020: 2013: 2010: 2008: 2005: 2003: 2000: 1998: 1995: 1993: 1990: 1988: 1985: 1983: 1980: 1978: 1975: 1973: 1970: 1968: 1965: 1963: 1960: 1958: 1955: 1953: 1950: 1948: 1945: 1943: 1940: 1938: 1935: 1933: 1930: 1928: 1925: 1923: 1920: 1918: 1915: 1913: 1910: 1908: 1905: 1903: 1900: 1898: 1895: 1893: 1890: 1889: 1886: 1881: 1880: 1873: 1870: 1868: 1865: 1863: 1860: 1858: 1855: 1853: 1850: 1848: 1845: 1843: 1840: 1838: 1835: 1833: 1830: 1828: 1825: 1823: 1822:Mississippian 1820: 1818: 1815: 1813: 1810: 1809: 1806: 1801: 1800: 1793: 1790: 1788: 1787:Sangam Period 1785: 1783: 1780: 1778: 1777:Maurya Empire 1775: 1773: 1770: 1768: 1767:Mahajanapadas 1765: 1763: 1760: 1758: 1755: 1754: 1751: 1746: 1745: 1738: 1735: 1733: 1730: 1728: 1725: 1723: 1720: 1718: 1715: 1714: 1711: 1706: 1705: 1698: 1695: 1693: 1690: 1688: 1685: 1683: 1680: 1678: 1675: 1673: 1670: 1668: 1665: 1663: 1660: 1658: 1655: 1653: 1652:Kushan Empire 1650: 1648: 1645: 1643: 1640: 1638: 1634: 1631: 1629: 1626: 1624: 1621: 1620: 1617: 1612: 1611: 1604: 1601: 1599: 1596: 1594: 1591: 1589: 1586: 1584: 1581: 1579: 1576: 1574: 1571: 1569: 1566: 1564: 1561: 1559: 1556: 1554: 1551: 1549: 1546: 1544: 1541: 1539: 1536: 1534: 1531: 1529: 1528:Proto-Mongols 1526: 1524: 1521: 1519: 1516: 1514: 1511: 1509: 1506: 1504: 1501: 1499: 1496: 1494: 1491: 1489: 1486: 1484: 1481: 1479: 1476: 1474: 1471: 1469: 1466: 1464: 1461: 1459: 1456: 1454: 1453:Indo-Iranians 1451: 1449: 1446: 1444: 1441: 1440: 1437: 1432: 1431: 1424: 1421: 1419: 1416: 1414: 1411: 1409: 1406: 1404: 1401: 1399: 1396: 1394: 1391: 1389: 1386: 1384: 1381: 1379: 1376: 1374: 1371: 1369: 1366: 1364: 1361: 1359: 1356: 1354: 1351: 1349: 1346: 1344: 1341: 1339: 1336: 1334: 1331: 1329: 1326: 1324: 1321: 1319: 1316: 1315: 1312: 1307: 1306: 1299: 1296: 1294: 1291: 1289: 1286: 1284: 1281: 1279: 1276: 1274: 1271: 1269: 1266: 1264: 1261: 1259: 1256: 1254: 1251: 1249: 1246: 1244: 1241: 1239: 1236: 1234: 1231: 1229: 1228:Harla Kingdom 1226: 1224: 1221: 1219: 1216: 1214: 1211: 1209: 1206: 1204: 1201: 1199: 1196: 1194: 1191: 1189: 1186: 1185: 1182: 1177: 1176: 1169: 1166: 1164: 1161: 1159: 1156: 1154: 1151: 1149: 1146: 1144: 1143:British Isles 1141: 1139: 1136: 1134: 1131: 1129: 1126: 1124: 1121: 1119: 1116: 1114: 1111: 1109: 1106: 1104: 1101: 1099: 1096: 1094: 1091: 1089: 1086: 1084: 1081: 1079: 1076: 1074: 1071: 1069: 1066: 1064: 1061: 1059: 1056: 1054: 1051: 1049: 1046: 1044: 1041: 1039: 1036: 1034: 1031: 1030: 1027: 1022: 1021: 1014: 1011: 1009: 1006: 1004: 1001: 999: 996: 994: 991: 989: 986: 984: 981: 979: 976: 974: 971: 969: 966: 964: 961: 959: 956: 954: 951: 949: 946: 944: 941: 939: 936: 934: 931: 929: 926: 924: 921: 919: 916: 914: 911: 909: 906: 904: 901: 899: 896: 894: 891: 889: 886: 884: 881: 879: 876: 874: 871: 869: 866: 864: 861: 859: 856: 854: 851: 849: 846: 844: 841: 839: 836: 834: 831: 829: 826: 824: 821: 819: 816: 814: 811: 809: 806: 805: 802: 797: 796: 793: 789: 788: 785: 782: 781: 771: 766: 764: 759: 757: 752: 751: 749: 748: 745: 735: 734: 727: 724: 722: 719: 717: 714: 712: 709: 707: 704: 702: 699: 698: 695: 690: 689: 682: 679: 677: 674: 672: 669: 668: 665: 660: 659: 652: 649: 647: 644: 642: 639: 637: 634: 632: 629: 627: 624: 622: 619: 617: 616:Seljuk Empire 614: 612: 609: 607: 604: 602: 599: 597: 594: 592: 589: 587: 584: 582: 579: 577: 574: 572: 569: 567: 564: 563: 560: 555: 554: 547: 544: 542: 539: 537: 534: 532: 529: 527: 524: 523: 520: 515: 514: 507: 504: 502: 499: 497: 494: 492: 489: 487: 484: 482: 479: 477: 474: 472: 469: 467: 464: 462: 459: 457: 454: 452: 449: 447: 444: 442: 439: 438: 435: 430: 429: 422: 419: 417: 414: 411: 407: 404: 402: 399: 397: 396:Halaf culture 394: 392: 389: 387: 384: 383: 380: 375: 374: 370: 366: 365: 362: 356: 355: 350: 345: 344: 334: 331: 329: 326: 325: 323: 321:Today part of 319: 303: 301: 298: 297: 294: 288: 285: 278: 277: 274: 271: 264: 263: 260: 259: 256: 253: 251: 248: 247: 243: 239: 235: 232: 226: 222: 216: 212: 208: 204: 201: 198: 194: 191: 187: 184: 180: 174: 171: 169: 166: 164: 161: 160: 158: 154: 151: 148: 144: 139: 133: 128: 123: 117: 109: 93: 84: 81: 73: 63: 59: 53: 52: 46: 41: 32: 31: 26: 22: 10486:Christianity 10368:Demographics 10302:Oil reserves 10297:Oil Industry 10264:Central Bank 10160:Human rights 10086:Constitution 10031:Tigris river 10011:Persian Gulf 9719:Ottoman Iraq 9704:Qara Qoyunlu 9627: 9538:Ubaid period 9335:Royal titles 9260:Architecture 9097:Neo-Assyrian 8944:(Pre)history 8846: 8764:Persian Gulf 8668: 8661:Ancient Rome 8632:311–129 BCE 8618: 8611:336–301 BCE 8601:539–331 BCE 8591: 8584:626–539 BCE 8575:729–609 BCE 8565:911–729 BCE 8556: 8550: 8544: 8539: 8532: 8497: 8487: 8481: 8451: 8439: 8424: 8401: 8380: 8355: 8314: 8309: 8304: 8288:Timeline of 8201:George Smith 8200: 8191: 8158: 8137: 8106: 8071: 8045: 8028: 8008: 7973: 7947:Bibliography 7934: 7929: 7919: 7914: 7906: 7903: 7898: 7890: 7887: 7882: 7841: 7837: 7827: 7815: 7807: 7802: 7794: 7791: 7783: 7775: 7772: 7764: 7748: 7743: 7726: 7698: 7693: 7617: 7611: 7591: 7586: 7569:, p. 97–98, 7566: 7561: 7541: 7536: 7516: 7499: 7495: 7489: 7474: 7466: 7405: 7396:Eco, Umberto 7386: 7375:. 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Retrieved 6525:the original 6515: 6496: 6491: 6437: 6429: 6415: 6411:1 Peter 5:13 6404: 6373: 6352:lexicography 6342: 6336:philosopher 6300: 6290: 6235: 6220: 6190: 6186: 6184: 6179: 6144: 6132: 6097:heliocentric 6094: 6082: 6063: 6032: 6005: 5987: 5967: 5963: 5955: 5927: 5925: 5912: 5890: 5882:observations 5853: 5831: 5814: 5810: 5794: 5792: 5779: 5766: 5765: 5710: 5661:was made of 5640: 5632:Sulaymaniyah 5576: 5572: 5568: 5565: 5552:Islamization 5525:Beth Nuhadra 5498: 5463: 5444: 5429: 5408: 5385: 5366: 5336: 5296: 5288: 5284: 5281: 5274: 5266: 5257: 5243: 5239:Belsharutsur 5238: 5216: 5208: 5183: 5177: 5167: 5153: 5125: 5069: 5058: 5053:Dur-Katlimmu 5050: 5039: 5020: 4976: 4969: 4925: 4902: 4851: 4843: 4807: 4787: 4782: 4779:Nabopolassar 4768: 4735:Ashurbanipal 4732: 4711:Ashurbanipal 4677: 4637: 4598: 4587: 4575: 4547: 4538:Eriba-Marduk 4529:Persian Gulf 4518: 4471: 4415:Diyala River 4400: 4393: 4377: 4369: 4354: 4347: 4326:West Semitic 4319: 4299:Marduk-zer-X 4269: 4246: 4216: 4194: 4187: 4164: 4151: 4128: 4120:North Africa 4114:, Anatolia, 4094: 4079: 4064: 4059: 4055: 4046: 4017:Arik-den-ili 4014: 4002:Kurigalzu II 3987: 3965: 3939: 3917: 3913:Thutmose III 3891: 3878: 3849: 3839: 3825: 3784: 3773: 3764: 3754: 3747: 3720: 3709: 3683: 3675:Agum-kakrime 3660: 3656:Samsu-ditana 3652:Trevor Bryce 3648:Chronicle 20 3644: 3636: 3627:Samsu-Ditana 3623:Chronicle 40 3609: 3570: 3551:Samsu-Ditana 3518:Belligerents 3494: 3429:Samsu-Ditana 3427: 3416: 3405: 3377: 3362: 3333: 3317: 3278: 3243: 3200: 3195: 3162: 3152: 3149:Sin-Muballit 3134: 3129: 3119: 3045: 3034: 3030: 3015:, and Kish, 3010: 2995: 2976: 2866: 2863:bilingualism 2860: 2846: 2808: 2775:Ancient Iran 2645: 2644: 2605:Followed by 2543:Protohistory 2415:Tarumanagara 2305:Singhanavati 2300:Suvarnabhumi 2226:Ghana Empire 2156:Dhar Tichitt 2097:Guanahatabey 2037:Casma–Sechin 1862:Thule people 1772:Nanda Empire 1762:Vedic Period 1616:Central Asia 1523:Hephthalites 1518:Iranian Huns 1311:North Africa 1188:Land of Punt 877: 790:Preceded by 676:Ottoman Iraq 646:Kara Koyunlu 480: 386:Ubaid period 255:Succeeded by 254: 249: 76: 67: 48: 10642:WikiProject 10443:Marsh Arabs 10428:Circassians 10109:Foreign aid 10001:Mesopotamia 9563:Uruk period 9438:Hittitology 9428:Assyriology 9349:Archaeology 9219:Old Persian 9029:Jemdet Nasr 8678:224–mid 7C 8642:129–63 BCE 8624:Macedonians 8519:city-states 8515:Neo-Hittite 8490:Sea Peoples 8406:city-states 8385:city-states 8328:Uruk period 8290:Mesopotamia 8153:format or ) 8144:layered PDF 8113:layered PDF 8082:layered PDF 8076:Libraries; 7656:|work= 7192:Babylonians 7163:8 September 7132:8 September 6560:"Babylonia" 6469:Asia portal 6434:(The Cow): 6315:Heraclitean 6282:rationality 6254:epic poetry 6147:sexagesimal 6123:Mathematics 5874:rationality 5793:The oldest 5748:water clock 5725:Ammi-Saduqa 5548:Arabization 5521:Beth Garmai 5505:3rd century 5455:Mesopotamia 5440:Mithridates 5369:Cambyses II 5347:Old Persian 5169:Neriglissar 5163:Neriglissar 5155:Amel-Marduk 5089:Phoenicians 4945:Imgur-Enlil 4703:Caspian Sea 4651:Sennacherib 4639:Sennacherib 4596:in 722 BC. 4478:Shammuramat 4457:, that the 4270:In 1072 BC 4183:Ashur-Dan I 4139:Ashur-dan I 4034:Kudur-Enlil 4015:Soon after 3990:Kara-ḫardaš 3941:Kurigalzu I 3897:Kurigalzu I 3885:(in modern 3846:Ulamburiash 3792:Erishum III 3765:holy cities 3423:Ammi-Saduqa 3419:Ammi-Ditana 3369:Ilum-ma-ili 3365:Samsu-iluna 3345:Ammi-Saduqa 3337:Ammi-Ditana 3172: 1728 3072:city-states 3005: 2008 2792: 1696 2785: 1792 2726:Mesopotamia 2510:Philippines 2355:Tambralinga 2310:Sungai Batu 2265:Melanesians 2206:Igodomigodo 2140:West Africa 1992:Teotihuacan 1885:Mesoamerica 1697:Tarim Basin 1662:Transoxiana 1013:Mesopotamia 983:Sea Peoples 694:Modern Iraq 559:Middle Ages 416:Uruk period 358:History of 250:Preceded by 62:introducing 10673:Categories 10559:Television 10539:Literature 10501:Irreligion 10476:Secularism 10413:Minorities 10281:(currency) 10274:Corruption 10119:Government 9910:Insurgency 9709:Aq Qoyunlu 9530:Chronology 9402:Divination 9112:Achaemenid 9077:Isin-Larsa 8970:Trialetian 8965:Mousterian 8952:Prehistory 8402:and other 8381:and other 7820:Sayce 1911 7686:Sayce 1911 7502:(1): 7–18. 7377:2008-02-04 7297:Sayce 1911 7276:Sayce 1911 7253:Sayce 1911 7239:2007-01-09 7212:Sayce 1911 7178:Sayce 1911 7161:Retrieved 7130:Retrieved 6658:2007.07141 6569:2021-10-08 6531:2015-02-21 6507:References 6226:Philosophy 6066:philosophy 5946:Literature 5866:empiricism 5795:Babylonian 5687:terracotta 5685:. Painted 5655:buttresses 5352:𐎲𐎠𐎲𐎡𐎽 5289:Shar Kaldu 5285:Shar Akkad 5277:Bel-Marduk 5258:Marchesvan 5235:Belshazzar 5212:Belshazzar 5196:Belshazzar 5192:Adda-Guppi 5190:priestess 5184:Nabu-na'id 5077:Israelites 5065:Cimmerians 5035:Carchemish 4894:Cimmerians 4892:, and the 4870:Sagartians 4803:Cimmerians 4755:Dilmunites 4679:Esarhaddon 4663:Esarhaddon 4612:Cimmerians 4550:Nabonassar 4480:(known as 3994:Nazi-Bugaš 3949:Tepti Ahar 3945:Ḫur-batila 3905:Karaindash 3893:Karaindash 3267:Mut-Ashkur 3182:, Nippur, 3137:Sumu-la-El 3066:inhabited 2868:sprachbund 2794:–1654 BC, 2758:māt Akkadī 2703:māt Akkadī 2698:𒆳𒆍𒀭𒊏𒆠 2553:Bronze Age 2548:Copper Age 2460:Shailendra 2375:Sri Ksetra 2360:Langkasuka 2280:Micronesia 2181:Senegambia 2032:Caral-Supe 1972:Teuchitlán 1957:Chupícuaro 1927:Gran Coclé 1857:Pre-Dorset 1750:South Asia 1657:Badakhshan 1473:Tocharians 1448:Afanasievo 1058:Pelasgians 1008:The Levant 792:prehistory 651:Aq Qoyunlu 606:Al-Mazeedi 434:Bronze Age 379:Prehistory 116:māt Akkadī 101:𒆳𒆍𒀭𒊏𒆠 45:references 10679:Babylonia 10579:Squatting 10544:Education 10491:Mandaeism 10460:/Turkoman 10438:Mandaeans 10423:Assyrians 10418:Armenians 10381:Languages 10269:Companies 10224:Judiciary 10134:President 10104:Elections 10099:Democracy 9945:Geography 9861:Sanctions 9779:2003–2011 9774:1968–2003 9769:1958–1968 9628:Babylonia 9275:Cuneiform 9151:Languages 8960:Acheulean 8847:Babylonia 8784:Euphrates 8734:Geography 8593:Chaldeans 8510:Phoenicia 8448:Karduniaš 7999:(1911). 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