7511:, p. 226-227 (§168–169): "Irre ich nicht, so hat man die Benennung "phönicische Schrift" bisher etwas zu freygebig gebraucht, den Phöniciern alles gegeben, und den Aramäern nichts gelassen, gleichsam, als ob diese gar nicht hätten schreiben können, oder doch von ihnen nicht ein einziges Denkmal aus ältern Zeiten sich sollte erhalten haben. Selbst Schriften, in welchen sich die aramäische Mund-Art gar nicht verkennen läßt, nennen die Orientalisten phönicisch (§. 195), bloß weil sie noch nicht geahndet haben, daß eine Verschiedenheit vorhanden seyn könne. Ein Haupt-Unterscheidungs-Zeichen – So weit man, ohne auch dasjenige gesehen zu haben, was etwa noch entdeckt werden könnte, vorjetzt durch bloße Induction schließen kann – scheint in den Buchstaben ב, ד, ע und ר zu liegen. Denn so viele phönicische Denkmäler ich auch betrachtet habe; so sind mir doch in keinem einzigen ächt phönicischen diejenigen Gestalten vorgekommen, welche sich oben öffnen (§. 100). Nur bey dem einzigen ע finden sich, wie ich schon erinnert habe, jedoch höchst seltene Ausnahmen, die zuweilen bloß von der Uebereilung des Schreibers herrühren (z.B. im ersten ע der oxforder Inschrift (B.I. S.207). Wir haben sogar oben (§. 159) gesehen, daß selbst noch 153 Jahre nach Christi Geburt, als schon die Schrift in Phönicien sehr ausgeartet war, und in dem ganzen Zeit-Raume vorher, nie ד und ר mit von oben geöffneten Köpfen erscheinen. Dagegen haben diejenigen Denkmäler, auf welchen man sie antrifft, wie ich glaube, auch keinen Anspruch an Pönicier, als Urheber. §. 169 Unter solche gehört vor allen die Inschrift von Carpentras, welche ich hier um so lieber vornehme, als ihre Aechtheit über allen Zweifel erhoben ist... §. 195 Die Schrift darauf nannte man ehemals ägyptisch, welches freylich, weder in Vergleichung mit der ägyptischen Buchstaben-Schrift eine angemessene Benennung, noch der Sprache wegen eine zu wagende Vermuthung war. Schwerlich richtig ist aber auch die bey neuern Gelehrten (Gessenii Gesch. d. hebr. Spr. 139. Bibl. der alt. Literat. VI. 18. Hammer Fund-Grub. V. 277 °°) aufgekommene Benennung "Phönicisch". Ja Hartmann (II. II. 540) nennt sogar unmittelbar nach der ersten malteser diese "eine andere phönicische Inschrift". Schon die Mund-Art, welche nicht phönicisch, sondern aramäisch ist, würde uns vermuthen lassen, daß die Schrift den Aramäern ebenfalls gehöre; wenn nicht in dieser sich zugleich auch Merkmale einer Verschiedenheit von der phönicischen zeigten (s. oben §. 100. 168). Ich habe daher mit gutem Vorbedachte unser Denkmal von Carpentras aus meiner kleinen Sammlung phönicischer Inschriften (B. I. 195) ausgeschlossen. §. 196 Es scheint, als ob zur Zeit des oben (§. 193) mitgetheilten babylonischen Denkmals Aramäer und Phönicier eine und dieselbe Schrift gehabt hätten. Gegen 300 Sahre vor unserer Zeit-Rechnung war aber meiner Vermuthung nach schon eine Trennung eingetreten. Ich sage Vermuthung: denn mein Schluß gründet sich nur auf die einseitige Auslegung folgender Münze, bey welcher man mir vielleicht mehr als einen Einwurf zu machen im Stande ist.."
7523:, p. S. 182–185: "Es gehört nicht viel dazu, um einzusehen, daß die Mund-Art, welche in dieser Inschrift herrscht, aramäisch sey. Schon de Wörter עבדת קדם ,ברת ,אמרת, u. s . w. verrathen sie. Allein rein Chaldäisch kann man sie nicht nennen; man müßte denn mit O. G. Tychsen zu manchen Vorausseßungen und Uenderungen seine Zuflucht nehmen wollen. ist nimmermehr chaldäisch; sondern entweder äthiopisch hic, hoc loco, oder das hebräische Demonstrativum. Denn man bemerkt auch ben die Orthographie, nach welcher statt gefegt wird. Ich war einmal in Versuchung das Relativum der Zabier darinnen sinden zu wollen, weil ich wirklich gedruckt fand. Als ich aber die Handschrift selbst verglich, say' ich bald, daß es ein Druckfehler, statt , war… . Oyngeachtet die Endigung nicht gewöhnlich im Chaldäischen ist, so findet sich doch in der Ueberseßung des Buches Ruth (III. 10) dieses Wort grade so geschrieben. Daß dieses Zeit-Wort hier nicht perfectus fuit, wie gewöhnlich, heißen könne, lehrt der Zusammenhang. Es hat aber auch transitive Bedeutung, wie die Wörter-Bücher lehren (Simonis und Gesenius n. 2) und auch das arabische tamam wird für perfecit, complevit gebraucht. Ich habe mir daher um so weniger ein Gewissen daraus gemacht, ihm die transitive Bedeutung hier beyzulegen, als in dieser Anschrift, in welcher , und dergleichen an keine Regeln gebundene Wörter vorkommen, es eine Recheit reyn würde, den Sprach-Gebrauch vorschreiben zu wollen. Daß übrigens in das für stehe, siehet man selbst aus dem Chaldäischen der Bibel (Dan. IV. 15. V. 8)."
7568:, 1.2.34: "But it would seem that the view of Poseidonius is best, for here he derives an etymology of the words from the kinship of the peoples and their common characteristics. For the nation of the Armenians and that of the Syrians and Arabians betray a close affinity, not only in their language, but in their mode of life and in their bodily build, and particularly wherever they live as close neighbours. Mesopotamia, which is inhabited by these three nations, gives proof of this, for in the case of these nations the similarity is particularly noticeable. And if, comparing the differences of latitude, there does exist a greater difference between the northern and the southern people of Mesopotamia than between these two peoples and the Syrians in the centre, still the common characteristics prevail. And, too, the Assyrians, the Arians, and the Aramaeans display a certain likeness both to those just mentioned and to each other. Indeed, Poseidonius conjectures that the names of these nations also are akin; for, says he, the people whom we call Syrians are by the Syrians themselves called Arimaeans and Arammaeans; and there is a resemblance between this name and those of the Armenians, the Arabians and the Erembians, since perhaps the ancient Greeks gave the name of Erembians to the Arabians, and since the very etymology of the word "Erembian" contributes to this result".
800:
6654:, pp. 4–5: "The overarching concept of Aramaic, strictly a historical-linguistic abstraction, is made more concrete by various terms for the various Aramaic languages (or dialects, where we are mainly dealing with regional vernaculars without a written tradition; the neutral term variety includes both categories). Or scholars use the same terms to refer to different historical periods, as with "Old Aramaic" or "Imperial Aramaic." Others still are just misleading, such as "Modern Syriac" for the modern spoken languages, which do not directly descend from Syriac. When discussing what a certain word or phrase is "in Aramaic" then, we always have to specify which period, region, or culture is meant unlike Classical Latin, for instance. For the most part, Aramaic is thus studied as a crucial but subservient element in several well-established, mainly philological and historical disciplines and social sciences. Even in the academic world, only few people see any inherent value that transcends the disciplinary boundaries in this language family."
7687:
les livres fondamentaux du christianisme. Les habitants des pays situés entre la Méditerranée et l'Euphrate, se voyant désignés par une dénomination qui leur était étrangère, mais qui se trouvait en quelque sorte consacrée par l'autorité des livres qu'ils vénéraient à tant de titres, ne crurent pas sans doute pouvoir rejeter ce nom, et l'adoptèrent sans répugnance. Ils se persuadèrent que, régénérés par un nouveau culte, ils devaient sous tous les rapports devenir un peuple nouveau et abjurer leur nom antique, qui semblait leur rappeler l'idolâtrie à laquelle le christianisme venait de les arracher. Cette conjecture est, si je ne me trompe, confirmée par un fait que je crois décisif. Dans la langue syriaque ecclésiastique, le mot armoïo, ܐܪܡܝܐ, qui ne diffère du nom ancien, ormoïo, ܐܪܡܝܐ, que par une seule voyelle, désigne un païen, un idolâtre. Ainsi s'intrôduisit le nom de Sourioïo, Syrien. Quant à la dénomination Orom, Aram, ou le pays des Araméens, elle fut appliquée de préférence à la contrée que les Grecs et les Latins appelaient
Assyrie.
7581:, 16.4.27: "Poseidonius says that the Arabians consist of three tribes, that they are situated in succession, one after another, and that this indicates that they are homogeneous with one another, and that for this reason they were called by similar names – one tribe "Armenians," another "Arameans," and another "Arambians." And just as one may suppose that the Arabians were divided into three tribes, according to the differences in the latitudes, which ever vary more and more, so also one may suppose that they used several names instead of one. Neither are those who write "Eremni" plausible; for that name is more peculiarly applicable to the Aethiopians. The poet also mentions "Arimi,"by which, according to Poseidonius, we should interpret the poet as meaning, not some place in Syria or in Cilicia or in some other land, but Syria itself; for the people in Syria are Arameans, though perhaps the Greeks called them Arimaeans or Arimi".
8818:
still followed by M. Sokoloff in his recent work, A Dictionary of Jewish
Palestinian Aramaic of the Byzantine Period.'1 A different division, now widely accepted, has been put forward by J. A. Fitzmyer.2 It is as follows: a) Old Aramaic, up to 700 B.C.E.; b) Official Aramaic, 700-300 .c.E.; c) Middle Aramaic, 300 ..E.-200 c.E.; d) Late Aramaic (= Middle Aramaic of Rosenthal's division), with two branches: the eastern branch consisting of Syriac, Mandaic, the Aramaic of the Talmud Babli, the Gaonic Literature and incantation texts found mainly in Nippur; and the western, consisting of Samaritan Aramaic, Christian Palestinian Aramaic, Galilean Aramaic (which some, for example Sokoloff, prefer to call Jewish Palestinian Aramaic) found in the Aramaic portions of the Palestinian Talmud and haggadic midrashim and other sources; e) Modern Aramaic (in its eastern and western dialects).
1389:
7646:
Euphrates. During the 3rd century B.C., when the Hebrew Bible was translated by Jewish scholars into the Greek
Septuagint for the use of the Hellenized Jews of Alexandria, the terms for 'Aramean' and 'Aramaic' in the Hebrew Bible, were translated into 'Syrian' and 'the Syrian tongue' respectively. In Palestine itself, according to Noldeke, the Jews and later the Christians there referred to their dialect of Aramaic as Syriac; in Babylon, both Greeks and Persians called the Arameans Syrians. The second-century B.C. Greek historian Posidonius, a native of Syria, noted that 'the people we call Syrians were called by the Syrians themselves Arameans….for the people in Syria are Arameans'."
1166:
6748:, p. 222: "Despite their divergent creeds and confessional affiliations, they retained their own West or East Syriac ritual prayers and liturgical formulae; on the one hand, there are the West Syriac Orthodox and Syriac Catholics...and also to a lesser degree the similarly Catholic Maronites (where Arabic is increasingly taking over the function of Syriac); one the other hand, there is the Assyrian "Church of the East," which stems from the East Syriac tradition, and...the Chaldean Catholic Church. Additionally, some of the many Christian churches of India belong to the Syriac tradition."
13120:
3777:
2365:, can be assumed to have greatly contributed to the astonishing success of the Achaemenids in holding their far-flung empire together for as long as they did". In 1955, Richard Frye questioned the classification of Imperial Aramaic as an "official language", noting that no surviving edict expressly and unambiguously accorded that status to any particular language. Frye reclassifies Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of the Achaemenid territories, suggesting then that the Achaemenid-era use of Aramaic was more pervasive than generally thought.
1995:(224 AD), dominating the influential, eastern dialect region. As such, the term covers over thirteen centuries of the development of Aramaic. This vast time span includes all Aramaic that is now effectively extinct. Regarding the earliest forms, Beyer suggests that written Aramaic probably dates from the 11th century BCE, as it is established by the 10th century, to which he dates the oldest inscriptions of northern Syria. Heinrichs uses the less controversial date of the 9th century, for which there is clear and widespread attestation.
8973:
Palestinian
Melkites were mostly Jewish converts to Christianity, who had a long tradition of using Palestinian Aramaic dialects as literary languages. Closely associated with the Palestinian Melkites were the Melkites of Transjordan, who also used Palestinian Christian Aramaic. Another community of Aramaic-speaking Melkites existed in the vicinity of Antioch and parts of Syria. These Melkites used Classical Syriac as a written language, the common literary language of the overwhelming majority of Christian Arameans.
5136:
3805:
3343:
3251:
1620:
13109:
1411:
3560:
1914:
3684:
6218:
13131:
14290:
541:
14033:
6232:
2967:
530:
2524:
14021:
2722:. The Hasmonaean targums reached Galilee in the 2nd century AD, and were reworked into this Galilean dialect for local use. The Galilean Targum was not considered an authoritative work by other communities, and documentary evidence shows that its text was amended. From the 11th century AD onwards, once the Babylonian Targum had become normative, the Galilean version became heavily influenced by it.
3315:
7437:(Gen 10:22), in the same manner as the Slavic languages Bohemian, Polish, Vandal etc. Multiple dialects are Chaldean, Syrian, Samaritan."; Latin Original: Linguae Aramaeae nomen à gentis conditore, Aramo nimirum (Gen. X 22) desumptum est, & complectitur, perinde ut Lingua Sclavonica, Bohemican, Polonican, Vandalicam &c. Dialectos plures, ceu sunt: Chaldaica, Syriaca, Samaritana.
2812:
2551:
2064:, and there is a unity in the written language. It seems that, in time, a more refined alphabet, suited to the needs of the language, began to develop from this in the eastern regions of Aram. Due to increasing Aramean migration eastward, the Western periphery of Assyria became bilingual in Akkadian and Aramean at least as early as the mid-9th century BC. As the
5575:, probably existed in a very early stage of the language, and glimpses of them can be seen in a few compound proper names. However, as most of those cases were expressed by short final vowels, they were never written, and the few characteristic long vowels of the masculine plural accusative and genitive are not clearly evidenced in inscriptions. Often, the
7925:
however, and those who followed him, confused therewith the use of o'yu, as name of the people; and since, in Dan. II., 4, the "Chaldeans" speak
Aramaic, so "Chaldaic" and "Aramaic" were held to be identical. And the matter has stood thus in the "Chaldee grammars" and the "Hebrew and Chaldee lexicons," in spite of all protests,3 up to this day.
2770:, with some influence from Arabic: "l" is often turned into "n", and there are some Arabic loanwords. Arabic influence on Nabataean Aramaic increased over time. Some Nabataean Aramaic inscriptions date from the early days of the kingdom, but most datable inscriptions are from the first four centuries AD. The language is written in a
2715:, the "official" targums. The original, Hasmonaean targums had reached Babylon sometime in the 2nd or 3rd century AD. They were then reworked according to the contemporary dialect of Babylon to create the language of the standard targums. This combination formed the basis of Babylonian Jewish literature for centuries to follow.
2512:
2870:), and perhaps wrote his work (172 AD) in East Mesopotamian rather than Classical Syriac or Greek. In Babylonia, the regional dialect was used by the Jewish community, Jewish Old Babylonian (from c. 70 AD). This everyday language increasingly came under the influence of Biblical Aramaic and Babylonian Targumic.
8817:
a) Old
Aramaic from the beginning (through Biblical Aramaic, Nabataean, Palmyrene) down to the established eastern and western branches; b) Middle Aramaic, with two branches, eastern and western; c) Late Aramaic, with the contemporary western (Ma'alula) and eastern branches. This older terminology is
7645:
The designations Syria and Syrian were derived from Greek usage long before
Christianity. When the Greeks became better acquainted with the Near East, especially after Alexander the Great overthrew the Achaemenian empire in the 4th century B.C., they restricted the name Syria to the lands west of the
3204:
During the Late Middle
Aramaic period, spanning from 300 B.C.E. to 200 C.E., Aramaic diverged into its eastern and western branches. During this time, the nature of various Aramaic dialects began to change. The descendants of Imperial Aramaic ceased to be living languages, and the eastern and western
2361:, Aramaic (as had been used in that region) was adopted by the conquerors as the "vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast empire with its different peoples and languages. The use of a single official language, which modern scholarship has dubbed Official Aramaic or
4214:
Each dialect of
Aramaic has its own distinctive pronunciation, and it would not be feasible here to go into all these properties. Aramaic has a phonological palette of 25 to 40 distinct phonemes. Some modern Aramaic pronunciations lack the series of "emphatic" consonants, and some have borrowed from
3615:
Middle
Judaean Aramaic, the descendant of Old Judaean Aramaic, was no longer the dominant dialect, and was used only in southern Judaea (the variant Engedi dialect continued throughout this period). Likewise, Middle East Jordanian Aramaic continued as a minor dialect from Old East Jordanian Aramaic.
2642:
languages. Moreover, many common words, including even pronouns, particles, numerals, and auxiliaries, continued to be written as Aramaic "words" even when writing Middle Iranian languages. In time, in Iranian usage, these Aramaic "words" became disassociated from the Aramaic language and came to be
2603:
cities throughout the Seleucid domains. However, Aramaic continued to be used, in its post-Achaemenid form, among upper and literate classes of native Aramaic-speaking communities, and also by local authorities (along with the newly introduced Greek). Post-Achaemenid Aramaic, that bears a relatively
1724:
terms, that are used differently among scholars. Terms like: Old Aramaic, Ancient Aramaic, Early Aramaic, Middle Aramaic, Late Aramaic (and some others, like Paleo-Aramaic), were used in various meanings, thus referring (in scope or substance) to different stages in historical development of Aramaic
7686:
Les livres du Nouveau Testament furent immédiatement traduits dans fa langue du pays. Or ces livres étaient écrits dans la langue des Grecs, et offraient par conséquent les expressions et les dénominations en usage chez'ce peuple. Or les noms de Syrie, de Syriens se trouvaient souvent employés dans
7660:
Nöldeke, 1871, p. 115: "Die Griechen haben den Namen "Aramäer" nie eigentlich gekannt; ausser Posidonius (dem Strabo folgt) nennt ihn uns nur noch ein andrer Orientale, Josephus (Ant. 1, 6, 4). Dass Homer bei den 'Ερεμβοι oder in den Worten eiv 'Αρίμοις an sie dächte, ist sehr unwahrscheinlich. Die
1719:
of historical development of Aramaic language has been the subject of particular interest for scholars, who proposed several types of periodization, based on linguistic, chronological and territorial criteria. Overlapping terminology, used in different periodizations, led to the creation of several
7924:
The author of Daniel uses the word as a title for the members of the Babylonian guild of priests, as already Herodotus regards oi Xardalot as a designation of the priests of Baal, and the name was subsequently the customary one for the Magians, Astrologers, Soothsayers, etc., of the East. Jerome,
6028:
means "he deceived". The Šap̄‘el שפעל is the least common variant of the C-stem. Because this variant is standard in Akkadian, it is possible that its use in Aramaic represents loanwords from that language. The difference between the variants הפעל Hap̄‘el and אפעל Ap̄‘el appears to be the gradual
1466:, and all three empires became operationally bilingual in written sources, with Aramaic used alongside Akkadian. The Achaemenid Empire (539–323 BC) continued this tradition, and the extensive influence of these empires led to Aramaic gradually becoming the lingua franca of most of western Asia,
8972:
The main center of Aramaic-speaking Melkites was Palestine. During the 5th-6th centuries, they were engaged in literary, mainly translation work in the local Western Aramaic dialect, known as "Palestinian Christian Aramaic", using a script closely resembling the cursive Estrangela of Osrhoene.
6056:
sound occurs similarly to that in the form above. These three derived stems are the Gt-stem, התפעל Hiṯpə‘el or אתפעל Eṯpə‘el (also written Hithpe‘el or Ethpe‘el), the Dt-stem, התפעּל Hiṯpa‘‘al or אתפעּל Eṯpa‘‘al (also written Hithpa‘‘al or Ethpa‘‘al), and the Ct-stem, התהפעל Hiṯhap̄‘al, אתּפעל
5558:
handwriting"). Although its original grammatical function seems to have been to mark definiteness, it is used already in Imperial Aramaic to mark all important nouns, even if they should be considered technically indefinite. This practice developed to the extent that the absolute state became
2730:
Babylonian Documentary Aramaic is a dialect in use from the 3rd century AD onwards. It is the dialect of Babylonian private documents, and, from the 12th century, all Jewish private documents are in Aramaic. It is based on Hasmonaean with very few changes. This was perhaps because many of the
1610:
It is also helpful to distinguish modern living languages, or Neo-Aramaics, and those that are still in use as literary or liturgical languages or are only of interest to scholars. Although there are some exceptions to this rule, this classification gives "Old", "Middle", and "Modern" periods
9015:
However, what truly distinguishes the CPA Gospels from the Syriac ones is the strong influence that Greek Biblical tradi- tions had upon it. This is evident, for example, in the syntax of the Gospel passages and even in the spelling of proper nouns, both of which duplicate the Greek Gospels.
2942:
The Old East Jordanian dialect continued to be used into the first century AD by pagan communities living to the east of the Jordan. Their dialect is often then called Pagan Old Palestinian, and it was written in a cursive script somewhat similar to that used for Old Syriac. A Christian Old
6342:
The Syriac writers of Qatar themselves produced some of the best and most sophisticated writing to be found in all Syriac literature of the seventh century, but they have not received the scholarly attention that they deserve in the last half century. This volume seeks to redress this
799:
3654:
from the 5th to the 8th century. As a liturgical language, it was used up to the 13th century. It is also been called "Melkite Aramaic", "Syro-Palestinian" and "Palestinian Syriac". The language itself comes from Old Western Aramaic, but its writing conventions were based on the
3612:, the Tiberian system (7th century), was developed by speakers of the Galilean dialect of Jewish Middle Palestinian. Classical Hebrew vocalisation, therefore, in representing the Hebrew of this period, probably reflects the contemporary pronunciation of this Aramaic dialect.
1493:. However, Aramaic remains a spoken, literary, and liturgical language for local Christians and also some Jews. Aramaic also continues to be spoken by the Assyrians of northern Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey, and northwest Iran, with diaspora communities in
1587:
do among themselves. Its long history, extensive literature, and use by different religious communities are all factors in the diversification of the language. Some Aramaic dialects are mutually intelligible, whereas others are not, similar to the situation with modern
1509:. The Mandaeans also continue to use Classical Mandaic as a liturgical language, although most now speak Arabic as their first language. There are still also a small number of first-language speakers of Western Aramaic varieties in isolated villages in western Syria.
5519:, "the handwriting of the queen"). In the masculine singular, the form of the construct is often the same as the absolute, but it may undergo vowel reduction in longer words. The feminine construct and masculine construct plural are marked by suffixes. Unlike a
2690:
dialects is known only through their influence on words and names in a more standard dialect. However, some of those regional dialects became written languages by the 2nd century BC. These dialects reflect a stream of Aramaic that is not directly dependent on
740:, with several varieties used mainly by the older generations. Researchers are working to record and analyze all of the remaining varieties of Neo-Aramaic languages before or in case they become extinct. Aramaic dialects today form the mother tongues of the
2059:
There are inscriptions that evidence the earliest use of the language, dating from the 10th century BC. These inscriptions are mostly diplomatic documents between Aramaean city-states. The alphabet of Aramaic at this early period seems to be based on the
803:
This clay tablet represents a classroom experiment; a teacher imposed a challenging writing exercise on pupils who spoke both Babylonian-Akkadian and Aramaic. The pupils had to use traditional syllabic signs to express the sounds of the Aramaic alphabet.
2372:
gave the language a new clarity and robust flexibility. For centuries after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire (in 330 BC), Imperial Aramaic – or a version thereof near enough for it to be recognisable – would remain an influence on the various native
2895:
The western regional dialects of Aramaic followed a similar course to those of the east. They are quite distinct from the eastern dialects and Imperial Aramaic. Aramaic came to coexist with Canaanite dialects, eventually completely displacing
2824:
In the eastern regions (from Mesopotamia to Persia), dialects like Palmyrene Aramaic and Arsacid Aramaic gradually merged with the regional vernacular dialects, thus creating languages with a foot in Achaemenid and a foot in regional Aramaic.
3930:. It is quite distinct from any other Aramaic variety. Mandaeans number some 50,000–75,000 people, but it is believed Neo-Mandaic may now be spoken fluently by as few as 5,000 people, with other Mandaeans having varying degrees of knowledge.
2679:, i.e. the language of Persia proper, subsequently also became a prestige language. Following the conquest of the Sassanids by the Arabs in the 7th-century, the Aramaic-derived writing system was replaced by the Arabic alphabet in all but
2675:, who succeeded the Parthian Arsacids in the mid-3rd century AD, subsequently inherited/adopted the Parthian-mediated Aramaic-derived writing system for their own Middle Iranian ethnolect as well. That particular Middle Iranian dialect,
5063:
A distinguishing feature of Aramaic phonology (and that of Semitic languages in general) is the presence of "emphatic" consonants. These are consonants that are pronounced with the root of the tongue retracted, with varying degrees of
1308:. The language is often mistakenly considered to have originated within Assyria (Iraq). In fact, Arameans carried their language and writing into Mesopotamia by voluntary migration, by forced exile of conquering armies, and by nomadic
3094:". Galilean Aramaic, the dialect of Jesus' home region, is only known from a few place names, the influences on Galilean Targumic, some rabbinic literature and a few private letters. It seems to have a number of distinctive features:
5475:
Nouns can be either singular or plural, but an additional "dual" number exists for nouns that usually come in pairs. The dual number gradually disappeared from Aramaic over time and has little influence in Middle and Modern Aramaic.
7939:,"… The heartland of Assyria is demarcated by the city of Assur (modern Qala'at Sherqat) in the south, by Nineveh (modern Mosul with the ruin mounds Kuyunjik and Nebi Yunus) in the north and by Arbela (modern Erbil) in the east.“
6068:
Not all verbs use all of these conjugations, and, in some, the G-stem is not used. In the chart below (on the root כת״ב K-T-B, meaning "to write"), the first form given is the usual form in Imperial Aramaic, while the second is
5744:– the oldest construction, also known as סמיכות səmîḵûṯ : the possessed object (כתבה kṯābâ, "handwriting") is in the construct state (כתבת kṯāḇaṯ); the possessor (מלכה malkâ, "queen") is in the emphatic state (מלכתא malkṯâ)
6020:, creates the C-stem or variously the Hap̄‘el, Ap̄‘el or Šap̄‘el (also spelt הפעל Haph‘el, אפעל Aph‘el, and שפעל Shaph‘el). This is often an extensive or causative development of the basic lexical meaning. For example, טעה
5764:– both words are in the emphatic state, and the relative particle is used, but the possessed is given an anticipatory, pronominal ending (כתבתה kṯāḇtā-h, "handwriting-her"; literally, "her writing, that (of) the queen").
782:
notes, "The linguistic history of Aramaic prior to the appearance of the first textual sources in the ninth century BC remains unknown." Aramaic is also believed by most historians and scholars to have been the primary
2907:
The form of Late Old Western Aramaic used by the Jewish community is best attested, and is usually referred to as Jewish Old Palestinian. Its oldest form is Old East Jordanian, which probably comes from the region of
2582:
successors, marked an important turning point in the history of Aramaic language. During the early stages of the post-Achaemenid era, public use of Aramaic language was continued, but shared with the newly introduced
2417:
Achaemenid Aramaic is sufficiently uniform that it is often difficult to know where any particular example of the language was written. Only careful examination reveals the occasional loan word from a local language.
2010:(500–330 BC). The period before this, dubbed "Ancient Aramaic", saw the development of the language from being spoken in Aramaean city-states to become a major means of communication in diplomacy and trade throughout
2920:
170 BC). The next distinct phase of the language is called Old Judaean lasting into the second century AD. Old Judean literature can be found in various inscriptions and personal letters, preserved quotations in the
5527:
are treated as a speech unit, with the first unit (possessed) employing the construct state to link it to the following word. In Middle Aramaic, the use of the construct state for all but stock phrases (like בר נשא
3269:
3592:. The Galilean dialect thus rose from obscurity to become the standard among Jews in the west. This dialect was spoken not only in Galilee, but also in the surrounding parts. It is the linguistic setting for the
6490:
The fact that nearly all Arabic loans in Ma'lula originate from the period before the change from the rural dialect to the city dialect of Damascus shows that the contact between the Aramaeans and the Arabs was
8944:
For the Aramaic-speaking Christian communities of Sinai, Palestine or Trans-Jordan, Christian Palestinian Aramaic was the dominant language in local churches; for Syria and Mesopotamia, it was rather Syriac.…
6949:
It is generally agreed that Aramaic was the common language of Israel in the first century AD. Jesus and his disciples spoke the Galilean dialect, which was distinguished from that of Jerusalem (Matt. 26:73)
5154:
2778:. After annexation by the Romans in 106 AD, most of Nabataea was subsumed into the province of Arabia Petraea, the Nabataeans turned to Greek for written communications, and the use of Aramaic declined.
2425:
have been discovered, and an analysis was published in November 2006. The texts, which were rendered on leather, reflect the use of Aramaic in the 4th century BC Achaemenid administration of Bactria and
6206:
usually follows the order verb–subject–object (VSO). Imperial (Persian) Aramaic, however, tended to follow a S-O-V pattern (similar to Akkadian), which was the result of Persian syntactic influence.
4936:
The various alphabets used for writing Aramaic languages have twenty-two letters (all of which are consonants). Some of these letters, though, can stand for two or three different sounds (usually a
3823:
2607:
By the end of the 2nd century BC, several variants of Post-Achaemenid Aramaic emerged, bearing regional characteristics. One of them was Hasmonaean Aramaic, the official administrative language of
7424:
Summarium Lingvæ Aramææ, i.e. Chaldæo-Syro-Samaritanæ: olim in Academia Wittebergensi orientalium lingvarum consecraneis, parietes intra privatos, prælectum & nunc ... publico bono commodatum
3736:(112,000 to 450,000 speakers). Having largely lived in remote areas as insulated communities for over a millennium, the remaining speakers of modern Aramaic dialects, such as the Arameans of the
2631:, although smoothed into its later context. It is written quite differently from Achaemenid Aramaic; there is an emphasis on writing as words are pronounced rather than using etymological forms.
5383:. Modern dialects have borrowed sounds from the dominant surrounding languages. The most frequent borrowings are (as the first consonant in "azure"), (as in "jam"), and (as in "church"). The
3457:
Jewish Middle Babylonian is the language employed by Jewish writers in Babylonia between the fourth and the eleventh century. It is most commonly identified with the language of the Babylonian
5590:
Adjectives agree with their nouns in number and gender but agree in state only if used attributively. Predicative adjectives are in the absolute state regardless of the state of their noun (a
3361:
1376:) is used to mean Aramaic. In Biblical scholarship, the term "Chaldean" was for many years used as a synonym of Aramaic, due to its use in the book of Daniel and subsequent interpretation by
3267:
9803:
6698:, p. 145: "The Aramaic Language originated in ancient Syria at the end of the Late Bronze Age (c. 1500–1200 B.C.), is one of the oldest continually spoken languages in the world."
1991:
until as late as the 17th century. The term "Old Aramaic" is used to describe the varieties of the language from its first known use, until the point roughly marked by the rise of the
1523:"Sword" in Syriac, has seen speakers of first-language and literary Aramaic dispersed throughout the world. However, there are several sizable Assyrian towns in northern Iraq, such as
5848:(and preformatives in the imperfect). In the chart below (on the root כת״ב K-T-B, meaning "to write"), the first form given is the usual form in Imperial Aramaic, while the second is
5152:
2474:
Biblical Aramaic is a somewhat hybrid dialect. It is theorized that some Biblical Aramaic material originated in both Babylonia and Judaea before the fall of the Achaemenid dynasty.
5499:
handwriting"), and can be used in most syntactic roles. However, by the Middle Aramaic period, its use for nouns (but not adjectives) had been widely replaced by the emphatic state.
2943:
Palestinian dialect may have arisen from the pagan one, and this dialect may be behind some of the Western Aramaic tendencies found in the otherwise eastern Old Syriac gospels (see
3821:
3976:
and all the survivors fled to other parts of Syria or to Lebanon. All these speakers of modern Western Aramaic are fluent in Arabic as well. Other Western Aramaic languages, like
3039:
was the lingua franca of the Near East in trade, among the Hellenized classes (much like French in the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries in Europe), and in the Roman administration.
1512:
Being in contact with other regional languages, some Neo-Aramaic dialects were often engaged in the mutual exchange of influences, particularly with Arabic, Iranian, and Kurdish.
5174:
Ancient Aramaic may have had a larger series of emphatics, and some Neo-Aramaic languages definitely do. Not all dialects of Aramaic give these consonants their historic values.
3196:, S.J. Where the appropriate words (in first-century Aramaic) were no longer known, he used the Aramaic of Daniel and fourth-century Syriac and Hebrew as the basis for his work.
3359:
2766:, and supported a wide-ranging trade network. The Nabataeans used imperial Aramaic for written communications, rather than their native Arabic. Nabataean Aramaic developed from
5491:
state is the basic form of a noun. In early forms of Aramaic, the absolute state expresses indefiniteness, comparable to the English indefinite article a(n) (for example, כתבה
8771:
3268:
2683:, which continued to use the name 'pahlavi' for the Aramaic-derived writing system and went on to create the bulk of all Middle Iranian literature in that writing system.
2599:
as the main language of public life and administration. During the 3rd century BCE, Greek overtook Aramaic in many spheres of public communication, particularly in highly
10471:
11549:
Comparative Etymological Studies in the Western Neo-Syriac (Ṭūrōyo) Lexicon: With Special Reference to Homonyms, Related Words and Borrowings with Cultural Signification
5993:
By doubling of the second radical, or root letter, the D-stem or פעל Pa‘‘el is formed. This is often an intensive development of the basic lexical meaning. For example,
3205:
regional dialects started to develop significant new literatures. Unlike many dialects of Old Aramaic, much is known about the vocabulary and grammar of Middle Aramaic.
1209:
as Phoenician, with "everything left to the Phoenicians and nothing to the Arameans, as if they could not have written at all". Kopp noted that some of the words on the
6458:
Ich kenne das Dorf nicht, doch gehört habe ich davon. Was ist mit Malula?‹ fragte der festgehaltene Derwisch. >Das letzte Dorf der Aramäer< lachte einer der…
5153:
1543:, and numerous small villages, where Aramaic is still the main spoken language, and many large cities in this region also have Suret-speaking communities, particularly
5844:
that vary according to person, number and gender. In both tenses the third-person singular masculine is the unmarked form from which others are derived by addition of
1298:, bordering northern Israel and what is now called Syria, is considered the linguistic center of Aramaic, the language of the Arameans who settled the area during the
3822:
9673:"The Riddle of Jesus' Cry from the Cross: The Meaning of ηλι ηλι λαμα σαβαχθανι (Matthew 27:46) and the Literary Function of ελωι ελωι λειμα σαβαχθανι (Mark 15:34)"
8905:…. Palestinian Aramaic also began to be written for the first time (Coptic was written in an adapted Greek script and Palestinian Aramaic in a modified Estrangelo….
7483:
In his Bilder und Schriften der Vorzeit, Ulrich Friedrich Kopp (1819–21) established the basis of the paleographical development of the Northwest Semitic scripts...
4426:). There is much correspondence between these vowels between dialects. There is some evidence that Middle Babylonian dialects did not distinguish between the short
2731:
documents in BDA are legal documents, the language in them had to be sensible throughout the Jewish community from the start, and Hasmonaean was the old standard.
996:
of public life, trade and commerce throughout Achaemenid territories. Wide use of written Aramaic subsequently led to the adoption of the Aramaic alphabet and, as
3360:
5594:
may or may not be written). Thus, an attributive adjective to an emphatic noun, as in the phrase "the good king", is written also in the emphatic state מלכא טבא
1709:
622:
Aramaic served as a language of public life and administration of ancient kingdoms and empires, and also as a language of divine worship and religious study.
13941:
7495:
6684:
Aramaic itself consists of a great number of language forms (and indeed languages), spoken and written in many different scripts over a period of 3000 years.
6198:. Perhaps under influence from other languages, Middle Aramaic developed a system of composite tenses (combinations of forms of the verb with pronouns or an
5731:. As the use of the construct state almost disappears from the Middle Aramaic period on, the latter method became the main way of making possessive phrases.
5286:
for each plosive. In the wake of vowel changes, the distinction eventually became phonemic; still later, it was often lost in certain dialects. For example,
3465:
literature, which are the most important cultural products of Babylonian Judaism. The most important epigraphic sources for the dialect are the hundreds of
14832:
14070:
3498:, is a sister dialect to Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, though it is both linguistically and culturally distinct. It is the language in which the Mandaeans'
1652:
and other Jewish writing in Aramaic. The other main writing system used for Aramaic was developed by Christian communities: a cursive form known as the
14663:
4206:
5710:, and came to be the only plural for nouns and adjectives of this type in Syriac and some other varieties of Aramaic. The masculine construct plural,
2368:
Imperial Aramaic was highly standardised; its orthography was based more on historical roots than any spoken dialect, and the inevitable influence of
5598: – king good. In comparison, the predicative adjective, as in the phrase "the king is good", is written in the absolute state מלכא טב
5479:
Aramaic nouns and adjectives can exist in one of three states. To a certain extent, these states correspond to the role of articles and cases in the
5408:
has the meaning of 'writing'. This is then modified by the addition of vowels and other consonants to create different nuances of the basic meaning:
4469:, as in the final vowel of "café" (). Both of these have shorter counterparts, which tend to be pronounced slightly more open. Thus, the short close
10741:
9773:
13049:
9611:
1595:
Some Aramaic languages are known under different names; for example, Syriac is particularly used to describe the Eastern Aramaic variety spoken by
8140:
3908:, being in between Western Neo-Aramaic and Northeastern Neo-Aramaic, is generally represented by Turoyo, the language of the Assyrians/Syriacs of
2414:. Consensus as of 2022 regards the Aramaic portion of the Biblical book of Daniel (i.e., 2:4b–7:28) as an example of Imperial (Official) Aramaic.
1583:
Aramaic is often spoken of as a single language but is actually a group of related languages. Some languages differ more from each other than the
1181:
complained that previous scholars had left everything "to the Phoenicians and nothing to the Arameans, as if they could not have written at all".
772:
2079:
From 700 BC, the language began to spread in all directions, but lost much of its unity. Different dialects emerged in Assyria, Babylonia, the
5377:
in Aramaic, the word gold is זהב zahav in Hebrew but דהב dehav in Aramaic). Dental/sibilant shifts are still happening in the modern dialects.
5177:
Overlapping with the set of emphatics are the "guttural" consonants. They include ח Ḥêṯ and ע ʽAyn from the emphatic set, and add א ʼĀlap̄ (a
3854:
The Christian varieties of Northeastern Neo-Aramaic (NENA) are often called "Assyrian", "Chaldean" or "Eastern Syriac", and are spoken by the
1947:. Therefore, there is not one singular, static Aramaic language; each time and place rather has had its own variation. The more widely spoken
6057:
Ettap̄‘al, השתפעל Hištap̄‘al or אשתפעל Eštap̄‘al (also written Hithhaph‘al, Ettaph‘al, Hishtaph‘al, or Eshtaph‘al). Their meaning is usually
5986:. Following the tradition of mediaeval Arabic grammarians, it is more often called the Pə‘al פעל (also written Pe‘al), using the form of the
3897:, Christian Assyrians and Mizrahi Jews speak mutually unintelligible varieties of Northeastern Neo-Aramaic in the same place. In others, the
1939:
Aramaic's long history and diverse and widespread use has led to the development of many divergent varieties, which are sometimes considered
1462:-influenced Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of its empire. This policy was continued by the short-lived Neo-Babylonian Empire and the
8014:
7187:"Syriac Heritage of the Saint Thomas Christians: Language and Liturgical Tradition Saint Thomas Christians – origins, language and liturgy"
6291:
8173:
7630:
The Modern Assyrians of the Middle East: A History of Their Encounter with Western Christian Missions, Archaeologists, and Colonial Powers
14658:
11799:
3843:
Modern Eastern Aramaic exists in a wide variety of dialects and languages. There is significant difference between the Aramaic spoken by
1319:, Aramaic language was most commonly known as the "Syrian language", in relation to the native (non-Greek) inhabitants of the historical
721:. The Aramaic alphabet also became a base for the creation and adaptation of specific writing systems in some other Semitic languages of
2663:, the Parthian language and its Aramaic-derived writing system both gained prestige. This in turn also led to the adoption of the name '
11732:
1667:
In addition to these writing systems, certain derivatives of the Aramaic alphabet were used in ancient times by particular groups: the
768:
8600:
4008:
Now when Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judaea in the days of Herod the king, behold, there came wise men from the east to Jerusalem,
2623:, translations of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, were originally composed in Hasmonaean Aramaic. It also appears in quotations in the
13833:
13088:
10828:
6296:
4375:
These vowel groups are relatively stable, but the exact articulation of any individual is most dependent on its consonantal setting.
3859:
8779:
4016:
And when he had gathered all the chief priests and scribes of the people together, he demanded of them where Christ should be born.
14714:
14063:
12362:
6380:
The Persian location and character of the Metropolitan proved to be a source of friction between the Syriac-speaking Christians of
5242:
3407:, but its golden age was the fourth to eight centuries. This period began with the translation of the Bible into the language: the
1388:
5369:
Proto-Semitic */θ/ */ð/ are reflected in Aramaic as */t/, */d/, whereas they became sibilants in Hebrew (the number three is שלוש
2686:
Other regional dialects continued to exist alongside these, often as simple, spoken variants of Aramaic. Early evidence for these
14275:
13266:
12313:
12288:
11768:
5686:
for the feminine absolute singular. Likewise, some Jewish Aramaic texts employ the Hebrew masculine absolute singular suffix ים-
3098:
are never simplified into monophthongs. East of the Jordan, the various dialects of East Jordanian were spoken. In the region of
2040:"Ancient Aramaic" refers to the earliest known period of the language, from its origin until it becomes the lingua franca of the
2022:. After the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, local vernaculars became increasingly prominent, fanning the divergence of an Aramaic
441:
10456:
3712:
have become nearly extinct in non-liturgical usage, the most prolific speakers of Neo-Aramaic languages in the 21st century are
2615:, which was the language preferred in religious and some other public uses (coinage). It influenced the Biblical Aramaic of the
988:(539–330 BC). Mediated by scribes that had been trained in the language, highly standardized written Aramaic, named by scholars
13581:
13575:
12352:
12331:
11169:
5776:
The Aramaic verb has gradually evolved in time and place, varying between varieties of the language. Verb forms are marked for
5729:
Possessive phrases in Aramaic can either be made with the construct state or by linking two nouns with the relative particle --
2499:" was eventually abandoned, when modern scholarly analyses showed that Aramaic dialect used in Hebrew Bible was not related to
12347:
10238:
10190:
9087:
8664:
8627:
8051:
7364:
6909:
6677:
6636:
5468:
Aramaic has two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. The feminine absolute singular is often marked by the ending ה-
9579:"Some Basic Annotation to The Hidden Pearl: The Syrian Orthodox Church and its Ancient Aramaic Heritage, I–III (Rome, 2001)"
8831:
7720:
13042:
1294:(Hebrew Bible), "Aram" is used as a proper name of several people including descendants of Shem, Nahor, and Jacob. Ancient
26:
This article is about the sub-group of the Semitic languages native to Mesopotamia and the Levant. Not to be confused with
9634:
4496:, like the vowel in "show" (). There are shorter, and thus more open, counterparts to each of these, with the short close
3862:. However, they also have roots in numerous previously unwritten local Aramaic varieties and, in some cases, even contain
741:
627:
14405:
14056:
13916:
12382:
12377:
11001:
From a Spoken to a Written Language: The Introduction and Development of Literary Urmia Aramaic in the Nineteenth Century
8654:
4895:
4879:
3133:"wealth", were borrowed into Hebrew, and Hebrew words acquired additional senses from Aramaic. For instance, Hebrew ראוי
3121:. Hebrew words entered Jewish Aramaic. Most were mostly technical religious words, but a few were everyday words like עץ
2528:
481:
7835:
7383:
Schmidt, Nathaniel (1923). "Early Oriental Studies in Europe and the Work of the American Oriental Society, 1842–1922".
7317:
3043:, the language of the Roman army and higher levels of administration, had almost no impact on the linguistic landscape.
2638:
Aramaic in the Achaemenid bureaucracy also precipitated the adoption of Aramaic(-derived) scripts to render a number of
13593:
10852:
10418:
8364:
5523:, which marks the possessor, the construct state is marked on the possessed. This is mainly due to Aramaic word order:
4010:
Saying, Where is he that is born King of the Jews? for we have seen his star in the east, and are come to worship him.
3551:
that can be dated back to the fourth century. Its modern pronunciation is based on the form used in the tenth century.
2385:
2340:
2314:
1270:
In historical sources, Aramaic language is designated by two distinctive groups of terms, first of them represented by
1206:
1174:
764:
554:
10108:
10078:
8381:
1185:
The connection between Chaldean, Syriac, and Samaritan as "Aramaic" was first identified in 1679 by German theologian
14132:
11715:
11694:
11673:
11650:
11627:
11606:
11557:
11536:
11513:
11490:
11469:
11437:
11414:
11391:
11370:
11349:
11317:
11296:
11275:
11251:
11203:
11179:
11140:
11055:
11032:
11009:
10985:
10926:
10902:
10878:
10786:
10727:
10634:
10611:
10588:
10565:
10541:
10518:
10495:
10445:
10407:
10386:
10363:
10328:
10307:
10284:
10261:
10216:
10171:
10148:
10020:
9997:
9976:
9916:
9893:
9834:
9762:
9741:
9707:
9684:
9661:
9605:
9508:
9444:
9420:
9399:
9336:
9272:
9008:
8965:
8937:
8898:
8810:
8637:
8610:
8576:
8183:
7732:
7470:
7287:
Duntsov, Alexey; Häberl, Charles; Loesov, Sergey (2022). "A Modern Western Aramaic Account of the Syrian Civil War".
6942:
6605:
Viele Aramäer arbeiten heute in Damaskus, Beirut oder in den Golfstaaten und verbringen nur die Sommermonate im Dorf.
6598:
6576:
6552:
6530:
6508:
6483:
6451:
6405:
6373:
6335:
5567:, like Hebrew, have the absolute and construct states, the emphatic/determined state is a unique feature to Aramaic.
4944:
at the same point of articulation). Aramaic classically uses a series of lightly contrasted plosives and fricatives:
3014:
2836:(Urhay), the regional dialect became the official language: Edessan Aramaic (Urhaya), that later came to be known as
1599:
in northern Iraq, southeastern Turkey, northeastern Syria, and northwestern Iran, and the Saint Thomas Christians in
13119:
11741:
5768:
In Modern Aramaic, the last form is by far the most common. In Biblical Aramaic, the last form is virtually absent.
2996:
1611:
alongside "Eastern" and "Western" areas to distinguish between the various languages and dialects that are Aramaic.
14796:
13975:
12303:
11021:"Classical Syriac, Neo-Aramaic, and Arabic in the Church of the East and the Chaldean Church between 1500 and 1800"
8313:
Frye, Richard N.; Driver, G. R. (1955). "Review of G. R. Driver's 'Aramaic Documents of the Fifth Century B. C.'".
7709:
7698:
4790:
3260:
391:
10912:
10888:
4089:
W-buqrehon: Eykeleh haw d-pišleh iliḏe malka d-ihuḏāye? Sabab khzelan l-kawkhḇeh b-maḏnkha w-telan d-saġdakh eleh.
658:. Classical varieties are used as liturgical and literary languages in several West Asian churches, as well as in
13261:
13035:
12308:
12298:
11792:
9064:
4762:
4287:
4188:
2718:
Galilean Targumic is similar to Babylonian Targumic. It is the mixing of literary Hasmonaean with the dialect of
351:
8458:
5048:
Each member of a certain pair is written with the same letter of the alphabet in most writing systems (that is,
14709:
14693:
13656:
13641:
13623:
13599:
13504:
13329:
12637:
8680:
Häberl, Charles G. (February 2006). "Iranian Scripts for Aramaic Languages: The Origin of the Mandaic Script".
8428:
7638:
6381:
5077:
4804:
4421:
4308:
3885:, and most are facing extinction. The Jewish varieties that have come from communities that once lived between
2992:
2793:
in the Syrian Desert from 44 BC to 274 AD. It was written in a rounded script, which later gave way to cursive
2377:. Aramaic script and – as ideograms – Aramaic vocabulary would survive as the essential characteristics of the
8443:
3505:
was composed. It is characterized by a highly phonetic orthography and does not make use of vowel diacritics.
2587:. By the year 300 BC, all of the main Aramaic-speaking regions came under political rule of the newly created
2452:– documents from the Achaemenid period (5th century BC) concerning the restoration of the temple in Jerusalem.
1603:, India. Most dialects can be described as either "Eastern" or "Western", the dividing line being roughly the
14735:
13510:
13471:
13385:
13256:
12293:
12205:
10667:
Grammatik des Biblisch-Aramäischen: Mit einer Kritischen Erörterung der aramäischen Wörter im Neuen Testament
8758:
8736:
6044:
These three conjugations are supplemented with three further derived stems, produced by the preformative -הת
4050:
3756:
that saw the proliferation of other tongues among those who previously did not speak them, most recently the
3629:
2392:, which number about five hundred. Many of the extant documents witnessing to this form of Aramaic come from
1315:
Unlike in Hebrew, designations for Aramaic language in some other ancient languages were mostly exonymic. In
341:
8747:
8725:
8447:
5332:. Some dialects have replaced emphatic consonants with non-emphatic counterparts, while those spoken in the
4085:
Min baṯar d-pišleh iliḏe Išo go Beṯlkham d-Ihuḏa b-yomane d-Herodes malka ṯelon mġoše min maḏnkha l-Orešlim.
14745:
14480:
13995:
13970:
13906:
13670:
12372:
12357:
7671:
5584:
4827:
4776:
4294:
3901:
around Mosul for example, the varieties of these two ethnicities are similar enough to allow conversation.
2495:
1396:
1264:
604:
520:
461:
361:
85:
10419:"The Book of Daniel and Matters of Language: Evidences Relating to Names, Words, and the Aramaic Language"
5323:
5319:
5315:
5311:
5307:
5303:
5295:
5291:
5214:
5207:
5200:
5193:
5125:
5114:
5092:
5081:
4202:
4198:
3058:' time. They were probably distinctive yet mutually intelligible. Old Judean was the prominent dialect of
14801:
14683:
14678:
14613:
14289:
13980:
13926:
13789:
13487:
13206:
13181:
13175:
13098:
12971:
12367:
12081:
10752:
9784:
9578:
6627:(2011). "Phyla and Waves: Models of Classification of the Semitic Languages". In Weninger, Stefan (ed.).
5564:
5272:
occurs almost too frequently to document fully, but is a major distinctive feature of different dialects.
5103:
4859:
4811:
4409:
4316:
4266:
3728:. This includes speakers of the Assyrian (235,000 speakers) and Chaldean (216,000 speakers) varieties of
3416:
2901:
1640:. In time, Aramaic developed its distinctive "square" style. The ancient Israelites and other peoples of
1040:
934:
38b), the language spoken by Adam – the Bible's first human – was Aramaic.
588:
126:
7450:
6412:
He was born in the region of Beth Qatraye in Eastern Arabia, a mixed Syriac- and Arabic Speaking region…
5354:: all the gutturals are reduced to a simple glottal stop. Some Modern Aramaic dialects do not pronounce
14827:
14806:
14415:
13990:
13212:
12226:
12219:
11785:
11105:
8147:
6343:
underdevelopment by setting the standard for further research in the sub-field of Beth Qatraye studies.
5702:. The alternative is sometimes called the "gentilic plural" for its prominent use in ethnonyms (יהודיא
5145:
4888:
4769:
4671:
4662:
4542:
The so-called "emphatic" consonants (see the next section) cause all vowels to become mid-centralised.
4385:
4331:
4057:Ḵaḏ eṯileḏ mōro Yesūs b-Beṯlḥem d-Yuḏō b-yawmay d-Herodes malkō w-hō mġušōya min maḏnḥō eṯaw l-Irušlem.
3995:, verses 1–4, in Classical Syriac (Eastern accent), Christian Palestinian Aramaic and Suret (Swadaya):
3977:
3571:
3544:
3538:
3526:
3071:
1186:
1044:
431:
381:
331:
13635:
11940:
3106:, Damascene Aramaic was spoken (deduced mostly from Modern Western Aramaic). Finally, as far north as
2076:
made Aramaic the Empire's second official language, and it eventually supplanted Akkadian completely.
1335:
phenomena was created, becoming a subject of interest both among ancient writers and modern scholars.
1202:
14490:
14305:
12885:
12176:
12154:
12138:
11887:
11867:
11832:
11044:"From Lingua Franca to Endangered Language: The Legal Aspects of the Preservation of Aramaic in Iraq"
10995:
10340:"New Light on Linguistic Diversity in Pre-Achaemenid Aramaic: Wandering Arameans or Language Spread?"
8481:
4841:
4797:
4419:
4407:
4401:
4399:
4383:
4339:
3713:
3705:
3452:
3238:
3188:
3051:
2890:
2806:
2680:
1948:
571:
371:
206:
201:
121:
11309:
Controlling Contested Places: Late Antique Antioch and the Spatial Politics of Religious Controversy
7936:
6465:
6321:
5404:. The root generally consists of two or three consonants and has a basic meaning, for example, כת״ב
2604:
close resemblance to that of the Achaemenid period, continued to be used up to the 2nd century BCE.
1943:, though they have become distinct enough over time that they are now sometimes considered separate
1278:(foreign in origin) names. Native (endonymic) terms for Aramaic language were derived from the same
14445:
14087:
13911:
13449:
13200:
12648:
12271:
9236:
8956:
Arman Akopian (11 December 2017). "Other branches of Syriac Christianity: Melkites and Maronites".
7333:
6001:
means "he slew". The precise relationship in meaning between the two stems differs for every verb.
5397:
4694:
4273:
4110:, verse 16, in Classical Syriac (Eastern accent), Western Neo-Aramaic, Turoyo and Suret (Swadaya):
3792:
3721:
2988:
2977:
1048:
1005:
514:
20:
13108:
6566:
4123:
Then the eleven disciples went away into Galilee, into a mountain where Jesus had appointed them.
3395:
Syriac Aramaic (also "Classical Syriac") is the literary, liturgical and often spoken language of
14755:
14688:
14582:
14435:
14353:
14348:
14000:
13534:
13522:
13395:
13294:
12690:
12627:
12451:
11837:
10675:
10661:
7895:
7545:
5804:, or verbal stems, to mark intensive and extensive developments in the lexical meaning of verbs.
5801:
5480:
4834:
4726:
4717:
4687:
4570:
3878:
3814:
2981:
1064:
11739:
The Aramaic Language and Its Classification – Efrem Yildiz, Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies
9364:
4349:
As with most Semitic languages, Aramaic can be thought of as having three basic sets of vowels:
2619:
texts, and was the main language of non-biblical theological texts of that community. The major
855:(911–605 BC), under whose influence Aramaic became a prestige language after being adopted as a
14786:
14638:
14397:
13755:
13367:
13169:
13163:
13071:
with various additional/alternate self-identifications, such as Syriacs, Arameans, or Chaldeans
12013:
11850:
11827:
11822:
11215:"The Language of Creation or the Primordial Language: A Case of Cultural Polemics in Antiquity"
10530:"Arameans and Aramaic in Transition – Western Influences and the Roots of Aramean Christianity"
6301:
5734:
For example, the various forms of possessive phrases (for "the handwriting of the queen") are:
4852:
4184:
3961:
3765:
3502:
3420:
3103:
3028:
2333:
2144:
1984:
1918:
1486:
1146:
1056:
1052:
116:
13271:
12408:
11267:
A Jewish Neo-Aramaic Dictionary: Dialects of Amidya, Dihok, Nerwa and Zakho, Northwestern Iraq
10840:
9881:
9695:
9284:"Assyrians, Syrians and the Greek Language in the late Hellenistic and Roman Imperial Periods"
7675:
7409:
Hilliger first saw clearly the relation of the so-called Chaldee, Syriac, and Samaritan (1679)
7354:
4029:Ḵaḏ dēyn eṯīleḏ Īšōʕ b-Ḇēṯlḥem d-Īhūḏā b-yawmay Herodes malkā eṯaw mġōšē min maḏnḥā l-Ōrešlem.
3913:
980:
bureaucracy also used Aramaic, and this practice was subsequently inherited by the succeeding
401:
14455:
13379:
13355:
13015:
12587:
12260:
11926:
11912:
8998:
8042:
7628:
6899:
6323:
5279:
5234:
5121:
4917:
4631:
4622:
3699:
3688:
3218:
2003:
1190:
1178:
1177:. Although it was first published in 1704, it was not identified as Aramaic until 1821, when
1102:
981:
643:
616:
106:
10397:
4099:
W-qraeleh kuleh gurane d-kahne w-sapre d-ʔamma w-buqrehmennay eyka bit paiš va iliḏe mšikha.
3035:
as their first language, though many learned Hebrew as a liturgical language. Additionally,
1567:, although the language is dying out. However, Aramaic is also experiencing a revival among
1165:
14673:
14633:
14112:
13962:
13948:
13896:
13871:
13861:
13851:
13846:
13841:
13605:
13299:
12942:
12653:
11991:
10817:
9080:
The Christian Palestinian Aramaic Old Testament and Apocrypha Version from the Early Period
5591:
5299:
4737:
4590:
4220:
3647:
3352:
1489:
in the late seventh century, Arabic gradually replaced Aramaic as the lingua franca of the
1021:
931:
13130:
9624:"Christian Aramaism: The Birth and Growth of Aramaic Scholarship in the Sixteenth Century"
9558:
3172:(Ραββουνει), which means "my master/great one/teacher" in both languages. Other examples:
8:
14760:
14668:
14643:
14450:
14425:
14037:
13921:
13891:
13886:
13881:
13866:
13784:
13546:
13455:
13373:
13361:
13309:
13304:
13144:
13124:
13083:
12956:
12594:
12537:
12465:
12426:
12402:
12247:
12062:
12023:
10623:"The Septuagint as a Source of Information on Egyptian Aramaic in the Hellenistic Period"
10229:(1995). "Aramaic and the Jews". In Geller, M.C.; Greenfield, J.C.; Weizman, M.P. (eds.).
10226:
10200:
6500:
Untersuchungen zum Spracherwerb zweisprachiger Kinder im Aramäerdorf Dschubbadin (Syrien)
6237:
5821:
4941:
4749:
4138:
4033:
W-Āmrīn: Aykaw malkā d-īhūḏāyē d-eṯīleḏ? Ḥzayn gēr kawkḇēh b-maḏnḥā w-eṯayn l-mesgaḏ lēh.
4013:
When Herod the king had heard these things, he was troubled, and all Jerusalem with him.
3945:
3939:
3905:
3788:
3717:
3522:
3436:
3396:
2897:
2833:
2592:
2575:
2516:
2135:
2073:
2065:
2061:
1999:
1980:
1637:
1596:
1589:
1568:
1239:, the earliest extant full copy of the Hebrew Bible, a Greek translation, used the terms
1142:
1068:
1036:
977:
852:
737:
714:
698:
678:
623:
491:
260:
236:
5572:
1728:
Most commonly used types of periodization are those of Klaus Beyer and Joseph Fitzmyer.
827:
valley. By around 1000 BC, the Arameans had a string of kingdoms in what is now part of
14750:
14719:
14618:
14465:
14382:
13936:
13856:
13777:
13750:
13467:
13093:
11081:
10960:
10751:. Cambridge: The British School of Archaeology in Iraq. pp. 95–114. Archived from
10699:
10551:
10134:
10062:
10054:
9962:
9950:
9926:
9868:
9783:. Cambridge: The British School of Archaeology in Iraq. pp. 115–22. Archived from
9574:
9554:
9542:
9518:
9483:
9475:
9311:
9303:
9227:
9223:
8693:
8330:
7915:
7740:
7489:
7400:
6668:. In Brock, Sebastian P.; Butts, Aaron M.; Kiraz, George A.; Van Rompay, Lucas (eds.).
6195:
5825:
5785:
5781:
5777:
5504:
5337:
4608:
4565:
3969:
3923:
3776:
3737:
3643:
2829:
2695:, and they also show a clear linguistic diversity between eastern and western regions.
2692:
2579:
2401:
1855:
1676:
1668:
1644:
adopted this alphabet for writing their own languages. Thus, it is better known as the
1482:
1260:
745:
12780:
12658:
11765:
11113:
11093:
11065:
9242:
A Compendious Syriac Dictionary: Founded Upon the Thesaurus Syriacus of R. Payne Smith
5990:פע״ל P-‘-L, meaning "to do". This stem carries the basic lexical meaning of the verb.
3851:, and Mandaeans, with mutually unintelligible variations within each of these groups.
1458:). The influx eventually resulted in the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC) adopting an
506:
14740:
14597:
14592:
14577:
14512:
14430:
14387:
14107:
14102:
13931:
13901:
13728:
13679:
13665:
13516:
13319:
12928:
12722:
12601:
12474:
12235:
12193:
12067:
11860:
11808:
11711:
11690:
11669:
11646:
11623:
11602:
11553:
11532:
11509:
11486:
11465:
11433:
11410:
11387:
11366:
11345:
11313:
11292:
11271:
11247:
11240:"Hebrew versus Aramaic as Jesus' Language: Notes on Early Opinions by Syriac Authors"
11199:
11175:
11136:
11051:
11028:
11005:
10981:
10964:
10922:
10898:
10874:
10848:
10782:
10723:
10630:
10607:
10584:
10561:
10537:
10514:
10491:
10441:
10403:
10382:
10359:
10324:
10303:
10280:
10257:
10234:
10212:
10186:
10167:
10144:
10066:
10016:
9993:
9972:
9912:
9889:
9830:
9758:
9737:
9703:
9680:
9657:
9601:
9504:
9487:
9440:
9416:
9395:
9332:
9315:
9268:
9213:
9083:
9004:
8961:
8933:
8894:
8806:
8660:
8633:
8606:
8572:
8424:
8360:
8179:
8047:
7680:
7634:
7466:
7434:
7360:
7208:
6938:
6915:
6905:
6673:
6632:
6594:
6572:
6548:
6526:
6504:
6479:
6447:
6401:
6369:
6331:
6281:
6271:
5817:
5813:
5789:
5544:
5341:
5065:
4820:
4783:
4710:
4678:
4595:
4575:
4224:
3981:
3867:
3866:
influences. These varieties are not purely the direct descendants of the language of
3863:
3577:
3514:
3412:
3222:
3153:
3047:
2956:
2909:
2786:
2739:
2660:
2567:
2500:
2482:
2374:
2354:
2326:
2035:
2023:
2007:
1926:
1584:
1564:
1516:
1498:
1459:
1309:
1118:
1009:
985:
966:
938:
927:
912:
876:
788:
784:
674:
160:
111:
11707:
A Political History of the Arameans: From Their Origins to the End of Their Polities
9827:
Humanism, Culture, and Language in the Near East: Studies in Honor of Georg Krotkoff
7427:. Sumtibus hæred. D. Tobiæ Mevii & Elerti Schumacheri, per Matthæum Henckelium.
7371:
The earliest of the Aramaic finds known to us is the so-called "Carpentras stele"...
6961:
5978:, to extend the lexical coverage of verbs. The basic form of the verb is called the
4071:
W-ḵaneš ḵulhun rišay koḥnōya w-soprawi d-qahlo wa-hwo mšayel lhun hōn mšiḥō meṯileḏ.
2574:
334–330 BC), and its replacement with the newly created political order, imposed by
2477:
Biblical Aramaic presented various challenges for writers who were engaged in early
14653:
14648:
14552:
14547:
14542:
14532:
14527:
14517:
14333:
14190:
14175:
14159:
14154:
14149:
14127:
13876:
13461:
13314:
13286:
13192:
13155:
13008:
12963:
12949:
12759:
12710:
12673:
12578:
12564:
12530:
12500:
12481:
12446:
12212:
12186:
12160:
12120:
12113:
12053:
12036:
12008:
11984:
11876:
11226:
11129:"Language Variation, Language Development, and the Textual History of the Peshitta"
10952:
10691:
10344:
Wandering Arameans: Arameans Outside Syria: Textual and Archaeological Perspectives
10046:
9942:
9860:
9818:
9593:
9534:
9467:
9376:
9295:
8685:
8322:
7907:
7458:
7392:
7296:
7198:
6620:
6498:
6471:
6266:
6223:
5793:
5576:
5351:
4585:
4560:
4555:
4531:). These were originally full diphthongs, but many dialects have converted them to
4232:
4228:
4043:
W-ḵanneš ḵulhōn rabbay kāhnē w-sāprē d-ʕammā wa-mšayel-wālhōn d-aykā meṯīleḏ mšīḥā.
4022:
3973:
3593:
3564:
3483:
3478:
3466:
3424:
3368:
3276:
3242:
3230:
3226:
3113:
The three languages, especially Hebrew and Aramaic, influenced one another through
2874:
2818:
2815:
2797:. Like Nabataean, Palmyrene was influenced by Arabic, but to a much lesser degree.
2767:
2651:), much like the symbol '&' is read as "and" in English and the original Latin
2536:
2478:
2438:
2411:
2369:
2362:
2126:
2121:
2104:
2041:
1788:
1657:
1649:
1631:
1210:
1170:
1080:
1028:
1017:
989:
962:
942:
777:
710:
702:
690:
686:
321:
311:
291:
264:
241:
211:
175:
69:
13814:
10936:
10862:
9016:
Therefore, unlike Syriac where "Jesus" is spelled īšū', in CPA it is spelled īsūs.
7300:
7269:
4465:(like the vowel in "need", ). It has a slightly more open counterpart, the "long"
3027:
It is generally believed by Christian scholars that in the first century, Jews in
1197:("Images and Inscriptions of the Past"), in which he established the basis of the
14587:
14562:
14557:
14537:
14485:
14475:
14470:
14460:
14440:
14410:
14362:
14358:
14328:
13804:
13629:
13419:
13413:
13276:
13251:
13231:
13058:
12976:
12880:
12854:
12803:
12668:
12608:
12516:
12509:
12493:
12487:
12414:
12165:
12041:
12031:
11772:
11745:
11705:
11684:
11661:
11638:
11617:
11594:
11547:
11524:
11501:
11480:
11459:
11425:
11402:
11381:
11360:
11339:
11328:
11307:
11286:
11265:
11239:
11193:
11189:
11158:
11128:
11117:
11097:
11043:
11020:
10999:
10973:
10916:
10892:
10866:
10813:
10798:"Stammbaum or Continuum? The Subgrouping of Modern Aramaic Dialects Reconsidered"
10774:
10715:
10665:
10622:
10599:
10576:
10555:
10529:
10506:
10483:
10435:
10374:
10318:
10295:
10272:
10249:
10204:
10159:
10138:
10104:
10074:
10030:
10008:
9987:
9966:
9904:
9844:
9822:
9752:
9731:
9672:
9649:
9496:
9434:
9410:
9347:
9324:
9262:
9240:
8566:
8287:
8040:
Kutscher, Eduard (2007). "Aramaic". In Berenbaum, Michael; Skolnik, Fred (eds.).
7422:
7337:
7321:
6276:
6261:
6256:
6070:
5849:
5797:
5384:
5287:
5222:
5069:
4907:
4616:
4580:
4482:
4281:
4216:
4151:
4061:Ōmrin: Hōn hū deyn d-eṯileḏ? Ḥmaynan ger kawkḇeh b-maḏnḥō w-eṯaynan d-nesguḏ leh.
3871:
3855:
3844:
3781:
3741:
3733:
3656:
3651:
3563:
Hebrew (left) and Aramaic (right) in parallel in a 1299 Hebrew Bible held by the
3518:
3376:
3326:
3322:
3319:
3309:
3284:
3032:
2837:
2794:
2775:
2759:
2712:
2672:
2664:
2612:
2588:
2490:
2489:
was named as "Chaldean" (Chaldaic, Chaldee). That label remained common in early
2467:
2406:
2378:
2248:
1992:
1952:
1771:
1684:
1653:
1645:
1624:
1392:
1287:
1138:
1110:
1060:
1032:
1001:
749:
730:
726:
718:
682:
647:
612:
600:
544:
471:
301:
250:
232:
98:
81:
45:
11448:
9623:
5508:
state is a form of the noun used to make possessive constructions (for example,
3858:
in northern Iraq, northeast Syria, southeast Turkey, northwest Iran, and in the
3752:, escaped the linguistic pressures experienced by others during the large-scale
1998:
The central phase in the development of Old Aramaic was its official use by the
1619:
1263:. This connection between the names Syrian and Aramaic was discussed in 1835 by
14567:
14025:
13684:
13611:
13587:
13475:
13246:
13241:
12936:
12890:
12860:
12837:
12831:
12715:
12663:
12544:
12318:
12147:
9597:
8348:
7549:
6624:
6199:
6058:
5706:, 'the Jews', for example). This alternative plural is written with the letter
4937:
4649:
4302:
3898:
3753:
3729:
3664:
3332:
3234:
3118:
2935:
2708:
2676:
2656:
2639:
2596:
2584:
2461:
2455:
1960:
1869:
1830:
1802:
1759:
1745:
1320:
1248:
1214:
1154:
1153:. They have retained use of the once-dominant lingua franca despite subsequent
1134:
1106:
1013:
950:
945:
during his public ministry, as well as the language of several sections of the
608:
592:
451:
225:
89:
11760:
10956:
9989:
The Aramaic Language in the Achaemenid Period: A Study in Linguistic Variation
9307:
9283:
7462:
6919:
961:, the Aramaic translation of the Hebrew Bible. It is also the language of the
14821:
14367:
14215:
14122:
13528:
13135:
13113:
12870:
12865:
12775:
12522:
12047:
11230:
10770:
10737:
10711:
10650:
Bulletin of the International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies
9645:
9538:
9430:
9105:
The Christian Palestinian Aramaic New Testament Version from the Early Period
8046:. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA. p. 342.
7314:
7212:
6062:
5520:
4755:
4655:
3193:
3192:
used Aramaic for much of its dialogue, specially reconstructed by a scholar,
3149:
2913:
2532:
2212:
2173:
2149:
1988:
1716:
1353:
1324:
1316:
1295:
993:
856:
165:
13794:
11961:
11362:
A Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic of the Talmudic and Geonic Periods
10940:
9381:
4168:
Ina talmiḏe khadissar azzillun l-Glila l-ṭūra eyka d-bit khwaʔda ʔammeh Išo.
2742:
was the written language of the Arab kingdom of Nabataea, whose capital was
1410:
14372:
14185:
14117:
13552:
12796:
11154:
10123:
10093:
6005:
5987:
5975:
5833:
5401:
5178:
5099:
4701:
4492:(like the vowel in "school", ). It has a more open counterpart, the "long"
4451:
3953:
3848:
3749:
3617:
3609:
3529:). Of these four, only Jewish Palestinian continued as a written language.
3432:
2751:
2555:
2449:
2238:
2053:
1883:
1816:
1692:
1218:
1198:
1114:
954:
946:
880:
757:
663:
655:
635:
11573:
Arabic and Semitic Linguistics Contextualized: A Festschrift for Jan Retsö
10351:
9849:"The Aramaic of Daniel in the Light of Old Aramaic, by Zdravko Stefanovic"
7762:
6559:
Die Kontakte zwischen den drei Aramäer-dörfern sind nicht besonders stark.
6475:
6065:. However, as with other stems, actual meaning differs from verb to verb.
5350:
is the main distinctive feature of Samaritan pronunciation, also found in
3559:
3050:
and Babylonian, there were a number of colloquial Aramaic dialects. Seven
2844:, East Mesopotamian Aramaic flourished, with evidence from the regions of
1286:. Endonymic forms were also adopted in some other languages, like ancient
486:
476:
466:
456:
446:
436:
426:
416:
406:
396:
386:
376:
366:
356:
346:
336:
326:
316:
306:
296:
286:
14791:
14781:
14572:
14504:
14377:
14265:
14079:
13799:
13437:
13431:
13068:
12421:
12106:
11738:
10867:"Remarks on the Aramaic of Upper Mesopotamia in the Seventh Century B.C."
10845:
The Challenge of Bible Translation: Communicating God's Word to the World
10320:
A Cultural History of Aramaic: From the Beginnings to the Advent of Islam
10009:"Imperial Aramaic as an Administrative Language of the Achaemenid Period"
9394:(Second ed.). Oxford-New York: Oxford University Press. p. 64.
9211:
is less common in classical texts, but may be found (for example) in the
7578:
7565:
6901:
A Cultural History of Aramaic: From the Beginnings to the Advent of Islam
6665:
6034:
6033:
sound in later Old Aramaic. This is noted by the respelling of the older
5683:
5265:
Six broad features of sound change can be seen as dialect differentials:
4869:
4260:
4248:
3944:
Very little remains of Western Aramaic. Its only remaining vernacular is
3927:
3796:
3757:
3725:
3075:
3036:
2859:
2544:
2511:
2410:, a book of instructive aphorisms quite similar in style to the biblical
2397:
2243:
2197:
2154:
2011:
1934:
1897:
1845:
1778:
1735:
1339:
1096:
1084:
864:
844:
596:
421:
411:
170:
77:
11085:
11069:
10211:. Vol. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 698–713.
9546:
9522:
8716:
8697:
7029:
6398:
The Rowman & Littlefield Handbook of Christianity in the Middle East
4094:
Iman d-šmayeleh Herodes malka aha pišleh šġhiše w-kulaha Orešlim ʔammeh.
2384:
One of the largest collections of Imperial Aramaic texts is that of the
1913:
1563:. In modern Israel, the only native Aramaic-speaking population are the
1438:, the native speakers of Aramaic, began to settle in greater numbers in
14323:
14318:
13765:
13760:
13558:
11968:
11919:
11261:
11150:
9954:
9930:
9872:
9848:
9365:"Aramaic as a Lingua Franca During the Persian Empire (538–333 B.C.E.)"
9167:
9143:
8334:
7203:
7186:
6191:
5837:
5568:
5166:
4325:
4253:
4107:
3886:
3835:
3548:
3499:
3427:. Missionary activity led to the spread of Syriac from Mesopotamia and
3387:
3295:
2687:
2600:
2464:– a single sentence in the middle of a Hebrew text denouncing idolatry.
2389:
2288:
2283:
2159:
1560:
1502:
1299:
1259:; numerous later bibles followed the Septuagint's usage, including the
1236:
1232:
1122:
1092:
872:
565:
14048:
11599:
Bilingualism in Ancient Society: Language Contact and the Written Word
10703:
10679:
10646:"The Aramaic Background of the Seventy: Language, Culture and History"
10534:
Research on Israel and Aram: Autonomy, Independence and Related Issues
10058:
10034:
9479:
9455:
7919:
7811:
7404:
5543:
state is an extended form of the noun that functions similarly to the
4450:
are often indicated in writing by the use of the letters א "alaph" (a
4145:
Bes aḥḥadaʕsar tilmit̲ zallun l-Galila l-ṭūra ti amerlun maʕleh Yešūʕ.
883:
under Assyrian rule. At its height, Aramaic was spoken in what is now
14628:
14313:
14200:
14137:
13985:
13819:
13699:
13540:
13481:
11933:
11645:. Vol. 1. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. pp. 237–51.
11048:
On the Margins of Nations: Endangered Languages and Linguistic Rights
9754:
An Aramaic Approach to Q: Sources for the Gospels of Matthew and Luke
8689:
7356:
Using Ostraca in the Ancient World: New Discoveries and Methodologies
5829:
5719:
5283:
5057:
4512:
4477:
in some dialects. The close front vowels usually use the consonant י
3992:
3919:
3909:
3745:
3692:
3683:
3585:
3487:
3095:
3059:
2878:
2648:
2608:
2278:
2273:
2202:
2192:
2069:
1956:
1922:
1721:
1661:
1604:
1540:
1490:
1439:
1352:) has been translated as "Aramaic" in some versions of the Christian
1279:
1271:
1130:
1126:
1088:
923:, having gradually replaced several other related Semitic languages.
753:
722:
667:
651:
499:
277:
245:
11777:
11581:
11568:
11214:
10797:
10645:
10339:
10140:
Hebrew Scripture in Patristic Biblical Theory: Canon, Language, Text
9946:
9864:
9718:
8858:
8326:
8294:. Vol. 2. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 251–52
6446:(in German). Carl Hanser Verlag GmbH & Company KG. p. 151.
4158:
Wa-ḥḏaḥsar talmiḏe azzinnewa lu Ġlilo lu ṭūro ayko d-moʕadleh Yešūʕ.
2966:
1983:
language is spoken by small Christian and Muslim communities in the
1366:
is consistently used in Koine Greek at this time to mean Hebrew and
14765:
14420:
14343:
14338:
14245:
14230:
14225:
14180:
13770:
13743:
13716:
13704:
13689:
13443:
13390:
12571:
11975:
11947:
10695:
10577:"Old Aramaic and Neo-Aramaic: Some Reflections on Language History"
10050:
9471:
9299:
9218:
8359:] (in German). Boston: Adamant Media Corporation. p. 249.
7911:
7548:, 1.144: "Aram had the Aramites, which the Greeks called Syrians" (
7396:
6672:(Electronic Edition, Beth Mardutho, 2018 ed.). Gorgias Press.
6542:
6520:
6286:
6251:
6217:
5753:– both words are in the emphatic state and the relative particle --
5333:
5185:
4194:
4132:
Talmīḏē dēyn ḥḏaʕesre āzalū l-Glīlā l-ṭūrā aykā d-waʕad ennūn Īšōʕ.
3965:
3949:
3408:
3114:
3099:
3063:
2944:
2930:
2863:
2540:
2358:
2182:
2112:
2045:
1944:
1532:
1528:
1471:
1467:
1435:
1419:
1332:
1283:
1275:
1235:) both stated that the "Syrians" called themselves "Arameans". The
1224:
997:
920:
816:
706:
631:
540:
31:
13027:
12705:
11595:"Bilingualism and Diglossia in Late Antique Syria and Mesopotamia"
11341:
A Dictionary of Jewish Palestinian Aramaic of the Byzantine Period
9102:
8423:. Studies in the Khalili Collection. Oxford: Khalili Collections.
8001:"The last of the Aramaic speakers", Miriam Shaviv, 14 July 2013,
7502:
5800:(active, reflexive, or passive). Aramaic also employs a system of
4434:. In West Syriac dialects, and possibly Middle Galilean, the long
3461:(which was completed in the seventh century) and of post-Talmudic
2789:
is the dialect that was in use in the multicultural city state of
1356:, as Aramaic was at that time the language commonly spoken by the
14250:
14240:
14205:
14195:
14032:
13425:
13347:
12754:
11954:
11686:
Grammar for Gemara and Targum Onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic
10843:. In Scorgie, Glen G.; Strauss, Mark L.; Voth, Steven M. (eds.).
7937:
https://www.ucl.ac.uk/sargon/essentials/countries/centralassyria/
7430:
6231:
3964:, as well as by some people who migrated from these villages, to
3675:, a transliteration of the Greek form, in Christian Palestinian.
3635:
3601:
3589:
3400:
3214:
3067:
3046:
In addition to the formal, literary dialects of Aramaic based on
2790:
2771:
2719:
2628:
2624:
2422:
2268:
2092:
1940:
1680:
1536:
1494:
1451:
1443:
1091:. Syriac was also the liturgical language of several now-extinct
892:
860:
832:
659:
529:
254:
27:
11750:
9696:"Hebraisti in Ancient Texts: Does ἑβραϊστί Ever Mean 'Aramaic'?"
9523:"A Fragment of the Acta Pilati in Christian Palestinian Aramaic"
2523:
1987:, and closely related western varieties of Aramaic persisted in
615:, where it has been continually written and spoken in different
14270:
14220:
14142:
14005:
13809:
13738:
13711:
13694:
12982:
11896:
11754:
11050:. Bath: Foundation for Endangered Languages. pp. 197–203.
9021:
6384:
who naturally looked to their co-linguists back in Mesopotamia.
6246:
6203:
5845:
5841:
3893:
are not all mutually intelligible. In some places, for example
3882:
3709:
3660:
3605:
3597:
3462:
3458:
3404:
3107:
2926:
2922:
2855:
2841:
2704:
2620:
2616:
2559:
2427:
2263:
2253:
2207:
2187:
2088:
2080:
2015:
1976:
1641:
1600:
1552:
1524:
1506:
1423:
1400:
1377:
1312:
invasions of Babylonia during the period from 1200 to 1000 BC.
1251:, the earliest extant Hebrew copy of the Bible, uses the terms
1228:
1072:
958:
908:
904:
900:
896:
868:
840:
836:
824:
820:
819:, a Semitic-speaking people of the region between the northern
694:
73:
10484:"Variety in Early Syriac: The Context in Contemporary Aramaic"
8978:
8015:"Aramaic Israelis seek to revive endangered language of Jesus"
7336:(1821). "Semitische Paläographie: Aramäische ältere Schrift".
4378:
The open vowel is an open near-front unrounded vowel ("short"
1707:
1201:
development of the Northwest Semitic scripts. Kopp criticised
582:
57:
14623:
14260:
14255:
14235:
13733:
13721:
13617:
8571:. Translated by Azodi, Azizeh. I.B. Taurus. pp. 118–20.
7961:
7959:
7957:
7876:
7554:Ἀραμαίους δὲ Ἄραμος ἔσχεν, οὓς Ἕλληνες Σύρους προσαγορεύουσιν
6038:
5707:
5679:
5298:
instead, like Arabic; other dialects (for instance, standard
4078:
3957:
3894:
3890:
3761:
3440:
3314:
3091:
3055:
3040:
2849:
2845:
2763:
2755:
2743:
2486:
2442:
2393:
2298:
2233:
2217:
2164:
2084:
2019:
1968:
1672:
1556:
1548:
1544:
1475:
1463:
1455:
1447:
1427:
1404:
1367:
1361:
1343:
1328:
1291:
1150:
1076:
1031:
by certain religious communities. Most notable among them is
970:
888:
828:
815:
Historically and originally, Aramaic was the language of the
639:
8910:
8870:
8721:
8719:
8522:
8486:
7346:
6326:; Saif Shaheen Al-Murikhi; Haya Al Thani (9 December 2014).
5318:, as with Modern Hebrew. In most dialects of Modern Syriac,
3137:"seen" borrowed the sense "worthy, seemly" from the Aramaic
2659:, whose government used Greek but whose native language was
14210:
10160:"Lost and Found in the Grammar of First-Millennium Aramaic"
9045:
8510:
8267:
8197:
8195:
7852:
7228:
7226:
7224:
7222:
7117:
7115:
6797:
6795:
6793:
5715:
3639:
3495:
3491:
3428:
3087:
3081:
2258:
2049:
1972:
1964:
1572:
1515:
The turbulence of the last two centuries (particularly the
1357:
916:
884:
848:
10250:"Aramaic in the Parthian Period: The Arsacid Inscriptions"
9118:
8498:
8400:
8255:
7971:
7954:
7514:
7238:
6831:
6463:
5974:
Like other Semitic languages, Aramaic employs a number of
3152:
preserves some semiticisms, including transliterations of
2811:
2750:
200 BC – 106 AD) controlled the region to the east of the
11198:(7th expanded ed.). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.
10841:"Translating John's Gospel: Challenges and Opportunities"
9931:"The Aramaic Language and the Study of the New Testament"
9813:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 108–44.
9352:
Bulletin of the Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies
8846:
8704:
8534:
8108:
8060:
7596:
6879:
6545:
Arabisch-aramäische Sprachbeziehungen im Qalamūn (Syrien)
6523:
Arabisch-aramäische Sprachbeziehungen im Qalamūn (Syrien)
5678:
in a number of these suffixes is written with the letter
4382:, somewhat like the first vowel in the English "batter",
4117:
4038:Šmaʕ dēyn Herodes malkā w-ettzīʕ w-ḵullāh Ōrešlem ʕammēh.
4002:
3581:
3547:
is earliest attested by the documentary tradition of the
3399:. It originated by the first century AD in the region of
3213:
The dialects of Old Eastern Aramaic continued in ancient
2655:
is now no longer obvious. Under the early 3rd-century BC
2550:
2293:
1274:(native) names, and the other one represented by various
10183:
The City of the Moon God: Religious Traditions of Harran
8463:
8353:
Grundriss der iranischen Philologie: Band I. Abteilung 1
8192:
7983:
7942:
7608:
7584:
7219:
7112:
7100:
7076:
7040:
6867:
6790:
6780:
6778:
6422:
6420:
3168:, and others may be either Hebrew or Aramaic like רבוני
11122:(1st English ed.). London: Williams & Norgate.
11074:
Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft
11004:. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten.
10894:
The Aramaeans: Their Ancient History, Culture, Religion
10716:"Language Contact between Aramaic Dialects and Iranian"
9677:
The Language Environment of First Century Judaea Vol. 2
9412:
The Aramaic Language: Its Distribution and Subdivisions
9033:
8357:
Outline of the Iranian Philology: Volume 1. Division 1.
8231:
8120:
8084:
8072:
7420:
7052:
6985:
6983:
6855:
6819:
6689:
6588:
6564:
6354:
Huehnergard, J., "What is Aramaic?." Aram 7 (1995): 281
5682:. However, some Jewish Aramaic texts employ the letter
5400:(the way words are formed) is based on the consonantal
4215:
the inventories of surrounding languages, particularly
4066:
W-ḵaḏ šmaʕ malkō Herodes eṯʕabaḇ w-ḵuloh Irušlem ʕameh.
3984:, are preserved only in liturgical and literary usage.
3620:
are either in Middle East Jordanian or Middle Judaean.
3182:"Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani?" (?אלי, אלי, למה שבקתני)
3031:
primarily spoke Aramaic with a decreasing number using
10945:
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
10606:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 697–707.
10302:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 598–609.
9202:
8219:
7780:
7166:
7154:
7132:
7130:
6995:
6807:
6751:
6670:
Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage
6202:), allowing for narrative that is more vivid. Aramaic
5796:(indicative, imperative, jussive, or infinitive), and
3162:
3139:
3123:
3079:
2912:. This is the dialect of the oldest manuscript of the
2441:
is the Aramaic found in four discrete sections of the
1656:. A highly modified form of the Aramaic alphabet, the
51:
11668:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 747–55.
11601:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 298–331.
11531:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 619–28.
11508:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 416–24.
11432:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 660–70.
11409:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 610–19.
10980:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 628–37.
10781:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 708–24.
10722:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 738–47.
10513:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 637–52.
10399:
Discovering the Language of Jesus: Hebrew Or Aramaic?
10381:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 725–37.
10279:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 574–86.
10015:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 587–98.
9911:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 555–73.
9888:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 499–514.
9656:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 670–85.
9503:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 652–59.
9331:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 685–96.
8682:
Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
7792:
7442:
7088:
7064:
7012:
7010:
6937:. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans. p. 72.
6775:
6467:
Grammatical Borrowing in Cross-Linguistic Perspective
6417:
5072:. Using their alphabetic names, these emphatics are:
3110:, the western dialect of Orontes Aramaic was spoken.
2493:, and persisted up into the nineteenth century. The "
1327:
itself emerged as a variant of Assyria, the biblical
11330:
Arameans, Aramaic and the Aramaic Literary Tradition
10233:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–18.
9823:"A Preliminary List of Aramaic Loanwords in Kurdish"
9700:
The Language Environment of 1st Century Judea Vol. 2
9390:
Berlin, Adele; et al., eds. (2011). "Aramaic".
9221:(ed. Cureton) p. 4 (Syriac pagination) line 10. See
8546:
8243:
7812:"Strong's Hebrew: 804. אַשּׁוּר (Ashshuwr) – Asshur"
7526:
6980:
6213:
4193:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
2044:. It was the language of the Aramean city-states of
2026:
and the development of differing written standards.
1781:, from the earliest records, to regional prominence
1434:
During the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian Empires,
214:
11135:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 231–56.
11027:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 335–52.
10918:
Semitic Languages: Outline of a Comparative Grammar
10629:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 93–105.
10490:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 221–29.
10256:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 107–30.
9811:
The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia
8207:
7359:. Materiale Textkulturen. De Gruyter. p. 147.
7286:
7250:
7142:
7127:
6843:
6396:Raheb, Mitri; Lamport, Mark A. (15 December 2020).
5718:. In Syriac and some other variants this ending is
5559:
extraordinarily rare in later varieties of Aramaic.
5453:Aramaic nouns and adjectives are inflected to show
5098:ע ʽAyin (or ʽE in some dialects), a pharyngealized
3948:, which is still spoken in the Aramean villages of
3604:(biblical commentaries and teaching). The standard
3513:The dialects of Old Western Aramaic continued with
2950:
2671:, "of the Parthians") for that writing system. The
1039:. It is used by several communities, including the
11575:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 554–68.
11018:
10994:
10873:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 77–92.
10166:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 11–25.
9027:
8832:"The place of Syriac among the Aramaic dialects 2"
8141:"Panammuwa and Bar-Rakib: Two Structural Analyses"
7007:
6763:
6328:The Syriac Writers of Qatar in the Seventh Century
4504:. The close back vowels often use the consonant ו
2881:, was descended from the Arsacid chancery script.
2858:(or Syrian), the author of the gospel harmony the
2707:is the later post-Achaemenid dialect found in the
1282:as the name of its original speakers, the ancient
11588:. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press. pp. 100–09.
11461:The Aramaic of Daniel in the Light of Old Aramaic
11163:. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht's Verlag.
10583:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 1–10.
10346:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 19–38.
9494:
9077:
8864:
8096:
7864:
7494:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
5358:in all words (the third person masculine pronoun
2725:
1578:
1205:and other scholars who had characterized all the
717:, and the most prominent alphabet variant is the
14819:
11766:Jewish Language Research Website: Jewish Aramaic
11666:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
11529:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
11506:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
11430:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
11407:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
11244:The Language Environment of First Century Judaea
11133:Aramaic in Its Historical and Linguistic Setting
11025:Aramaic in Its Historical and Linguistic Setting
10978:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
10871:Aramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting
10779:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
10720:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
10627:Aramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting
10604:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
10581:Aramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting
10511:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
10488:Aramaic in Its Historical and Linguistic Setting
10379:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
10300:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
10277:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
10254:Aramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting
10164:Aramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting
10013:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
9909:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
9654:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
9501:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
9497:"Syriac as the Language of Eastern Christianity"
9329:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
8382:"What are the Persepolis Fortification Tablets?"
6629:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
6619:
5056:are written with the same letter), and are near
4207:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters
3623:
1175:ancient inscription ever identified as "Aramaic"
767:date from 11th century BC, placing it among the
677:, which also includes the mutually intelligible
10231:Studia Aramaica: New Sources and New Approaches
8996:
8829:
7352:
6631:. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 259–278.
6496:
5969:
5889:כתבו ↔ כתב(ו)\כתבון kəṯaḇû ↔ kəṯaḇ(w)/kəṯabbûn
5547:. It is marked with a suffix (for example, כתבת
1636:The earliest Aramaic alphabet was based on the
11070:"Die Namen der aramäischen Nation und Sprache"
10356:Aramaic. A History of the First World Language
9829:. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. pp. 283–300.
9698:. In Buth, Randall; Notley, R. Steven (eds.).
9675:. In Buth, Randall; Notley, R. Steven (eds.).
9168:"Strong's Hebrew: 1722. דְּהַב (dehab) – gold"
9065:"The Village of Bakh'a in Qalamoun: Interview"
8990:
6932:
6543:Prof. Dr. Werner Arnold; P. Behnstedt (1993).
6521:Prof. Dr. Werner Arnold; P. Behnstedt (1993).
5906:כתבת ↔ כתב(י)\כתבן kəṯaḇâ ↔ kəṯaḇ(y)/kəṯabbên
5694:. The masculine determined plural suffix, יא-
5387:has been adapted for writing these new sounds.
3415:. Classical Syriac became the language of the
1145:(~3,000) persists in only two villages in the
1027:Some variants of Aramaic are also retained as
673:Aramaic belongs to the Northwest group of the
14064:
13043:
11793:
11450:A dictionary of Christian Palestinian Aramaic
9968:A Wandering Aramean: Collected Aramaic Essays
9633:. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. pp. 421–36.
9144:"Strong's Hebrew: 2091. זָהָב (zahab) – gold"
8955:
6897:
6174:התהפעל\אתּפעל Hiṯhap̄‘al/Ettap̄‘al (Ct-stem)
4390:). It usually has a back counterpart ("long"
3926:of Iran and scattered throughout Iraq, speak
3554:
2334:
13067:Ethno-linguistic group(s) indigenous to the
10921:(2nd ed.). Leuven: Peeters Publishers.
10838:
10825:Notes on Some Problems in the Book of Daniel
10742:"Aramaic in the Medieval and Modern Periods"
10457:"The Edessan Milieu and the Birth of Syriac"
9559:"Three Thousand Years of Aramaic Literature"
9392:The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion
9232:. Vol. 1. Clarendon Press. p. 387.
9000:The Qur'an and the Aramaic Gospel Traditions
8889:Reynolds, Gabriel Said (28 September 2007).
7858:
7429:: "The Aramaic language name comes from its
7414:
6645:
6613:
6441:
6395:
6292:List of Aramaic-language television channels
4406:, or even tending to the vowel in "caught",
3600:(Jewish Aramaic versions of scripture), and
3596:(completed in the 5th century), Palestinian
3446:
1133:, with the main Neo-Aramaic languages being
626:is still spoken by the Christian and Muslim
14833:Languages attested from the 10th century BC
14659:Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire
11312:. Oakland: University of California Press.
10971:
10536:. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. pp. 433–46.
9436:An Aramaic Approach to the Gospels and Acts
9235:
9222:
8984:
8418:
6926:
5828:, but developed into something more like a
5260:
5221:In addition to these sets, Aramaic has the
4500:sometimes corresponding with the long open
3638:(Chalcedonian) community, predominantly of
3129:"wood". Conversely, Aramaic words, such as
2995:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2091:king, used Aramaic to write to an Egyptian
1702:
1688:
1087:, also remained the liturgical language of
14071:
14057:
13050:
13036:
11800:
11786:
11615:
11457:
11305:
11284:
11246:. Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 182–205.
11160:Der neu-aramaeische Dialekt des Ṭûr 'Abdîn
10358:. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
10225:
10199:
9693:
9679:. Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 395–421.
9103:Christa Müller-Kessler; Michael Sokoloff.
8958:Introduction to Aramean and Syriac Studies
8564:
8347:
8312:
7882:
7670:
7620:
7457:. Penn State University Press. p. 5.
7451:"A History of Northwest Semitic Epigraphy"
6954:
6891:
6757:
6663:
6364:Thompson, Andrew David (31 October 2019).
3160:(ταλιθα), which represents the noun טליתא
2904:around the turn of the fourth century AD.
2562:intercalated between verses of Hebrew text
2506:
2341:
2327:
1731:Periodization of Klaus Beyer (1929–2014):
1383:
1105:are still spoken in the 21st century as a
11757:) at the Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati
11735:: Contains audio recordings of scripture.
11478:
11423:
11400:
11188:
11149:
11104:. Vol. 21 (9th ed.). New York:
10827:. London: Tyndale Press. pp. 31–79.
10674:
10660:
10550:
10133:
9757:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
9736:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
9702:. Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 66–109.
9439:(3rd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
9415:. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
9380:
9348:"A Legacy of Syria: The Aramaic Language"
9267:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
8916:
8876:
8652:
8528:
8516:
8492:
8225:
7244:
7202:
7094:
6400:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 134.
6143:התפעל\אתפעל Hiṯpa‘‘al/Eṯpa‘‘al (Dt-stem)
5416:, handwriting, inscription, script, book.
3933:
3771:
3508:
3208:
3015:Learn how and when to remove this message
2421:A group of thirty Aramaic documents from
863:kings, and its use was spread throughout
791:both for preaching and in everyday life.
736:The Aramaic languages are now considered
11659:
11446:
11386:. Ramat Gan: Bar Ilan University Press.
11379:
11365:. Ramat Gan: Bar Ilan University Press.
11358:
11344:. Ramat Gan: Bar Ilan University Press.
11337:
11326:
10941:"Recent Studies in Neo-Aramaic Dialects"
10911:
10887:
10802:Journal of the American Oriental Society
10710:
10440:. Birmingham: University of Birmingham.
9961:
9925:
9345:
9264:Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World
8888:
8800:
8710:
8114:
8066:
8039:
7977:
7965:
7894:
7684:(in French). Société asiatique: 122–27.
7385:Journal of the American Oriental Society
6989:
6813:
6720:
6710:
6695:
6571:(in German). Harrassowitz. p. 133.
6363:
3775:
3682:
3558:
3411:, and the masterful prose and poetry of
3313:
3054:were spoken in the vicinity of Judea in
2810:
2549:
2522:
2510:
2357:(Persian) conquest of Mesopotamia under
1912:
1618:
1409:
1387:
1331:, and Akkadian Ashuru, a complex set of
1164:
1157:experienced throughout the Middle East.
851:). Aramaic rose to prominence under the
798:
539:
528:
14078:
11703:
11682:
11552:. Uppsala: Uppsala University Library.
11502:"Akkadian and Aramaic Language Contact"
11464:. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.
11270:. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.
11167:
11126:
11112:
11092:
11064:
10861:
10812:
10643:
10620:
10597:
10574:
10293:
10270:
9882:"Aramaic Scripts for Aramaic Languages"
9879:
9843:
9801:
9771:
9621:
9281:
9260:
9051:
8769:
8656:The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity
8504:
8406:
8379:
8273:
8261:
8138:
7614:
7602:
7532:
7448:
7382:
7082:
6933:Allen C. Myers, ed. (1987). "Aramaic".
6885:
6837:
6725:
6593:(in German). Harrassowitz. p. 15.
6112:התפעל\אתפעל Hiṯpə‘ēl/Eṯpə‘el (Gt-stem)
5448:
5396:As in other Semitic languages, Aramaic
3760:of the Middle East and North Africa by
3634:This was the language of the Christian
3486:, used as a liturgical language by the
2519:bearing an Aramaic language inscription
2458:– five tales and an apocalyptic vision.
1446:, also known as the "Arbela triangle" (
1083:, which besides becoming a vernacular,
907:, parts of southeast and south central
709:. Aramaic languages are written in the
14820:
11636:
11592:
11499:
11333:. Tel Aviv: Bar Ilan University Press.
10935:
10527:
10504:
10481:
10454:
10433:
10372:
10350:
10337:
10316:
10247:
10157:
10006:
9985:
9644:
9631:Seeking Out the Wisdom of the Ancients
9453:
9389:
9322:
8852:
8679:
8540:
8421:Ancient Aramaic Documents from Bactria
8285:
8201:
8078:
7948:
7626:
7590:
7232:
7121:
7106:
7070:
7016:
6873:
6825:
6801:
6769:
6745:
6731:
6651:
6525:(in German). Harassowitz. p. 42.
6180:יתהכתב ↔ נתּכתב yiṯhaḵtaḇ ↔ nettaḵtaḇ
6149:יתכתּב ↔ נתכתּב yiṯkəttēḇ ↔ neṯkətteḇ
5184:Aramaic classically has a set of four
3716:speakers, the most numerous being the
3667:. For example, the name Jesus, Syriac
3469:written in Jewish Babylonian Aramaic.
14052:
13031:
11807:
11781:
11639:"Aram and Aramaean in the Septuagint"
11586:Neo-Aramaic in Its Linguistic Context
11579:
11566:
11545:
11482:Grammar of Palestinian Jewish Aramaic
11260:
11237:
11212:
10749:Languages of Iraq: Ancient and Modern
10416:
10180:
9902:
9817:
9781:Languages of Iraq: Ancient and Modern
9750:
9729:
9725:. London: Routledge. pp. 222–42.
9716:
9573:
9553:
9517:
9495:Briquel-Chatonnet, Françoise (2012).
9429:
9408:
8625:
8598:
8552:
8469:
8419:Naveh, Joseph; Shaked, Shaul (2006).
8386:The Oriental Studies News & Notes
8249:
8237:
8213:
8171:
8126:
8102:
8090:
7989:
7656:
7654:
7256:
7184:
7172:
7160:
7148:
7046:
6849:
6715:
6547:(in German). Harassowitz. p. 5.
6464:Yaron Matras; Jeanette Sakel (2007).
6426:
6177:התהכתב ↔ אתּכתב hiṯhaḵtaḇ ↔ ettaḵtaḇ
6146:התכתּב ↔ אתכתּב hiṯkəttēḇ ↔ eṯkətteḇ
6024:means "he went astray", whereas אטעי
4552:
3616:The inscriptions in the synagogue at
3066:spoke the Southeast Judaean dialect.
2774:script that was the precursor to the
2470:– translation of a Hebrew place-name.
1841:Recent periodization of Aaron Butts:
1648:. This is the writing system used in
1079:. One of the liturgical dialects was
769:earliest languages to be written down
11041:
10769:
10736:
10395:
10116:Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies
10103:
10086:Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies
10073:
10029:
9694:Buth, Randall; Pierce, Chad (2014).
9670:
9245:. Clarendon Press. pp. 29, 242.
9203:
9078:C. Müller-Kessler (1 January 1997).
9039:
8891:The Qur'an in Its Historical Context
7870:
7798:
7786:
7725:
7520:
7508:
7332:
7058:
7001:
6861:
5937:(כתבתי ↔ כתבת(י kəṯaḇtî ↔ kəṯaḇt(y)
5895:יכתבון ↔ נכתבון yiḵtəḇûn ↔ neḵtəḇûn
5532:, "son of man") begins to disappear.
5188:(ancient Aramaic may have had six):
4461:The close front vowel is the "long"
4414:), and a front counterpart ("short"
4197:. For the distinction between ,
3972:was completely destroyed during the
3532:
2993:adding citations to reliable sources
2960:
2832:, founded in 132 BCE and centred in
2068:conquered Aramean lands west of the
575:
558:
52:
46:
13057:
12127:
11522:
11019:Murre van den Berg, Heleen (2008).
10795:
10423:Andrews University Seminary Studies
10205:"Aramaic in the Achaemenian Empire"
9362:
8932:. Brill. 6 June 2017. p. 338.
8653:Nicholson, Oliver (19 April 2018).
7763:"Hittites, Assyrians and Aramaeans"
7661:Griechen nannten das Volk "Syrer"".
7262:
7136:
6784:
6537:Die arabischen Dialekte der Aramäer
6297:List of loanwords in modern Aramaic
5840:, while the imperfect uses various
4523:), and an open vowel followed by ו
4515:exist: an open vowel followed by י
4488:The close back vowel is the "long"
3663:, and it was heavily influenced by
3229:. Eastern Middle Aramaic comprises
3225:as written languages using various
2933:' first, non-extant edition of his
2884:
2800:
2529:Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription
2433:
2098:
1213:corresponded to the Aramaic in the
180:
13:
13014:Languages between parentheses are
11622:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.
11291:. London and New York: Routledge.
11171:Near Eastern Archaeology: A Reader
9527:The Journal of Theological Studies
9456:"Arameans, Aramaic, and the Bible"
8770:Darling, Cary (25 February 2004).
8626:Butts, Aaron (29 September 2015).
8602:Palmyra: An Irreplaceable Treasure
8315:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
7651:
7353:Caputo, C.; Lougovaya, J. (2020).
7191:Orientalia Christiana Cracoviensia
6158:הפעל\אפעל Hap̄‘ēl/Ap̄‘el (C-stem)
6133:יכתּב ↔ נכתּב yəḵattēḇ ↔ nəkatteḇ
6118:יתכתב ↔ נתכתב yiṯkəṯēḇ ↔ neṯkəṯeḇ
5912:יכתבן ↔ נכתבן yiḵtəḇān ↔ neḵtəḇān
5807:
5146:The emphatic consonants of Aramaic
5134:
4128:Classical Syriac (Eastern accent)
3912:. A related Neo-Aramaic language,
3803:
3472:
3341:
3249:
2404:). Of them, the best known is the
2386:Persepolis Administrative Archives
2029:
1691:) has sometimes been written in a
949:, including parts of the books of
14:
14844:
13089:Assyrian–Chaldean–Syriac diaspora
11726:
11662:"Aramaic-Arabic Language Contact"
11288:Sacred Languages and Sacred Texts
10839:Köstenberger, Andreas J. (2009).
10464:Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies
9586:Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies
8380:Stolper, John A. Matthew (2007).
8172:Owens, Jonathan (12 March 2013).
7315:An Introduction to Syriac Studies
6115:התכתב ↔ אתכתב hiṯkəṯēḇ ↔ eṯkəṯeḇ
5217:(the emphatic Ṣāḏê listed above).
5181:) and ה Hê (as the English "h").
4916:
4894:
4887:
4878:
4858:
4851:
4840:
4833:
4826:
4810:
4803:
4796:
4789:
4782:
4775:
4768:
4761:
4736:
4725:
4716:
4700:
4693:
4686:
4677:
4670:
4661:
4630:
4621:
4338:
4330:
4315:
4307:
4293:
4286:
4272:
4265:
3968:and other larger towns of Syria.
3678:
3525:), and Christian Palestinian (in
3375:, recited in Western variant of
3303:
3283:, Reading in Eastern variant of
3199:
1979:, whilst the severely endangered
1614:
1207:then-known inscriptions and coins
1000:, some Aramaic vocabulary in the
642:. Other modern varieties include
30:, the Semitic language spoken in
14797:Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary
14288:
14031:
14019:
13976:Assyrian Democratic Organisation
13129:
13118:
13107:
11704:Younger, Kenneth Lawson (2016).
10834:from the original on 2022-10-09.
10477:from the original on 2022-10-09.
9733:Aramaic Sources of Mark's Gospel
9640:from the original on 2022-10-09.
9617:from the original on 2022-10-09.
9160:
9136:
9111:
9096:
9071:
9057:
8949:
8922:
8882:
8823:
8794:
8763:
8752:
8741:
8730:
8673:
8646:
8619:
8592:
8558:
8475:
8452:
8437:
8412:
8373:
8341:
8306:
8279:
7898:(1884). "The Aramaic Language".
7421:Johann Wilhelm Hilliger (1679).
7339:Bilder und Schriften der Vorzeit
7185:Turek, Przemysław (2011-11-05).
6898:Holger Gzella (8 January 2015).
6589:Prof. Dr. Werner Arnold (2006).
6565:Prof. Dr. Werner Arnold (2006).
6230:
6216:
5755:is used to mark the relationship
5282:, had fricatives as conditioned
5276:Plosive/fricative pair reduction
5165:Problems playing this file? See
5150:
3834:Problems playing this file? See
3819:
3386:Problems playing this file? See
3357:
3294:Problems playing this file? See
3265:
2965:
2951:Languages during Jesus' lifetime
1848:, from the earliest records, to
1738:, from the earliest records, to
1698:
1442:, and later in the heartland of
1195:Bilder und Schriften der Vorzeit
992:, progressively also became the
11327:Sokoloff, Michael, ed. (1983).
10974:"Christian Palestinian Aramaic"
10039:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
9719:"The Classical Syriac Language"
9460:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
9288:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
9217:(ed. Su-Min Ri) XXIV:10 and in
8605:. University of Chicago Press.
8351:; Kuhn, Ernst (25 March 2002).
8165:
8139:Younger, K. Lawson Jr. (1986).
8132:
8033:
8007:
7995:
7930:
7888:
7828:
7804:
7755:
7714:
7703:
7692:
7664:
7571:
7558:
7538:
7376:
7326:
7307:
7280:
7178:
7022:
6739:
6701:
6657:
6591:Lehrbuch des Neuwestaramäischen
6568:Lehrbuch des Neuwestaramäischen
6503:(in German). LIT. p. 133.
6164:יהכתב↔ נכתב yəhaḵtēḇ ↔ naḵteḇ
5326:are realized as after a vowel.
4189:International Phonetic Alphabet
3987:
3916:, has recently become extinct.
1904:1200 AD, up to the modern times
1766:1200 AD, up to the modern times
1481:Beginning with the rise of the
1399:'s Major Archbishop's House in
957:, and also the language of the
619:for over three thousand years.
591:that originated in the ancient
14354:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)
14349:Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)
13642:Genocide of Christians by ISIL
13505:Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia
13018:of the language on their left.
11479:Stevenson, William B. (1924).
11383:A Dictionary of Judean Aramaic
11306:Shepardson, Christine (2019).
10897:. Leuven: Peeters Publishers.
9992:. Leuven: Peeters Publishers.
9935:Journal of Biblical Literature
9853:Journal of Biblical Literature
9282:Andrade, Nathanael J. (2014).
9261:Andrade, Nathanael J. (2013).
9195:
8960:. Gorgias Press. p. 573.
8599:Veyne, Paul (5 October 2018).
6432:
6389:
6357:
6348:
6330:. Gorgias Press. p. 298.
6315:
5957:כתבנא ↔ כתבן kəṯaḇnâ ↔ kəṯaḇn
5892:יכתוב ↔ נכתוב yiḵtuḇ ↔ neḵtoḇ
5698:, has an alternative version,
5102:(sometimes considered to be a
5078:voiceless pharyngeal fricative
4454:) or ה "he" (like the English
3156:words. Some are Aramaic, like
2840:. On the upper reaches of the
2726:Babylonian Documentary Aramaic
2611:Judaea (142–37 BC), alongside
1908:
1837:700 AD, up to the modern times
1579:Aramaic languages and dialects
984:(605–539 BC) and later by the
843:, and the fringes of southern
1:
14736:Ancient Mesopotamian religion
14133:Tigris–Euphrates river system
13386:Ancient Mesopotamian religion
11751:Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon
11582:"Neologisms in Ṣūrayt/Ṭūrōyo"
11195:A Grammar of Biblical Aramaic
10972:Morgenstern, Matthew (2012).
10402:. Calvary Chapel Publishing.
10209:The Cambridge History of Iran
10079:"Assyria and Syria: Synonyms"
10035:"Assyria and Syria: Synonyms"
9577:(2002). Kiraz, George (ed.).
9369:Journal of Universal Language
8805:. Mohr Siebeck. p. 186.
8175:Arabic as a Minority Language
7449:Lemaire, André (2021-05-25).
7301:10.1080/00437956.2022.2084663
7274:Surayt-Aramaic Online Project
6935:The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary
6442:Rafik Schami (25 July 2011).
6308:
5602: – king good.
5278:. Originally, Aramaic, like
5104:voiced pharyngeal approximant
4545:
4051:Christian Palestinian Aramaic
3630:Christian Palestinian Aramaic
3624:Christian Palestinian Aramaic
3521:), Samaritan Aramaic (in the
3145:meaning "seen" and "worthy".
2571:
2353:Around 500 BC, following the
1901:
1891:
1887:
1877:
1873:
1863:
1859:
1849:
1834:
1824:
1820:
1810:
1806:
1796:
1792:
1782:
1763:
1753:
1749:
1739:
1414:Late Syriac text, written in
1302:
1035:, the liturgical language of
1004:, which were used by several
805:
13996:Syriac Union Party (Lebanon)
13971:Assyrian Democratic Movement
11616:Waltisberg, Michael (2016).
11593:Taylor, David G. K. (2002).
11458:Stefanovic, Zdravko (1992).
11403:"Jewish Palestinian Aramaic"
11102:The Encyclopaedia Britannica
9903:Fales, Frederick M. (2012).
9622:Burnett, Stephen G. (2005).
9346:Aufrecht, Walter E. (2001).
8629:Semitic Languages in Contact
7733:"The name Aram in the Bible"
7276:. Free University of Berlin.
6127:פעּל Pa‘‘ēl/Pa‘‘el (D-stem)
6102:יכתב ↔ נכתב yiḵtuḇ ↔ neḵtoḇ
6052:. The loss of the initial ה
5970:Conjugations or verbal stems
4418:, like the vowel in "head",
4175:
3687:Territorial distribution of
3163:
3140:
3124:
3090:" all became pronounced as "
3080:
2900:in the first century BC and
2781:
2734:
1929:(also considered a dialect).
1925:. The inscription is in the
1597:Syriac Christian communities
1397:Syro-Malabar Catholic Church
583:
566:
58:
7:
14802:Chicago Assyrian Dictionary
14684:Egypt-Mesopotamia relations
14679:Indus-Mesopotamia relations
13981:Assyrian Universal Alliance
13207:Assyrian Church of the East
13182:Assyrian Pentecostal Church
13176:Assyrian Evangelical Church
13099:Terms for Syriac Christians
11761:Dictionary of Judeo-Aramaic
11733:Ancient Aramaic Audio Files
11500:Streck, Michael P. (2012).
11485:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
11426:"Jewish Babylonian Aramaic"
11424:Sokoloff, Michael (2012b).
11401:Sokoloff, Michael (2012a).
11285:John F. A., Sawyer (1999).
10775:"North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic"
10560:. Atlanta: Scholars Press.
10373:Häberl, Charles G. (2012).
10007:Folmer, Margaretha (2012).
9986:Folmer, Margaretha (1995).
9886:The World's Writing Systems
9454:Bowman, Raymond A. (1948).
8659:. Oxford University Press.
7676:"Mémoire Sur Les Nabatéens"
6470:. De Gruyter. p. 185.
6209:
6161:הכתב ↔ אכתב haḵtēḇ ↔ aḵteḇ
5997:means "he killed", whereas
5943:תכתבין tiḵtuḇîn ↔ teḵtuḇîn
5929:תכתבון tiḵtəḇûn ↔ teḵtəḇûn
5923:כתבתון kəṯaḇtûn ↔ kəṯaḇton
5579:is marked by a prefixed -ל
5565:Northwest Semitic languages
4508:to indicate their quality.
3815:Spoken Assyrian Neo-Aramaic
3417:Assyrian Church of the East
3176:"Talitha kumi" (טליתא קומי)
2939:was written in Old Judean.
2698:
2531:(Greek and Aramaic) by the
1041:Assyrian Church of the East
536:in Syriac Esṭrangelā script
10:
14849:
14807:Chicago Hittite Dictionary
13991:Syriac Union Party (Syria)
13213:Ancient Church of the East
11643:The World of the Aramaeans
11447:Sokoloff, Michael (2014).
11380:Sokoloff, Michael (2003).
11359:Sokoloff, Michael (2002).
11338:Sokoloff, Michael (1990).
11127:Peursen, Wido van (2008).
11119:Compendious Syriac Grammar
10996:Murre van den Berg, Heleen
10417:Hasel, Gerhard F. (1981).
10158:Gianto, Agustinus (2008).
10122:(1): 69–70. Archived from
10092:(2): 30–36. Archived from
9971:. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.
9880:Daniels, Peter T. (1996).
9774:"Fieldwork in Neo-Aramaic"
9598:10.31826/9781463214104-005
9253:
8565:Wiesehöfer, Josef (2001).
6664:Van Rompay, Lucas (2011).
6029:dropping of the initial ה
5946:תכתבן tiḵtəḇān ↔ teḵtəḇān
5940:כתבתן kəṯaḇtēn ↔ kəṯaḇtên
5780:(first, second or third),
5391:
4473:corresponds with the open
3978:Jewish Palestinian Aramaic
3937:
3786:
3697:
3627:
3572:Jewish Palestinian Aramaic
3569:
3555:Jewish Palestinian Aramaic
3539:Samaritan Aramaic language
3536:
3476:
3450:
3307:
3062:and Judaea. The region of
2954:
2888:
2804:
2102:
2033:
1951:are largely restricted to
1932:
1629:
1607:, or slightly west of it.
1368:
1362:
1344:
1045:Ancient Church of the East
919:, as well as the southern
794:
589:Northwest Semitic language
432:Samaritan Aramaic language
382:Jewish Palestinian Aramaic
25:
18:
14774:
14728:
14702:
14606:
14503:
14396:
14304:
14297:
14286:
14168:
14095:
14086:
14014:
13961:
13832:
13664:
13655:
13568:
13497:
13404:
13345:
13328:
13285:
13226:
13191:
13154:
13143:
13105:
13076:
13065:
13000:
12927:
12846:
12823:
12816:
12768:
12747:
12738:
12731:
12698:
12689:
12682:
12635:
12626:
12556:
12464:
12439:
12395:
12340:
12281:
12270:
12259:
12174:
12137:
12098:
12089:
12080:
12022:
12001:
11904:
11895:
11886:
11848:
11815:
11660:Weninger, Stefan (2012).
11569:"Arabic or Ṣūrayt/Ṭūrōyo"
11219:Journal of Jewish Studies
11168:Richard, Suzanne (2003).
10957:10.1017/S0041977X00026045
10181:Green, Tamara M. (1992),
9772:Coghill, Eleanor (2007).
9003:. Routledge. p. 35.
8893:. Routledge. p. 59.
8801:McNamara, Martin (2011).
8772:"What's up with Aramaic?"
7840:www.assyrianlanguages.org
7553:
7463:10.1515/9781575068879-007
6190:In Imperial Aramaic, the
5863:
5860:
5857:
5788:(masculine or feminine),
5627:
5587:"to") if it is definite.
5109:צ Ṣāḏê, a pharyngealized
4906:
4868:
4748:
4648:
4615:
4594:
4584:
4579:
4569:
4564:
4559:
4554:
4238:
3881:are now mostly spoken in
3517:, Jewish Palestinian (in
3453:Jewish Babylonian Aramaic
3447:Jewish Babylonian Aramaic
3239:Jewish Babylonian Aramaic
3189:The Passion of the Christ
3052:Western Aramaic varieties
2891:Western Aramaic languages
2807:Eastern Aramaic languages
2485:(d. 420), Aramaic of the
2087:. Around 600 BC, Adon, a
1949:Eastern Aramaic languages
555:Jewish Babylonian Aramaic
513:
497:
372:Jewish Babylonian Aramaic
275:
270:
222:
195:
153:
95:
65:
44:
39:
13511:Muslim conquest of Syria
13201:Chaldean Catholic Church
13011:or historical languages.
11637:Wevers, John W. (2001).
10528:Healey, John F. (2019).
10505:Healey, John F. (2012).
10482:Healey, John F. (2008).
10455:Healey, John F. (2007).
10434:Healey, John F. (1980).
10323:. Leiden-Boston: Brill.
10294:Gzella, Holger (2012b).
10271:Gzella, Holger (2012a).
10143:. Leiden-Boston: Brill.
9802:Creason, Stuart (2008).
9717:Butts, Aaron M. (2019).
9237:Payne Smith, J. (Jessie)
9224:Payne Smith, R. (Robert)
9188:
8997:Emran El-Badawi (2013).
8830:Sebastian Brock (2021).
8803:Targum and New Testament
7896:Kautzsch, Emil Friedrich
7672:Quatremère, Étienne Marc
7633:. Brill. pp. 9–10.
7481:– via De Gruyter.
6497:Dr. Emna Labidi (2022).
6368:. Springer. p. 49.
5824:. These were originally
5792:(perfect or imperfect),
5771:
5423:, books, the Scriptures.
5261:Historical sound changes
5087:ט Ṭêṯ, a pharyngealized
3793:Northeastern Neo-Aramaic
3768:of the seventh century.
3722:Northeastern Neo-Aramaic
3706:Western Aramaic dialects
3527:Syriac Estrangela script
3074:, where the consonants "
1137:(~240,000 speakers) and
1049:Chaldean Catholic Church
1006:Middle Iranian languages
911:, northern parts of the
21:Aramaic (disambiguation)
14038:Christianity portal
14001:Syriac Military Council
13600:Massacres of Diyarbekir
13535:Principality of Antioch
13488:Byzantine–Sasanian wars
13295:Assyrian folk/pop music
11753:(including editions of
11683:Yitzhak, Frank (2003).
11106:Charles Scribner's Sons
10818:"The Aramaic of Daniel"
10437:First Studies in Syriac
10338:Gzella, Holger (2017).
10317:Gzella, Holger (2015).
10296:"Late Imperial Aramaic"
10248:Gzella, Holger (2008).
9751:Casey, Maurice (2002).
9730:Casey, Maurice (1999).
9382:10.22425/jul.2004.5.1.1
9363:Bae, Chul-hyun (2004).
9323:Arnold, Werner (2012).
9028:Murre van den Berg 1999
7546:Antiquities of the Jews
7465:(inactive 2024-09-11).
6966:Encyclopædia Britannica
6904:. BRILL. pp. 56–.
6194:began to be used for a
5812:Aramaic has two proper
5481:Indo-European languages
5310:and replaced them with
5210:(as in English "ship"),
5203:(as in English "zero"),
4185:phonetic transcriptions
3879:Judeo-Aramaic languages
3584:leaders, expelled from
2507:Post-Achaemenid Aramaic
1384:Geographic distribution
1265:Étienne Marc Quatremère
1203:Jean-Jacques Barthélemy
1187:Johann Wilhelm Hilliger
1160:
1109:by many communities of
1065:Saint Thomas Christians
915:and parts of northwest
675:Semitic language family
545:Syriac-Aramaic alphabet
14639:Babylonian mathematics
13756:Al-Hasakah Governorate
13594:Massacres of Badr Khan
13368:Middle Assyrian Empire
13170:Syriac Catholic Church
13164:Syriac Orthodox Church
11710:. Atlanta: SBL Press.
11231:10.18647/2120/JJS-1998
10680:"The Aramaic Language"
10598:Jastrow, Otto (2012).
10575:Jastrow, Otto (2008).
10557:Studies in Neo-Aramaic
10396:Hamp, Douglas (2005).
10109:"Reply to John Joseph"
9671:Buth, Randall (2014).
9539:10.1093/jts/XXII.I.157
8865:Briquel-Chatonnet 2012
7883:Buth & Pierce 2014
7334:Kopp, Ulrich Friedrich
6302:Romanization of Syriac
5784:(singular or plural),
5381:New phonetic inventory
5196:(as in English "sea"),
5139:
4182:This section contains
3962:Anti-Lebanon Mountains
3934:Modern Western Aramaic
3808:
3784:
3772:Modern Eastern Aramaic
3766:early Muslim conquests
3695:
3567:
3519:Hebrew "square script"
3509:Western Middle Aramaic
3421:Syriac Orthodox Church
3346:
3336:
3254:
3209:Eastern Middle Aramaic
3104:Anti-Lebanon Mountains
2821:
2563:
2547:
2520:
1985:Anti-Lebanon mountains
1930:
1919:Bar-Rakib inscriptions
1627:
1487:early Muslim conquests
1431:
1407:
1182:
1147:Anti-Lebanon Mountains
1057:Syriac Catholic Church
1053:Syriac Orthodox Church
812:
713:, a descendant of the
595:and quickly spread to
547:
537:
392:Koy Sanjaq Neo-Aramaic
13624:Independence movement
13380:Post-imperial Assyria
13356:Early Assyrian period
12206:Christian Palestinian
11927:Ancient North Arabian
11523:Tal, Abraham (2012).
11238:Ruzer, Serge (2014).
11213:Rubin, Milka (1998).
10644:Joosten, Jan (2010).
10621:Joosten, Jan (2008).
9409:Beyer, Klaus (1986).
9325:"Western Neo-Aramaic"
8834:. SyriacPress dot com
8286:Shaked, Saul (1987).
8178:. Walter de Gruyter.
8043:Encyclopaedia Judaica
7627:Joseph, John (2000).
6515:Aramäer von Ǧubbˁadīn
6476:10.1515/9783110199192
6324:Abdulrahim Abu-Husayn
6130:כתּב kattēḇ ↔ katteḇ
5963:נכתב niḵtuḇ ↔ neḵtoḇ
5954:כתבת kiṯḇēṯ ↔ keṯḇeṯ
5926:תכתב tiḵtuḇ ↔ teḵtoḇ
5920:כתבת kəṯaḇt ↔ kəṯaḇt
5909:תכתב tiḵtuḇ ↔ teḵtoḇ
5903:כתבת kiṯbaṯ ↔ keṯbaṯ
5348:Guttural assimilation
5138:
5122:voiceless uvular stop
3807:
3779:
3700:Neo-Aramaic languages
3689:Neo-Aramaic languages
3686:
3562:
3345:
3317:
3281:Avūo·nə đə·Vē·shəmēyā
3261:Avūo·nə đə·Vē·shəmēiā
3253:
2955:Further information:
2814:
2553:
2526:
2514:
2004:Neo-Babylonian Empire
1916:
1623:11th century book in
1622:
1413:
1391:
1191:Ulrich Friedrich Kopp
1179:Ulrich Friedrich Kopp
1168:
1141:(~250,000 speakers).
1103:Neo-Aramaic languages
982:Neo-Babylonian Empire
802:
644:Neo-Aramaic languages
605:southeastern Anatolia
543:
532:
462:Trans-Zab Neo-Aramaic
362:Inter-Zab Neo-Aramaic
86:Southeastern Anatolia
14634:Babylonian astronomy
14113:Mesopotamian Marshes
13300:Music of Mesopotamia
13247:Chaldean Neo-Aramaic
13242:Assyrian Neo-Aramaic
12304:Koy Sanjaq Christian
11992:Pre-classical Arabic
11689:. Jerusalem: Ariel.
11580:Tezel, Sina (2015).
11567:Tezel, Sina (2015).
11546:Tezel, Aziz (2003).
10796:Kim, Ronald (2008).
10227:Greenfield, Jonas C.
10201:Greenfield, Jonas C.
8292:Encyclopædia Iranica
7743:on 29 September 2018
6366:Christianity in Oman
6037:preformative with א
5858:Person & gender
5449:Nouns and adjectives
5430:, secretary, scribe.
5300:Assyrian Neo-Aramaic
3503:religious literature
3070:had its distinctive
2989:improve this section
2873:The written form of
2819:magical "demon trap"
2578:(d. 323 BC) and his
2539:, 3rd century BC at
2503:and their language.
2481:. Since the time of
2315:Aramaic inscriptions
1117:(in particular, the
765:Aramaic inscriptions
352:Hertevin Neo-Aramaic
19:For other uses, see
14715:Destruction by ISIL
14669:Sumerian literature
14644:Akkadian literature
14080:Ancient Mesopotamia
13606:Rise of nationalism
13547:Jalayirid Sultanate
13374:Neo-Assyrian Empire
13362:Old Assyrian period
13305:Syriac sacral music
13125:Aramean-Syriac flag
13084:Assyrian continuity
12148:Ashurian and Hatran
11525:"Samaritan Aramaic"
11098:"Semitic Languages"
11042:Naby, Eden (2004).
10814:Kitchen, Kenneth A.
10600:"Ṭuroyo and Mlaḥsô"
10552:Heinrichs, Wolfhart
10135:Gallagher, Edmon L.
9963:Fitzmyer, Joseph A.
9927:Fitzmyer, Joseph A.
9575:Brock, Sebastian P.
9555:Brock, Sebastian P.
9519:Brock, Sebastian P.
9107:. STYX Publication.
9054:, pp. 697–707.
8276:, pp. 598–609.
7992:, pp. 283–300.
7885:, pp. 107–109.
7737:Abarim Publications
7061:, pp. 395–421.
7049:, pp. 182–205.
6864:, pp. 197–203.
6840:, pp. 499–514.
6583:Aramäern in Ma'lūla
6238:Christianity portal
6096:פעל Pə‘al (G-stem)
6061:, but later became
5960:אכתב eḵtuḇ ↔ eḵtoḇ
5762:kṯāḇtāh d(î)-malkṯâ
5525:possessed possessor
4139:Western Neo-Aramaic
3946:Western Neo-Aramaic
3940:Western Neo-Aramaic
3906:Central Neo-Aramaic
3789:Central Neo-Aramaic
3764:beginning with the
3724:(NENA) speakers of
3718:Central Neo-Aramaic
3397:Syriac Christianity
3179:"Ephphatha" (אתפתח)
2856:Tatian the Assyrian
2762:, and the northern
2593:Hellenistic culture
2576:Alexander the Great
2517:Alexander the Great
2400:in particular (see
2136:Syro-Hittite states
2074:Tiglath-Pileser III
2066:Neo-Assyrian Empire
2062:Phoenician alphabet
2000:Neo-Assyrian Empire
1981:Western Neo-Aramaic
1975:, and southeastern
1683:. In modern times,
1638:Phoenician alphabet
1590:varieties of Arabic
1569:Maronites in Israel
1395:inscription at the
1231:(the latter citing
1143:Western Neo-Aramaic
1037:Syriac Christianity
976:The scribes of the
853:Neo-Assyrian Empire
715:Phoenician alphabet
679:Canaanite languages
492:Western Neo-Aramaic
332:Barzani Neo-Aramaic
261:Phoenician alphabet
14751:Mesopotamian myths
14026:History portal
13468:Church of the East
13257:Bohtan Neo-Aramaic
13094:Chaldean Catholics
12769:Harari–East Gurage
12220:Jewish Palestinian
11771:2008-05-11 at the
11744:2008-09-09 at the
11453:. Leuven: Peeters.
11108:. pp. 641–56.
10273:"Imperial Aramaic"
9234:and in English at
9229:Thesaurus Syriacus
9119:"Classical Syriac"
9067:. 26 January 2020.
9042:, pp. 708–24.
8987:, pp. 628–37.
8919:, pp. 610–19.
8879:, pp. 660–70.
8867:, pp. 652–59.
8855:, pp. 637–52.
8543:, pp. 212–17.
8531:, pp. 110–13.
8507:, pp. 113–31.
8495:, pp. 123–41.
8472:, pp. 211–25.
8409:, pp. 710–12.
8264:, pp. 574–86.
8240:, pp. 555–73.
8204:, pp. 685–96.
8129:, pp. 224–25.
8093:, pp. 222–25.
8019:The Jerusalem Post
7980:, pp. 738–47.
7968:, pp. 747–55.
7951:, pp. 416–24.
7789:, pp. 281–85.
7605:, pp. 93–105.
7593:, pp. 237–51.
7342:. pp. 226–27.
7320:2013-05-18 at the
7235:, pp. 725–37.
7204:10.15633/ochc.1038
7124:, pp. 587–98.
7109:, pp. 304–10.
7004:, pp. 95–114.
6962:"Aramaic language"
6888:, pp. 115–22.
6876:, pp. 214–23.
6804:, pp. 670–85.
6444:Märchen aus Malula
6196:historical present
6099:כתב kəṯaḇ ↔ kəṯaḇ
6091:Imperfect passive
6008:, which can be -ה
5976:derived verb stems
5886:כתב kəṯaḇ ↔ kəṯaḇ
5751:kṯāḇtâ d(î)-malkṯâ
5714:, is written with
5373:in Hebrew but תלת
5140:
4025:(Eastern accent):
3924:Khuzestan province
3809:
3785:
3738:Qalamoun Mountains
3696:
3576:In 135, after the
3568:
3347:
3337:
3255:
2925:and receipts from
2877:, the language of
2830:Kingdom of Osroene
2822:
2693:Achaemenid Aramaic
2564:
2548:
2521:
2402:Elephantine papyri
2006:(620–539 BC), and
1931:
1856:Achaemenid Aramaic
1677:Palmyrene alphabet
1669:Nabataean alphabet
1628:
1483:Rashidun Caliphate
1432:
1408:
1261:King James Version
1183:
813:
756:, as well as some
746:Qalamoun mountains
742:Arameans (Syriacs)
628:Arameans (Syriacs)
548:
538:
442:Senaya Neo-Aramaic
342:Bohtan Neo-Aramaic
14828:Aramaic languages
14815:
14814:
14766:Ziggurat (Temple)
14741:Sumerian religion
14499:
14498:
14446:Middle Babylonian
14388:Kish civilization
14284:
14283:
14108:Lower Mesopotamia
14103:Upper Mesopotamia
14046:
14045:
13957:
13956:
13673:
13651:
13650:
13618:Assyrian genocide
13517:Abbasid Caliphate
13339:
13222:
13221:
13025:
13024:
12996:
12995:
12992:
12991:
12923:
12922:
12919:
12918:
12915:
12914:
12812:
12811:
12622:
12621:
12618:
12617:
12460:
12459:
12435:
12434:
12391:
12390:
12363:Koy Sanjaq Jewish
12155:Jewish Babylonian
12076:
12075:
11809:Semitic languages
11619:Syntax des Ṭuroyo
10676:Kautzsch, Emil F.
10670:. Leipzig: Vogel.
10662:Kautzsch, Emil F.
10240:978-0-19-922194-3
10192:978-90-04-09513-7
9819:Chyet, Michael L.
9214:Cave of Treasures
9089:978-90-04-66979-6
8930:Arabic in Context
8666:978-0-19-256246-3
8519:, pp. 17–21.
8117:, pp. 60–63.
8081:, pp. 47–48.
8069:, pp. 57–60.
8053:978-0-02-865928-2
8021:. 9 November 2014
7859:Köstenberger 2009
7801:, pp. 30–36.
7721:1 Chronicles 7:34
7681:Journal asiatique
7617:, pp. 53–72.
7366:978-3-11-071290-2
7247:, pp. xi–xv.
7175:, pp. 83–93.
7163:, pp. 38–43.
7085:, pp. 31–79.
6911:978-90-04-28510-1
6828:, pp. 17–22.
6787:, p. 619–28.
6728:, pp. 108–44
6679:978-1-59333-714-8
6638:978-3-11-018613-0
6621:Huehnergard, John
6429:, pp. 11–23.
6282:Gospel of Matthew
6272:Ephrem the Syrian
6188:
6187:
6085:Imperfect active
5967:
5966:
5836:. The perfect is
5672:
5671:
5330:Loss of emphatics
5155:
5066:pharyngealization
4934:
4933:
4823:
4758:
4713:
4658:
4611:
4604:
4347:
4346:
4173:
4172:
4164:Suret (Swadaya):
4105:
4104:
3982:Samaritan Aramaic
3868:Ephrem the Syrian
3824:
3578:Bar Kokhba revolt
3545:Samaritan Aramaic
3533:Samaritan Aramaic
3523:Old Hebrew script
3484:Classical Mandaic
3467:incantation bowls
3413:Ephrem the Syrian
3362:
3270:
3231:Classical Mandaic
3223:Achaemenid Empire
3148:The Greek of the
3072:Samaritan Aramaic
3025:
3024:
3017:
2957:Language of Jesus
2910:Caesarea Philippi
2787:Palmyrene Aramaic
2740:Nabataean Aramaic
2681:Zoroastrian usage
2673:Persian Sassanids
2657:Parthian Arsacids
2568:Achaemenid Empire
2501:ancient Chaldeans
2496:Chaldean misnomer
2483:Jerome of Stridon
2375:Iranian languages
2351:
2350:
2036:Samalian language
2024:dialect continuum
2008:Achaemenid Empire
1927:Samalian language
1770:Periodization of
1714:
1713:
1660:, is used by the
1585:Romance languages
1565:Jews of Kurdistan
1517:Assyrian genocide
1119:Jews of Kurdistan
1069:Syriac Christians
986:Achaemenid Empire
967:Babylonian Talmud
939:language of Jesus
928:Babylonian Talmud
926:According to the
913:Arabian Peninsula
877:Arabian Peninsula
859:of the empire by
823:and the northern
789:Jesus of Nazareth
581:
564:
527:
526:
482:Urmia Neo-Aramaic
312:Classical Mandaic
161:Proto-Afroasiatic
127:Northwest Semitic
14840:
14664:Sumerian cuisine
14654:Warfare in Sumer
14649:Economy of Sumer
14302:
14301:
14292:
14176:Fertile Crescent
14160:Sinjar Mountains
14155:Hamrin Mountains
14150:Zagros Mountains
14128:Taurus Mountains
14093:
14092:
14073:
14066:
14059:
14050:
14049:
14036:
14035:
14024:
14023:
14022:
13669:
13662:
13661:
13636:Post-Saddam Iraq
13462:Nestorian schism
13456:Christianization
13428:(132 BCE–244 CE)
13422:(247 BCE–224 CE)
13382:(609 BCE–240 CE)
13343:
13342:
13333:
13193:East Syriac Rite
13156:West Syriac Rite
13152:
13151:
13133:
13122:
13111:
13052:
13045:
13038:
13029:
13028:
12821:
12820:
12745:
12744:
12736:
12735:
12696:
12695:
12687:
12686:
12633:
12632:
12501:northern dialect
12279:
12278:
12268:
12267:
12121:Biblical Aramaic
12114:Imperial Aramaic
12096:
12095:
12087:
12086:
11985:Nabataean Arabic
11902:
11901:
11893:
11892:
11868:Canaano-Akkadian
11802:
11795:
11788:
11779:
11778:
11721:
11700:
11679:
11656:
11633:
11612:
11589:
11576:
11563:
11542:
11519:
11496:
11475:
11454:
11443:
11420:
11397:
11376:
11355:
11334:
11323:
11302:
11281:
11257:
11234:
11209:
11190:Rosenthal, Franz
11185:
11164:
11146:
11123:
11114:Nöldeke, Theodor
11109:
11094:Nöldeke, Theodor
11089:
11066:Nöldeke, Theodor
11061:
11038:
11015:
10991:
10968:
10932:
10913:Lipiński, Edward
10908:
10889:Lipiński, Edward
10884:
10858:
10835:
10833:
10822:
10809:
10792:
10766:
10764:
10763:
10757:
10746:
10733:
10707:
10671:
10657:
10640:
10617:
10594:
10571:
10547:
10524:
10501:
10478:
10476:
10461:
10451:
10430:
10413:
10392:
10369:
10347:
10334:
10313:
10290:
10267:
10244:
10222:
10195:
10177:
10154:
10130:
10128:
10113:
10105:Frye, Richard N.
10100:
10098:
10083:
10075:Frye, Richard N.
10070:
10031:Frye, Richard N.
10026:
10003:
9982:
9958:
9922:
9899:
9876:
9845:Collins, John J.
9840:
9814:
9808:
9798:
9796:
9795:
9789:
9778:
9768:
9747:
9726:
9723:The Syriac World
9713:
9690:
9667:
9641:
9639:
9628:
9618:
9616:
9583:
9570:
9550:
9514:
9491:
9450:
9426:
9405:
9386:
9384:
9359:
9342:
9319:
9278:
9247:
9246:
9233:
9206:
9205:
9199:
9182:
9181:
9179:
9178:
9164:
9158:
9157:
9155:
9154:
9140:
9134:
9133:
9131:
9129:
9115:
9109:
9108:
9100:
9094:
9093:
9075:
9069:
9068:
9061:
9055:
9049:
9043:
9037:
9031:
9025:
9019:
9018:
8994:
8988:
8985:Morgenstern 2012
8982:
8976:
8975:
8953:
8947:
8946:
8926:
8920:
8914:
8908:
8907:
8886:
8880:
8874:
8868:
8862:
8856:
8850:
8844:
8843:
8841:
8839:
8827:
8821:
8820:
8798:
8792:
8791:
8789:
8787:
8778:. Archived from
8767:
8761:
8756:
8750:
8745:
8739:
8734:
8728:
8723:
8714:
8713:, pp. 5–21.
8708:
8702:
8701:
8690:10.7282/T37D2SGZ
8677:
8671:
8670:
8650:
8644:
8643:
8623:
8617:
8616:
8596:
8590:
8589:
8587:
8585:
8562:
8556:
8550:
8544:
8538:
8532:
8526:
8520:
8514:
8508:
8502:
8496:
8490:
8484:
8479:
8473:
8467:
8461:
8456:
8450:
8441:
8435:
8434:
8416:
8410:
8404:
8398:
8397:
8395:
8393:
8377:
8371:
8370:
8345:
8339:
8338:
8310:
8304:
8303:
8301:
8299:
8283:
8277:
8271:
8265:
8259:
8253:
8247:
8241:
8235:
8229:
8223:
8217:
8211:
8205:
8199:
8190:
8189:
8169:
8163:
8162:
8160:
8158:
8152:
8146:. Archived from
8145:
8136:
8130:
8124:
8118:
8112:
8106:
8100:
8094:
8088:
8082:
8076:
8070:
8064:
8058:
8057:
8037:
8031:
8030:
8028:
8026:
8011:
8005:
7999:
7993:
7987:
7981:
7975:
7969:
7963:
7952:
7946:
7940:
7934:
7928:
7927:
7892:
7886:
7880:
7874:
7868:
7862:
7856:
7850:
7849:
7847:
7846:
7832:
7826:
7825:
7823:
7822:
7808:
7802:
7796:
7790:
7784:
7778:
7777:
7775:
7773:
7759:
7753:
7752:
7750:
7748:
7739:. Archived from
7729:
7723:
7718:
7712:
7707:
7701:
7696:
7690:
7689:
7668:
7662:
7658:
7649:
7648:
7624:
7618:
7612:
7606:
7600:
7594:
7588:
7582:
7575:
7569:
7562:
7556:
7555:
7542:
7536:
7530:
7524:
7518:
7512:
7506:
7500:
7499:
7493:
7485:
7480:
7479:
7446:
7440:
7439:
7418:
7412:
7411:
7380:
7374:
7373:
7350:
7344:
7343:
7330:
7324:
7311:
7305:
7304:
7284:
7278:
7277:
7266:
7260:
7254:
7248:
7242:
7236:
7230:
7217:
7216:
7206:
7182:
7176:
7170:
7164:
7158:
7152:
7146:
7140:
7139:, pp. 1–20.
7134:
7125:
7119:
7110:
7104:
7098:
7092:
7086:
7080:
7074:
7068:
7062:
7056:
7050:
7044:
7038:
7037:
7026:
7020:
7014:
7005:
6999:
6993:
6987:
6978:
6977:
6975:
6973:
6958:
6952:
6951:
6930:
6924:
6923:
6895:
6889:
6883:
6877:
6871:
6865:
6859:
6853:
6847:
6841:
6835:
6829:
6823:
6817:
6811:
6805:
6799:
6788:
6782:
6773:
6767:
6761:
6755:
6749:
6743:
6737:
6705:
6699:
6693:
6687:
6686:
6661:
6655:
6649:
6643:
6642:
6617:
6611:
6607:
6585:
6561:
6539:
6517:
6493:
6460:
6436:
6430:
6424:
6415:
6414:
6393:
6387:
6386:
6361:
6355:
6352:
6346:
6345:
6319:
6267:Aramaic of Hatra
6240:
6235:
6234:
6226:
6224:Languages portal
6221:
6220:
6088:Perfect passive
6076:
6075:
6071:Classical Syriac
5855:
5854:
5850:Classical Syriac
5605:
5604:
5545:definite article
5444:, I shall write.
5352:Samaritan Hebrew
5325:
5321:
5317:
5313:
5309:
5305:
5297:
5293:
5290:has mostly lost
5223:nasal consonants
5216:
5209:
5202:
5195:
5157:
5156:
5137:
5127:
5116:
5094:
5083:
4920:
4898:
4891:
4882:
4862:
4855:
4844:
4837:
4830:
4819:
4814:
4807:
4800:
4793:
4786:
4779:
4772:
4765:
4754:
4740:
4729:
4720:
4709:
4704:
4697:
4690:
4681:
4674:
4665:
4654:
4634:
4625:
4607:
4602:
4550:
4549:
4442:sound. The open
4425:
4413:
4405:
4389:
4342:
4334:
4319:
4311:
4297:
4290:
4276:
4269:
4243:
4242:
4204:
4200:
4113:
4112:
4023:Classical Syriac
3998:
3997:
3974:Syrian civil war
3872:Classical Syriac
3826:
3825:
3806:
3594:Jerusalem Talmud
3565:Bodleian Library
3479:Mandaic language
3425:Nestorian Church
3364:
3363:
3344:
3272:
3271:
3252:
3243:Classical Syriac
3166:
3143:
3127:
3085:
3020:
3013:
3009:
3006:
3000:
2969:
2961:
2885:Western dialects
2838:Classical Syriac
2801:Eastern dialects
2768:Imperial Aramaic
2573:
2566:The fall of the
2479:Biblical studies
2439:Biblical Aramaic
2434:Biblical Aramaic
2412:Book of Proverbs
2363:Imperial Aramaic
2343:
2336:
2329:
2127:Aramaic alphabet
2122:Aramaic language
2109:
2108:
2105:Imperial Aramaic
2099:Imperial Aramaic
2042:Fertile Crescent
1903:
1893:
1889:
1879:
1875:
1865:
1861:
1851:
1836:
1826:
1822:
1812:
1808:
1798:
1794:
1789:Official Aramaic
1784:
1765:
1755:
1751:
1741:
1703:
1658:Mandaic alphabet
1650:Biblical Aramaic
1632:Aramaic alphabet
1519:, also known as
1371:
1370:
1365:
1364:
1347:
1346:
1307:
1304:
1211:Carpentras Stele
1171:Carpentras Stele
1095:faiths, such as
1033:Classical Syriac
1029:sacred languages
990:Imperial Aramaic
963:Jerusalem Talmud
943:Galilean dialect
941:, who spoke the
937:Aramaic was the
810:
807:
781:
711:Aramaic alphabet
630:in the towns of
586:
580:romanized:
579:
577:
572:Classical Syriac
569:
563:romanized:
562:
560:
523:
509:
489:
479:
469:
459:
449:
439:
429:
419:
409:
399:
389:
379:
369:
359:
349:
339:
329:
322:Armazic language
319:
309:
302:Classical Syriac
299:
292:Imperial Aramaic
289:
280:
265:Aramaic alphabet
228:
216:
176:Imperial Aramaic
101:
70:Fertile Crescent
61:
55:
54:
49:
48:
37:
36:
16:Semitic language
14848:
14847:
14843:
14842:
14841:
14839:
14838:
14837:
14818:
14817:
14816:
14811:
14770:
14724:
14698:
14607:Culture/society
14602:
14495:
14491:Muslim conquest
14461:Fall of Babylon
14392:
14293:
14280:
14164:
14082:
14077:
14047:
14042:
14030:
14020:
14018:
14010:
13953:
13828:
13805:Mardin Province
13668:
13647:
13630:Simele massacre
13564:
13493:
13458:(1st to 3rd c.)
13440:(64 BCE–637 CE)
13434:(66 BCE–217 CE)
13420:Parthian Empire
13414:Seleucid Empire
13406:
13400:
13396:Assyrian tribes
13364:(2025–1364 BCE)
13358:(2600–2025 BCE)
13337:
13335:
13332:
13324:
13281:
13234:
13218:
13187:
13146:
13139:
13138:
13134:
13128:
13127:
13123:
13117:
13116:
13112:
13103:
13072:
13061:
13059:Assyrian people
13056:
13026:
13021:
12988:
12911:
12842:
12808:
12764:
12748:Amharic–Argobba
12740:
12727:
12678:
12639:
12614:
12552:
12456:
12431:
12387:
12336:
12332:Urmia Christian
12273:
12262:
12255:
12170:
12133:
12072:
12032:Egyptian Arabic
12018:
12014:Modern Standard
11997:
11882:
11844:
11811:
11806:
11773:Wayback Machine
11746:Wayback Machine
11729:
11724:
11718:
11697:
11676:
11653:
11630:
11609:
11560:
11539:
11516:
11493:
11472:
11440:
11417:
11394:
11373:
11352:
11320:
11299:
11278:
11254:
11206:
11182:
11174:. Eisenbrauns.
11143:
11080:(1–2): 113–31.
11058:
11035:
11012:
10988:
10929:
10905:
10881:
10855:
10831:
10820:
10789:
10761:
10759:
10755:
10744:
10730:
10690:(1–2): 98–115.
10637:
10614:
10591:
10568:
10544:
10521:
10498:
10474:
10459:
10448:
10410:
10389:
10366:
10331:
10310:
10287:
10264:
10241:
10219:
10193:
10174:
10151:
10126:
10111:
10096:
10081:
10023:
10000:
9979:
9947:10.2307/3265697
9919:
9896:
9865:10.2307/3267414
9837:
9806:
9793:
9791:
9787:
9776:
9765:
9744:
9710:
9687:
9664:
9637:
9626:
9614:
9608:
9581:
9563:ARAM Periodical
9511:
9447:
9423:
9402:
9339:
9275:
9256:
9251:
9250:
9200:
9196:
9191:
9186:
9185:
9176:
9174:
9166:
9165:
9161:
9152:
9150:
9142:
9141:
9137:
9127:
9125:
9117:
9116:
9112:
9101:
9097:
9090:
9076:
9072:
9063:
9062:
9058:
9050:
9046:
9038:
9034:
9026:
9022:
9011:
8995:
8991:
8983:
8979:
8968:
8954:
8950:
8940:
8928:
8927:
8923:
8915:
8911:
8901:
8887:
8883:
8875:
8871:
8863:
8859:
8851:
8847:
8837:
8835:
8828:
8824:
8813:
8799:
8795:
8785:
8783:
8782:on 3 April 2004
8768:
8764:
8757:
8753:
8746:
8742:
8735:
8731:
8724:
8717:
8709:
8705:
8678:
8674:
8667:
8651:
8647:
8640:
8624:
8620:
8613:
8597:
8593:
8583:
8581:
8579:
8563:
8559:
8551:
8547:
8539:
8535:
8527:
8523:
8515:
8511:
8503:
8499:
8491:
8487:
8480:
8476:
8468:
8464:
8457:
8453:
8442:
8438:
8431:
8417:
8413:
8405:
8401:
8391:
8389:
8378:
8374:
8367:
8349:Geiger, Wilhelm
8346:
8342:
8327:10.2307/2718444
8311:
8307:
8297:
8295:
8284:
8280:
8272:
8268:
8260:
8256:
8248:
8244:
8236:
8232:
8224:
8220:
8212:
8208:
8200:
8193:
8186:
8170:
8166:
8156:
8154:
8153:on 4 March 2016
8150:
8143:
8137:
8133:
8125:
8121:
8113:
8109:
8101:
8097:
8089:
8085:
8077:
8073:
8065:
8061:
8054:
8038:
8034:
8024:
8022:
8013:
8012:
8008:
8003:Times of Israel
8000:
7996:
7988:
7984:
7976:
7972:
7964:
7955:
7947:
7943:
7935:
7931:
7893:
7889:
7881:
7877:
7869:
7865:
7857:
7853:
7844:
7842:
7834:
7833:
7829:
7820:
7818:
7810:
7809:
7805:
7797:
7793:
7785:
7781:
7771:
7769:
7761:
7760:
7756:
7746:
7744:
7731:
7730:
7726:
7719:
7715:
7708:
7704:
7697:
7693:
7669:
7665:
7659:
7652:
7641:
7625:
7621:
7613:
7609:
7601:
7597:
7589:
7585:
7576:
7572:
7563:
7559:
7543:
7539:
7531:
7527:
7519:
7515:
7507:
7503:
7487:
7486:
7477:
7475:
7473:
7455:An Eye for Form
7447:
7443:
7419:
7415:
7381:
7377:
7367:
7351:
7347:
7331:
7327:
7322:Wayback Machine
7312:
7308:
7285:
7281:
7268:
7267:
7263:
7255:
7251:
7243:
7239:
7231:
7220:
7183:
7179:
7171:
7167:
7159:
7155:
7147:
7143:
7135:
7128:
7120:
7113:
7105:
7101:
7093:
7089:
7081:
7077:
7069:
7065:
7057:
7053:
7045:
7041:
7034:www.sefaria.org
7030:"Sanhedrin 38b"
7028:
7027:
7023:
7015:
7008:
7000:
6996:
6988:
6981:
6971:
6969:
6968:. 10 April 2024
6960:
6959:
6955:
6945:
6931:
6927:
6912:
6896:
6892:
6884:
6880:
6872:
6868:
6860:
6856:
6848:
6844:
6836:
6832:
6824:
6820:
6812:
6808:
6800:
6791:
6783:
6776:
6768:
6764:
6758:Greenfield 1995
6756:
6752:
6744:
6740:
6736:
6706:
6702:
6694:
6690:
6680:
6662:
6658:
6650:
6646:
6639:
6625:Rubin, Aaron D.
6618:
6614:
6610:
6601:
6579:
6555:
6533:
6511:
6486:
6454:
6437:
6433:
6425:
6418:
6408:
6394:
6390:
6376:
6362:
6358:
6353:
6349:
6338:
6320:
6316:
6311:
6306:
6277:Hebrew alphabet
6262:Arabic alphabet
6257:Aramaic studies
6236:
6229:
6222:
6215:
6212:
6082:Perfect active
5972:
5810:
5808:Aspectual tense
5774:
5690:instead of ין-
5451:
5394:
5385:Syriac alphabet
5280:Tiberian Hebrew
5263:
5172:
5171:
5163:
5161:
5160:
5159:
5158:
5151:
5148:
5141:
5135:
4589:
4574:
4548:
4483:mater lectionis
4241:
4212:
4211:
4210:
4178:
3990:
3960:'s side of the
3942:
3936:
3841:
3840:
3832:
3830:
3829:
3828:
3827:
3820:
3817:
3810:
3804:
3799:
3787:Main articles:
3774:
3754:language shifts
3714:Eastern Aramaic
3702:
3681:
3632:
3626:
3574:
3557:
3541:
3535:
3511:
3481:
3475:
3473:Mandaic Aramaic
3455:
3449:
3393:
3392:
3384:
3382:
3381:
3380:
3379:
3373:Abun D'Bashmayo
3365:
3358:
3355:
3353:Abun D'Bashmayo
3348:
3342:
3327:John Chrysostom
3312:
3310:Syriac language
3306:
3301:
3300:
3292:
3290:
3289:
3288:
3287:
3273:
3266:
3263:
3256:
3250:
3227:Aramaic scripts
3211:
3202:
3021:
3010:
3004:
3001:
2986:
2970:
2959:
2953:
2893:
2887:
2809:
2803:
2784:
2776:Arabic alphabet
2760:Sinai Peninsula
2746:. The kingdom (
2737:
2728:
2713:Targum Jonathan
2701:
2589:Seleucid Empire
2509:
2491:Aramaic studies
2436:
2407:Story of Ahikar
2379:Pahlavi scripts
2347:
2145:Biblical region
2107:
2101:
2038:
2032:
2030:Ancient Aramaic
1993:Sasanian Empire
1971:, northwestern
1967:, northeastern
1963:communities in
1937:
1911:
1772:Joseph Fitzmyer
1710:
1708:
1701:
1654:Syriac alphabet
1646:Hebrew alphabet
1634:
1617:
1581:
1505:, and southern
1386:
1321:region of Syria
1305:
1163:
1155:language shifts
1063:, and also the
1061:Maronite Church
1002:Pahlavi scripts
808:
797:
775:
731:Arabic alphabet
727:Hebrew alphabet
719:Syriac alphabet
624:Western Aramaic
613:Sinai Peninsula
601:southern Levant
593:region of Syria
519:
505:
485:
484:
475:
474:
472:Turoyo language
465:
464:
455:
454:
445:
444:
435:
434:
425:
424:
415:
414:
405:
404:
402:Mlaḥsô language
395:
394:
385:
384:
375:
374:
365:
364:
355:
354:
345:
344:
335:
334:
325:
324:
315:
314:
305:
304:
295:
294:
285:
284:
276:
258:
251:Hebrew alphabet
249:
240:
233:Syriac alphabet
229:
224:
207:Western Aramaic
202:Eastern Aramaic
191:
156:
149:
122:Central Semitic
102:
99:Language family
97:
56:
35:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
14846:
14836:
14835:
14830:
14813:
14812:
14810:
14809:
14804:
14799:
14794:
14789:
14787:Assyriologists
14784:
14778:
14776:
14772:
14771:
14769:
14768:
14763:
14758:
14753:
14748:
14743:
14738:
14732:
14730:
14726:
14725:
14723:
14722:
14717:
14712:
14706:
14704:
14700:
14699:
14697:
14696:
14694:List of rulers
14691:
14686:
14681:
14676:
14671:
14666:
14661:
14656:
14651:
14646:
14641:
14636:
14631:
14626:
14621:
14616:
14610:
14608:
14604:
14603:
14601:
14600:
14595:
14590:
14585:
14583:Proto-Armenian
14580:
14575:
14570:
14568:Middle Persian
14565:
14560:
14555:
14550:
14545:
14540:
14535:
14530:
14525:
14520:
14515:
14509:
14507:
14501:
14500:
14497:
14496:
14494:
14493:
14488:
14483:
14478:
14473:
14468:
14463:
14458:
14456:Neo-Babylonian
14453:
14448:
14443:
14438:
14436:Old Babylonian
14433:
14428:
14423:
14418:
14413:
14408:
14406:Early Dynastic
14402:
14400:
14394:
14393:
14391:
14390:
14385:
14380:
14375:
14370:
14365:
14356:
14351:
14346:
14341:
14336:
14331:
14326:
14321:
14316:
14310:
14308:
14299:
14295:
14294:
14287:
14285:
14282:
14281:
14279:
14278:
14273:
14268:
14263:
14258:
14253:
14248:
14243:
14238:
14233:
14228:
14223:
14218:
14213:
14208:
14203:
14198:
14193:
14188:
14183:
14178:
14172:
14170:
14166:
14165:
14163:
14162:
14157:
14152:
14147:
14146:
14145:
14140:
14130:
14125:
14120:
14115:
14110:
14105:
14099:
14097:
14090:
14084:
14083:
14076:
14075:
14068:
14061:
14053:
14044:
14043:
14041:
14040:
14028:
14015:
14012:
14011:
14009:
14008:
14003:
13998:
13993:
13988:
13983:
13978:
13973:
13967:
13965:
13959:
13958:
13955:
13954:
13952:
13951:
13946:
13945:
13944:
13934:
13932:United Kingdom
13929:
13924:
13919:
13914:
13909:
13904:
13899:
13894:
13889:
13884:
13879:
13874:
13869:
13864:
13859:
13854:
13849:
13844:
13838:
13836:
13830:
13829:
13827:
13826:
13825:
13824:
13823:
13822:
13817:
13812:
13802:
13797:
13792:
13782:
13781:
13780:
13775:
13774:
13773:
13768:
13763:
13748:
13747:
13746:
13741:
13736:
13726:
13725:
13724:
13719:
13714:
13709:
13708:
13707:
13702:
13697:
13692:
13685:Nineveh Plains
13676:
13674:
13659:
13653:
13652:
13649:
13648:
13646:
13645:
13639:
13633:
13627:
13621:
13615:
13612:Adana massacre
13609:
13603:
13597:
13591:
13588:Schism of 1552
13585:
13582:Ottoman Empire
13579:
13576:Safavid Empire
13572:
13570:
13566:
13565:
13563:
13562:
13556:
13550:
13544:
13538:
13532:
13526:
13523:Emirs of Mosul
13520:
13514:
13508:
13501:
13499:
13495:
13494:
13492:
13491:
13485:
13479:
13465:
13459:
13453:
13447:
13441:
13435:
13429:
13423:
13417:
13410:
13408:
13402:
13401:
13399:
13398:
13393:
13388:
13383:
13377:
13371:
13370:(1363–912 BCE)
13365:
13359:
13352:
13350:
13340:
13326:
13325:
13323:
13322:
13317:
13312:
13307:
13302:
13297:
13291:
13289:
13283:
13282:
13280:
13279:
13274:
13269:
13264:
13259:
13254:
13249:
13244:
13238:
13236:
13224:
13223:
13220:
13219:
13217:
13216:
13210:
13204:
13197:
13195:
13189:
13188:
13186:
13185:
13179:
13173:
13167:
13160:
13158:
13149:
13141:
13140:
13106:
13104:
13102:
13101:
13096:
13091:
13086:
13080:
13078:
13074:
13073:
13066:
13063:
13062:
13055:
13054:
13047:
13040:
13032:
13023:
13022:
13020:
13019:
13012:
13001:
12998:
12997:
12994:
12993:
12990:
12989:
12987:
12986:
12979:
12974:
12969:
12968:
12967:
12953:
12946:
12939:
12933:
12931:
12925:
12924:
12921:
12920:
12917:
12916:
12913:
12912:
12910:
12909:
12908:
12907:
12906:
12905:
12902:
12899:
12896:
12893:
12883:
12878:
12877:
12876:
12863:
12858:
12850:
12848:
12844:
12843:
12841:
12840:
12835:
12827:
12825:
12818:
12814:
12813:
12810:
12809:
12807:
12806:
12801:
12800:
12799:
12794:
12793:
12792:
12789:
12786:
12772:
12770:
12766:
12765:
12763:
12762:
12757:
12751:
12749:
12742:
12733:
12729:
12728:
12726:
12725:
12720:
12719:
12718:
12713:
12702:
12700:
12693:
12684:
12680:
12679:
12677:
12676:
12671:
12666:
12661:
12656:
12651:
12645:
12643:
12630:
12624:
12623:
12620:
12619:
12616:
12615:
12613:
12612:
12605:
12598:
12591:
12584:
12583:
12582:
12575:
12560:
12558:
12554:
12553:
12551:
12550:
12549:
12548:
12534:
12527:
12526:
12525:
12520:
12513:
12506:
12505:
12504:
12485:
12478:
12470:
12468:
12462:
12461:
12458:
12457:
12455:
12454:
12449:
12443:
12441:
12437:
12436:
12433:
12432:
12430:
12429:
12424:
12419:
12418:
12417:
12412:
12399:
12397:
12393:
12392:
12389:
12388:
12386:
12385:
12380:
12375:
12370:
12365:
12360:
12355:
12350:
12344:
12342:
12338:
12337:
12335:
12334:
12329:
12328:
12327:
12324:
12316:
12311:
12306:
12301:
12296:
12291:
12285:
12283:
12276:
12265:
12257:
12256:
12254:
12253:
12252:
12251:
12239:
12232:
12231:
12230:
12223:
12216:
12209:
12197:
12190:
12182:
12180:
12172:
12171:
12169:
12168:
12163:
12158:
12151:
12143:
12141:
12135:
12134:
12132:
12131:
12128:Middle Aramaic
12124:
12117:
12110:
12102:
12100:
12093:
12084:
12078:
12077:
12074:
12073:
12071:
12070:
12065:
12060:
12059:
12058:
12057:
12056:
12039:
12034:
12028:
12026:
12024:Dialect groups
12020:
12019:
12017:
12016:
12011:
12005:
12003:
11999:
11998:
11996:
11995:
11988:
11981:
11980:
11979:
11972:
11965:
11958:
11951:
11944:
11937:
11923:
11916:
11908:
11906:
11899:
11890:
11884:
11883:
11881:
11880:
11873:
11872:
11871:
11856:
11854:
11846:
11845:
11843:
11842:
11841:
11840:
11835:
11825:
11819:
11817:
11813:
11812:
11805:
11804:
11797:
11790:
11782:
11776:
11775:
11763:
11758:
11748:
11736:
11728:
11727:External links
11725:
11723:
11722:
11716:
11701:
11695:
11680:
11674:
11657:
11651:
11634:
11628:
11613:
11607:
11590:
11577:
11564:
11558:
11543:
11537:
11520:
11514:
11497:
11491:
11476:
11470:
11455:
11444:
11438:
11421:
11415:
11398:
11392:
11377:
11371:
11356:
11350:
11335:
11324:
11318:
11303:
11297:
11282:
11276:
11258:
11252:
11235:
11210:
11204:
11186:
11180:
11165:
11147:
11141:
11124:
11110:
11090:
11062:
11056:
11039:
11033:
11016:
11010:
10992:
10986:
10969:
10937:Macuch, Rudolf
10933:
10927:
10909:
10903:
10885:
10879:
10863:Lemaire, André
10859:
10854:978-0310321859
10853:
10836:
10810:
10793:
10787:
10771:Khan, Geoffrey
10767:
10738:Khan, Geoffrey
10734:
10728:
10712:Kapeliuk, Olga
10708:
10696:10.1086/368803
10672:
10658:
10641:
10635:
10618:
10612:
10595:
10589:
10572:
10566:
10554:, ed. (1990).
10548:
10542:
10525:
10519:
10502:
10496:
10479:
10452:
10446:
10431:
10414:
10408:
10393:
10387:
10370:
10364:
10352:Gzella, Holger
10348:
10335:
10329:
10314:
10308:
10291:
10285:
10268:
10262:
10245:
10239:
10223:
10217:
10197:
10191:
10178:
10172:
10155:
10149:
10131:
10129:on 2020-07-11.
10101:
10099:on 2020-07-13.
10071:
10051:10.1086/373570
10027:
10021:
10004:
9998:
9983:
9977:
9959:
9923:
9917:
9900:
9894:
9877:
9841:
9835:
9815:
9799:
9769:
9763:
9748:
9742:
9727:
9714:
9708:
9691:
9685:
9668:
9662:
9646:Burtea, Bogdan
9642:
9619:
9606:
9571:
9551:
9515:
9509:
9492:
9472:10.1086/370861
9451:
9445:
9431:Black, Matthew
9427:
9421:
9406:
9400:
9387:
9360:
9343:
9337:
9320:
9308:10.1086/677249
9300:10.1086/677249
9294:(2): 299–317.
9279:
9273:
9257:
9255:
9252:
9249:
9248:
9204:ܐܪܡܝܐ, ܐܪܐܡܝܬܐ
9193:
9192:
9190:
9187:
9184:
9183:
9159:
9135:
9110:
9095:
9088:
9070:
9056:
9044:
9032:
9020:
9009:
8989:
8977:
8966:
8948:
8938:
8921:
8917:Sokoloff 2012a
8909:
8899:
8881:
8877:Sokoloff 2012b
8869:
8857:
8845:
8822:
8811:
8793:
8762:
8751:
8740:
8729:
8715:
8703:
8684:(341): 53–62.
8672:
8665:
8645:
8638:
8618:
8611:
8591:
8577:
8568:Ancient Persia
8557:
8545:
8533:
8529:Kautzsch 1884b
8521:
8517:Kautzsch 1884a
8509:
8497:
8493:Gallagher 2012
8485:
8474:
8462:
8451:
8436:
8429:
8411:
8399:
8372:
8366:978-1421246864
8365:
8340:
8305:
8278:
8266:
8254:
8242:
8230:
8226:Heinrichs 1990
8218:
8206:
8191:
8184:
8164:
8131:
8119:
8107:
8095:
8083:
8071:
8059:
8052:
8032:
8006:
7994:
7982:
7970:
7953:
7941:
7929:
7912:10.1086/368803
7887:
7875:
7863:
7861:, p. 350.
7851:
7836:"Search Entry"
7827:
7803:
7791:
7779:
7754:
7724:
7713:
7702:
7691:
7663:
7650:
7639:
7619:
7607:
7595:
7583:
7570:
7557:
7537:
7525:
7513:
7501:
7471:
7441:
7413:
7397:10.2307/593293
7375:
7365:
7345:
7325:
7306:
7295:(4): 359–394.
7279:
7270:"Did you know"
7261:
7249:
7245:Heinrichs 1990
7237:
7218:
7177:
7165:
7153:
7141:
7126:
7111:
7099:
7095:Rosenthal 2006
7087:
7075:
7073:, p. 237.
7063:
7051:
7039:
7021:
7006:
6994:
6979:
6953:
6943:
6925:
6910:
6890:
6878:
6866:
6854:
6842:
6830:
6818:
6806:
6789:
6774:
6762:
6750:
6738:
6735:
6734:
6729:
6723:
6718:
6713:
6707:
6700:
6688:
6678:
6656:
6644:
6637:
6612:
6609:
6608:
6599:
6586:
6577:
6562:
6553:
6540:
6531:
6518:
6509:
6494:
6484:
6461:
6452:
6438:
6431:
6416:
6406:
6388:
6374:
6356:
6347:
6336:
6313:
6312:
6310:
6307:
6305:
6304:
6299:
6294:
6289:
6284:
6279:
6274:
6269:
6264:
6259:
6254:
6249:
6243:
6242:
6241:
6227:
6211:
6208:
6200:auxiliary verb
6186:
6185:
6183:
6181:
6178:
6175:
6171:
6170:
6168:
6165:
6162:
6159:
6155:
6154:
6152:
6150:
6147:
6144:
6140:
6139:
6137:
6134:
6131:
6128:
6124:
6123:
6121:
6119:
6116:
6113:
6109:
6108:
6106:
6103:
6100:
6097:
6093:
6092:
6089:
6086:
6083:
6080:
5971:
5968:
5965:
5964:
5961:
5958:
5955:
5952:
5948:
5947:
5944:
5941:
5938:
5935:
5931:
5930:
5927:
5924:
5921:
5918:
5914:
5913:
5910:
5907:
5904:
5901:
5897:
5896:
5893:
5890:
5887:
5884:
5880:
5879:
5876:
5873:
5870:
5866:
5865:
5862:
5859:
5809:
5806:
5773:
5770:
5766:
5765:
5756:
5745:
5670:
5669:
5666:
5663:
5660:
5657:
5653:
5652:
5649:
5646:
5643:
5639:
5638:
5635:
5632:
5629:
5626:
5622:
5621:
5618:
5615:
5612:
5609:
5563:Whereas other
5561:
5560:
5533:
5500:
5450:
5447:
5446:
5445:
5438:
5431:
5424:
5417:
5393:
5390:
5389:
5388:
5378:
5367:
5345:
5342:pharyngealized
5327:
5273:
5262:
5259:
5243:alveolar trill
5219:
5218:
5211:
5204:
5197:
5162:
5149:
5144:
5143:
5142:
5133:
5132:
5131:
5130:
5129:
5118:
5107:
5096:
5085:
5046:
5045:
5012:
4979:
4932:
4931:
4929:
4927:
4925:
4923:
4921:
4914:
4912:
4910:
4904:
4903:
4901:
4899:
4892:
4885:
4883:
4876:
4874:
4872:
4866:
4865:
4863:
4856:
4849:
4847:
4845:
4838:
4831:
4824:
4816:
4815:
4808:
4801:
4794:
4787:
4780:
4773:
4766:
4759:
4752:
4746:
4745:
4743:
4741:
4734:
4732:
4730:
4723:
4721:
4714:
4706:
4705:
4698:
4691:
4684:
4682:
4675:
4668:
4666:
4659:
4652:
4646:
4645:
4643:
4641:
4639:
4637:
4635:
4628:
4626:
4619:
4613:
4612:
4605:
4599:
4598:
4593:
4583:
4578:
4568:
4563:
4558:
4553:
4547:
4544:
4539:respectively.
4373:
4372:
4365:
4358:
4345:
4344:
4335:
4328:
4322:
4321:
4312:
4305:
4299:
4298:
4291:
4284:
4278:
4277:
4270:
4263:
4257:
4256:
4251:
4246:
4240:
4237:
4205:⟩, see
4181:
4180:
4179:
4177:
4174:
4171:
4170:
4165:
4161:
4160:
4155:
4148:
4147:
4142:
4135:
4134:
4129:
4125:
4124:
4121:
4103:
4102:
4082:
4075:
4074:
4054:
4047:
4046:
4026:
4019:
4018:
4006:
3989:
3986:
3938:Main article:
3935:
3932:
3922:living in the
3899:Nineveh Plains
3831:
3818:
3813:
3812:
3811:
3802:
3801:
3800:
3782:Eastern Syriac
3773:
3770:
3698:Main article:
3680:
3679:Modern Aramaic
3677:
3628:Main article:
3625:
3622:
3606:vowel pointing
3570:Main article:
3556:
3553:
3537:Main article:
3534:
3531:
3510:
3507:
3477:Main article:
3474:
3471:
3451:Main article:
3448:
3445:
3423:and later the
3403:, centered in
3383:
3366:
3356:
3351:
3350:
3349:
3340:
3339:
3338:
3333:Gospel of John
3331:Homily on the
3325:manuscript of
3308:Main article:
3305:
3304:Syriac Aramaic
3302:
3291:
3274:
3264:
3259:
3258:
3257:
3248:
3247:
3246:
3241:dialects, and
3210:
3207:
3201:
3200:Middle Aramaic
3198:
3186:The 2004 film
3184:
3183:
3180:
3177:
3119:semantic loans
3023:
3022:
2973:
2971:
2964:
2952:
2949:
2936:The Jewish War
2889:Main article:
2886:
2883:
2805:Main article:
2802:
2799:
2783:
2780:
2736:
2733:
2727:
2724:
2709:Targum Onqelos
2700:
2697:
2677:Middle Persian
2643:understood as
2640:Middle Iranian
2597:Greek language
2595:, and favored
2591:that promoted
2585:Greek language
2508:
2505:
2472:
2471:
2465:
2462:Jeremiah 10:11
2459:
2453:
2435:
2432:
2349:
2348:
2346:
2345:
2338:
2331:
2323:
2320:
2319:
2318:
2317:
2309:
2308:
2304:
2303:
2302:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2228:
2227:
2226:Aramean cities
2223:
2222:
2221:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2177:
2176:
2170:
2169:
2168:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2139:
2138:
2132:
2131:
2130:
2129:
2124:
2116:
2115:
2103:Main article:
2100:
2097:
2031:
2028:
2002:(911–608 BC),
1961:Mizrahi Jewish
1933:Main article:
1910:
1907:
1906:
1905:
1895:
1881:
1870:Middle Aramaic
1867:
1853:
1839:
1838:
1831:Modern Aramaic
1828:
1814:
1803:Middle Aramaic
1800:
1786:
1768:
1767:
1760:Modern Aramaic
1757:
1746:Middle Aramaic
1743:
1712:
1711:
1706:
1700:
1697:
1630:Main article:
1616:
1615:Writing system
1613:
1580:
1577:
1385:
1382:
1306: 3500 BC
1249:Masoretic Text
1215:Book of Daniel
1199:paleographical
1193:published his
1173:was the first
1162:
1159:
1107:first language
1014:Middle Persian
796:
793:
725:, such as the
646:spoken by the
609:Eastern Arabia
525:
524:
517:
511:
510:
503:
495:
494:
452:Suret language
412:Modern Mandaic
281:
273:
272:
271:Language codes
268:
267:
230:
226:Writing system
223:
220:
219:
218:
217:
209:
204:
197:
193:
192:
190:
189:
188:
187:
186:
185:
184:
183:
181:Middle Aramaic
159:
157:
154:
151:
150:
148:
147:
146:
145:
144:
143:
142:
141:
140:
139:
138:
137:
105:
103:
96:
93:
92:
90:eastern Arabia
67:
63:
62:
42:
41:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
14845:
14834:
14831:
14829:
14826:
14825:
14823:
14808:
14805:
14803:
14800:
14798:
14795:
14793:
14790:
14788:
14785:
14783:
14780:
14779:
14777:
14773:
14767:
14764:
14762:
14759:
14757:
14754:
14752:
14749:
14747:
14744:
14742:
14739:
14737:
14734:
14733:
14731:
14727:
14721:
14718:
14716:
14713:
14711:
14708:
14707:
14705:
14701:
14695:
14692:
14690:
14687:
14685:
14682:
14680:
14677:
14675:
14672:
14670:
14667:
14665:
14662:
14660:
14657:
14655:
14652:
14650:
14647:
14645:
14642:
14640:
14637:
14635:
14632:
14630:
14627:
14625:
14622:
14620:
14617:
14615:
14612:
14611:
14609:
14605:
14599:
14596:
14594:
14591:
14589:
14586:
14584:
14581:
14579:
14576:
14574:
14571:
14569:
14566:
14564:
14561:
14559:
14556:
14554:
14551:
14549:
14546:
14544:
14541:
14539:
14536:
14534:
14531:
14529:
14526:
14524:
14521:
14519:
14516:
14514:
14511:
14510:
14508:
14506:
14502:
14492:
14489:
14487:
14484:
14482:
14479:
14477:
14474:
14472:
14469:
14467:
14464:
14462:
14459:
14457:
14454:
14452:
14449:
14447:
14444:
14442:
14439:
14437:
14434:
14432:
14429:
14427:
14424:
14422:
14419:
14417:
14414:
14412:
14409:
14407:
14404:
14403:
14401:
14399:
14395:
14389:
14386:
14384:
14381:
14379:
14376:
14374:
14371:
14369:
14366:
14364:
14360:
14357:
14355:
14352:
14350:
14347:
14345:
14342:
14340:
14337:
14335:
14332:
14330:
14327:
14325:
14322:
14320:
14317:
14315:
14312:
14311:
14309:
14307:
14303:
14300:
14296:
14291:
14277:
14274:
14272:
14269:
14267:
14264:
14262:
14259:
14257:
14254:
14252:
14249:
14247:
14244:
14242:
14239:
14237:
14234:
14232:
14229:
14227:
14224:
14222:
14219:
14217:
14214:
14212:
14209:
14207:
14204:
14202:
14199:
14197:
14194:
14192:
14189:
14187:
14184:
14182:
14179:
14177:
14174:
14173:
14171:
14167:
14161:
14158:
14156:
14153:
14151:
14148:
14144:
14141:
14139:
14136:
14135:
14134:
14131:
14129:
14126:
14124:
14123:Syrian Desert
14121:
14119:
14116:
14114:
14111:
14109:
14106:
14104:
14101:
14100:
14098:
14094:
14091:
14089:
14085:
14081:
14074:
14069:
14067:
14062:
14060:
14055:
14054:
14051:
14039:
14034:
14029:
14027:
14017:
14016:
14013:
14007:
14004:
14002:
13999:
13997:
13994:
13992:
13989:
13987:
13984:
13982:
13979:
13977:
13974:
13972:
13969:
13968:
13966:
13964:
13960:
13950:
13947:
13943:
13940:
13939:
13938:
13937:United States
13935:
13933:
13930:
13928:
13925:
13923:
13920:
13918:
13915:
13913:
13910:
13908:
13905:
13903:
13900:
13898:
13895:
13893:
13890:
13888:
13885:
13883:
13880:
13878:
13875:
13873:
13870:
13868:
13865:
13863:
13860:
13858:
13855:
13853:
13850:
13848:
13845:
13843:
13840:
13839:
13837:
13835:
13831:
13821:
13818:
13816:
13813:
13811:
13808:
13807:
13806:
13803:
13801:
13798:
13796:
13793:
13791:
13788:
13787:
13786:
13783:
13779:
13776:
13772:
13769:
13767:
13764:
13762:
13759:
13758:
13757:
13754:
13753:
13752:
13749:
13745:
13742:
13740:
13737:
13735:
13732:
13731:
13730:
13727:
13723:
13720:
13718:
13715:
13713:
13710:
13706:
13703:
13701:
13698:
13696:
13693:
13691:
13688:
13687:
13686:
13683:
13682:
13681:
13678:
13677:
13675:
13672:
13667:
13663:
13660:
13658:
13654:
13643:
13640:
13637:
13634:
13631:
13628:
13625:
13622:
13619:
13616:
13613:
13610:
13607:
13604:
13601:
13598:
13595:
13592:
13589:
13586:
13583:
13580:
13577:
13574:
13573:
13571:
13567:
13560:
13557:
13554:
13551:
13548:
13545:
13542:
13539:
13536:
13533:
13530:
13529:Buyid amirate
13527:
13524:
13521:
13518:
13515:
13512:
13509:
13506:
13503:
13502:
13500:
13496:
13489:
13486:
13483:
13480:
13477:
13473:
13469:
13466:
13463:
13460:
13457:
13454:
13451:
13450:Roman Assyria
13448:
13445:
13442:
13439:
13436:
13433:
13430:
13427:
13424:
13421:
13418:
13415:
13412:
13411:
13409:
13403:
13397:
13394:
13392:
13389:
13387:
13384:
13381:
13378:
13376:(911–609 BCE)
13375:
13372:
13369:
13366:
13363:
13360:
13357:
13354:
13353:
13351:
13349:
13344:
13341:
13331:
13327:
13321:
13318:
13316:
13313:
13311:
13308:
13306:
13303:
13301:
13298:
13296:
13293:
13292:
13290:
13288:
13284:
13278:
13277:Syriac script
13275:
13273:
13270:
13268:
13265:
13263:
13260:
13258:
13255:
13253:
13250:
13248:
13245:
13243:
13240:
13239:
13237:
13233:
13229:
13225:
13214:
13211:
13208:
13205:
13202:
13199:
13198:
13196:
13194:
13190:
13183:
13180:
13177:
13174:
13171:
13168:
13165:
13162:
13161:
13159:
13157:
13153:
13150:
13148:
13142:
13137:
13136:Chaldean flag
13132:
13126:
13121:
13115:
13114:Assyrian flag
13110:
13100:
13097:
13095:
13092:
13090:
13087:
13085:
13082:
13081:
13079:
13075:
13070:
13064:
13060:
13053:
13048:
13046:
13041:
13039:
13034:
13033:
13030:
13017:
13013:
13010:
13006:
13003:
13002:
12999:
12985:
12984:
12980:
12978:
12975:
12973:
12970:
12966:
12965:
12961:
12960:
12959:
12958:
12954:
12952:
12951:
12947:
12945:
12944:
12940:
12938:
12935:
12934:
12932:
12930:
12926:
12903:
12900:
12897:
12894:
12892:
12889:
12888:
12887:
12884:
12882:
12879:
12874:
12873:
12872:
12869:
12868:
12867:
12864:
12862:
12859:
12857:
12856:
12852:
12851:
12849:
12845:
12839:
12836:
12834:
12833:
12829:
12828:
12826:
12822:
12819:
12815:
12805:
12802:
12798:
12795:
12790:
12787:
12784:
12783:
12782:
12779:
12778:
12777:
12774:
12773:
12771:
12767:
12761:
12758:
12756:
12753:
12752:
12750:
12746:
12743:
12737:
12734:
12730:
12724:
12721:
12717:
12714:
12712:
12709:
12708:
12707:
12704:
12703:
12701:
12697:
12694:
12692:
12691:Ethio-Semitic
12688:
12685:
12681:
12675:
12672:
12670:
12667:
12665:
12662:
12660:
12657:
12655:
12652:
12650:
12647:
12646:
12644:
12641:
12634:
12631:
12629:
12625:
12611:
12610:
12606:
12604:
12603:
12599:
12597:
12596:
12592:
12590:
12589:
12585:
12581:
12580:
12576:
12574:
12573:
12569:
12568:
12567:
12566:
12562:
12561:
12559:
12555:
12547:
12546:
12542:
12541:
12540:
12539:
12535:
12533:
12532:
12528:
12524:
12521:
12519:
12518:
12514:
12512:
12511:
12507:
12503:
12502:
12498:
12497:
12496:
12495:
12491:
12490:
12489:
12486:
12484:
12483:
12479:
12477:
12476:
12472:
12471:
12469:
12467:
12463:
12453:
12452:Judeo-Aramaic
12450:
12448:
12445:
12444:
12442:
12438:
12428:
12425:
12423:
12420:
12416:
12413:
12411:
12410:
12406:
12405:
12404:
12401:
12400:
12398:
12394:
12384:
12381:
12379:
12376:
12374:
12371:
12369:
12366:
12364:
12361:
12359:
12356:
12354:
12351:
12349:
12346:
12345:
12343:
12339:
12333:
12330:
12325:
12322:
12321:
12320:
12317:
12315:
12312:
12310:
12307:
12305:
12302:
12300:
12297:
12295:
12292:
12290:
12287:
12286:
12284:
12280:
12277:
12275:
12269:
12266:
12264:
12258:
12250:
12249:
12245:
12244:
12243:
12240:
12238:
12237:
12233:
12229:
12228:
12224:
12222:
12221:
12217:
12215:
12214:
12210:
12208:
12207:
12203:
12202:
12201:
12198:
12196:
12195:
12191:
12189:
12188:
12184:
12183:
12181:
12179:
12178:
12173:
12167:
12164:
12162:
12159:
12157:
12156:
12152:
12150:
12149:
12145:
12144:
12142:
12140:
12136:
12130:
12129:
12125:
12123:
12122:
12118:
12116:
12115:
12111:
12109:
12108:
12104:
12103:
12101:
12097:
12094:
12092:
12088:
12085:
12083:
12079:
12069:
12066:
12064:
12061:
12055:
12052:
12051:
12050:
12049:
12048:Siculo-Arabic
12045:
12044:
12043:
12040:
12038:
12035:
12033:
12030:
12029:
12027:
12025:
12021:
12015:
12012:
12010:
12007:
12006:
12004:
12000:
11994:
11993:
11989:
11987:
11986:
11982:
11978:
11977:
11973:
11971:
11970:
11966:
11964:
11963:
11959:
11957:
11956:
11952:
11950:
11949:
11945:
11943:
11942:
11938:
11936:
11935:
11931:
11930:
11929:
11928:
11924:
11922:
11921:
11917:
11915:
11914:
11910:
11909:
11907:
11903:
11900:
11898:
11894:
11891:
11889:
11885:
11879:
11878:
11874:
11870:
11869:
11865:
11864:
11863:
11862:
11858:
11857:
11855:
11853:
11852:
11847:
11839:
11836:
11834:
11831:
11830:
11829:
11826:
11824:
11821:
11820:
11818:
11814:
11810:
11803:
11798:
11796:
11791:
11789:
11784:
11783:
11780:
11774:
11770:
11767:
11764:
11762:
11759:
11756:
11752:
11749:
11747:
11743:
11740:
11737:
11734:
11731:
11730:
11719:
11717:9781628370843
11713:
11709:
11708:
11702:
11698:
11696:9781583306062
11692:
11688:
11687:
11681:
11677:
11675:9783110251586
11671:
11667:
11663:
11658:
11654:
11652:9781841271583
11648:
11644:
11640:
11635:
11631:
11629:9783447107310
11625:
11621:
11620:
11614:
11610:
11608:9789004264410
11604:
11600:
11596:
11591:
11587:
11583:
11578:
11574:
11570:
11565:
11561:
11559:9789155455552
11555:
11551:
11550:
11544:
11540:
11538:9783110251586
11534:
11530:
11526:
11521:
11517:
11515:9783110251586
11511:
11507:
11503:
11498:
11494:
11492:9781725206175
11488:
11484:
11483:
11477:
11473:
11471:9780567132543
11467:
11463:
11462:
11456:
11452:
11451:
11445:
11441:
11439:9783110251586
11435:
11431:
11427:
11422:
11418:
11416:9783110251586
11412:
11408:
11404:
11399:
11395:
11393:9789652262615
11389:
11385:
11384:
11378:
11374:
11372:9789652262608
11368:
11364:
11363:
11357:
11353:
11351:9789652261014
11347:
11343:
11342:
11336:
11332:
11331:
11325:
11321:
11319:9780520303379
11315:
11311:
11310:
11304:
11300:
11298:9781134801398
11294:
11290:
11289:
11283:
11279:
11277:9783447045575
11273:
11269:
11268:
11263:
11259:
11255:
11253:9789004264410
11249:
11245:
11241:
11236:
11232:
11228:
11225:(2): 306–33.
11224:
11220:
11216:
11211:
11207:
11205:9783447052511
11201:
11197:
11196:
11191:
11187:
11183:
11181:9781575060835
11177:
11173:
11172:
11166:
11162:
11161:
11156:
11155:Socin, Albert
11152:
11148:
11144:
11142:9783447057875
11138:
11134:
11130:
11125:
11121:
11120:
11115:
11111:
11107:
11103:
11099:
11095:
11091:
11087:
11083:
11079:
11075:
11071:
11067:
11063:
11059:
11057:9780953824861
11053:
11049:
11045:
11040:
11036:
11034:9783447057875
11030:
11026:
11022:
11017:
11013:
11011:9789062589814
11007:
11003:
11002:
10997:
10993:
10989:
10987:9783110251586
10983:
10979:
10975:
10970:
10966:
10962:
10958:
10954:
10951:(2): 214–23.
10950:
10946:
10942:
10938:
10934:
10930:
10928:9789042908154
10924:
10920:
10919:
10914:
10910:
10906:
10904:9789042908598
10900:
10896:
10895:
10890:
10886:
10882:
10880:9783447057875
10876:
10872:
10868:
10864:
10860:
10856:
10850:
10847:. Zondervan.
10846:
10842:
10837:
10830:
10826:
10819:
10815:
10811:
10807:
10803:
10799:
10794:
10790:
10788:9783110251586
10784:
10780:
10776:
10772:
10768:
10758:on 2019-08-02
10754:
10750:
10743:
10739:
10735:
10731:
10729:9783110251586
10725:
10721:
10717:
10713:
10709:
10705:
10701:
10697:
10693:
10689:
10685:
10681:
10677:
10673:
10669:
10668:
10663:
10659:
10655:
10651:
10647:
10642:
10638:
10636:9783447057875
10632:
10628:
10624:
10619:
10615:
10613:9783110251586
10609:
10605:
10601:
10596:
10592:
10590:9783447057875
10586:
10582:
10578:
10573:
10569:
10567:9781555404307
10563:
10559:
10558:
10553:
10549:
10545:
10543:9783161577192
10539:
10535:
10531:
10526:
10522:
10520:9783110251586
10516:
10512:
10508:
10503:
10499:
10497:9783447057875
10493:
10489:
10485:
10480:
10473:
10470:(2): 115–27.
10469:
10465:
10458:
10453:
10449:
10447:9780704403901
10443:
10439:
10438:
10432:
10428:
10424:
10420:
10415:
10411:
10409:9781597510172
10405:
10401:
10400:
10394:
10390:
10388:9783110251586
10384:
10380:
10376:
10375:"Neo-Mandaic"
10371:
10367:
10365:9780802877482
10361:
10357:
10353:
10349:
10345:
10341:
10336:
10332:
10330:9789004285101
10326:
10322:
10321:
10315:
10311:
10309:9783110251586
10305:
10301:
10297:
10292:
10288:
10286:9783110251586
10282:
10278:
10274:
10269:
10265:
10263:9783447057875
10259:
10255:
10251:
10246:
10242:
10236:
10232:
10228:
10224:
10220:
10218:9780521200912
10214:
10210:
10206:
10202:
10198:
10194:
10188:
10184:
10179:
10175:
10173:9783447057875
10169:
10165:
10161:
10156:
10152:
10150:9789004228023
10146:
10142:
10141:
10136:
10132:
10125:
10121:
10117:
10110:
10106:
10102:
10095:
10091:
10087:
10080:
10076:
10072:
10068:
10064:
10060:
10056:
10052:
10048:
10045:(4): 281–85.
10044:
10040:
10036:
10032:
10028:
10024:
10022:9783110251586
10018:
10014:
10010:
10005:
10001:
9999:9789068317404
9995:
9991:
9990:
9984:
9980:
9978:9780802848468
9974:
9970:
9969:
9964:
9960:
9956:
9952:
9948:
9944:
9940:
9936:
9932:
9928:
9924:
9920:
9918:9783110251586
9914:
9910:
9906:
9905:"Old Aramaic"
9901:
9897:
9895:9780195079937
9891:
9887:
9883:
9878:
9874:
9870:
9866:
9862:
9859:(4): 710–12.
9858:
9854:
9850:
9846:
9842:
9838:
9836:9781575060200
9832:
9828:
9824:
9820:
9816:
9812:
9805:
9800:
9790:on 2019-08-02
9786:
9782:
9775:
9770:
9766:
9764:9781139438285
9760:
9756:
9755:
9749:
9745:
9743:9781139425872
9739:
9735:
9734:
9728:
9724:
9720:
9715:
9711:
9709:9789004264410
9705:
9701:
9697:
9692:
9688:
9686:9789004264410
9682:
9678:
9674:
9669:
9665:
9663:9783110251586
9659:
9655:
9651:
9647:
9643:
9636:
9632:
9625:
9620:
9613:
9609:
9607:9781463214104
9603:
9599:
9595:
9592:(1): 63–112.
9591:
9587:
9580:
9576:
9572:
9568:
9564:
9560:
9556:
9552:
9548:
9544:
9540:
9536:
9533:(1): 157–59.
9532:
9528:
9524:
9520:
9516:
9512:
9510:9783110251586
9506:
9502:
9498:
9493:
9489:
9485:
9481:
9477:
9473:
9469:
9465:
9461:
9457:
9452:
9448:
9446:9781725272026
9442:
9438:
9437:
9432:
9428:
9424:
9422:9783525535738
9418:
9414:
9413:
9407:
9403:
9401:9780199730049
9397:
9393:
9388:
9383:
9378:
9374:
9370:
9366:
9361:
9357:
9353:
9349:
9344:
9340:
9338:9783110251586
9334:
9330:
9326:
9321:
9317:
9313:
9309:
9305:
9301:
9297:
9293:
9289:
9285:
9280:
9276:
9274:9781107244566
9270:
9266:
9265:
9259:
9258:
9244:
9243:
9238:
9231:
9230:
9225:
9220:
9216:
9215:
9210:
9198:
9194:
9173:
9169:
9163:
9149:
9145:
9139:
9124:
9120:
9114:
9106:
9099:
9091:
9085:
9081:
9074:
9066:
9060:
9053:
9048:
9041:
9036:
9029:
9024:
9017:
9012:
9010:9781317929338
9006:
9002:
9001:
8993:
8986:
8981:
8974:
8969:
8967:9781463238933
8963:
8959:
8952:
8945:
8941:
8939:9789004343047
8935:
8931:
8925:
8918:
8913:
8906:
8902:
8900:9781134109456
8896:
8892:
8885:
8878:
8873:
8866:
8861:
8854:
8849:
8833:
8826:
8819:
8814:
8812:9783161508363
8808:
8804:
8797:
8781:
8777:
8773:
8766:
8760:
8755:
8749:
8744:
8738:
8733:
8727:
8722:
8720:
8712:
8711:Fitzmyer 1980
8707:
8699:
8695:
8691:
8687:
8683:
8676:
8668:
8662:
8658:
8657:
8649:
8641:
8639:9789004300156
8635:
8631:
8630:
8622:
8614:
8612:9780226600055
8608:
8604:
8603:
8595:
8580:
8578:9781860646751
8574:
8570:
8569:
8561:
8555:, p. 28.
8554:
8549:
8542:
8537:
8530:
8525:
8518:
8513:
8506:
8501:
8494:
8489:
8483:
8478:
8471:
8466:
8460:
8455:
8449:
8445:
8440:
8432:
8426:
8422:
8415:
8408:
8403:
8388:(winter): 6–9
8387:
8383:
8376:
8368:
8362:
8358:
8354:
8350:
8344:
8336:
8332:
8328:
8324:
8320:
8316:
8309:
8293:
8289:
8282:
8275:
8270:
8263:
8258:
8252:, p. 14.
8251:
8246:
8239:
8234:
8227:
8222:
8216:, p. 11.
8215:
8210:
8203:
8198:
8196:
8187:
8185:9783110805451
8181:
8177:
8176:
8168:
8149:
8142:
8135:
8128:
8123:
8116:
8115:Fitzmyer 1997
8111:
8104:
8099:
8092:
8087:
8080:
8075:
8068:
8067:Fitzmyer 1997
8063:
8055:
8049:
8045:
8044:
8036:
8020:
8016:
8010:
8004:
7998:
7991:
7986:
7979:
7978:Kapeliuk 2012
7974:
7967:
7966:Weninger 2012
7962:
7960:
7958:
7950:
7945:
7938:
7933:
7926:
7921:
7917:
7913:
7909:
7906:(2): 98–115.
7905:
7901:
7897:
7891:
7884:
7879:
7872:
7867:
7860:
7855:
7841:
7837:
7831:
7817:
7813:
7807:
7800:
7795:
7788:
7783:
7768:
7764:
7758:
7742:
7738:
7734:
7728:
7722:
7717:
7711:
7710:Genesis 22:21
7706:
7700:
7699:Genesis 10:22
7695:
7688:
7683:
7682:
7677:
7673:
7667:
7657:
7655:
7647:
7642:
7636:
7632:
7631:
7623:
7616:
7611:
7604:
7599:
7592:
7587:
7580:
7574:
7567:
7561:
7551:
7547:
7541:
7534:
7529:
7522:
7517:
7510:
7505:
7497:
7491:
7484:
7474:
7472:9781575068879
7468:
7464:
7460:
7456:
7452:
7445:
7438:
7436:
7432:
7426:
7425:
7417:
7410:
7406:
7402:
7398:
7394:
7390:
7386:
7379:
7372:
7368:
7362:
7358:
7357:
7349:
7341:
7340:
7335:
7329:
7323:
7319:
7316:
7310:
7302:
7298:
7294:
7290:
7283:
7275:
7271:
7265:
7259:, p. 53.
7258:
7253:
7246:
7241:
7234:
7229:
7227:
7225:
7223:
7214:
7210:
7205:
7200:
7196:
7192:
7188:
7181:
7174:
7169:
7162:
7157:
7151:, p. 45.
7150:
7145:
7138:
7133:
7131:
7123:
7118:
7116:
7108:
7103:
7096:
7091:
7084:
7079:
7072:
7067:
7060:
7055:
7048:
7043:
7035:
7031:
7025:
7018:
7013:
7011:
7003:
6998:
6991:
6990:Lipiński 2000
6986:
6984:
6967:
6963:
6957:
6950:
6946:
6944:0-8028-2402-1
6940:
6936:
6929:
6921:
6917:
6913:
6907:
6903:
6902:
6894:
6887:
6882:
6875:
6870:
6863:
6858:
6852:, p. 56.
6851:
6846:
6839:
6834:
6827:
6822:
6816:, p. 64.
6815:
6814:Lipiński 2001
6810:
6803:
6798:
6796:
6794:
6786:
6781:
6779:
6771:
6766:
6759:
6754:
6747:
6742:
6733:
6730:
6727:
6724:
6722:
6721:Lipiński 2000
6719:
6717:
6714:
6712:
6711:Sokoloff 1983
6709:
6708:
6704:
6697:
6696:Aufrecht 2001
6692:
6685:
6681:
6675:
6671:
6667:
6660:
6653:
6648:
6640:
6634:
6630:
6626:
6622:
6616:
6606:
6602:
6600:9783447053136
6596:
6592:
6587:
6584:
6580:
6578:9783447053136
6574:
6570:
6569:
6563:
6560:
6556:
6554:9783447033268
6550:
6546:
6541:
6538:
6534:
6532:9783447033268
6528:
6524:
6519:
6516:
6512:
6510:9783643152619
6506:
6502:
6501:
6495:
6492:
6487:
6485:9783110199192
6481:
6477:
6473:
6469:
6468:
6462:
6459:
6455:
6453:9783446239005
6449:
6445:
6440:
6439:
6435:
6428:
6423:
6421:
6413:
6409:
6407:9781538124185
6403:
6399:
6392:
6385:
6383:
6377:
6375:9783030303983
6371:
6367:
6360:
6351:
6344:
6339:
6337:9781463236649
6333:
6329:
6325:
6322:Mario Kozah;
6318:
6314:
6303:
6300:
6298:
6295:
6293:
6290:
6288:
6285:
6283:
6280:
6278:
6275:
6273:
6270:
6268:
6265:
6263:
6260:
6258:
6255:
6253:
6250:
6248:
6245:
6244:
6239:
6233:
6228:
6225:
6219:
6214:
6207:
6205:
6201:
6197:
6193:
6184:
6182:
6179:
6176:
6173:
6172:
6169:
6167:הֻכתב huḵtaḇ
6166:
6163:
6160:
6157:
6156:
6153:
6151:
6148:
6145:
6142:
6141:
6138:
6136:כֻתּב kuttaḇ
6135:
6132:
6129:
6126:
6125:
6122:
6120:
6117:
6114:
6111:
6110:
6107:
6104:
6101:
6098:
6095:
6094:
6090:
6087:
6084:
6081:
6078:
6077:
6074:
6072:
6066:
6064:
6060:
6055:
6051:
6047:
6042:
6040:
6036:
6032:
6027:
6023:
6019:
6015:
6011:
6007:
6002:
6000:
5996:
5991:
5989:
5985:
5981:
5977:
5962:
5959:
5956:
5953:
5950:
5949:
5945:
5942:
5939:
5936:
5933:
5932:
5928:
5925:
5922:
5919:
5916:
5915:
5911:
5908:
5905:
5902:
5899:
5898:
5894:
5891:
5888:
5885:
5882:
5881:
5877:
5874:
5871:
5868:
5867:
5856:
5853:
5851:
5847:
5843:
5842:preformatives
5839:
5835:
5831:
5827:
5823:
5819:
5815:
5805:
5803:
5799:
5795:
5791:
5787:
5783:
5779:
5769:
5763:
5760:
5757:
5754:
5752:
5749:
5746:
5743:
5742:kṯāḇaṯ malkṯâ
5740:
5737:
5736:
5735:
5732:
5730:
5727:
5725:
5721:
5720:diphthongized
5717:
5713:
5709:
5705:
5701:
5697:
5693:
5689:
5685:
5681:
5677:
5674:The final א-
5667:
5665:טביא ṭāḇayyâ
5664:
5661:
5658:
5655:
5654:
5650:
5647:
5644:
5641:
5640:
5636:
5633:
5630:
5624:
5623:
5619:
5616:
5613:
5610:
5607:
5606:
5603:
5601:
5597:
5593:
5588:
5586:
5582:
5578:
5577:direct object
5574:
5570:
5566:
5557:
5553:
5550:
5546:
5542:
5538:
5534:
5531:
5526:
5522:
5521:genitive case
5518:
5516:
5511:
5507:
5506:
5501:
5498:
5494:
5490:
5486:
5485:
5484:
5482:
5477:
5473:
5471:
5466:
5464:
5460:
5456:
5443:
5439:
5436:
5432:
5429:
5425:
5422:
5418:
5415:
5411:
5410:
5409:
5407:
5403:
5399:
5386:
5382:
5379:
5376:
5372:
5368:
5365:
5361:
5357:
5353:
5349:
5346:
5343:
5339:
5335:
5331:
5328:
5301:
5289:
5285:
5281:
5277:
5274:
5271:
5268:
5267:
5266:
5258:
5256:
5252:
5248:
5244:
5240:
5236:
5232:
5228:
5224:
5212:
5205:
5198:
5191:
5190:
5189:
5187:
5182:
5180:
5175:
5170:
5168:
5147:
5123:
5119:
5112:
5108:
5105:
5101:
5097:
5090:
5086:
5079:
5075:
5074:
5073:
5071:
5067:
5061:
5059:
5055:
5051:
5043:
5039:
5036:
5032:
5028:
5024:
5021:
5017:
5013:
5010:
5006:
5003:
4999:
4995:
4991:
4988:
4984:
4980:
4977:
4973:
4970:
4966:
4962:
4958:
4955:
4951:
4947:
4946:
4945:
4943:
4939:
4930:
4928:
4926:
4924:
4922:
4919:
4915:
4913:
4911:
4909:
4905:
4902:
4900:
4897:
4893:
4890:
4886:
4884:
4881:
4877:
4875:
4873:
4871:
4867:
4864:
4861:
4857:
4854:
4850:
4848:
4846:
4843:
4839:
4836:
4832:
4829:
4825:
4822:
4818:
4817:
4813:
4809:
4806:
4802:
4799:
4795:
4792:
4788:
4785:
4781:
4778:
4774:
4771:
4767:
4764:
4760:
4757:
4753:
4751:
4747:
4744:
4742:
4739:
4735:
4733:
4731:
4728:
4724:
4722:
4719:
4715:
4712:
4708:
4707:
4703:
4699:
4696:
4692:
4689:
4685:
4683:
4680:
4676:
4673:
4669:
4667:
4664:
4660:
4657:
4653:
4651:
4647:
4644:
4642:
4640:
4638:
4636:
4633:
4629:
4627:
4624:
4620:
4618:
4614:
4610:
4606:
4601:
4600:
4597:
4592:
4587:
4582:
4577:
4572:
4567:
4562:
4557:
4551:
4543:
4540:
4538:
4534:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4514:
4509:
4507:
4503:
4499:
4495:
4491:
4486:
4484:
4480:
4476:
4472:
4468:
4464:
4459:
4457:
4453:
4449:
4445:
4441:
4437:
4433:
4429:
4423:
4417:
4411:
4403:
4398:in "father",
4397:
4393:
4387:
4381:
4376:
4370:
4366:
4363:
4359:
4356:
4352:
4351:
4350:
4341:
4336:
4333:
4329:
4327:
4324:
4323:
4318:
4313:
4310:
4306:
4304:
4301:
4300:
4296:
4292:
4289:
4285:
4283:
4280:
4279:
4275:
4271:
4268:
4264:
4262:
4259:
4258:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4245:
4244:
4236:
4234:
4230:
4226:
4222:
4218:
4208:
4196:
4192:
4190:
4186:
4169:
4166:
4163:
4162:
4159:
4156:
4153:
4150:
4149:
4146:
4143:
4140:
4137:
4136:
4133:
4130:
4127:
4126:
4122:
4119:
4115:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4101:
4100:
4096:
4095:
4091:
4090:
4086:
4083:
4080:
4077:
4076:
4073:
4072:
4068:
4067:
4063:
4062:
4058:
4055:
4052:
4049:
4048:
4045:
4044:
4040:
4039:
4035:
4034:
4030:
4027:
4024:
4021:
4020:
4017:
4014:
4011:
4007:
4004:
4000:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3985:
3983:
3979:
3975:
3971:
3967:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3941:
3931:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3915:
3911:
3907:
3902:
3900:
3896:
3892:
3888:
3884:
3880:
3875:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3861:
3857:
3852:
3850:
3846:
3839:
3837:
3816:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3783:
3778:
3769:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3735:
3731:
3727:
3723:
3719:
3715:
3711:
3707:
3701:
3694:
3690:
3685:
3676:
3674:
3671:, is written
3670:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3637:
3631:
3621:
3619:
3613:
3611:
3607:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3573:
3566:
3561:
3552:
3550:
3546:
3540:
3530:
3528:
3524:
3520:
3516:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3485:
3480:
3470:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3454:
3444:
3442:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3391:
3389:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3369:Lord's Prayer
3354:
3335:
3334:
3328:
3324:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3299:
3297:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3277:Lord's Prayer
3262:
3245:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3206:
3197:
3195:
3194:William Fulco
3191:
3190:
3181:
3178:
3175:
3174:
3173:
3171:
3167:
3165:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3150:New Testament
3146:
3144:
3142:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3126:
3120:
3116:
3111:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3084:
3083:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3044:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3019:
3016:
3008:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2984:
2983:
2979:
2974:This section
2972:
2968:
2963:
2962:
2958:
2948:
2946:
2940:
2938:
2937:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2919:
2915:
2914:Book of Enoch
2911:
2905:
2903:
2899:
2892:
2882:
2880:
2876:
2871:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2826:
2820:
2817:
2813:
2808:
2798:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2779:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2732:
2723:
2721:
2716:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2696:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2641:
2637:
2632:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2605:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2581:
2577:
2569:
2561:
2557:
2554:11th century
2552:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2525:
2518:
2513:
2504:
2502:
2498:
2497:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2475:
2469:
2466:
2463:
2460:
2457:
2454:
2451:
2448:
2447:
2446:
2444:
2440:
2431:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2415:
2413:
2409:
2408:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2382:
2380:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2344:
2339:
2337:
2332:
2330:
2325:
2324:
2322:
2321:
2316:
2313:
2312:
2311:
2310:
2306:
2305:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2231:
2230:
2229:
2225:
2224:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2213:Ben-Hadad III
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2180:
2179:
2178:
2175:
2174:Aramean kings
2172:
2171:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2150:Aram-Damascus
2148:
2146:
2143:
2142:
2141:
2140:
2137:
2134:
2133:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2119:
2118:
2117:
2114:
2111:
2110:
2106:
2096:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2077:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2057:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2037:
2027:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1996:
1994:
1990:
1989:Mount Lebanon
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1936:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1915:
1899:
1896:
1885:
1882:
1871:
1868:
1857:
1854:
1847:
1844:
1843:
1842:
1832:
1829:
1818:
1815:
1804:
1801:
1790:
1787:
1780:
1777:
1776:
1775:
1774:(1920–2016):
1773:
1761:
1758:
1747:
1744:
1737:
1734:
1733:
1732:
1729:
1726:
1723:
1718:
1717:Periodization
1705:
1704:
1699:Periodization
1696:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1665:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1633:
1626:
1621:
1612:
1608:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1593:
1591:
1586:
1576:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1479:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1418:script, from
1417:
1412:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1381:
1379:
1375:
1359:
1355:
1354:New Testament
1351:
1341:
1336:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1325:name of Syria
1322:
1318:
1317:ancient Greek
1313:
1311:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1268:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1220:
1217:, and in the
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1189:. In 1819–21
1188:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1167:
1158:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1025:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
994:lingua franca
991:
987:
983:
979:
974:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
935:
933:
929:
924:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
902:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
871:and parts of
870:
866:
862:
858:
857:lingua franca
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
818:
809: 500 BC
801:
792:
790:
786:
779:
774:
773:Holger Gzella
771:. Aramaicist
770:
766:
761:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
734:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
701:, as well as
700:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
671:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
629:
625:
620:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
585:
573:
568:
556:
552:
546:
542:
535:
531:
522:
518:
516:
512:
508:
504:
502:
501:
496:
493:
490: –
488:
483:
480: –
478:
473:
470: –
468:
463:
460: –
458:
453:
450: –
448:
443:
440: –
438:
433:
430: –
428:
423:
420: –
418:
413:
410: –
408:
403:
400: –
398:
393:
390: –
388:
383:
380: –
378:
373:
370: –
368:
363:
360: –
358:
353:
350: –
348:
343:
340: –
338:
333:
330: –
328:
323:
320: –
318:
313:
310: –
308:
303:
300: –
298:
293:
290: –
288:
282:
279:
274:
269:
266:
262:
259:Historically
256:
252:
247:
243:
238:
234:
231:
227:
221:
213:
210:
208:
205:
203:
200:
199:
198:
194:
182:
179:
178:
177:
174:
173:
172:
169:
168:
167:
166:Proto-Semitic
164:
163:
162:
158:
152:
136:
133:
132:
131:Proto-Aramoid
130:
129:
128:
125:
124:
123:
120:
119:
118:
115:
114:
113:
110:
109:
108:
104:
100:
94:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
68:
64:
60:
43:
38:
33:
29:
22:
14689:Royal titles
14614:Architecture
14522:
14451:Neo-Assyrian
14298:(Pre)history
14118:Persian Gulf
13553:Qara Qoyunlu
13416:(312–63 BCE)
13227:
13147:Christianity
13004:
12981:
12962:
12955:
12948:
12941:
12853:
12830:
12607:
12600:
12593:
12586:
12577:
12570:
12563:
12543:
12536:
12529:
12515:
12508:
12499:
12492:
12480:
12473:
12407:
12378:Urmia Jewish
12246:
12241:
12234:
12225:
12218:
12211:
12204:
12199:
12192:
12185:
12175:
12153:
12146:
12126:
12119:
12112:
12105:
12090:
12063:Mesopotamian
12046:
11990:
11983:
11974:
11967:
11960:
11953:
11946:
11939:
11932:
11925:
11918:
11913:Proto-Arabic
11911:
11875:
11866:
11859:
11849:
11706:
11685:
11665:
11642:
11618:
11598:
11585:
11572:
11548:
11528:
11505:
11481:
11460:
11449:
11429:
11406:
11382:
11361:
11340:
11329:
11308:
11287:
11266:
11243:
11222:
11218:
11194:
11170:
11159:
11132:
11118:
11101:
11077:
11073:
11047:
11024:
11000:
10977:
10948:
10944:
10917:
10893:
10870:
10844:
10824:
10808:(3): 505–31.
10805:
10801:
10778:
10760:. Retrieved
10753:the original
10748:
10719:
10687:
10683:
10666:
10653:
10649:
10626:
10603:
10580:
10556:
10533:
10510:
10487:
10467:
10463:
10436:
10429:(3): 211–25.
10426:
10422:
10398:
10378:
10355:
10343:
10319:
10299:
10276:
10253:
10230:
10208:
10182:
10163:
10139:
10124:the original
10119:
10115:
10094:the original
10089:
10085:
10042:
10038:
10012:
9988:
9967:
9938:
9934:
9908:
9885:
9856:
9852:
9826:
9810:
9792:. Retrieved
9785:the original
9780:
9753:
9732:
9722:
9699:
9676:
9653:
9630:
9589:
9585:
9566:
9562:
9530:
9526:
9500:
9466:(2): 65–90.
9463:
9459:
9435:
9411:
9391:
9372:
9368:
9355:
9351:
9328:
9291:
9287:
9263:
9241:
9228:
9212:
9208:
9197:
9175:. Retrieved
9172:biblehub.com
9171:
9162:
9151:. Retrieved
9148:biblehub.com
9147:
9138:
9126:. Retrieved
9122:
9113:
9104:
9098:
9079:
9073:
9059:
9052:Jastrow 2012
9047:
9035:
9023:
9014:
8999:
8992:
8980:
8971:
8957:
8951:
8943:
8929:
8924:
8912:
8904:
8890:
8884:
8872:
8860:
8848:
8836:. Retrieved
8825:
8816:
8802:
8796:
8784:. Retrieved
8780:the original
8776:Miami Herald
8775:
8765:
8754:
8743:
8732:
8706:
8681:
8675:
8655:
8648:
8628:
8621:
8601:
8594:
8582:. Retrieved
8567:
8560:
8548:
8536:
8524:
8512:
8505:Nöldeke 1871
8500:
8488:
8477:
8465:
8454:
8439:
8420:
8414:
8407:Collins 1993
8402:
8390:. Retrieved
8385:
8375:
8356:
8352:
8343:
8321:(3/4): 457.
8318:
8314:
8308:
8296:. Retrieved
8291:
8281:
8274:Gzella 2012b
8269:
8262:Gzella 2012a
8257:
8245:
8233:
8228:, p. x.
8221:
8209:
8174:
8167:
8155:. Retrieved
8148:the original
8134:
8122:
8110:
8098:
8086:
8074:
8062:
8041:
8035:
8023:. Retrieved
8018:
8009:
8002:
7997:
7985:
7973:
7944:
7932:
7923:
7903:
7899:
7890:
7878:
7873:, p. 4.
7866:
7854:
7843:. Retrieved
7839:
7830:
7819:. Retrieved
7816:biblehub.com
7815:
7806:
7794:
7782:
7770:. Retrieved
7766:
7757:
7745:. Retrieved
7741:the original
7736:
7727:
7716:
7705:
7694:
7685:
7679:
7666:
7644:
7629:
7622:
7615:Joosten 2010
7610:
7603:Joosten 2008
7598:
7586:
7573:
7560:
7540:
7535:, p. 7.
7533:Andrade 2013
7528:
7516:
7504:
7482:
7476:. Retrieved
7454:
7444:
7428:
7423:
7416:
7408:
7388:
7384:
7378:
7370:
7355:
7348:
7338:
7328:
7309:
7292:
7288:
7282:
7273:
7264:
7252:
7240:
7194:
7190:
7180:
7168:
7156:
7144:
7102:
7090:
7083:Kitchen 1965
7078:
7066:
7054:
7042:
7033:
7024:
6997:
6970:. Retrieved
6965:
6956:
6948:
6934:
6928:
6900:
6893:
6886:Coghill 2007
6881:
6869:
6857:
6845:
6838:Daniels 1996
6833:
6821:
6809:
6765:
6753:
6741:
6726:Creason 2008
6703:
6691:
6683:
6669:
6659:
6647:
6628:
6615:
6604:
6590:
6582:
6567:
6558:
6544:
6536:
6522:
6514:
6499:
6489:
6466:
6457:
6443:
6434:
6411:
6397:
6391:
6382:Beth Qatraye
6379:
6365:
6359:
6350:
6341:
6327:
6317:
6189:
6067:
6053:
6049:
6045:
6043:
6030:
6025:
6021:
6017:
6013:
6009:
6006:preformative
6003:
5998:
5994:
5992:
5988:Semitic root
5983:
5979:
5973:
5846:afformatives
5811:
5802:conjugations
5775:
5767:
5761:
5759:כתבתה דמלכתא
5758:
5750:
5748:כתבתא דמלכתא
5747:
5741:
5738:
5733:
5728:
5723:
5711:
5703:
5699:
5695:
5691:
5687:
5675:
5673:
5668:טבתא ṭāḇāṯâ
5599:
5595:
5589:
5580:
5569:Case endings
5562:
5555:
5551:
5548:
5540:
5536:
5529:
5524:
5514:
5513:
5509:
5503:
5496:
5492:
5488:
5478:
5474:
5469:
5467:
5462:
5458:
5454:
5452:
5441:
5434:
5427:
5420:
5413:
5405:
5395:
5380:
5374:
5370:
5363:
5359:
5355:
5347:
5340:rather than
5329:
5302:) have lost
5275:
5270:Vowel change
5269:
5264:
5254:
5250:
5246:
5241:(usually an
5238:
5235:approximants
5230:
5226:
5220:
5183:
5179:glottal stop
5176:
5173:
5164:
5110:
5100:glottal stop
5088:
5070:velarization
5062:
5053:
5049:
5047:
5041:
5037:
5034:
5030:
5026:
5022:
5019:
5015:
5008:
5004:
5001:
4997:
4993:
4989:
4986:
4982:
4981:Dental set:
4975:
4971:
4968:
4964:
4960:
4956:
4953:
4949:
4948:Labial set:
4935:
4541:
4536:
4532:
4528:
4524:
4520:
4516:
4510:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4487:
4478:
4474:
4470:
4466:
4462:
4460:
4455:
4452:glottal stop
4447:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4431:
4427:
4415:
4395:
4391:
4379:
4377:
4374:
4368:
4361:
4360:Close front
4354:
4348:
4213:
4201:and ⟨
4183:
4167:
4157:
4144:
4131:
4106:
4098:
4097:
4093:
4092:
4088:
4087:
4084:
4070:
4069:
4065:
4064:
4060:
4059:
4056:
4042:
4041:
4037:
4036:
4032:
4031:
4028:
4015:
4012:
4009:
3991:
3988:Sample texts
3943:
3918:
3903:
3876:
3870:, which was
3853:
3849:Mizrahi Jews
3842:
3833:
3750:Mizrahi Jews
3703:
3672:
3668:
3642:descent, in
3633:
3618:Dura-Europos
3614:
3610:Hebrew Bible
3575:
3542:
3512:
3482:
3456:
3433:Central Asia
3394:
3385:
3372:
3330:
3318:9th century
3293:
3280:
3212:
3203:
3187:
3185:
3169:
3161:
3157:
3147:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3122:
3112:
3045:
3026:
3011:
3002:
2987:Please help
2975:
2941:
2934:
2917:
2906:
2894:
2872:
2867:
2854:
2827:
2823:
2785:
2752:Jordan River
2747:
2738:
2729:
2717:
2702:
2685:
2668:
2652:
2644:
2635:
2633:
2606:
2565:
2556:Hebrew Bible
2494:
2476:
2473:
2437:
2420:
2416:
2405:
2383:
2367:
2352:
2078:
2058:
2039:
1997:
1938:
1884:Late Aramaic
1840:
1817:Late Aramaic
1769:
1730:
1727:
1715:
1693:Latin script
1666:
1635:
1625:Syriac Serto
1609:
1594:
1582:
1520:
1514:
1511:
1480:
1433:
1415:
1373:
1349:
1337:
1323:. Since the
1314:
1269:
1256:
1252:
1244:
1240:
1223:
1219:Book of Ruth
1194:
1184:
1115:Mizrahi Jews
1101:
1026:
1008:, including
978:Neo-Assyrian
975:
947:Hebrew Bible
936:
925:
881:Ancient Iran
814:
762:
758:Mizrahi Jews
735:
693:, Ekronite,
672:
664:Samaritanism
656:Mizrahi Jews
621:
550:
549:
533:
515:Linguasphere
498:
134:
117:West Semitic
107:Afro-Asiatic
14792:Hittitology
14782:Assyriology
14703:Archaeology
14573:Old Persian
14383:Jemdet Nasr
13912:New Zealand
13907:Netherlands
13671:Settlements
13584:(1555–1917)
13561:(1453–1501)
13555:(1375–1468)
13549:(1335–1432)
13543:(1258–1335)
13537:(1098–1268)
13498:Middle ages
13438:Roman Syria
13432:Syrian Wars
13069:Middle East
12943:Hadramautic
12929:Old Arabian
12866:West Gurage
12776:East Gurage
12422:Neo-Mandaic
12200:Palestinian
12107:Old Aramaic
11262:Sabar, Yona
11151:Prym, Eugen
9941:(1): 5–21.
9569:(1): 11–23.
9207:. The form
9128:18 November
8853:Healey 2012
8541:Gzella 2015
8202:Arnold 2012
8079:Gzella 2015
7949:Streck 2012
7767:fsmitha.com
7591:Wevers 2001
7579:Geographica
7566:Geographica
7233:Häberl 2012
7197:: 115–130.
7122:Folmer 2012
7107:Gzella 2015
7071:Gzella 2015
7017:Gzella 2015
6874:Macuch 1990
6826:Gzella 2015
6802:Burtea 2012
6770:Berlin 2011
6746:Gzella 2021
6732:Gzella 2015
6652:Gzella 2021
6105:כתיב kəṯîḇ
5980:ground stem
5662:טבתא ṭāḇtâ
5656:det./emph.
5634:טבין ṭāḇîn
5585:preposition
5338:glottalized
5336:often have
5014:Velar set:
4870:Approximant
4438:became the
4394:, like the
4367:Close back
4221:Azerbaijani
4081:(Swadaya):
3928:Neo-Mandaic
3797:Neo-Mandaic
3758:Arabization
3726:Mesopotamia
3659:dialect of
3648:Transjordan
3588:, moved to
3037:Koine Greek
2868:Beth-Hadiab
2860:Diatessaron
2703:Babylonian
2634:The use of
2580:Hellenistic
2545:Afghanistan
2398:Elephantine
2388:, found at
2244:Bit Bahiani
2198:Ben-Hadad I
2155:Paddan Aram
2012:Mesopotamia
1935:Old Aramaic
1917:One of the
1909:Old Aramaic
1898:Neo-Aramaic
1890:200 AD, to
1876:333 BC, to
1862:538 BC, to
1846:Old Aramaic
1823:200 AD, to
1809:200 BC, to
1795:700 BC, to
1779:Old Aramaic
1752:200 AD, to
1736:Old Aramaic
1360:. However,
1340:Koine Greek
1149:in western
1097:Manichaeism
1085:Neo-Mandaic
1022:Khwarezmian
865:Mesopotamia
845:Mesopotamia
811:. From Iraq
776: [
634:and nearby
597:Mesopotamia
422:Old Aramaic
171:Old Aramaic
155:Early forms
78:Mesopotamia
14822:Categories
14756:Divination
14466:Achaemenid
14431:Isin-Larsa
14324:Trialetian
14319:Mousterian
14306:Prehistory
13795:Diyarbakır
13766:Tell Tamer
13761:Al-Hasakah
13657:By country
13569:Modern era
13559:Aq Qoyunlu
13531:(945–1055)
13525:(905–1383)
13519:(750–1258)
13334:(including
13310:Folk dance
12972:Rijal Alma
12957:Qatabanian
12595:Himyaritic
12538:Phoenician
12099:Historical
12068:Peninsular
11969:Taymanitic
11920:Old Arabic
11905:Historical
10762:2021-02-08
9794:2021-02-08
9177:2020-07-31
9153:2020-07-31
8786:10 October
8759:Mark 15:34
8737:John 20:16
8584:10 October
8553:Beyer 1986
8470:Hasel 1981
8430:1874780749
8392:10 October
8298:10 October
8250:Beyer 1986
8238:Fales 2012
8214:Beyer 1986
8157:10 October
8127:Butts 2019
8103:Beyer 1986
8091:Butts 2019
8025:10 October
7990:Chyet 1997
7845:2020-07-31
7821:2020-07-31
7772:10 October
7747:10 October
7640:9004116419
7544:Josephus,
7478:2022-10-05
7257:Beyer 1986
7173:Casey 1999
7161:Beyer 1986
7149:Green 1992
7047:Ruzer 2014
6920:1018201352
6850:Beyer 1986
6716:Beyer 1986
6427:Brock 1989
6309:References
6192:participle
5951:1st m./f.
5864:Imperfect
5739:כתבת מלכתא
5651:טבת ṭāḇāṯ
5645:טבת ṭāḇaṯ
5637:טבן ṭāḇān
5617:masc. pl.
5611:masc. sg.
5596:malkâ ṭāḇâ
5541:determined
5437:, I wrote.
5398:morphology
5344:emphatics.
5284:allophones
5233:, and the
5167:media help
5058:allophones
4591:Pharyngeal
4546:Consonants
4513:diphthongs
4511:Two basic
4430:and short
4108:Matthew 28
3887:Lake Urmia
3836:media help
3549:Samaritans
3419:, and the
3388:media help
3323:Estrangela
3296:media help
3221:, and the
3096:diphthongs
3005:April 2017
2898:Phoenician
2862:came from
2795:Estrangela
2688:vernacular
2609:Hasmonaean
2601:Hellenized
2390:Persepolis
2355:Achaemenid
2289:Til Barsip
2284:Tell Halaf
2249:Coba Höyük
2160:Aram Rehob
2034:See also:
1725:language.
1561:al-Hasakah
1503:Azerbaijan
1300:Bronze Age
1247:where the
1237:Septuagint
1233:Posidonius
1123:Iraqi Jews
873:Asia Minor
787:spoken by
738:endangered
699:Phoenician
283:Variously:
14629:Cuneiform
14505:Languages
14314:Acheulean
14201:Babylonia
14138:Euphrates
14088:Geography
13986:Dawronoye
13917:Palestine
13847:Australia
13820:Tur Abdin
13700:Tel Keppe
13620:(1914–20)
13608:(19th c.)
13590:(16th c.)
13578:(1508–55)
13541:Ilkhanate
13490:(502–628)
13484:(226–651)
13482:Asoristan
13452:(116–118)
13407:antiquity
13405:Classical
13338:contexts)
13235:languages
13016:varieties
13007:indicate
12886:Sebat Bet
12636:Eastern (
12588:Deir Alla
12466:Canaanite
12373:Trans-Zab
12358:Inter-Zab
12282:Christian
12236:Palmyrene
12227:Samaritan
12194:Nabataean
12082:Northwest
12037:Levantine
12009:Classical
11934:Dadanitic
11192:(2006) .
10965:162559782
10915:(2001) .
10678:(1884b).
10664:(1884a).
10185:, BRILL,
10067:161323237
9965:(1997) .
9804:"Aramaic"
9650:"Mandaic"
9488:162226854
9358:: 145–55.
9316:163755644
9123:rinyo.org
9040:Khan 2012
8748:Mark 7:34
8726:Mark 5:41
8632:. BRILL.
8459:2:4b–7:28
8288:"Aramaic"
7871:Hamp 2005
7799:Frye 1997
7787:Frye 1992
7521:Kopp 1821
7509:Kopp 1821
7490:cite book
7433:founder,
7213:2081-1330
7059:Buth 2014
7002:Khan 2007
6862:Naby 2004
6666:"Aramaic"
6491:intimate…
6059:reflexive
5875:Singular
5869:Singular
5830:preterite
5826:aspectual
5822:imperfect
5659:טבא ṭāḇâ
5648:טבי ṭāḇê
5631:טבה ṭāḇâ
5620:fem. pl.
5614:fem. sg.
5600:malkâ ṭāḇ
5505:construct
5186:sibilants
5120:ק Qôp, a
5076:ח Ḥêṯ, a
4942:fricative
4756:voiceless
4750:Fricative
4656:voiceless
4571:Post-alv.
4446:and back
4282:Close-mid
4176:Phonology
4116:English (
4001:English (
3993:Matthew 2
3954:Jubb'adin
3920:Mandaeans
3910:Tur Abdin
3856:Assyrians
3845:Assyrians
3746:Mandaeans
3742:Assyrians
3693:Near East
3644:Palestine
3602:midrashim
3586:Jerusalem
3515:Nabataean
3488:Mandaeans
3170:Rabbounei
3115:loanwords
3086:", and "'
3060:Jerusalem
3048:Hasmonean
2976:does not
2879:Mandaeism
2782:Palmyrene
2735:Nabataean
2649:logograms
2279:Tell Aran
2203:Hadadezer
2193:Tabrimmon
2165:Aram Soba
2089:Canaanite
2070:Euphrates
1945:languages
1722:polysemic
1662:Mandaeans
1605:Euphrates
1541:Tel Keppe
1491:Near East
1440:Babylonia
1350:Hebraïstí
1290:. In the
1280:word root
1272:endonymic
1131:Near East
1127:Mandaeans
1111:Assyrians
1089:Mandaeism
998:logograms
932:Sanhedrin
754:Mandaeans
750:Assyrians
723:West Asia
668:Mandaeism
648:Assyrians
636:Jubb'adin
617:varieties
500:Glottolog
278:ISO 639-3
237:Christian
14775:Academia
14729:Religion
14598:Urartian
14593:Sumerian
14578:Parthian
14513:Akkadian
14486:Sasanian
14476:Parthian
14471:Seleucid
14421:Simurrum
14411:Akkadian
14344:Khiamian
14334:Natufian
14246:Simurrum
14231:Kassites
14226:Hittites
14181:Adiabene
13963:Politics
13834:Diaspora
13815:Mazıdağı
13771:Qamishli
13744:Sanandaj
13717:Shaqlawa
13705:Bartella
13690:Qaraqosh
13666:Homeland
13464:(5th c.)
13446:(15–116)
13444:Adiabene
13391:Arameans
13346:Ancient
13320:Clothing
13262:Hertevin
13077:Identity
12964:Awsanian
12847:Tt-group
12723:Tigrinya
12602:Samalian
12579:Galilean
12572:Ugaritic
12517:Medieval
12510:Mishnaic
12494:Biblical
12475:Ammonite
12368:Sanandaj
12353:Betanure
12326:Chaldean
12323:Assyrian
12309:Qaraqosh
12299:Hértevin
12213:Galilean
12187:Lebanese
12042:Maghrebi
12002:Literary
11976:Thamudic
11962:Safaitic
11948:Hasaitic
11941:Dumaitic
11861:Akkadian
11816:Branches
11769:Archived
11742:Archived
11264:(2002).
11157:(1881).
11116:(1904).
11096:(1886).
11086:43366019
11068:(1871).
10998:(1999).
10939:(1990).
10891:(2000).
10865:(2008).
10829:Archived
10816:(1965).
10773:(2012).
10740:(2007).
10714:(2012).
10684:Hebraica
10656:: 53–72.
10507:"Syriac"
10472:Archived
10354:(2021).
10203:(1985).
10137:(2012).
10107:(1999).
10077:(1997).
10033:(1992).
9929:(1980).
9847:(1993).
9821:(1997).
9648:(2012).
9635:Archived
9612:Archived
9557:(1989).
9547:23962351
9521:(1971).
9433:(1967).
9375:: 1–20.
9239:(1903).
9226:(1879).
9219:Eusebius
8698:25066933
8444:4:8–6:18
7900:Hebraica
7674:(1835).
7577:Strabo,
7564:Strabo,
7391:: 1–14.
7318:Archived
7137:Bae 2004
6785:Tal 2012
6287:Peshitta
6252:Arameans
6210:See also
6016:, or -ש
5861:Perfect
5838:unmarked
5704:yəhûḏāyê
5573:Ugaritic
5571:, as in
5537:emphatic
5530:bar nāšâ
5489:absolute
5362:becomes
5334:Caucasus
5294:, using
5106:), or ,
4566:Alveolar
4303:Open-mid
4199:/ /
4195:Help:IPA
3966:Damascus
3950:Maaloula
3864:Akkadian
3860:diaspora
3780:Amen in
3608:for the
3598:targumim
3409:Peshitta
3102:and the
3100:Damascus
3064:Ein Gedi
2945:Peshitta
2931:Josephus
2864:Adiabene
2705:Targumic
2699:Targumic
2669:parthawi
2667:' (<
2661:Parthian
2541:Kandahar
2515:Coin of
2359:Darius I
2183:Irhuleni
2113:Arameans
2046:Damascus
1953:Assyrian
1941:dialects
1675:and the
1533:Bartella
1529:Bakhdida
1485:and the
1472:Caucasus
1468:Anatolia
1460:Akkadian
1436:Arameans
1420:Thrissur
1416:Madnhāyā
1363:Ἑβραϊστί
1345:Ἑβραϊστί
1333:semantic
1310:Chaldean
1284:Arameans
1276:exonymic
1225:Josephus
1010:Parthian
921:Caucasus
861:Assyrian
817:Arameans
785:language
729:and the
707:Ugaritic
681:such as
652:Mandeans
632:Maaloula
611:and the
584:arāmāˀiṯ
507:aram1259
246:Mandaean
196:Dialects
32:Ethiopia
14761:Prayers
14746:Deities
14710:Looting
14553:Kassite
14548:Hurrian
14543:Hittite
14533:Elamite
14528:Eblaite
14523:Aramaic
14518:Amorite
14441:Kassite
14416:Gutians
14398:History
14363:Samarra
14359:Hassuna
14329:Zarzian
14251:Subartu
14241:Mitanni
14206:Chaldea
14196:Assyria
14169:Ancient
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