110:
2169:
1906:
1547:
81:
2316:
2288:
2260:
1590:
American Union. With this in mind, many
Catholics especially in Southern Germany feared that Prussia might one day might attempt to engineer a similar sort of secession crisis within a united Germany and use it as a pretext to launch a violent repression against Catholicism throughout Germany. Thus, it was Bismarck's intention to make the new federal state look like a confederation in the tradition of the German Confederation and explains the name of the country and several provisions in the draft constitution — Bismarck needed to make the federal state more attractive (or at least less repulsive) to southern German states which might later join.
2379:
2403:
1233:
619:
591:
67:
2024:
2127:
2106:
2066:
2469:
2448:
644:
98:
2427:
2564:
605:
1988:
2232:
2358:
2490:
686:
3262:
2211:
2148:
551:
1718:) treaties were signed the following month. Henceforth, the governing bodies of the Customs Union were the Bundesrat and Reichstag of the North German Confederation, augmented by representatives of the south German governments in the former and members from these states elected in the same way as the others in the latter. When augmented thus for customs matters, the institutions were known as the Federal Customs Council and the Customs Parliament (
1206:
2548:
3960:
1147:
2532:
576:
3075:(The Foundation of the Empire, 1871), Lebendiges virtuelles Museum Online, accessed 2008-12-22. German text translated: on the wishes of Wilhelm I, on the 170th anniversary of the elevation of the House of Brandenburg to royal status on January 18, 1701, the assembled German princes and high military officials proclaimed Wilhelm I as German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Versailles Palace, and he accepted the title.
1638:
109:
1161:
1525:(alliance). The treaty created a military alliance for one year. It also affirmed that the states wanted to form a federal state based on the Prussian proposals of June 1866. They agreed to have a parliament elected to discuss a draft constitution. At the same time, the original East Prussian cradle of the Prussian statehood as well as the Prussian-held Polish- or Kashubian-speaking territories of
2731:(The Foundation of the Empire, 1871), Lebendiges virtuelles Museum Online, accessed 2008-12-22. German text translated: on the wishes of Wilhelm I, on the 170th anniversary of the elevation of the House of Brandenburg to royal status on January 18, 1701, the assembled German princes and high military officials proclaimed Wilhelm I as German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Versailles Palace.
1538:. But Bismarck chose a different approach. Prussia incorporated (in October 1866) only the former military opponents Hannover, Hesse-Kassel, Nassau, the free city of Frankfurt, and the Hesse-Homburg area of Hesse Darmstadt. These areas were combined into the two new Prussian provinces of Hannover and Hesse-Nassau. Schleswig and Holstein also became a Prussian province.
1333:, a representation of the states). During the initial three and a half years of the Confederation, a conservative-liberal cooperation undertook important steps to unify (Northern) Germany with regard to law and infrastructure. The designed political system and the political parties remained essentially the same also after 1870.
1703:
For all intents and purposes, the
Confederation was dominated by Prussia. It had four-fifths of the confederation's territory and population – more than the other 21 members combined. The Prussian king was a kind of head of state. Chancellor Bismarck was also prime minister and foreign minister of
1829:
According to a minority among German experts, the North German
Confederation and the southern states created a new federal state (the German Empire). Indeed, Bismarck allowed the south German states to save face and therefore used terminology suggesting a new creation. But Kotulla emphasizes that
1589:
abolished. While few
Germans were particularly sympathetic toward the precise institution (i.e., slavery) which had precipitated civil war in America, the prevailing viewpoint outside the U.S. at this time was that the slaves had only been emancipated as a reprisal for Southern secession from the
1533:
were formally ′annexed into
Germany. Saxony and Hesse-Darmstadt, former enemies in the war of 1866, had to agree their accession to the new federation in their respective peace treaties (Hesse-Darmstadt only joined with its northern province, Upper Hesse). Later in 1866, other states joined the
1890:
The three constitutions (1867, January 1871, and April 1871) were nearly identical. It took roughly a decade to develop the country into a fully grown federal state, with several governmental departments (a kind of ministries), responsible state secretaries (a kind of ministers, 1878), and an
1471:
of 1849–1850. When the union parliament met in early 1850 to discuss the constitution, the participating states were mainly only those in
Northern and Central Germany. Austria and the southern German states WĂĽrttemberg and Bavaria forced Prussia to give up its union plans in late 1850.
1955:
Lauenburg is sometimes mentioned as one of the member states, sometimes not. It was one of the three duchies that had earlier belong to
Denmark. Lauenburg was a state with the Prussian king as duke until 1876, when it became a part of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein.
1913:
All of the member states had already belonged to the German
Confederation of 1815–66. Austria and the south German states Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and the Grand Duchy of Hesse (Hesse-Darmstadt) remained outside of the North German Confederation. Though, the northern province
1672:, the 'federal council' of the representatives of the state governments. To adopt a law, a majority in the Reichstag and in the Bundesrat was necessary. This gave the allied governments, meaning the states (and, depending on the state, their princes), an important veto.
1554:
Bismarck sought advice from conservative and democratic politicians and finally presented a draft constitution to the other state governments. At the same time, in late 1866, Prussia and the other states prepared the election of a North German parliament. This
1647:
on 24 February 1867. This organ was actually not a parliament as there was no federal state then. Its sole purpose was to discuss and accept the draft constitution. Later, in August, the North
Germans elected the first Reichstag as established by the new
1573:
was not a parliament but only an organ to discuss and accept the draft constitution. After that, the state parliaments (June 1867) ratified it so that on 1 July the constitution was enabled. In August, the first
Reichstag of the new federal state was elected.
1742:
On the other hand, the two Mecklenburg duchies and three Hanseatic cities were initially not members of the Customs Union. The Mecklenburgs and LĂĽbeck joined soon after the North German Confederation was formed. Eventually, after heavy Prussian pressure,
1475:
In April and June 1866, Prussia proposed a Lesser Germany again. A corner stone of the proposal was the election of a German parliament based on universal male suffrage. The proposal explicitly mentioned the Frankfurt election law of 1849.
1480:, the minister-president of Prussia, wanted to gain sympathy within the national and liberal movement of the time. Austria and its allies refused the proposal. In summer 1866 Austria and Prussia fought with their respective allies in the
1704:
Prussia. In that role he instructed the Prussian votes in the Bundesrat. Prussia had 17 of 43 votes in the Bundesrat despite being by far the largest state but could easily get a majority by making alliances with the smaller states.
2837:
2772:
1747:
in 1888. Bremen joined at the same time. Despite this, all these states fully participated in the federal institutions, even while outside the Customs Union and not directly affected by their decisions in that regard.
1234:
1939:
included its own territories formerly outside of the Holy Roman Empire and the German Confederation, namely the East Prussian cradle of its statehood as well as the Prussian-conquered Polish territories
1757:
1598:
During the roughly three and a half years of the North German Confederation its major action existed in legislation unifying Northern Germany. The Reichstag decided on laws concerning, for example:
1679:, being the only responsible federal minister of the country. There was no formal cabinet, and in the time of the North German Confederation there were only two government departments anyway: the
1379:" despite being titled as one of a new "German Confederation", but it lasted only four months. Following the victory in the war with France, the German princes and senior military commanders
1820:
that were left out of the Confederation) joined the North German Confederation. On this occasion, the country adopted a new constitution, and the name of the federal state was changed to
1830:
legally only accession of the southern states to the North German Confederation was possible; the legal basis for such an accession was art. 79 of the North German federal constitution.
1712:
In June 1867 a conference took place between Prussia and the south German states, who were not members of the North German Confederation. After pressure from Prussia, new Customs Union (
1781:
3222:
1694:. This office belonged automatically to the Prussian king (art. 11). The holder was de facto the head of state of the North German Confederation. (Bismarck wanted to avoid the title
1534:
treaty. The liberals in the Prussian parliament favored a wholesale annexation of all North German territories by Prussia. In a similar way, Sardinia–Piedmont had created the
1744:
1305:, initially as a military alliance only, while its first federal constitution establishing a constitutional monarchy with the Prussian king holding as the head of state the
2687:
Rechtsgeschichte als Zeitgeschichte. Historische Betrachtungen zur Entstehung und Durchsetzung der Theorie vom Fortbestand des Deutschen Reiches als Staat nach 1945.
1447:
trade policy, the unwillingness to split its customs territory into the separate Austrian, Hungarian and Galician-Lodomerian ones, as well as due to opposition of
17:
3976:
1870:
in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. This latter date was later customarily celebrated as the symbolic day of 'foundation of the German Empire' (
4065:
3215:
2685:
Springer, Berlin 2008, p. 526. R. Stettner, in: H. Dreier (ed.), Grundgesetz-Kommentar, vol. 2, second edition 2006, Art. 123, Rn. 14. Bernhard Diestelkamp:
1496:(23 August). Austria accepted the Prussian demand for the German Confederation to be dissolved. Prussia was allowed to create instead a "closer federation" (
1192:
4060:
3423:
3208:
1427:
being the primary driver behind the customs union. Although it was formally inaugurated on 1 January 1834, its origins may be traced to a variety of
1502:) in Germany north of the river Main. Bismarck had already agreed on this limitation with the French emperor Napoleon III prior to the peace talks.
1301:
of German unification in the form of a federal state in Northern Germany. Construction of such state became a reality in August 1866, following the
80:
3456:
1834:
1071:
475:
3017:
72:
1372:
1387:
which prevailed until the demise of the monarchy entered into force on 4 May 1871, while France recognised the empire on 10 May 1871 in the
4085:
320:
1879:
After a new Reichstag was elected on 3 March 1871, the transition from the Confederation to the Empire was completed when the permanent
4075:
1883:
prevailing until the demise of the monarchy entered into force on 4 May 1871, while France recognised the empire on 10 May 1871 in the
3746:
2822:
3231:
1185:
1355:, thus making up roughly 75% of the population of the future German Empire. Under these circumstances, the South German states of
4080:
4070:
1567:
gathered from February to April. In close talks with Bismarck, it altered the draft constitution in some significant points. The
744:
97:
66:
1659:
413:
2590:
1125:
1056:
989:
86:
3449:
1383:
in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. Transition from the Confederation to the Empire was completed when the
4015:
3640:
3395:
3288:
3283:
2496:
2133:
2112:
1577:
A major factor in determining the form the new federal government would take was the aftermath of the recently concluded
1178:
952:
720:
4020:
3516:
1091:
885:
740:
1936:
annexed four former enemy states (Hanover, Kurhessen, Nassau, Frankfurt) which became parts of Prussia (October 1866);
3155:
3001:
1880:
1516:
1384:
1302:
503:
489:
436:
4095:
4090:
3776:
3380:
2622:
2433:
735:
3072:
2728:
786:
3939:
3781:
3442:
897:
762:
3261:
4025:
3766:
3661:
3140:
1546:
766:
725:
350:
3791:
3549:
2630:
1905:
1731:
1586:
758:
313:
1656:
of 16 April 1867 created a national parliament with universal suffrage (for men above the age of 25), the
4030:
3786:
3730:
3372:
3166:
2969:
Hegemonie und Gleichgewicht im Bundesstaat. Preußen 1867–1933: Geschichte eines hegemonialen Gliedstaates
2409:
1267:
778:
730:
715:
710:
665:
269:
3751:
4035:
3821:
3532:
3364:
3200:
2958:. Vol. III: "Bismarck und das Reich". 3rd edition, W. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart (et al.) 1988, pp. 580–583.
2656:
is used in the German constitutional history (a) for confederations (associations of states, in German
2385:
1884:
1388:
927:
700:
179:
4055:
4050:
4045:
4040:
3856:
3771:
3681:
3390:
2626:
2585:
2475:
1653:
1324:
774:
770:
705:
462:
398:
339:
3511:
1927:
had gathered a number of allies that joined the North German Confederation via the August treaties (
1809:
1364:
3934:
3811:
3293:
2154:
1867:
1582:
1380:
782:
131:
1375:
subsequently entered into force on 1 January 1871 proclaiming in its preamble and article 11 the "
1243:) was initially a German military alliance established in August 1866 under the leadership of the
3877:
3756:
3690:
3632:
1351:. At the time, the original Confederation had nearly 30 million inhabitants of whom 80% lived in
1049:
750:
3670:
1866:
Following the victory in the war with France, the German princes and senior military commanders
1289:, where Prussia pressured Austria and its allies into accepting the dissolution of the existing
3826:
3801:
3712:
3465:
3385:
2454:
1493:
1286:
1259:
915:
809:
449:
215:
211:
183:
115:
2991:
2570:
3806:
3359:
3331:
2364:
2294:
1676:
1515:
On 18 August 1866, Prussia and a larger number of North and Central German states signed the
1448:
1341:
1336:
Shortly after its inception, tensions emerged between the North German Confederation and the
1112:
754:
3051:
1863:
of the Confederation; it entered into force on 1 January 1871, but lasted only four months.
3929:
3851:
3831:
3816:
3699:
3652:
3537:
3298:
3278:
2661:
2175:
2072:
1817:
1813:
1667:
1436:
1400:
1360:
1356:
1337:
1290:
1263:
1214:
1107:
935:
922:
814:
557:
550:
310:
3908:
1463:
In 1849, the National Assembly in Frankfurt elected the Prussian king as the Emperor of a
8:
3872:
3796:
3721:
3708:
1801:
1481:
1348:
1274:
596:
227:
223:
195:
127:
123:
3897:
3584:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3321:
3246:
3011:
2869:
2804:
2595:
2238:
2008:
1994:
1951:
forced the remaining states into the North German Confederation via the peace treaties.
1805:
1786:
One of the functions of the confederation was to handle mail and issue postage stamps.
1578:
1424:
1368:
1282:
1244:
1210:
902:
862:
834:
674:
624:
582:
575:
235:
191:
135:
1756:
1309:
3841:
3761:
3604:
3506:
3251:
3185:
Bismarck and the Development of Germany, Vol. 1: The Period of Unification, 1815–1871
3180:(1996), very dense coverage of every aspect of German society, economy and government
3151:
3055:
2997:
2912:
2873:
2861:
2808:
2796:
2030:
1941:
1800:
In mid-1870, a diplomatic crisis concerning the Spanish throne led eventually to the
1526:
1477:
867:
790:
610:
369:
219:
207:
199:
3195:
1724:). On 1 January 1868, the new institutions came into force. Bismarck hoped that the
1685:
as the general office of the chancellor, and, since early 1870, the foreign office.
1614:
unified measures and weights (with the obligatory introduction of the metric system)
3622:
3613:
2853:
2788:
2160:
1535:
829:
824:
819:
231:
3045:
1833:
On 10 December 1870 the Reichstag of the North German Confederation had adopted a
1467:(a Germany without Austria). The king refused and tried to unite Germany with the
3924:
3903:
3890:
3484:
3479:
3316:
2618:
2217:
1854:
1764:
stamp, 1868. The postal services in the north German states were united into the
1440:
1294:
1226:
999:
423:
239:
187:
175:
167:
47:
2980:
Henderson, William. The Zollverein. Publ Cambridge University Press, 1939; p.314
3964:
3919:
3883:
3413:
3341:
3336:
3326:
2538:
2322:
2266:
1850:
1464:
1414:
1403:
as a tool to suppress liberal and national ambitions in the German population.
1315:
was adopted on 1 July 1867. Laws could only be enabled with the consent of the
1298:
1165:
1151:
892:
243:
203:
2857:
2792:
4009:
3991:
3978:
3915:
3564:
3059:
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2800:
2481:
1795:
1444:
1376:
1255:
1248:
979:
637:
521:
307:
257:
147:
119:
1273:
The Confederation came into existence following the Prussian victory in the
3836:
3554:
3351:
2251:
2090:
1945:
1530:
1468:
1428:
1344:
1088:
1084:
1019:
1009:
970:
857:
383:
2672:) such as the Federal Republic of Germany or the United States of America.
2439:
1602:
free movement of citizens within the territory of the Confederation (1867)
1492:
Prussia and Austria signed a Nikolsburg preliminary (26 July) and a final
1487:
685:
3846:
3434:
3270:
2652:
An alternative translation is "North German Federation." The German word
2139:
2086:
1843:(German Confederation) in spite of establishing for the state a new name
1347:. In Summer 1870, a dispute over a new king for Spain escalated into the
872:
407:
392:
281:
3230:
1399:
For most of 1815–1833, Austria and Prussia worked together and used the
3543:
3405:
3171:
2683:
Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte. Vom Alten Reich bis Weimar (1495–1934).
2460:
1624:
1581:, which had seen the southern states forcibly re-incorporated into the
1419:
1371:
previously opposed to the Confederation ultimately decided to join it.
942:
171:
3594:
3032:
Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte. Vom Alten Reich bis Weimar (1495–1934)
2943:
Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte. Vom Alten Reich bis Weimar (1495–1934)
2717:
Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte. Vom Alten Reich bis Weimar (1495–1934)
2704:
Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte. Vom Alten Reich bis Weimar (1495–1934)
114:
The North German Confederation (red). The southern German states that
3945:
2823:"Germany – The age of Metternich and the era of unification, 1815–71"
2335:
2279:
1550:
Chart illustrating the constitution of the North German Confederation
265:
3164:
Hudson, Richard. "The Formation of the North German Confederation."
2118:
1782:
Postage stamps and postal history of the North German Confederation
1258:) that existed from July 1867 to December 1870. A milestone of the
261:
1205:
3418:
2664:
of 1815, but (b) also for federations (federal states, in German
2554:
2509:
2370:
2097:
2043:
1761:
1352:
1278:
1037:
839:
294:
285:
1730:
might become the vehicle of German unification. But in the 1868
2307:
2223:
2188:
2015:
1804:. During the war, in November 1870, the south German states of
1637:
157:
1505:
1455:
managed to include by 1866 the majority of the German states.
3308:
2418:
1611:
equal rights for the different religious denominations (1869)
1293:(an association of German states under the leadership of the
130:
of 1870, is in tan. The red territory in the south marks the
1948:) in the new state, thus formally annexing them into Germany
1458:
476:
Accession of southern states; German Empire adopted as name
2394:
1621:
The North German Confederation also became a member of the
1849:(German Realm or German Empire) and granting the title of
1739:
the South Germans voted mainly for anti-Prussian parties.
1431:
among the German states, formed beginning from 1818. The
3092:
3rd edition, W. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1988, pp. 750/751.
2971:. Diss. Bonn 2000, Shaker Verlag, Aachen 2001, pp. 31–33.
2892:
Die Erfurter Union und das Erfurter Unionsparlament 1850
1323:(a parliament based on universal male suffrage) and the
1488:
Peace of Prague and dissolution of German Confederation
1423:, a customs union formed by the treaties of 1833, with
1561:
was elected in February 1867 based on state laws. The
1247:, which was transformed in the subsequent year into a
1266:
of the modern German nation-state known today as the
3122:
3rd edition, W. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1988, p. 747.
2761:
3rd edition, W. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1988, p. 747.
1923:In northern, central and eastern Germany, Prussia:
2993:Deutschland im 19. Jahrhundert: Entwicklungslinien
1789:
1688:The chancellor was installed and dismissed by the
1541:
4007:
1593:
450:Peace of Prague; German Confederation dissolved
1876:), although it had no constitutional meaning.
1277:of 1866 over the lordship of two small Danish
4066:States and territories disestablished in 1871
3450:
3216:
1186:
3178:Germany from Napoleon to Bismarck: 1800–1866
2520:
2501:
2346:
2327:
2299:
2271:
2243:
2199:
2180:
2077:
2054:
2035:
1999:
1976:
1928:
1915:
1892:
1871:
1858:
1844:
1838:
1821:
1771:
1765:
1732:
1725:
1719:
1713:
1695:
1689:
1680:
1665:
1657:
1642:
1622:
1568:
1562:
1556:
1520:
1497:
1328:
1317:
1307:
1054:
940:
134:of the House of Hohenzollern, rulers of the
39:
27:Federal state in Northern Germany, 1866–1871
3105:. New York, The Viking Press, 1981, p. 299.
3050:. Cincinnati: Jennings & Pye. pp.
3037:
2744:. New York, The Viking Press, 1981, p. 299.
1909:Detailed map of North German Confederation.
1506:Formation of the North German Confederation
4061:States and territories established in 1867
3464:
3457:
3443:
3223:
3209:
3016:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2989:
1443:itself was excluded because of its highly
1193:
1179:
108:
96:
3116:Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte seit 1789.
3086:Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte seit 1789.
2932:. W. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1963, p. 570.
2755:Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte seit 1789.
1459:Frankfurt Parliament and the Erfurt Union
3232:States of the North German Confederation
2956:Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte seit 1789
2926:Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte seit 1789
2905:Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte seit 1789
1904:
1900:
1755:
1636:
1545:
1435:was not subordinate to the Austrian-led
1204:
18:States of the North German Confederation
3145:
2974:
2888:PreuĂźen und die Unionspolitik 1849/1850
2835:
2770:
2691:Zeitschrift fĂĽr Neuere Rechtsgeschichte
1209:Map of the North German Confederation (
14:
4008:
3148:A History of Modern Germany: 1840–1945
1920:of the Grand Duchy of Hesse did join.
126:, the territory annexed following the
102:The North German Confederation in 1870
3438:
3204:
2945:. Springer, Berlin 2008, pp. 491–492.
2915:, Stuttgart et al. 1988, pp. 536/537.
2842:and the origins of the customs union"
2777:and the origins of the customs union"
2719:. Springer, Berlin 2008, pp. 525–527.
2706:. Springer, Berlin 2008, pp. 487–489.
2591:Former countries in Europe after 1815
3043:
1745:Hamburg acceded to the Customs Union
1629:, the German customs union of 1834.
1510:
3192:Bismarck: The Man and the Statesman
1868:proclaimed Wilhelm "German Emperor"
1632:
1381:proclaimed Wilhelm "German Emperor"
24:
4086:1870s disestablishments in Prussia
3517:States of the German Confederation
3129:
2894:. 2000, pp. 53–80, here pp. 78–80.
2846:Journal of Institutional Economics
2781:Journal of Institutional Economics
2089:, the province north of the river
1664:. Another important organ was the
1605:a common postal system (1867–1868)
25:
4107:
4076:1871 disestablishments in Germany
1881:Constitution of the German Empire
1751:
1517:North German Confederation Treaty
1385:Constitution of the German Empire
1303:North German Confederation Treaty
3958:
3260:
3034:. Springer, Berlin 2008, p. 526.
2693:7 (1985), pp. 187 and following.
2562:
2546:
2530:
2488:
2467:
2446:
2425:
2401:
2377:
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1790:Transition to the German Empire
1451:to the idea. Nevertheless, the
1413:The first major step towards a
1297:), thus paving the way for the
953:German revolutions of 1848–1849
4081:1867 establishments in Prussia
4071:1867 establishments in Germany
2764:
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1542:Towards a federal constitution
1373:A new short-lived constitution
13:
1:
3792:Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust
2639:
2631:Principality of Liechtenstein
1837:, still titled as one of the
1594:Constructing the nation-state
1406:
2990:Görtemaker, Manfred (1983).
2623:Duchy of Limburg (1839–1867)
1816:(together with the parts of
314:semi-constitutional monarchy
7:
3940:Schleswig–Holstein question
3787:Friedrich Daniel Bassermann
3167:Political Science Quarterly
3150:. Knopf. pp. 173–232.
2579:
1268:Federal Republic of Germany
1264:continual legal predecessor
10:
4112:
4016:North German Confederation
3822:Karl August von Hardenberg
3560:North German Confederation
3533:Confederation of the Rhine
2838:"A novel institution: the
2773:"A novel institution: the
1793:
1779:
1700:with its republican air.)
1644:konstituierender Reichstag
1570:konstituierender Reichstag
1564:konstituierender Reichstag
1558:konstituierender Reichstag
1394:
1223:North German Confederation
958:North German Confederation
928:Confederation of the Rhine
504:Constitution of the Empire
36:North German Confederation
4021:Modern history of Germany
3955:
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3550:German Empire (1848–1849)
3525:
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2890:. In: Gunther Mai (ed.):
2858:10.1017/S1744137420000387
2836:Ploeckl, Florian (2020).
2793:10.1017/S1744137420000387
2771:Ploeckl, Florian (2020).
2627:Grand Duchy of Luxembourg
2586:North German Constitution
2568:
2552:
2536:
2517:Free and Hanseatic Cities
2515:
2476:Schwarzburg-Sondershausen
2341:
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2049:
1971:
1963:
1770:, the predecessor of the
1654:North German Constitution
1340:, which was ruled by the
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3935:Greater Austria proposal
3170:(1891) 6#3 pp: 424–438.
2996:. Opladen. p. 244.
2601:
2301:Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha
1767:Norddeutscher Postbezirk
1583:United States of America
4096:19th century in Prussia
4091:19th century in Germany
3878:Austro-Prussian rivalry
3691:"Blood and Iron" speech
3662:Greater Poland uprising
3633:Frankfurter Wachensturm
3120:Bismarck und das Reich.
3090:Bismarck und das Reich.
3073:Die ReichsgrĂĽndung 1871
2759:Bismarck und das Reich.
2729:Die ReichsgrĂĽndung 1871
2182:Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach
1873:Deutsche ReichsgrĂĽndung
1608:common passports (1867)
3891:Das Lied der Deutschen
3827:Klemens von Metternich
3802:Johann Gottlieb Fichte
3512:Kingdom of WĂĽrttemberg
3466:Unification of Germany
3386:Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt
3146:Holborn, Hajo (1959).
3139:(1978) pp. 11–22
2967:Christoph Vondenhoff:
2930:Bismarck und das Reich
2909:Bismarck und das Reich
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1415:Lesser German solution
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4026:Former confederations
3807:Johann Gustav Droysen
3777:Frederick William III
3044:Case, Nelson (1902).
2681:See Michael Kotulla:
2522:Freie und Hansestädte
2295:Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
1908:
1901:List of member states
1759:
1641:First session of the
1640:
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1449:Prince von Metternich
1299:Lesser German version
1208:
736:Territorial evolution
164:Common languages
3930:German reunification
3852:Wilhelm von Humboldt
3817:John, King of Saxony
3782:Frederick William IV
3731:Treaty of Versailles
3700:Second Schleswig War
3671:Punctation of OlmĂĽtz
3653:Frankfurt Parliament
3538:German Confederation
3289:Mecklenburg-Strelitz
3284:Mecklenburg-Schwerin
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2176:Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach
2134:Mecklenburg-Strelitz
2113:Mecklenburg-Schwerin
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1401:German Confederation
1338:Second French Empire
1291:German Confederation
1072:Expulsion of Germans
1038:Contemporary Germany
936:German Confederation
558:German Confederation
463:Constitution adopted
437:Confederation Treaty
3988: /
3797:Heinrich von Gagern
3722:Franco-Prussian War
3709:Austro-Prussian War
3396:Waldeck and Pyrmont
3176:Nipperdey, Thomas.
3101:Crankshaw, Edward.
2740:Crankshaw, Edward.
2503:Waldeck und Pyrmont
2497:Waldeck and Pyrmont
1960:
1885:Treaty of Frankfurt
1802:Franco-Prussian War
1482:Austro-Prussian War
1389:Treaty of Frankfurt
1349:Franco-Prussian War
1285:) resulting in the
1275:Austro-Prussian War
886:Early Modern period
873:Eastward settlement
597:Province of Prussia
128:Franco-Prussian War
4031:Kingdom of Prussia
3965:Germany portal
3898:Die Wacht am Rhein
3682:Dresden Conference
3585:Congress of Vienna
3502:Kingdom of Prussia
3497:Kingdom of Hanover
3492:Kingdom of Bavaria
3137:Germany, 1866–1945
2886:David E. Barclay:
2596:German unification
1959:
1911:
1778:
1650:
1579:American Civil War
1552:
1283:Schleswig-Holstein
1260:German Unification
1249:confederated state
1245:Kingdom of Prussia
1236:Norddeutscher Bund
1219:
1217:are shown in blue)
1166:History portal
1152:Germany portal
903:Kingdom of Prussia
863:Kingdom of Germany
835:Barbarian kingdoms
625:Kingdom of Prussia
583:Duchy of Schleswig
136:Kingdom of Prussia
132:original princedom
41:Norddeutscher Bund
4036:Kingdom of Saxony
3992:52.517°N 13.400°E
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2012:
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1933:) of August 1866;
1826:(German Empire).
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365:• 1867–1871
335:• 1867–1871
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3183:Pflanze, Otto.
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1987:
1903:
1860:Bundespräsidium
1855:King of Prussia
1846:Deutsches Reich
1823:Deutsches Reich
1818:Hesse-Darmstadt
1798:
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1201:
1200:
1198:
1197:
1190:
1183:
1175:
1172:
1171:
1170:
1169:
1155:
1138:
1137:
1132:
1131:
1128:
1126:Modern history
1122:
1121:
1118:
1116:
1115:
1110:
1104:
1101:
1100:
1097:
1095:
1094:
1081:
1078:
1077:
1074:
1068:
1067:
1066:1945–1949/1952
1064:
1062:
1061:
1052:
1046:
1041:
1036:
1035:
1032:
1031:
1026:
1025:
1022:
1016:
1015:
1012:
1006:
1005:
1002:
996:
995:
992:
986:
985:
982:
974:
969:
968:
965:
964:
961:
960:
955:
950:
948:
947:
938:
932:
930:
925:
919:
914:
913:
910:
909:
906:
905:
900:
895:
889:
884:
883:
880:
879:
876:
875:
870:
865:
860:
854:
851:
850:
847:
846:
843:
842:
837:
832:
827:
822:
817:
812:
806:
803:
802:
799:
798:
795:
794:
748:
738:
733:
728:
723:
718:
713:
708:
706:Historiography
703:
697:
694:
693:
690:
689:
681:
680:
671:
670:
663:
656:
655:
652:
651:
648:
647:
640:
631:
628:
627:
622:
614:
613:
608:
600:
599:
594:
586:
585:
580:
570:
569:
555:
541:
540:
535:
525:
524:
519:
515:
514:
511:
510:
507:
501:
498:
497:
494:
486:
483:
482:
481:1 January 1871
479:
473:
470:
469:
466:
460:
457:
456:
455:20 August 1866
453:
447:
444:
443:
442:18 August 1866
440:
434:
431:
430:
427:
426:
421:
420:Historical era
417:
416:
411:
405:
402:
401:
396:
390:
387:
386:
381:
377:
376:
373:
372:
367:
364:
361:
360:
357:
356:
353:
347:
346:
343:
342:
337:
334:
331:
330:
327:
326:
323:
317:
316:
305:
301:
300:
297:
291:
290:
280:
275:
274:
251:
247:
246:
165:
161:
160:
155:
151:
150:
145:
141:
140:
116:joined in 1870
113:
105:
104:
101:
93:
92:
85:
78:
77:
71:
64:
63:
62:
59:
58:
54:
53:
38:
35:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4108:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4089:
4087:
4084:
4082:
4079:
4077:
4074:
4072:
4069:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4049:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
4013:
4011:
4004:
4001:
3966:
3954:
3948:
3947:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3921:
3917:
3916:Pan-Germanism
3914:
3910:
3905:
3902:
3900:
3899:
3895:
3893:
3892:
3888:
3886:
3885:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3870:
3868:
3864:
3858:
3855:
3853:
3850:
3848:
3845:
3843:
3840:
3838:
3835:
3833:
3830:
3828:
3825:
3823:
3820:
3818:
3815:
3813:
3812:Archduke John
3810:
3808:
3805:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3790:
3788:
3785:
3783:
3780:
3778:
3775:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3745:
3744:
3742:
3738:
3732:
3725:
3723:
3716:
3714:
3710:
3703:
3701:
3694:
3692:
3685:
3683:
3676:
3672:
3665:
3663:
3656:
3654:
3647:
3646:
3645:
3639:
3635:
3634:
3626:
3624:
3617:
3615:
3608:
3606:
3599:
3598:
3597:
3596:
3588:
3586:
3579:
3578:
3576:
3572:
3566:
3565:German Empire
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3545:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3531:
3530:
3528:
3524:
3518:
3515:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3505:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3493:
3490:
3486:
3481:
3478:
3477:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3460:
3455:
3453:
3448:
3446:
3441:
3440:
3437:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3412:
3411:
3409:
3407:
3403:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3371:
3369:
3367:(Junior Line)
3363:
3361:
3358:
3357:
3355:
3353:
3349:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3314:
3312:
3310:
3306:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3280:
3277:
3276:
3274:
3272:
3271:Grand Duchies
3268:
3263:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3245:
3244:
3242:
3238:
3233:
3226:
3221:
3219:
3214:
3212:
3207:
3206:
3203:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3186:
3182:
3179:
3175:
3173:
3169:
3168:
3163:
3159:
3157:9780394302782
3153:
3149:
3144:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3133:
3121:
3117:
3111:
3104:
3098:
3091:
3087:
3081:
3074:
3069:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3048:
3040:
3033:
3027:
3019:
3013:
3005:
3003:9783663096559
2999:
2995:
2994:
2986:
2977:
2970:
2964:
2957:
2951:
2944:
2938:
2931:
2927:
2921:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2900:
2893:
2889:
2883:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2841:
2832:
2825:. Britannica.
2824:
2818:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2776:
2767:
2760:
2756:
2750:
2743:
2737:
2730:
2725:
2718:
2712:
2705:
2699:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2678:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2649:
2645:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2611:
2607:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2583:
2573:
2572:
2561:
2560:
2557:
2556:
2545:
2544:
2541:
2540:
2529:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2514:
2511:
2508:
2504:
2499:
2498:
2494:
2487:
2486:
2483:
2482:Sondershausen
2480:
2478:
2477:
2473:
2466:
2465:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2456:
2452:
2445:
2444:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2435:
2431:
2424:
2423:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2414:
2407:
2400:
2399:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2390:
2388:(Junior Line)
2383:
2376:
2375:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2366:
2362:
2355:
2354:
2349:
2344:
2340:
2337:
2334:
2330:
2325:
2324:
2320:
2313:
2312:
2309:
2306:
2302:
2297:
2296:
2292:
2285:
2284:
2281:
2278:
2274:
2269:
2268:
2264:
2257:
2256:
2253:
2250:
2246:
2241:
2240:
2236:
2229:
2228:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2219:
2215:
2208:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2193:
2190:
2187:
2183:
2178:
2177:
2173:
2166:
2165:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2156:
2152:
2145:
2144:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2135:
2131:
2124:
2123:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2114:
2110:
2103:
2102:
2099:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2080:
2075:
2074:
2070:
2063:
2062:
2057:
2052:
2051:Grand Duchies
2048:
2045:
2042:
2038:
2033:
2032:
2028:
2021:
2020:
2017:
2014:
2010:
2004:) as a whole
2002:
1997:
1996:
1992:
1985:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1957:
1950:
1947:
1943:
1938:
1935:
1931:
1926:
1925:
1924:
1921:
1918:
1907:
1898:
1895:
1894:Reichsgericht
1888:
1886:
1882:
1877:
1874:
1869:
1864:
1861:
1856:
1852:
1847:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1827:
1824:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1797:
1796:German Empire
1787:
1783:
1774:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1749:
1746:
1740:
1738:
1735:
1734:Zollparlament
1728:
1722:
1721:Zollparlament
1716:
1708:Customs union
1705:
1701:
1698:
1692:
1686:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1670:
1669:
1662:
1661:
1655:
1648:constitution.
1645:
1639:
1630:
1627:
1626:
1616:
1613:
1610:
1607:
1604:
1601:
1600:
1599:
1591:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1575:
1571:
1565:
1559:
1548:
1539:
1537:
1532:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1503:
1500:
1495:
1485:
1483:
1479:
1473:
1470:
1466:
1456:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1445:protectionist
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1429:custom unions
1426:
1422:
1421:
1416:
1409:
1404:
1402:
1392:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1377:German Empire
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1343:
1339:
1334:
1331:
1326:
1322:
1320:
1314:
1312:
1311:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1271:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1256:federal state
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1228:
1224:
1216:
1212:
1207:
1196:
1191:
1189:
1184:
1182:
1177:
1176:
1174:
1173:
1167:
1156:
1153:
1142:
1141:
1140:
1139:
1129:
1127:
1124:
1123:
1119:
1114:
1111:
1109:
1108:Reunification
1106:
1105:
1103:
1102:
1098:
1093:
1090:
1086:
1083:
1082:
1080:
1079:
1075:
1073:
1070:
1069:
1065:
1059:
1058:
1053:
1051:
1048:
1047:
1045:
1044:
1039:
1034:
1033:
1023:
1021:
1018:
1017:
1013:
1011:
1008:
1007:
1003:
1001:
998:
997:
993:
991:
988:
987:
983:
981:
980:German Empire
978:
977:
972:
967:
966:
959:
956:
954:
951:
945:
944:
939:
937:
934:
933:
931:
929:
926:
924:
923:Mediatisation
921:
920:
917:
912:
911:
904:
901:
899:
896:
894:
891:
890:
887:
882:
881:
874:
871:
869:
866:
864:
861:
859:
856:
855:
849:
848:
841:
838:
836:
833:
831:
828:
826:
823:
821:
818:
816:
813:
811:
808:
807:
804:Early history
801:
800:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
749:
746:
742:
739:
737:
734:
732:
729:
727:
724:
722:
719:
717:
714:
712:
709:
707:
704:
702:
699:
698:
692:
691:
687:
683:
682:
679:
673:
672:
667:
662:
661:
641:
639:
638:German Empire
636:
635:
632:
626:
623:
616:
615:
612:
609:
602:
601:
598:
595:
588:
587:
584:
581:
577:
572:
571:
568:
559:
556:
552:
547:
546:
543:
542:
539:
536:
534:
531:
530:
526:
523:
522:Vereinsthaler
520:
516:
512:
508:
505:
499:
495:
491:
484:
480:
477:
471:
468:16 April 1867
467:
464:
458:
454:
451:
445:
441:
438:
432:
428:
425:
422:
418:
415:
412:
409:
403:
400:
397:
394:
388:
385:
382:
378:
374:
371:
368:
362:
358:
354:
352:
348:
344:
341:
338:
332:
328:
324:
322:
318:
315:
312:
311:parliamentary
309:
306:
302:
298:
296:
292:
287:
283:
278:
271:
267:
263:
259:
258:Protestantism
255:
252:
248:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
216:Lower Sorbian
213:
212:Upper Sorbian
209:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
184:North Frisian
181:
177:
173:
169:
166:
162:
159:
156:
152:
149:
148:Confederation
146:
142:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
120:German Empire
117:
111:
106:
99:
94:
88:
82:
74:
68:
60:
55:
49:
42:
33:
30:
19:
3973:
3944:
3896:
3889:
3882:
3837:Napoleon III
3757:Christian IX
3711: /
3631:
3593:
3559:
3555:Erfurt Union
3542:
3375:(Elder Line)
3373:Reuss-Greiz
3332:Coburg-Gotha
3191:
3184:
3177:
3165:
3147:
3136:
3119:
3115:
3110:
3102:
3097:
3089:
3085:
3080:
3068:
3046:
3039:
3031:
3026:
2992:
2985:
2976:
2968:
2963:
2955:
2950:
2942:
2937:
2929:
2928:. Vol. III:
2925:
2920:
2908:
2907:. Vol. III:
2904:
2899:
2891:
2887:
2882:
2849:
2845:
2839:
2831:
2817:
2784:
2780:
2774:
2766:
2758:
2754:
2749:
2741:
2736:
2724:
2716:
2711:
2703:
2698:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2677:
2669:
2665:
2657:
2653:
2648:
2614:
2610:
2569:
2553:
2537:
2516:
2495:
2474:
2453:
2432:
2412:(Elder Line)
2410:Reuss-Greiz
2408:
2384:
2363:
2348:FĂĽrstentĂĽmer
2342:
2321:
2293:
2265:
2252:Braunschweig
2245:Braunschweig
2237:
2216:
2195:
2174:
2153:
2132:
2111:
2071:
2050:
2029:
1993:
1972:
1954:
1946:West Prussia
1922:
1912:
1889:
1878:
1865:
1857:holding the
1832:
1828:
1799:
1785:
1741:
1711:
1702:
1687:
1674:
1651:
1620:
1597:
1576:
1553:
1531:West Prussia
1514:
1491:
1474:
1469:Erfurt Union
1462:
1452:
1432:
1418:
1412:
1407:
1398:
1345:Napoleon III
1335:
1316:
1306:
1272:
1252:
1222:
1220:
1020:World War II
1010:Nazi Germany
971:German Reich
957:
898:18th century
893:Sectionalism
858:East Francia
538:Succeeded by
537:
532:
299:North German
276:
253:
180:East Frisian
118:to form the
87:Coat of arms
29:
3995: /
3847:Robert Blum
3644:Revolutions
3406:City-states
3365:Reuss-Gera
3234:(1866–1871)
2666:Bundesstaat
2658:Staatenbund
2386:Reuss-Gera
2201:HerzogtĂĽmer
2140:Neustrelitz
2087:Upper Hesse
2007:(including
1978:Königreiche
1810:WĂĽrttemberg
1365:WĂĽrttemberg
990:World War I
916:Unification
852:Middle Ages
787:WĂĽrttemberg
767:Family tree
675:History of
533:Preceded by
408:Lower house
393:Upper house
380:Legislature
282:Catholicism
277:Minorities:
4010:Categories
3544:Zollverein
3118:Vol. III:
3088:Vol. III:
2840:Zollverein
2775:Zollverein
2757:Vol. III:
2640:References
2461:Rudolstadt
1917:Oberhessen
1773:Reichspost
1727:Zollverein
1715:Zollverein
1677:chancellor
1625:Zollverein
1453:Zollverein
1433:Zollverein
1420:Zollverein
1408:Zollverein
1130:since 1990
1113:New states
1057:Ostgebiete
1050:Occupation
943:Zollverein
791:Mediatised
701:Chronology
509:4 May 1871
351:Chancellor
308:Confederal
304:Government
295:Demonym(s)
228:Kursenieki
224:Lithuanian
196:Slovincian
172:Low German
3946:Sonderweg
3857:Wilhelm I
3832:Ludwig II
3752:Charles I
3718:1870–1871
3678:1850-1851
3649:1848–1849
3590:1815–1848
3581:1814–1815
3342:Meiningen
3337:Lauenburg
3327:Altenburg
3322:Brunswick
3294:Oldenburg
3060:608806061
3012:cite book
2874:211238300
2866:1744-1374
2809:211238300
2801:1744-1374
2617:, except
2440:BĂĽckeburg
2336:Meiningen
2280:Altenburg
2239:Brunswick
2161:Oldenburg
2155:Oldenburg
2009:Lauenburg
1897:, 1879).
1697:Präsident
1668:Bundesrat
1660:Reichstag
1330:Bundesrat
1319:Reichstag
1215:provinces
1213:with its
1099:1949–1990
1076:1944–1950
1024:1939–1945
1014:1933–1945
1004:1918–1933
994:1914–1918
984:1871–1918
759:Empresses
414:Reichstag
399:Bundesrat
384:Bicameral
340:Wilhelm I
321:President
266:Calvinist
254:Majority:
250:Religion
236:Wymysorys
192:Kashubian
57:1866–1871
3240:Kingdoms
3172:in JSTOR
3103:Bismarck
2742:Bismarck
2615:de facto
2580:See also
2119:Schwerin
1973:Kingdoms
1967:Capital
1737:election
1417:was the
1253:de facto
1092:division
751:Monarchs
711:Military
666:a series
664:Part of
518:Currency
262:Lutheran
220:Polabian
208:Moravian
200:Silesian
3983:13°24′E
3980:52°31′N
3866:Related
3767:Franz I
3595:Vormärz
3483:(later
3419:Hamburg
3309:Duchies
3247:Prussia
3194:(1967)
2555:Hamburg
2510:Arolsen
2371:Detmold
2196:Duchies
2098:Giessen
2044:Dresden
2037:Sachsen
2001:PreuĂźen
1995:Prussia
1853:to the
1806:Bavaria
1762:kreuzer
1587:slavery
1522:BĂĽndnis
1441:Austria
1425:Prussia
1395:Prelude
1369:Bavaria
1353:Prussia
1279:duchies
1211:Prussia
779:Prussia
775:Bavaria
771:Austria
726:Judaism
716:Economy
677:Germany
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3252:Saxony
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2189:Weimar
2085:(Only
2079:Hessen
2031:Saxony
2016:Berlin
1964:State
1812:, and
1227:German
783:Saxony
755:Queens
695:Topics
668:on the
355:
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240:French
188:Polish
176:Danish
168:German
158:Berlin
144:Status
48:German
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3360:Lippe
2870:S2CID
2805:S2CID
2602:Notes
2419:Greiz
2365:Lippe
2073:Hesse
1814:Baden
1357:Baden
731:Women
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562:[
244:Dutch
204:Czech
3727:1871
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3687:1862
3667:1850
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3610:1819
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3152:ISBN
3056:OCLC
3018:link
2998:ISBN
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1120:1990
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