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2453:(2005), argued that continuing racial inequality in the larger American society had undermined efforts to force schools to desegregate. They maintained that racial inequality had resulted in popular associations between school achievement and race. Therefore, the achievement levels of American schools were generally associated with their class and racial compositions. This meant that even parents without racial prejudice tended to seek middle class or better residential neighborhoods in seeking the best schools for their children. As a result, efforts to impose court-ordered desegregation often led to school districts with too few White students for effective desegregation, as White students increasingly left for majority White suburban districts or for private schools.
2224:, recommended African Americans for ratings in the construction trades. In April, the navy announced it would enlist African Americans in the Seabees. Even so, those men were put into segregated units, the 34th and 80th Naval Construction Battalions (NCBs). Both had White southern officers and Black enlisted. Both battalions experienced problems with this arrangement, which led to the replacement of the officers. In addition, many of the stevedore battalions (special construction battalions) were segregated. However, by war's end, many of those special construction battalions were the first fully integrated units in the US navy. The war's end also brought the decommissioning of every one of those units.
3701:
51:
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2357:
2324:, a strong proponent. Johnson called the new law one of the "promises of a century … It proclaims that fair housing for all — all human beings who live in this country — is now a part of the American way of life." Since the act's passage in 1968, it has been amended to include sex, familial status, and disability. The
2267:
broke out. The US army had accomplished little desegregation in peacetime and sent the segregated Eighth Army to defend South Korea. Most Black soldiers served in segregated support units in the rear. The remainder served in segregated combat units, most notably the 24th
Infantry regiment. The first
2154:
was severely short of replacement troops for existing military units, all of which were entirely white in composition. Thus, he made the decision to allow
African American soldiers to join White military units in combat for the first time; this represented the first step toward a desegregated United
2038:
is the process of ending the separation of two groups, usually referring to races. Desegregation is typically measured by the index of dissimilarity, allowing researchers to determine whether desegregation efforts are having impact on the settlement patterns of various groups. This is most commonly
2272:
nearly drove the
American-led United Nations forces off the Korean peninsula. Faced with staggering losses in White units, commanders on the ground began accepting Black replacements, thus integrating their units. The practice occurred all over the Korean battle lines, and proved that integrated
2099:, Black people enlisted in large numbers. They were mostly enslaved African Americans who had escaped the South, though there were many Northern Black unionists as well. More than 180,000 Black people served with the Union army and navy during the civil war in segregated units, known as the
2483:. The desegregation plan did not allow any school to enroll more than 50% of any ethnic group. Originally intended to aid integration of Black students, the ruling had a negative effect on the admissions of Chinese Americans, who had become the district's largest ethnic group.
2300:
ended discrimination in the sale, rental and financing of housing based on race, color, religion, and national origin. This was the first housing law against discrimination. The passage of this act was contentious. It was meant to be a direct follow up to the
2408:, and overseas, has led to increases in the numbers of residents of all races in suburbs, and shifts in population from the North and Great Plains to the southwest, the Pacific Northwest, and the South. Left behind in many northeastern and midwestern
2205:(positions) rather than being restricted to stewards and mess men, as they were on most ships. The navy was pressured to train Black sailors for billets by Eleanor Roosevelt, who insisted that they be given the jobs for which they had trained.
2508:
sided with the school district, arguing that such standards were not harmful to
Chinese Americans, and were necessary to avoid the resegregation of schools. In 2006, Chinese parents continued to protest against race-based school assignments.
1010:
2092:. Thousands of Black men fought in the new continental navy, on the side of rebellious colonists in the American revolutionary war. Their names, accomplishments and total numbers are unknown due to poor record keeping.
2430:
from cities to suburbs. Middle class and wealthy White people continued moving from cities to suburbs during the 1970s and later, in part to escape certain integrated public school systems, but also as part of the
2377:
2273:
combat units could perform under fire. The army high command took notice. On 26 July 1951, exactly three years after Truman issued
Executive Order 9981, the US army formally announced its plans to desegregate.
2769:
2255:, unsuccessfully attempted to attach a "Freedom of Selection" amendment granting draftees and new inductees the opportunity to choose whether or not they wanted to serve in segregated military units to the
2423:
says that desegregation of US public schools peaked in 1988. As of 2005, the proportion of Black students at schools with a White majority was at "a level lower than in any year since 1968".
2284:. "Despite the presence of a Black executive officer, the ship's second-in-command, many Black sailors felt they were dealt harsher punishments and menial assignments because of their race".
2240:
ordered the integration of the armed forces following World War II, a major advance in civil rights. Using the executive order meant that Truman could bypass
Congress. Representatives of the
2492:
documented the
Chinese American parents' challenge. Since Chinese Americans were already nearly half the student population, the consent decree had the effect of requiring the competitive
976:
2445:
that efforts to change the racial compositions of schools had not contributed substantially to academic achievement by minorities. Carl L. Bankston and
Stephen J. Caldas, in their books
2703:
3090:
2296:
and racial discrimination has had a long history in the United States. Until the
American civil rights movement in the 1960s, segregated neighborhoods were enforceable by law. The
2426:
Some critics of school desegregation have argued that court-enforced desegregation efforts of the 1960s were either unnecessary or self-defeating, ultimately resulting in
3060:
3761:
2773:
2728:
Antill, Peter (2003), Peleliu, battle for (Operation
Stalemate II) - The Pacific War's Forgotten Battle, September–November 1944, "HITTING THE BEACH 3rd paragraph"
1479:
3085:
518:
2216:
The US Navy's newest component, the Seabees, had the same ingrained attitudes and approaches but ended up at the forefront of change. In February 1942, the
2066:
3097:
729:
2208:
2393:
1890:
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The increasing diversity of American society has led to more complex issues related to school and ethnic proportion. In the 1994 federal court case
2438:
Some White parents in Louisiana said that they were afraid to drop off their children because of all the mobs surrounding the desegregated schools.
2107:'s Civil War Soldiers & Sailors System (CWSS). Around 18,000 Black people also joined the Union Navy as sailors, who are also part of the CWSS.
3305:
2022:
680:
3315:
2329:
593:
2866:
2194:) a ship with Black crew members and commanded by White officers. Some called it "Eleanor's folly" after President Franklin Roosevelt's wife.
3242:
3199:
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of students may be ordered to achieve racial desegregation. However, court-enforced school desegregation efforts have decreased over time.
2325:
1256:
3172:
3164:
2528:
2463:
1226:
822:
348:
3101:
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2583:
2309:. At that time, several states had passed their own fair housing laws and Congress was not convinced that a federal law was necessary.
503:
3310:
2159:, who was outraged by the decision, and said that the American public would take offense with the integration of the military units.
3380:
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caused by movement of jobs to suburbs, continuing state and federal support for expansion of highways, and changes in the economy.
2293:
430:
318:
2731:
3400:
3385:
2341:
2313:
3330:
3057:
1991:
685:
440:
268:
253:
248:
78:
2548:
2538:
2523:
2212:"17th Special" Seabees with the 7th Marines on Peleliu made national news in an official U.S. Navy press release. NARA-532537
508:
233:
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States military. Eisenhower's decision in this case was strongly opposed by his own army chief of staff, Lieutenant General
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3177:
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2170:
2015:
1032:
323:
137:
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1692:
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812:
630:
258:
243:
3112:
2995:
3021:
Schafer, Mark (March 2004). "A Troubled Dream: The Promise and Failure of School Desegregation in Louisiana (review)".
2821:
Defending White Democracy : The Making of a Segregationist Movement and the Remaking of Racial Politics, 1936-1965
2493:
1246:
712:
3192:
2852:
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80th naval construction battalion, Bickford Engraving And Electrotype Co. 20 Matheewson Street, Providence, RI, 1946
2713:
886:
717:
189:
167:
2391:(1954), the lawful segregation of African American children in schools became a violation of the 14th Amendment. In
3134:
2746:
Thirty Fourth Naval Construction Battalion, Cmdr Lester M. Marx, Schwabacher Frey Company, San Francisco, CA, 1946
2504:, to apply much higher academic admission standards for Chinese American students. However, the civil rights group
1645:
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1368:
817:
707:
3454:
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2008:
1221:
724:
478:
273:
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333:
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1922:
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313:
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2100:
1179:
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68:
3257:
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2387:
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1833:
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1082:
675:
613:
17:
3300:
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1942:
697:
368:
83:
2119:
lobbying for the commissioning of more Black officers, they were severely underrepresented throughout
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3144:
2878:
2217:
1273:
1087:
981:
866:
525:
493:
147:
73:
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2665:
3716:
2893:"Introduction: Brown v. Board of Education: Fifty Years of Educational Change in the United States"
2863:
2317:
2302:
2080:
in the 17th century, Black and White Americans served together in an integrated environment in the
1539:
1427:
1268:
1037:
966:
794:
749:
603:
488:
468:
398:
328:
204:
2416:, in the early 21st century, US schools have become as segregated as they were in the late 1960s.
2305:. However, from 1966 to 1967, it failed to garner enough political support for its passage in the
2134:, most officers were White, and the majority of Black troops still served as truck drivers and as
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1672:
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901:
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34:
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2142:, which was instrumental in facilitating the rapid advance of allied forces across France after
876:
3675:
3594:
3295:
2306:
2278:
2221:
1937:
1910:
1900:
1358:
1338:
1201:
1072:
961:
911:
881:
861:
789:
769:
744:
739:
734:
645:
608:
581:
557:
552:
132:
122:
2758:
3644:
3577:
3345:
3214:
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2040:
1905:
1865:
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1635:
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1303:
1067:
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804:
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535:
142:
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117:
8:
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2147:
2146:, was operated almost exclusively by African American truck drivers. In the midst of the
1952:
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1308:
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1005:
956:
936:
906:
799:
586:
393:
3335:
2705:
Greg Freeman: A Gentleman, a Gentle Man : Selected Columns, St. Louis Post-dispatch
2645:"The Costs of Employment Segregation: Evidence from the Federal Government under Wilson"
3412:
3395:
3390:
3365:
3350:
3282:
3262:
3252:
3222:
3058:"Back to School for Integration: The Catch-22 of Excellence and Diversity Without Race"
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2920:
2729:
2420:
2320:
that the bill was finally passed. It was signed into law on 11 April 1968 by President
2184:
2096:
2054:
2039:
used in reference to the United States. Desegregation was long a focus of the American
1717:
1712:
1702:
1650:
1640:
1615:
1549:
1507:
1417:
1412:
1407:
1313:
598:
2687:
American Warlords: How Roosevelt's High Command Led America to Victory in World War II
2404:
A major decline in manufacturing in northern cities, with a shift of jobs to suburbs,
2268:
months of the Korean War were some of the most disastrous in US military history. The
3619:
3500:
3044:
2932:
2912:
2848:
2824:
2799:
2709:
2321:
2081:
1984:
1895:
1823:
1808:
1591:
1534:
1333:
1241:
1132:
1052:
891:
172:
3670:
3554:
3495:
3485:
3032:
2904:
2543:
2468:
2297:
2139:
2044:
1947:
1932:
1860:
1781:
1751:
1566:
1402:
1102:
660:
655:
498:
388:
2963:, Number 10, Winter 2006, Annenberg Institute for School Reform, Brown University.
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under a 1983 consent decree constituted racial discrimination in violation of the
3659:
3431:
3320:
3129:
3064:
2956:
2870:
2735:
2432:
2233:
2191:
2163:
1962:
1870:
1766:
1707:
1559:
1544:
1524:
1489:
1196:
1107:
1042:
834:
784:
562:
413:
2176:
In the Second World War, the US Navy first experimented with integration aboard
2127:
officially segregated the United States navy for the first time in its history.
3711:
3629:
3604:
3599:
3512:
3165:'It's Being Black and Poor': Race, Class, and Desegregation at Pebblebrook High
2972:
2945:
2413:
2368:
2124:
2084:. They continued to fight alongside each other in every American war until the
1957:
1915:
1885:
1875:
1793:
1786:
1771:
1761:
1581:
1517:
1459:
1454:
1439:
1216:
1211:
1206:
1092:
1027:
540:
513:
358:
42:
2976:
2447:
A Troubled Dream: The Promise and Failure of School Desegregation in Louisiana
2103:, under the command of White officers. They were recorded and are part of the
3750:
3694:
3614:
3490:
3375:
3232:
3023:
2916:
2497:
2472:
2398:
2035:
1969:
1576:
1512:
1497:
1353:
1318:
1298:
1169:
1112:
1047:
435:
338:
2644:
2427:
2409:
2351:
2347:
2131:
1803:
1682:
1502:
1469:
1449:
1373:
1363:
1343:
1323:
951:
849:
844:
572:
547:
403:
343:
308:
278:
3108:
Guardians of Freedom - 50th Anniversary of Operation Arkansas, by ARMY.MIL
3036:
2908:
2244:, all White Democrats, would likely have stonewalled related legislation.
27:
Process of ending the separation of two groups, usually referring to races
3370:
2241:
2120:
2085:
1697:
1657:
1625:
1484:
1444:
1278:
1191:
1142:
1117:
1017:
702:
425:
408:
363:
283:
3208:
Segregation in countries by type (in some countries, categories overlap)
3151:
Walking into History: The Beginning of School Desegregation in Nashville
2924:
2892:
2247:
For instance, two months prior to Truman's executive order in May 1948,
2201:
s purpose had been to allow Black sailors to serve in the full range of
3680:
3537:
3532:
3517:
2950:"Segregation and Its Calamitous Effects: America's 'Apartheid' Schools"
2501:
2405:
2264:
2089:
1979:
1974:
1855:
1850:
1746:
1722:
1571:
1464:
1422:
1378:
1186:
1174:
1147:
1137:
1057:
452:
447:
418:
353:
194:
3122:
2796:
Freedom to serve : Truman, civil rights, and Executive Order 9981
2412:
have been the poorest Black people and other minorities. According to
3572:
3505:
3360:
3069:
2587:
2488:
2360:
2177:
2135:
2053:, particularly desegregation of the school systems and the military.
1880:
1828:
1529:
1122:
228:
3665:
2088:. Black people would not fight in integrated units again until the
1845:
1667:
1586:
1231:
1157:
1062:
1022:
383:
378:
373:
298:
293:
238:
3639:
3609:
2685:(Ballantine Books Inc.: New York, 1972) p. 127; Jonathan Jordan,
2202:
303:
199:
179:
152:
127:
50:
3634:
3107:
2845:
Troubled Water: Race, Mutiny, and Bravery on the USS Kitty Hawk
1283:
288:
184:
162:
157:
107:
2143:
2116:
1293:
112:
3118:
Commission for Racial Equality, race equality body in the UK
3139:
1927:
1756:
2277:
On 12 October 1972, a racially fraught riot occurred on
3098:
School Desegregation and Equal Educational Opportunity
2332:
is charged with administering and enforcing this law.
2363:
written in the late 1950s regarding desegregation of
2067:
Racial segregation in the United States Armed Forces
2823:. University of North Carolina Press. p. 100.
2451:
Forced to Fail: The Paradox of School Desegregation
3762:African-American segregation in the United States
2397:(1971), the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that
2394:Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education
1891:Racial bias in criminal news in the United States
3748:
2443:Forced Justice: School Desegregation and the Law
2441:Sociologist David Armor states in his 1995 book
1535:Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)
2793:
2378:The Legacy Project: It Happened in Little Rock
2330:US Department of Housing and Urban Development
1011:SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups
3193:
2016:
3545:Residential segregation in the United States
3086:Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity
2326:Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity
2529:Educational inequality in the United States
2464:Ho v. San Francisco Unified School District
1227:List of people killed for being transgender
3200:
3186:
3113:Civil Rights Project at Harvard University
2996:"1960 Year In Review: Schools Desegregate"
2023:
2009:
2890:
2847:Palgrave Macmillan, New York, NY (2009)
2355:
2207:
319:Social determinants of health in poverty
3091:File a housing discrimination complaint
3020:
3014:
2897:The Journal of African American History
2701:
2642:
2342:School integration in the United States
2314:assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.
2057:of society was a closely related goal.
14:
3749:
2677:
2675:
2610:
2608:
2335:
2110:
3181:
2567:
2549:Timeline of the civil rights movement
2539:Military history of African Americans
3729:
3123:Memphis Civil Rights Digital Archive
2818:
2643:Aneja, Abhay; Xu, Guo (2020-12-02).
2519:Achievement gap in the United States
2259:that was being debated in Congress.
2171:761st Tank Battalion (United States)
1033:Capital punishment for homosexuality
324:Social determinants of mental health
3550:Segregation academy (United States)
3465:Sex segregation in public restrooms
2988:
2672:
2605:
2534:List of sports desegregation firsts
2162:For the US Army air corps, see the
1153:Genital modification and mutilation
24:
2770:"Seabeemagazine online 2014/03/06"
2456:
2123:. Upon entering office, President
25:
3773:
3079:
2524:Civil rights movement (1896–1954)
2287:
2227:
3728:
3700:
3699:
3102:Civil Rights 101 Reference Guide
2071:
1646:Diversity, equity, and inclusion
1475:Law for Protection of the Nation
1369:White genocide conspiracy theory
49:
3051:
2966:
2961:VUE (Voices in Urban Education)
2939:
2884:
2857:
2837:
2812:
2787:
2762:
2689:, (Penguin 2015), 54-58, 143-45
2616:"Soldiers and Sailors Database"
2365:Little Rock Central High School
1480:MSM blood donation restrictions
1222:LGBT grooming conspiracy theory
2751:
2740:
2722:
2695:
2636:
2576:
2561:
2506:Chinese for Affirmative Action
2060:
1493:(as religious or racial quota)
13:
1:
2554:
2263:At the end of June 1950, the
1923:Second-generation gender bias
1631:Constitutional colorblindness
314:Social determinants of health
2623:, Department of the Interior
2471:schoolchildren alleged that
2419:The Civil Rights Project at
2367:is projected over actresses
2232:On July 26, 1948, President
2101:United States Colored Troops
2043:, both before and after the
7:
3407:Brown v. Board of Education
2512:
2388:Brown v. Board of Education
2050:Brown v. Board of Education
1834:Medical model of disability
1678:Hate speech laws by country
10:
3778:
3316:Czechoslovakia and Hungary
3000:United Press International
2985:, December 19, 2005. p. 26
2819:Ward, Jason (2011-11-21).
2584:"Blacks in the Korean War"
2477:United States Constitution
2373:Arkansas Repertory Theatre
2345:
2339:
2270:North Korean People's Army
2251:, Democratic senator from
2064:
1943:Social model of disability
369:Discrimination against men
3689:
3563:
3478:
3430:
3361:Apartheid in South Africa
3281:
3213:
2879:Pritzker Military Library
2873:by Gregory A. Freeman on
2572:. Routledge. p. 175.
2169:For the US Army, see the
1274:Opposition to immigration
163:Race / Ethnicity
2891:Franklin, V. P. (2005).
2570:Encyclopedia of the City
2316:on 4 April 1968 and the
2303:Civil Rights Act of 1964
1269:Occupational segregation
1038:Compulsory sterilization
3585:Anti-miscegenation laws
3420:Anti-miscegenation laws
2798:. New York: Routledge.
2794:Taylor, Jon E. (2012).
2708:. Virginia Publishing.
2481:Equal Protection Clause
1819:Internalized oppression
1673:Fighting Discrimination
1663:Fat acceptance movement
1621:Anti-discrimination law
1247:Native American mascots
3676:White Australia policy
3595:Corporative federalism
2977:"Overcoming Apartheid"
2702:Freeman, Greg (2003).
2660:Cite journal requires
2590:. 2003. Archived from
2382:
2375:'s 2007 production of
2312:It was only after the
2307:United States Congress
2222:Harold Rainsford Stark
2213:
2150:in late 1944, General
1938:Social identity threat
1911:Reverse discrimination
1901:Racial color blindness
1359:Violence against women
1339:Sex-selective abortion
3645:Religious intolerance
3104:From civilrights.org.
3037:10.1353/sof.2004.0053
2909:10.1086/JAAHv90n1-2p1
2621:National Park Service
2568:Caves, R. W. (2004).
2359:
2257:Selective Service Act
2211:
2190:, (both commanded by
2105:National Park Service
2041:civil rights movement
1906:Religious intolerance
1866:Political correctness
1688:Intersex human rights
1636:Cultural assimilation
1304:Religious persecution
1068:Disability hate crime
845:Jewish / Antisemitism
3655:Second-class citizen
3650:Reservation in India
3376:United Arab Emirates
3306:Bulgaria and Romania
3171:, 20 February 2012,
2881:on February 18, 2010
2238:Executive Order 9981
2152:Dwight D. Eisenhower
1289:Political repression
274:Anti-left handedness
264:Anti-intellectualism
3523:Exclusionary zoning
3470:Separatist feminism
3248:Partition of Bengal
3145:Bedfordbulletin.com
2843:Gregory A. Freeman
2371:and Gia McGlone in
2336:US education system
2294:housing segregation
2157:Walter Bedell Smith
2148:Battle of the Bulge
2111:World Wars I and II
1814:Historical eugenics
1329:Segregation academy
1309:Religious terrorism
1098:Enemy of the people
1006:Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric
509:Jehovah's Witnesses
394:Perpetual foreigner
3413:Massive resistance
3401:School segregation
3396:Separate but equal
3321:Dominican Republic
3223:Partition of India
3173:southernspaces.org
3159:southernspaces.org
3128:2008-07-26 at the
3063:2006-08-21 at the
2955:2007-02-02 at the
2869:2013-06-28 at the
2734:2018-03-15 at the
2681:Martin Blumenson,
2494:Lowell High School
2421:Harvard University
2383:
2249:Richard B. Russell
2214:
2097:American Civil War
2055:Racial integration
1718:Social integration
1713:Self-determination
1703:Racial integration
1651:Diversity training
1641:Cultural pluralism
1616:Affirmative action
1508:Racial segregation
1418:Crime of apartheid
1314:Religious violence
809:Indigenous people
190:Sexual orientation
3744:
3743:
3620:Majority minority
3501:Ethnic federalism
3283:Ethnic and racial
3243:Greece and Turkey
3135:Trumanlibrary.org
2864:Webcast Interview
2322:Lyndon B. Johnson
2082:Thirteen Colonies
2078:King Philip's War
2033:
2032:
1896:Racism by country
1824:Intersectionality
1809:Heteronormativity
1592:Voter suppression
1334:Sexual harassment
1133:Forced conversion
1053:Cultural genocide
708:African Americans
519:post–Cold War era
504:Eastern Orthodoxy
259:Anti-drug addicts
254:Anti-homelessness
173:Scientific racism
16:(Redirected from
3769:
3732:
3731:
3703:
3702:
3671:Social apartheid
3555:Social exclusion
3528:Forced migration
3496:Ethnic cleansing
3486:Auto-segregation
3228:Northern Ireland
3202:
3195:
3188:
3179:
3178:
3073:
3055:
3049:
3048:
3031:(3): 1242–1244.
3018:
3012:
3011:
3009:
3007:
2992:
2986:
2970:
2964:
2943:
2937:
2936:
2888:
2882:
2861:
2855:
2841:
2835:
2834:
2816:
2810:
2809:
2791:
2785:
2784:
2782:
2781:
2772:. Archived from
2766:
2760:
2755:
2749:
2744:
2738:
2726:
2720:
2719:
2699:
2693:
2679:
2670:
2669:
2663:
2658:
2656:
2648:
2640:
2634:
2633:
2631:
2629:
2612:
2603:
2602:
2600:
2599:
2580:
2574:
2573:
2565:
2544:Multiculturalism
2469:Chinese American
2298:Fair Housing Act
2292:The practice of
2274:
2200:
2183:, then later on
2140:Red Ball Express
2045:US Supreme Court
2025:
2018:
2011:
1948:Social privilege
1933:Social exclusion
1861:Police brutality
1782:Multiculturalism
1752:Amatonormativity
1567:Social exclusion
1403:Age of candidacy
1197:Homeless dumping
1103:Ethnic cleansing
53:
30:
29:
21:
3777:
3776:
3772:
3771:
3770:
3768:
3767:
3766:
3747:
3746:
3745:
3740:
3685:
3660:Separate school
3565:
3559:
3474:
3426:
3277:
3209:
3206:
3169:Southern Spaces
3155:Southern Spaces
3149:John Egerton, "
3130:Wayback Machine
3082:
3077:
3076:
3065:Wayback Machine
3056:
3052:
3019:
3015:
3005:
3003:
2994:
2993:
2989:
2971:
2967:
2957:Wayback Machine
2944:
2940:
2889:
2885:
2875:Troubled Waters
2871:Wayback Machine
2862:
2858:
2842:
2838:
2831:
2817:
2813:
2806:
2792:
2788:
2779:
2777:
2768:
2767:
2763:
2756:
2752:
2745:
2741:
2736:Wayback Machine
2727:
2723:
2716:
2700:
2696:
2680:
2673:
2661:
2659:
2650:
2649:
2641:
2637:
2627:
2625:
2614:
2613:
2606:
2597:
2595:
2582:
2581:
2577:
2566:
2562:
2557:
2515:
2459:
2457:Asian Americans
2433:suburbanization
2354:
2344:
2338:
2290:
2262:
2234:Harry S. Truman
2230:
2198:
2192:Carlton Skinner
2164:Tuskegee Airmen
2113:
2074:
2069:
2063:
2047:'s decision in
2029:
2000:
1999:
1998:
1997:
1996:
1871:Polyculturalism
1767:Civil liberties
1739:
1731:
1730:
1729:
1728:
1727:
1708:Reappropriation
1608:
1607:Countermeasures
1600:
1599:
1598:
1597:
1596:
1525:Racial steering
1491:Numerus clausus
1395:
1387:
1386:
1385:
1384:
1383:
1108:Ethnic conflict
1043:Corrective rape
998:
990:
989:
988:
987:
986:
633:
622:
621:
620:
619:
618:
471:
461:
460:
459:
458:
457:
349:HIV/AIDS stigma
221:
213:
212:
211:
210:
209:
158:Mental disorder
100:
92:
91:
90:
89:
88:
61:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3775:
3765:
3764:
3759:
3742:
3741:
3739:
3738:
3726:
3725:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3697:
3690:
3687:
3686:
3684:
3683:
3678:
3673:
3668:
3663:
3657:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3630:Nuremberg Laws
3627:
3622:
3617:
3612:
3607:
3605:Ghetto benches
3602:
3600:Discrimination
3597:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3581:
3580:
3569:
3567:
3561:
3560:
3558:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3541:
3540:
3530:
3525:
3520:
3515:
3513:Ethnopluralism
3510:
3509:
3508:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3482:
3480:
3476:
3475:
3473:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3436:
3434:
3428:
3427:
3425:
3424:
3423:
3422:
3417:
3416:
3415:
3410:
3398:
3393:
3383:
3381:United Kingdom
3378:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3333:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3287:
3285:
3279:
3278:
3276:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3219:
3217:
3211:
3210:
3205:
3204:
3197:
3190:
3182:
3176:
3175:
3161:
3157:, 4 May 2009,
3147:
3142:
3137:
3132:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3100:, part of the
3095:
3094:
3093:
3081:
3080:External links
3078:
3075:
3074:
3050:
3013:
2987:
2973:Jonathan Kozol
2965:
2946:Jonathan Kozol
2938:
2883:
2856:
2836:
2829:
2811:
2804:
2786:
2761:
2750:
2739:
2721:
2714:
2694:
2671:
2662:|journal=
2635:
2604:
2575:
2559:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2552:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2514:
2511:
2486:The newspaper
2458:
2455:
2414:Jonathan Kozol
2369:Mary-Pat Green
2340:Main article:
2337:
2334:
2289:
2288:US housing law
2286:
2229:
2228:Modern history
2226:
2125:Woodrow Wilson
2112:
2109:
2076:Starting with
2073:
2070:
2062:
2059:
2031:
2030:
2028:
2027:
2020:
2013:
2005:
2002:
2001:
1995:
1994:
1989:
1988:
1987:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1966:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1919:
1918:
1916:Reverse racism
1908:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1886:Prisoner abuse
1883:
1878:
1876:Power distance
1873:
1868:
1863:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1842:
1841:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1794:Ethnic penalty
1791:
1790:
1789:
1787:Neurodiversity
1784:
1774:
1772:Dehumanization
1769:
1764:
1762:Cisnormativity
1759:
1754:
1749:
1743:
1742:
1741:
1740:
1738:Related topics
1737:
1736:
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1725:
1720:
1715:
1710:
1705:
1700:
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1690:
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1612:
1611:
1610:
1609:
1606:
1605:
1602:
1601:
1595:
1594:
1589:
1584:
1582:State religion
1579:
1574:
1569:
1564:
1563:
1562:
1557:
1552:
1547:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1521:
1520:
1518:Nuremberg Laws
1515:
1505:
1500:
1495:
1487:
1482:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1460:Ghetto benches
1457:
1455:Gerrymandering
1452:
1447:
1442:
1440:Gender pay gap
1437:
1436:
1435:
1430:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1405:
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1266:
1265:
1264:
1259:
1254:
1244:
1239:
1234:
1229:
1224:
1219:
1217:Lavender scare
1214:
1212:Kill Haole Day
1209:
1207:Indian rolling
1204:
1199:
1194:
1189:
1184:
1183:
1182:
1172:
1167:
1166:
1165:
1155:
1150:
1145:
1140:
1135:
1130:
1125:
1120:
1115:
1110:
1105:
1100:
1095:
1093:Eliminationism
1090:
1085:
1080:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1060:
1055:
1050:
1045:
1040:
1035:
1030:
1028:Cancel culture
1025:
1020:
1015:
1014:
1013:
1002:
1001:
1000:
999:
997:Manifestations
996:
995:
992:
991:
985:
984:
979:
974:
969:
964:
959:
954:
949:
944:
939:
934:
929:
924:
919:
914:
909:
904:
899:
894:
889:
887:Middle Eastern
884:
879:
874:
869:
864:
859:
854:
853:
852:
842:
837:
832:
827:
826:
825:
820:
815:
807:
802:
797:
792:
787:
782:
777:
772:
767:
762:
757:
752:
747:
742:
737:
732:
727:
722:
721:
720:
715:
710:
700:
695:
690:
689:
688:
683:
678:
668:
663:
658:
653:
648:
643:
637:
636:
635:
634:
628:
627:
624:
623:
617:
616:
614:Zoroastrianism
611:
606:
601:
596:
591:
590:
589:
579:
578:
577:
576:
575:
570:
565:
560:
545:
544:
543:
541:Untouchability
538:
528:
523:
522:
521:
516:
511:
506:
501:
491:
486:
481:
475:
474:
473:
472:
467:
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463:
462:
456:
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443:
438:
433:
423:
422:
421:
416:
406:
401:
396:
391:
386:
381:
376:
371:
366:
361:
359:Leprosy stigma
356:
351:
346:
341:
336:
331:
326:
321:
316:
311:
306:
301:
296:
291:
286:
281:
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256:
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101:
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87:
86:
81:
76:
71:
65:
64:
63:
62:
59:
58:
55:
54:
46:
45:
43:Discrimination
39:
38:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3774:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3754:
3752:
3737:
3736:
3727:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3709:
3708:
3707:
3698:
3696:
3695:Pillarisation
3692:
3691:
3688:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3664:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3615:Jim Crow laws
3613:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3579:
3576:
3575:
3574:
3571:
3570:
3568:
3562:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3539:
3536:
3535:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3516:
3514:
3511:
3507:
3504:
3503:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3491:Balkanization
3489:
3487:
3484:
3483:
3481:
3477:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3437:
3435:
3433:
3429:
3421:
3418:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3408:
3404:
3403:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3388:
3387:
3386:United States
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3288:
3286:
3284:
3280:
3274:
3271:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3220:
3218:
3216:
3212:
3203:
3198:
3196:
3191:
3189:
3184:
3183:
3180:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3163:Ruthie Yow, "
3162:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3127:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3103:
3099:
3096:
3092:
3089:
3088:
3087:
3084:
3083:
3072:
3071:
3066:
3062:
3059:
3054:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3025:
3024:Social Forces
3017:
3001:
2997:
2991:
2984:
2983:
2978:
2974:
2969:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2951:
2947:
2942:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2887:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2865:
2860:
2854:
2853:9780230613614
2850:
2846:
2840:
2832:
2830:9780807835135
2826:
2822:
2815:
2807:
2805:9780415895583
2801:
2797:
2790:
2776:on 2018-05-19
2775:
2771:
2765:
2759:
2754:
2748:
2743:
2737:
2733:
2730:
2725:
2717:
2715:9781891442230
2711:
2707:
2706:
2698:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2678:
2676:
2667:
2654:
2646:
2639:
2624:
2622:
2617:
2611:
2609:
2594:on 2007-07-16
2593:
2589:
2585:
2579:
2571:
2564:
2560:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2516:
2510:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2498:San Francisco
2495:
2491:
2490:
2484:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2473:racial quotas
2470:
2467:, parents of
2466:
2465:
2454:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2422:
2417:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2402:
2400:
2399:forced busing
2396:
2395:
2390:
2389:
2380:
2379:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2353:
2349:
2343:
2333:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2318:ensuing riots
2315:
2310:
2308:
2304:
2299:
2295:
2285:
2283:
2282:
2275:
2271:
2266:
2260:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2245:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2225:
2223:
2219:
2210:
2206:
2204:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2188:
2182:
2181:
2174:
2172:
2167:
2165:
2160:
2158:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2128:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2108:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2093:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2072:Early history
2068:
2058:
2056:
2052:
2051:
2046:
2042:
2037:
2036:Desegregation
2026:
2021:
2019:
2014:
2012:
2007:
2006:
2004:
2003:
1993:
1990:
1986:
1983:
1982:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1970:Social stigma
1968:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1950:
1949:
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269:Anti-intersex
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244:Anti-albinism
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69:Institutional
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19:
3733:
3704:
3455:Saudi Arabia
3405:
3371:Saudi Arabia
3258:Saudi Arabia
3168:
3154:
3140:Ussmason.org
3068:
3053:
3028:
3022:
3016:
3004:. Retrieved
2999:
2990:
2980:
2968:
2960:
2941:
2903:(1/2): 1–8.
2900:
2896:
2886:
2874:
2859:
2844:
2839:
2820:
2814:
2795:
2789:
2778:. Retrieved
2774:the original
2764:
2753:
2742:
2724:
2704:
2697:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2653:cite journal
2638:
2626:. Retrieved
2619:
2596:. Retrieved
2592:the original
2578:
2569:
2563:
2487:
2485:
2462:
2460:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2428:White flight
2425:
2418:
2410:inner cities
2403:
2392:
2386:
2384:
2376:
2352:White flight
2348:Black school
2311:
2291:
2280:
2276:
2261:
2246:
2231:
2215:
2195:
2186:
2179:
2175:
2168:
2161:
2132:World War II
2129:
2115:Despite the
2114:
2094:
2075:
2048:
2034:
1804:Gender-blind
1683:Human rights
1503:Racial quota
1490:
1470:Jewish quota
1450:Gerontocracy
1445:Gender roles
1423:Disabilities
1408:Blood purity
1374:Wife selling
1364:White flight
1344:Slut-shaming
1324:Scapegoating
1242:Murder music
907:Palestinians
850:Anti-Zionism
718:South Africa
703:Black people
681:South Africa
494:Christianity
484:Baháʼí Faith
404:Sectarianism
344:Heterosexism
309:Ephebiphobia
279:Anti-Masonry
138:Hair texture
3757:Segregation
3590:Black Codes
3538:labor camps
3445:Afghanistan
3006:27 February
2628:27 February
2449:(2002) and
2328:within the
2242:Solid South
2121:World War I
2095:During the
2086:War of 1812
2061:US military
1698:Nonviolence
1693:LGBT rights
1658:Empowerment
1626:Anti-racism
1540:Segregation
1485:No kid zone
1279:Persecution
1192:Hate speech
1143:Gay bashing
1118:Ethnic joke
1073:Dog whistle
1018:Blood libel
698:Azerbaijani
594:Neopaganism
587:Persecution
553:Persecution
536:Persecution
499:Catholicism
426:Transphobia
409:Supremacism
364:Lesbophobia
284:Aporophobia
249:Anti-autism
84:Taste-based
79:Statistical
18:Desegregate
3751:Categories
3693:See also:
3681:Xenophobia
3533:Internment
3518:Ethnocracy
2982:The Nation
2780:2018-05-17
2683:Eisenhower
2598:2008-03-09
2555:References
2502:California
2346:See also:
2281:Kitty Hawk
2265:Korean War
2220:, Admiral
2136:stevedores
2090:Korean War
2065:See also:
1980:Stereotype
1975:Speciesism
1856:Oppression
1851:Oikophobia
1747:Allophilia
1723:Toleration
1572:Sodomy law
1465:Internment
1379:Witch-hunt
1257:Blackhawks
1187:Hate group
1175:Hate crime
1148:Gendercide
1138:Freak show
1128:Excellence
1088:Employment
1058:Defamation
982:Vietnamese
977:Venezuelan
867:Lithuanian
526:Falun Gong
453:Xenophobia
448:Vegaphobia
431:Non-binary
389:Pedophobia
354:Homophobia
168:Skin color
128:Disability
99:Attributes
74:Structural
3573:Apartheid
3506:Bantustan
3391:Civil War
3215:Religious
3070:AsianWeek
3045:201738276
2933:140451875
2917:1548-1867
2588:U.S. Army
2489:AsianWeek
2406:the South
2361:Hate mail
2279:USS
2185:USS
2180:Sea Cloud
1953:Christian
1881:Prejudice
1829:Masculism
1777:Diversity
1555:religious
1530:Redlining
1123:Ethnocide
1083:Education
967:Ukrainian
902:Pakistani
892:Mongolian
813:Australia
795:Hungarian
750:Colombian
730:Bulgarian
604:Rastafari
558:Ahmadiyya
469:Religious
441:Trans men
399:Pregnancy
334:Gayphobia
329:Fatphobia
234:Acephobia
229:Arophobia
205:Viewpoint
3706:Category
3666:Shunning
3662:(Canada)
3625:Nativism
3479:Dynamics
3356:Rhodesia
3351:Portugal
3346:Malaysia
3311:Bulgaria
3253:Portugal
3126:Archived
3061:Archived
2953:Archived
2925:20063972
2867:Archived
2732:Archived
2513:See also
1992:The talk
1928:Snobbery
1846:Net bias
1668:Feminism
1587:Ugly law
1428:Catholic
1394:Policies
1237:Mortgage
1232:Lynching
1163:examples
1158:Genocide
1078:Economic
1063:Democide
1023:Bullying
932:Romanian
897:Nigerian
840:Japanese
775:Georgian
760:Filipino
693:Assyrian
666:Armenian
656:American
651:Albanian
631:national
609:Yazidism
531:Hinduism
489:Buddhism
384:Nepotism
379:Misogyny
374:Misandry
299:Clannism
294:Biphobia
239:Adultism
148:Language
35:a series
33:Part of
3735:Commons
3640:Rankism
3610:Hafrada
3564:Related
3460:Judaism
3336:Germany
3296:Bahrain
3273:Myanmar
3268:Bahrain
2877:at the
2253:Georgia
2203:billets
2130:During
1799:Figleaf
1202:Housing
962:Turkish
912:Pashtun
882:Mexican
862:Kurdish
835:Italian
785:Haitian
770:Finnish
745:Chinese
740:Chechen
735:Catalan
725:Bengali
646:African
629:Ethnic/
582:Judaism
573:Sunnism
563:Shi'ism
479:Atheism
304:Elitism
195:Species
133:Genetic
123:Dialect
3722:racial
3717:gender
3635:Racism
3566:topics
3432:Gender
3341:Israel
3331:France
3301:Brazil
3291:Canada
3238:Serbia
3233:Israel
3043:
3002:. 1960
2931:
2923:
2915:
2851:
2827:
2802:
2712:
2385:After
2178:USCGC
2138:. The
1985:threat
1839:autism
1560:sexual
1550:racial
1433:Jewish
1284:Pogrom
1262:Chiefs
1252:Braves
972:Uyghur
947:Somali
942:Slavic
927:Romani
922:Quebec
917:Polish
857:Korean
818:Canada
805:Indian
790:Hazara
765:Fulani
676:France
641:Afghan
568:Sufism
289:Audism
220:Social
143:Height
3712:caste
3440:Islam
3366:Spain
3263:Spain
3041:S2CID
2929:S2CID
2921:JSTOR
2199:'
2196:Mason
2187:Mason
2144:D-Day
2117:NAACP
1963:white
1294:Purge
952:Tatar
877:Māori
872:Malay
830:Irish
780:Greek
755:Croat
713:China
671:Asian
548:Islam
414:White
153:Looks
118:Class
113:Caste
60:Forms
3578:laws
3450:Iran
3326:Fiji
3008:2015
2913:ISSN
2849:ISBN
2825:ISBN
2800:ISBN
2710:ISBN
2666:help
2630:2015
2350:and
1958:male
1757:Bias
1180:LGBT
957:Thai
937:Serb
800:Igbo
661:Arab
419:Male
200:Size
180:Rank
3167:,"
3153:,"
3033:doi
2905:doi
2496:in
2479:'s
2236:'s
2218:CNO
1545:age
185:Sex
108:Age
3753::
3067:,
3039:.
3029:82
3027:.
2998:.
2979:,
2975:,
2959:,
2948:,
2927:.
2919:.
2911:.
2901:90
2899:.
2895:.
2674:^
2657::
2655:}}
2651:{{
2618:.
2607:^
2586:.
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2173:.
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3035::
3010:.
2935:.
2907::
2833:.
2808:.
2783:.
2718:.
2691:.
2668:)
2664:(
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2632:.
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
