1827:
2722:
1004:
825:
981:. It was a photo of one of these liners in New York harbour, showing the degaussing coil, which revealed to German Naval Intelligence the fact that the British were using degaussing methods to combat their magnetic mines. This was felt to be impractical for smaller warships and merchant vessels, mainly because the ships lacked the generating capacity to energise such a coil. It was found that "wiping" a current-carrying cable up and down a ship's hull temporarily canceled the ships' magnetic signature sufficiently to nullify the threat. This started in late 1939, and by 1940 merchant vessels and the smaller British warships were largely immune for a few months at a time until they once again built up a field.
1403:
surface before it is launched (3). When the deep line has been unwound to a set length, the anchor is flooded and the mine is released from the anchor (4). The anchor begins to sink and the mooring cable unwinds until the plummet reaches the sea floor (5). Triggered by the decreasing tension on the deep line, the mooring cable is clamped. The anchor continues sinking down to the bottom of the sea, pulling the mine below the water surface to a depth equal to the length of the deep line (6). Thus, even without knowing the exact seafloor depth, an exact depth of the mine below the water surface can be set, limited only by the maximum length of the mooring cable.
355:. The 'torpedo-catamaran' was a coffer-like device balanced on two wooden floats and steered by a man with a paddle. Weighted with lead so as to ride low in the water, the operator was further disguised by wearing dark clothes and a black cap. His task was to approach the French ship, hook the torpedo to the anchor cable and, having activated the device by removing a pin, remove the paddles and escape before the torpedo detonated. Also to be deployed were large numbers of casks filled with gunpowder, ballast and combustible balls. They would float in on the tide and on washing up against an enemy's hull, explode. Also included in the force were several
2013:
1692:
2355:
2248:
1395:
29:
1813:
1243:
329:
2491:
141:
783:. During a period of five months from June 1918, almost 70,000 mines were laid spanning the North Sea's northern exits. The total number of mines laid in the North Sea, the British East Coast, Straits of Dover, and Heligoland Bight is estimated at 190,000 and the total number during the whole of WWI was 235,000 sea mines. Clearing the barrage after the war took 82 ships and five months, working around the clock. It was also during World War I, that the British
2343:, large coils placed along the ship to counter the ship's magnetic field. Using magnetic probes in strategic parts of the ship, the strength of the current in the coils can be adjusted to minimize the total magnetic field. This is a heavy and clumsy solution, suited only to small-to-medium-sized ships. Boats typically lack the generators and space for the solution, while the amount of power needed to overcome the magnetic field of a large ship is impractical.
1354:
913:
2478:
after two weeks but have the ship-counter mechanism set to ignore the first two trigger events, and still others in the same minefield (with the magnetic and pressure sensors enabled) may not become armed until three weeks have passed. Groups of mines within this mine-field may have different target signatures which may or may not overlap. The fuzes on influence mines allow many different permutations, which complicates the clearance process.
2624:
destroy the ship itself. These techniques are the only way to sweep pressure mines that is publicly known to be employed. The technique can be simply countered by use of a ship-counter, set to allow a certain number of passes before the mine is actually triggered. Modern doctrine calls for ground mines to be hunted rather than swept. A new system is being introduced for sweeping pressure mines, however counters are going to remain a problem.
2316:) using a special degaussing station that contains many large coils and induces a magnetic field in the hull with alternating current to demagnetize the hull. This is a rather problematic solution, as magnetic compasses need recalibration and all metal objects must be kept in exactly the same place. Ships slowly regain their magnetic field as they travel through the Earth's magnetic field, so the process has to be repeated every six months.
200:
2436:, that are streamed from the sweeping vessel thus keeping the sweep at a determined depth and position. Some large warships were routinely equipped with paravane sweeps near the bows in case they inadvertently sailed into minefields—the mine would be deflected towards the paravane by the wire instead of towards the ship by its wake. More recently, heavy-lift helicopters have dragged minesweeping sleds, as in the 1991 Persian Gulf War.
2228:
from their holders, etc. A badly shaken ship usually sinks quickly, with hundreds, or even thousands of small leaks all over the ship and no way to power the pumps. The crew fare no better, as the violent shaking tosses them around. This shaking is powerful enough to cause disabling injury to knees and other joints in the body, particularly if the affected person stands on surfaces connected directly to the hull (such as steel decks).
873:
2883:
countries currently have mining ability. The number of naval mine producing countries has increased by 75% since 1988. It is also noted that these mines are of an increasing sophistication while even the older type mines present a significant problem. It has been noted that mine warfare may become an issue with terrorist organizations. Mining busy shipping straits and mining shipping harbours remain some of the most serious threats.
1071:
2371:
37:
77:; or defensively, to protect friendly vessels and create "safe" zones. Mines allow the minelaying force commander to concentrate warships or defensive assets in mine-free areas giving the adversary three choices: undertake an expensive and time-consuming minesweeping effort, accept the casualties of challenging the minefield, or use the unmined waters where the greatest concentration of enemy firepower will be encountered.
2564:
294:
1480:
1448:(or command detonation mines) can be in place in peacetime, which is a huge advantage in blocking important shipping routes. The mines can usually be turned into "normal" mines with a switch (which prevents the enemy from simply capturing the controlling station and deactivating the mines), detonated on a signal or be allowed to detonate on their own. The earliest ones were developed around 1812 by
2555:'s Undersea Research Group was once involved in minehunting operations: They removed or detonated a variety of German mines, but one particularly defusion-resistant batch—equipped with acutely sensitive pressure, magnetic, and acoustic sensors and wired together so that one explosion would trigger the rest—was simply left undisturbed for years until corrosion would (hopefully) disable the mines.
1795:
steel cable, the mines on either side are drawn down the side of the ship's hull, exploding on contact. In this manner it is almost impossible for target ships to pass safely between two individually moored mines. Daisy-chained mines are a very simple concept which was used during World War II. The first prototype of the Daisy-chained mine and the first combat use came in
Finland, 1939.
5858:
5839:
5820:
779:, mines were used extensively to defend coasts, coastal shipping, ports and naval bases around the globe. The Germans laid mines in shipping lanes to sink merchant and naval vessels serving Britain. The Allies targeted the German U-boats in the Strait of Dover and the Hebrides. In an attempt to seal up the northern exits of the North Sea, the Allies developed the
1996:. In the next 20 months, mines delivered by aircraft sank or damaged 164 Axis ships with the loss of 94 aircraft. By comparison, direct aerial attacks on Axis shipping had sunk or damaged 105 vessels at a cost of 373 aircraft lost. The advantage of aerial mining became clear, and the UK prepared for it. A total of 48,000 aerial mines were laid by the
2200:
surface. If the bubble reaches the surface as it collapses, it can create a pillar of water that can go over a hundred meters into the air (a "columnar plume"). If conditions are right and the bubble collapses onto the ship's hull, the damage to the ship can be extremely serious; the collapsing bubble forms a high-energy jet similar to a
1323:
seabed. This type of mine had a copper wire attached to a buoy that floated above the explosive charge which was weighted to the seabed with a steel cable. If a submarine's steel hull touched the copper wire, the slight voltage change caused by contact between two dissimilar metals was amplified and detonated the explosives.
1603:) or low-powered sensor detects the possible presence of a vessel, at which point the mine fuze powers up fully and the passive acoustic sensors will begin to operate for some minutes. It is possible to program computerised mines to delay activation for days or weeks after being laid. Similarly, they can be programmed to
163:. Offensive mines are placed in enemy waters, outside harbours, and across important shipping routes to sink both merchant and military vessels. Defensive minefields safeguard key stretches of coast from enemy ships and submarines, forcing them into more easily defended areas, or keeping them away from sensitive ones.
2118:
meticulously charted. In Japan, much of the B-29 mine-laying work had been performed at high altitude, with the drifting on the wind of mines carried by parachute adding a randomizing factor to their placement. Generalized danger areas were identified, with only the quantity of mines given in detail. Mines used in
1534:. Whereas early magnetic mine fuses would respond only to changes in a single component of a target vessel's magnetic field, a total field magnetometer responds to changes in the magnitude of the total background field (thus enabling it to better detect even degaussed ships). Similarly, the original broadband
2109:
zone shipping results, comparing the total economic cost of submarine-delivered mines versus air-dropped mines and found that, though 1 in 12 submarine mines connected with the enemy as opposed to 1 in 21 for aircraft mines, the aerial mining operation was about ten times less expensive per enemy ton sunk.
2463:
the typical pressure displacement of such a vessel. As a result, a mine-sweeper must accurately mimic the required target signature to trigger detonation. The task is complicated by the fact that an influence mine may have one or more of a hundred different potential target signatures programmed into it.
2477:
When influence mines are laid in an ocean minefield, they may have various combinations of fuze settings configured. For example, some mines (with the acoustic sensor enabled) may become active within three hours of being laid, others (with the acoustic and magnetic sensors enabled) may become active
2227:
If the mine detonates at a distance from the ship, the change in water pressure causes the ship to resonate. This is frequently the most deadly type of explosion, if it is strong enough. The whole ship is dangerously shaken and everything on board is tossed around. Engines rip from their beds, cables
2183:
wounds are the most common form of damage. Flooding typically occurs in one or two main watertight compartments, which can sink smaller ships or disable larger ones. Contact mine damage often occurs at or close to the waterline near the bow, but depending on circumstances a ship could be hit anywhere
2108:
with land- and carrier-based air power to strike harder against merchant shipping and begin a more extensive aerial mining campaign earlier in the war. Survey analysts projected that this would have starved Japan, forcing an earlier end to the war. After the war, Dr. Johnson looked at the Japan inner
1803:
Plastic drums filled with sand or concrete are periodically rolled off the side of ships as real mines are laid in large mine-fields. These inexpensive false targets (designed to be of a similar shape and size as genuine mines) are intended to slow down the process of mine clearance: a mine-hunter is
1666:
The anti-sweep mine is a very small mine (40 kg (88 lb) warhead) with as small a floating device as possible. When the wire of a mine sweep hits the anchor wire of the mine, it drags the anchor wire along with it, pulling the mine down into contact with the sweeping wire. That detonates the
1579:
into fuses, or program them to detect a single, highly distinctive target signature. In this way, a mine with a passive acoustic fuze can be programmed to ignore all friendly vessels and small enemy vessels, only detonating when a very large enemy target passes over it. Alternatively, the mine can be
171:
to stop ships from reaching an enemy nation. They are often spread thinly, to create an impression of minefields existing across large areas. A single mine inserted strategically on a shipping route can stop maritime movements for days while the entire area is swept. A mine's capability to sink ships
2516:
can do both tasks. Minehunting pays little attention to the nature of the mine itself. Nor does the method change much. At the current state of the art, minehunting remains the best way to deal with influence mines proving to be both safer and more effective than sweeping. Specialized high-frequency
2462:
Modern influence mines are designed to discriminate against false inputs and are, therefore, much harder to sweep. They often contain inherent anti-sweeping mechanisms. For example, they may be programmed to respond to the unique noise of a particular ship-type, its associated magnetic signature and
2278:
Ships can be designed to be difficult for mines to detect, to avoid detonating them. This is especially true for minesweepers and mine hunters that work in minefields, where a minimal signature outweighs the need for armour and speed. These ships have hulls of glass fibre or wood instead of steel to
2269:
to detect and flag mines. However, they are of questionable effectiveness. Mines in nearshore environments remain a particular challenge. They are small and as technology has developed they can have anechoic coatings, be non-metallic, and oddly shaped to resist detection. Further, oceanic conditions
1894:
is pulled (one end attached to the rail of a ship, aircraft or torpedo tube) which starts an automatic timer countdown before the arming process is complete. Typically, the automatic safety-arming process takes some minutes to complete. This allows the people laying the mines sufficient time to move
1770:), capable of traveling as far as 16 km (10 mi) through or into a channel, harbour, shallow water area, and other zones which would normally be inaccessible to craft laying the device. After reaching the target area they sink to the sea bed and act like conventionally laid influence mines.
1583:
Even as far back as WWII it was possible to incorporate a "ship counter" function in mine fuzes. This might set the mine to ignore the first two ships passing over it (which could be minesweepers deliberately trying to trigger mines) but detonate when the third ship passes overhead, which could be a
860:
Initially, contact mines (requiring a ship to physically strike a mine to detonate it) were employed, usually tethered at the end of a cable just below the surface of the water. Contact mines usually blew a hole in ships' hulls. By the beginning of World War II, most nations had developed mines that
40:
2738:
The
Quickstrike is a family of shallow-water aircraft-laid mines used by the United States, primarily against surface craft. The MK65 is a 910 kg (2,000 lb) dedicated, purpose-built mine. However, other Quickstrike versions (MK62, MK63, and MK64) are converted general-purpose bombs. These
2637:
drone) that simulate the acoustic and magnetic signatures of larger ships and are built to survive exploding mines. Repeated sweeps would be required in case one or more of the mines had its "ship counter" facility enabled i.e. were programmed to ignore the first 2, 3, or even 6 target activations.
2070:
harbour in
October 1943. One of those mines sank a Japanese freighter. Another B-24 dropped three more mines into the harbour in November, and a second freighter was sunk by a mine. The threat of the remaining mines prevented a convoy of ten ships from entering Haiphong, and six of those ships were
1856:
Laying a minefield is a relatively fast process with specialized ships, which is today the most common method. These minelayers can carry several thousand mines and manoeuvre with high precision. The mines are dropped at predefined intervals into the water behind the ship. Each mine is recorded for
1794:
This comprises two moored, floating contact mines which are tethered together by a length of steel cable or chain. Typically, each mine is situated approximately 18 m (60 ft) away from its neighbor, and each floats a few meters below the surface of the ocean. When the target ship hits the
1411:
Drifting mines were occasionally used during World War I and World War II. However, they were more feared than effective. Sometimes floating mines break from their moorings and become drifting mines; modern mines are designed to deactivate in this event. After several years at sea, the deactivation
1365:
Generally, this type of mine is set to float just below the surface of the water or as deep as five meters. A steel cable connecting the mine to an anchor on the seabed prevents it from drifting away. The explosive and detonating mechanism is contained in a buoyant metal or plastic shell. The depth
2623:
in WWII were sunk during the war. Alternatively, a shallow draught vessel can be steamed through the minefield at high speed to generate a pressure wave sufficient to trigger mines, with the minesweeper moving fast enough to be sufficiently clear of the pressure wave so that triggered mines do not
1637:
Bottom mines (sometimes called ground mines) are used when the water is no more than 60 meters (200 feet) deep or when mining for submarines down to around 200 meters (660 feet). They are much harder to detect and sweep, and can carry a much larger warhead than a moored mine. Bottom mines commonly
1303:
Early mines had mechanical mechanisms to detonate them, but these were superseded in the 1870s by the "Hertz horn" (or "chemical horn"), which was found to work reliably even after the mine had been in the sea for several years. The mine's upper half is studded with hollow lead protuberances, each
1299:
The earliest mines were usually of this type. They are still used today, as they are extremely low cost compared to any other anti-ship weapon and are effective, both as a psychological weapon and as a method to sink enemy ships. Contact mines need to be touched by the target before they detonate,
1058:
When the war ended, more than 25,000 U.S.-laid mines were still in place, and the Navy proved unable to sweep them all, limiting efforts to critical areas. After sweeping for almost a year, in May 1946, the Navy abandoned the effort with 13,000 mines still unswept. Over the next thirty years, more
937:
were used for this). Both of these methods had the disadvantage of "sweeping" only a small strip. A better solution was found in the "Double-L Sweep" using electrical cables dragged behind ships that passed large pulses of current through the seawater. This created a large magnetic field and swept
864:
Later, some ships survived mine blasts, limping into port with buckled plates and broken backs. This appeared to be due to a new type of mine, detecting ships by their proximity to the mine (an influence mine) and detonating at a distance, causing damage with the shock wave of the explosion. Ships
166:
Shipowners are reluctant to send their ships through known minefields. Port authorities may attempt to clear a mined area, but those without effective minesweeping equipment may cease using the area. Transit of a mined area will be attempted only when strategic interests outweigh potential losses.
2755:
air-dropped bombs. Because this latter type of
Quickstrike fuze only takes up a small amount of storage space compared to a dedicated sea mine, the air-dropped bomb casings have dual purpose i.e. can be fitted with conventional contact fuzes and dropped on land targets, or have a Quickstrike fuze
2335:
for armor plate. The models were placed within coils which could simulate the Earth's magnetic field at any location. The magnetic signatures were measured with degaussing coils. The objective was to reduce the vertical component of the combination of the Earth's field and the ship's field at the
2330:
Between 1941 and 1943 the US Naval Gun factory (a division of the Naval
Ordnance Laboratory) in Washington, D.C., built physical models of all US naval ships. Three kinds of steel were used in shipbuilding: mild steel for bulkheads, a mixture of mild steel and high tensile steel for the hull, and
2199:
The bubble jet effect occurs when a mine or torpedo detonates in the water a short distance away from the targeted ship. The explosion creates a bubble in the water, and due to the difference in pressure, the bubble will collapse from the bottom. The bubble is buoyant, and so it rises towards the
2086:
harbour, and 23 of those immobilized ships were sunk in a subsequent bombing raid. The combined operation sank or damaged 36 ships. Two
Avengers were lost, and their crews were recovered. The mines brought port usage to a halt for 20 days. Japanese mine sweeping was unsuccessful; and the Japanese
1402:
A special form of moored contact mines are those equipped with a plummet. When the mine is launched (1), the mine with the anchor floats first and the lead plummet sinks from it (2). In doing so, the plummet unwinds a wire, the deep line, which is used to set the depth of the mine below the water
1039:
The
Germans developed a pressure-activated mine and planned to deploy it as well, but they saved it for later use when it became clear the British had defeated the magnetic system. The U.S. also deployed these, adding "counters" which would allow a variable number of ships to pass unharmed before
39:
2059:(RAAF) carrying out 60% of the sorties and the USAAF and US Navy covering 40%. Both British and American mines were used. Japanese merchant shipping suffered tremendous losses, while Japanese mine sweeping forces were spread too thin attending to far-flung ports and extensive coastlines. Admiral
1947:
The USSR was relatively ineffective in its use of naval mines in WWII in comparison with its record in previous wars. Small mines were developed for use in rivers and lakes, and special mines for shallow water. A very large chemical mine was designed to sink through ice with the aid of a melting
1914:
In the 1930s, Germany had experimented with the laying of mines by aircraft. It became a crucial element in their overall mining strategy. Aircraft had the advantage of speed, and they would never get caught in their own minefields. German mines held a large 450 kg (1,000 lb) explosive
44:
43:
38:
2830:...the Royal Navy does not have any mine stocks and has not had since 1992. Notwithstanding this, the United Kingdom retains the capability to lay mines and continues research into mine exploitation. Practice mines, used for exercises, continue to be laid in order to retain the necessary skills.
2420:
If a contact sweep hits a mine, the wire of the sweep rubs against the mooring wire until it is cut. Sometimes "cutters", explosive devices to cut the mine's wire, are used to lessen the strain on the sweeping wire. Mines cut free are recorded and collected for research or shot with a deck gun.
2170:
value", a combination of the initial strength of the explosion and of the distance between the target and the detonation. When taken in reference to ship hull plating, the term "Hull Shock Factor" (HSF) is used, while keel damage is termed "Keel Shock Factor" (KSF). If the explosion is directly
1758:
The mine is propelled to its intended position by propulsion equipment such as a torpedo. After reaching its destination, it sinks to the seabed and operates like a standard mine. It differs from the homing mine in that its mobile stage is set before it lies in wait, rather than as part of the
1322:
During the initial period of World War I, the Royal Navy used contact mines in the
English Channel and later in large areas of the North Sea to hinder patrols by German submarines. Later, the American antenna mine was widely used because submarines could be at any depth from the surface to the
80:
Although international law requires signatory nations to declare mined areas, precise locations remain secret, and non-complying individuals might not disclose minelaying. While mines threaten only those who choose to traverse waters that may be mined, the possibility of activating a mine is a
2882:
Mine warfare remains the most cost-effective form of asymmetrical naval warfare. Mines are relatively cheap and being small allows them to be easily deployed. Indeed, with some kinds of mines, trucks and rafts will suffice. At present there are more than 300 different mines available. Some 50
2646:
Another expedient for clearing mines, especially in a hurry, is counter-mining. By this method an explosive is detonated in the area of a known or suspected minefield and the blast either trips off the fuses or the actual explosive contained within the mine or mines. This latter is known as a
1619:
The moored mine is the backbone of modern mine systems. They are deployed where water is too deep for bottom mines. They can use several kinds of instruments to detect an enemy, usually a combination of acoustic, magnetic and pressure sensors, or more sophisticated optical shadows or electro
904:
will concentrate the field through it, due to its magnetic permeability; the mine's detector was designed to trigger as a ship passed over when the Earth's magnetic field was concentrated in the ship and away from the mine. The mine detected this loss of the magnetic field which caused it to
2117:
Between 600,000 and 1,000,000 naval mines of all types were laid in WWII. Advancing military forces worked to clear mines from newly-taken areas, but extensive minefields remained in place after the war. Air-dropped mines had an additional problem for mine sweeping operations: they were not
2094:
began in earnest, using 160 of LeMay's B-29 Superfortress bombers to attack Japan's inner zone. Almost half of the mines were the US-built Mark 25 model, carrying 570 kg (1,250 lb) of explosives and weighing about 900 kg (2,000 lb). Other mines used included the smaller
45:
2655:, Valletta, Malta in WW2 when the British dropped depth charges into the harbour entrance to detonate suspected mines prior to the arrival of an important convoy. It is especially useful against acoustic or pressure mines due to their activation by sound or increases in water pressure.
1452:. The first remotely controlled mines were moored mines used in the American Civil War, detonated electrically from shore. They were considered superior to contact mines because they did not put friendly shipping at risk. The extensive American fortifications program initiated by the
73:, mines are deposited and left to wait until they are triggered by the approach of, or contact with, any vessel or a particular vessel type, akin to anti-infantry or anti-vehicle mines. Naval mines can be used offensively, to hamper enemy shipping movements or lock vessels into a
2454:
bombers
Wellington DW.Mk I fitted with degaussing coils to trigger magnetic mines. In a parallel development the Luftwaffe adapted some Junkers 52/3m aircraft to also carry a coil operated by electricity supplied from an onboard generator. The Luftwaffe called this adaption
2511:
As naval mines have become more sophisticated, and able to discriminate between targets, so they have become more difficult to deal with by conventional sweeping. This has given rise to the practice of minehunting. Minehunting is very different from sweeping, although some
2071:
sunk by attacks before they reached a safe harbour. The
Japanese closed Haiphong to all steel-hulled ships for the remainder of the war after another small ship was sunk by one of the remaining mines, although they may not have realized no more than three mines remained.
861:
could be dropped from aircraft, some of which floated on the surface, making it possible to lay them in enemy harbours. The use of dredging and nets was effective against this type of mine, but this consumed valuable time and resources and required harbours to be closed.
487:) the Nobel mines proved to be faulty, exploding while being laid, failing to explode or detaching from their wires, and drifting uncontrollably, at least 70 of them were subsequently disarmed by the British. In 1855, 301 more Jacobi mines were laid around Krostadt and
262:
in 1637, describes naval mines with a ripcord pulled by hidden ambushers located on the nearby shore who rotated a steel wheel flint mechanism to produce sparks and ignite the fuse of the naval mine. Although this is the rotating steel wheel's first use in naval mines,
2481:
Mines with ship-counters, arming delays and highly specific target signatures in mine fuzes can falsely convince a belligerent that a particular area is clear of mines or has been swept effectively because a succession of vessels have already passed through safely.
1718:
A Russian invention, the rocket mine is a bottom distance mine that fires a homing high-speed rocket (not torpedo) upwards towards the target. It is intended to allow a bottom mine to attack surface ships as well as submarines from a greater depth. One type is the
42:
2063:, who directed nearly all RAAF mining operations in CBI, heartily endorsed aerial mining, writing in July 1944 that "aerial mining operations were of the order of 100 times as destructive to the enemy as an equal number of bombing missions against land targets."
2264:
and the double-L sweep, were British inventions. When on operational missions, such as the invasion of Iraq, the US still relies on British and Canadian minesweeping services. The US has worked on some innovative mine-hunting countermeasures, such as the use of
2099:
said after the war that the aerial mining by B-29s had been "equally as effective as the B-29 attacks on Japanese industry at the closing stages of the war when all food supplies and critical material were prevented from reaching the Japanese home islands." The
1233:
issued a warning to freight ships in the area, advising them to "maintain lookouts for mines and pay careful attention to local navigation warnings". Ukrainian forces have mined "from the Sea of Azov to the Black Sea which banks the critical city of Odesa."
1229:, Ukraine accused Russia of deliberately employing drifting mines in the Black Sea area. Around the same time, Turkish and Romanian military diving teams were involved in defusing operations, when stray mines were spotted near the coasts of these countries.
583:
carried out a lengthy set of experiments to design and test moored mines that could be exploded on contact or be detonated at will as enemy shipping passed near them. This initial development of mines in the United States took place under the purview of the
1370:
waters it is important to ensure that the mine does not become visible when the sea level falls at low tide, so the cable length is adjusted to take account of tides. During WWII there were mines that could be moored in 300 m (980 ft)-deep water.
2020:
As early as 1942, American mining experts such as Naval Ordnance Laboratory scientist Dr. Ellis A. Johnson, CDR USNR, suggested massive aerial mining operations against Japan's "outer zone" (Korea and northern China) as well as the "inner zone", their
991:
is just one example of a ship that was struck by a magnetic mine during this time. On 21 November 1939, a mine broke her keel, which damaged her engine and boiler rooms, as well as injuring 46 men, one later died from his injuries. She was towed to
182:, requires nations to declare when they mine an area, to make it easier for civil shipping to avoid the mines. The warnings do not have to be specific; for example, during World War II, Britain declared simply that it had mined the English Channel,
2685:
The SLMM was developed by the United States as a submarine deployed mine for use in areas inaccessible for other mine deployment techniques or for covert mining of hostile environments. The SLMM is a shallow-water mine and is basically a modified
2204:
that can break a metre-wide hole straight through the ship, flooding one or more compartments, and is capable of breaking smaller ships apart. The crew in the areas hit by the pillar are usually killed instantly. Other damage is usually limited.
125:—and even by dropping them into a harbour by hand. They can be inexpensive: some variants can cost as little as US $ 2,000, though more sophisticated mines can cost millions of dollars, be equipped with several kinds of sensors, and deliver a
1857:
later clearing, but it is not unusual for these records to be lost together with the ships. Therefore, many countries demand that all mining operations be planned on land and records kept so that the mines can later be recovered more easily.
1032:) remained vulnerable. Japan developed sonic generators to sweep these; the gear was not ready by war's end. The primary method Japan used was small air-delivered bombs. This was profligate and ineffectual; used against acoustic mines at
1424:
After World War I the drifting contact mine was banned, but was occasionally used during World War II. The drifting mines were much harder to remove than tethered mines after the war, and they caused about the same damage to both sides.
1983:
In September 1939, the UK announced the placement of extensive defensive minefields in waters surrounding the Home Islands. Offensive aerial mining operations began in April 1940 when 38 mines were laid at each of these locations: the
1826:
2270:
and the sea bottoms of the area of operations can degrade sweeping and hunting efforts. Mining countermeasures are far more expensive and time-consuming than mining operations, and that gap is only growing with new technologies.
1620:
potential sensors. These cost many times more than contact mines. Moored mines are effective against most kinds of ships. As they are cheaper than other anti-ship weapons they can be deployed in large numbers, making them useful
1538:
of 1940s acoustic mines (which operate on the integrated volume of all frequencies) have been replaced by narrow-band sensors which are much more sensitive and selective. Mines can now be programmed to listen for highly specific
3422:
struck a mine on 20 June, the Royal Navy had had enough, and the next day began carrying out the first minesweeping operation in history, recovering thirty-three 'infernal machines,' the standard British term of the day for sea
2259:
Weapons are frequently a few steps ahead of countermeasures, and mines are no exception. In this field the British, with their large seagoing navy, have had the bulk of world experience, and most anti-mine developments, such as
1596:, it is important to conserve power because they may need to remain active for months or even years. For this reason, most influence mines are designed to remain in a semi-dormant state until an unpowered (e.g. deflection of a
895:
to investigate the mine. The Royal Navy knew that mines could use magnetic sensors, Britain having developed magnetic mines in World War I, so everyone removed all metal, including their buttons, and made tools of non-magnetic
2095:
500 kg (1,000 lb) Mark 26. Fifteen B-29s were lost while 293 Japanese merchant ships were sunk or damaged. Twelve thousand aerial mines were laid, a significant barrier to Japan's access to outside resources. Prince
1420:
because he thought they were leading him into a trap: he believed it possible that the Germans were either leaving floating mines in their wake, or were drawing him towards submarines, although neither of these was the case.
81:
powerful disincentive to shipping. In the absence of effective measures to limit each mine's lifespan, the hazard to shipping can remain long after the war in which the mines were laid is over. Unless detonated by a parallel
945:
While these methods were useful for clearing mines from local ports, they were of little or no use for enemy-controlled areas. These were typically visited by warships, and the majority of the fleet then underwent a massive
6038:
3713:
2721:
1667:
mine and cuts the sweeping wire. They are very cheap and usually used in combination with other mines in a minefield to make sweeping more difficult. One type is the Mark 23 used by the United States during World War II.
1366:
below the surface at which the mine floats can be set so that only deep draft vessels such as aircraft carriers, battleships or large cargo ships are at risk, saving the mine from being used on a less valuable target. In
2409:. Each run covers between one hundred and two hundred metres (330 and 660 ft), and the ships must move slowly in a straight line, making them vulnerable to enemy fire. This was exploited by the Turkish army in the
2400:
A sweep is either a contact sweep, a wire dragged through the water by one or two ships to cut the mooring wire of floating mines, or a distance sweep that mimics a ship to detonate the mines. The sweeps are dragged by
2521:(remote controlled unmanned mini-submarines). It is slow, but also the most reliable way to remove mines. Minehunting started during the Second World War, but it was only after the war that it became truly effective.
1657:
The bouquet mine is a single anchor attached to several floating mines. It is designed so that when one mine is swept or detonated, another takes its place. It is a very sensitive construction and lacks reliability.
2857:
displacement target detection sensors. Stonefish can be deployed by fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, surface vessels and submarines. An optional kit is available to allow Stonefish to be air-dropped, comprising an
1624:
or "channelizing" weapons. Moored mines usually have lifetimes of more than 10 years, and some almost unlimited. These mines usually weigh 200 kg (440 lb), including 80 kg (180 lb) of explosives
3604:
1563:
because several sensors working together (e.g. magnetic, passive acoustic and water pressure) allow it to ignore signals which are not recognised as being the unique signature of an intended target vessel.
108:
using various measures to either capture or detonate the mines, but sometimes also with an aircraft made for that purpose. There are also mines that release a homing torpedo rather than explode themselves.
2291:. They are built with hulls that produce a minimal pressure signature. These measures create other problems. They are expensive, slow, and vulnerable to enemy fire. Many modern ships have a mine-warning
932:
From this data, known methods were used to clear these mines. Early methods included the use of large electromagnets dragged behind ships or below low-flying aircraft (a number of older bombers like the
32:
Polish wz. 08/39 contact mine. The protuberances near the top of the mine, here with their protective covers, are called Hertz horns, and these trigger the mine's detonation when a ship bumps into them.
626:, at a time when the Chilean squadron was blockading the Peruvian ports, formed a brigade of torpedo boats under the command of the frigate captain Leopoldo Sánchez Calderón and the Peruvian engineer
41:
1683:
The ascending mine is a floating distance mine that may cut its mooring or in some other way float higher when it detects a target. It lets a single floating mine cover a much larger depth range.
4315:
4142:
3487:, almost the last to arrive, was struck by an infernal. The following day the boats fished up several of the primitive mines, and both Dundas and Seymour inspected them aboard their flagships.
2842:
influence mine for export to friendly countries such as Australia, which has both war stock and training versions of Stonefish, in addition to stocks of smaller Italian MN103 Manta mines. The
900:. They disarmed the mine and rushed it to the labs at HMS Vernon, where scientists discovered that the mine had a magnetic arming mechanism. A large ferrous object passing through the Earth's
152:. The cost of producing and laying a mine is usually between 0.5% and 10% of the cost of removing it, and it can take up to 200 times as long to clear a minefield as to lay it. Parts of some
4111:
3581:
6140:
3954:
865:
that had successfully run the gantlet of the Atlantic crossing were sometimes destroyed entering freshly cleared British harbours. More shipping was being lost than could be replaced, and
4172:
2336:
usual depth of German mines. From the measurements, coils were placed and coil currents were determined to minimize the chance of detonation for any ship at any heading at any latitude.
1804:
forced to investigate each suspicious sonar contact on the sea bed, whether it is real or not. Often a maker of naval mines will provide both training and dummy versions of their mines.
1629:). In excess of 150 kg (330 lb) of explosives the mine becomes inefficient, as it becomes too large to handle and the extra explosives add little to the mine's effectiveness.
2474:) after a pre-set time. During the pre-set arming delay (which could last days or even weeks) the mine would remain dormant and ignore any target stimulus, whether genuine or false.
535:
after its inventor, caused the word "torpedo" to apply to self-propelled underwater missiles as well as to static devices. These mobile devices were also known as "fish torpedoes".
3721:
2122:
were supposed to be self-sterilizing, but the circuit did not always work. Clearing the mines from Japanese waters took so many years that the task was eventually given to the
5867:, by Stephan L'H. Slocum, Carl Reichmann, Adna Romanza Chaffee, United States. Adjutant-General's Office. Military Information Division, a publication from 1901, now in the
5848:, by United States. Adjutant-General's Office. Military Information Division, Stephen L'H. Slocum, Carl Reichmann, Adna Romanga Chaffee, a publication from 1901, now in the
3226:
2676:(short for "encapsulated torpedo"), the MK62 and MK63 Quickstrike and the MK67 SLMM (Submarine Launched Mobile Mine). Today, most U.S. naval mines are delivered by aircraft.
2866:
pack to retard the weapon's descent. The operating depth of Stonefish ranges between 30 and 200 metres. The mine weighs 990 kilograms and contains a 600 kilogram aluminised
6113:
957:
fitted around the perimeter of the hull, energized by the ship's electrical system whenever in suspected magnetic-mined waters. Some of the first to be so fitted were the
6095:
6125:
4587:
1337:
Limpet mines are a special form of contact mine that are manually attached to the target by magnets and remain in place. They are named because of the similarity to the
630:, who perfected the naval torpedo or mine system to be electrically activated when the cargo weight was lifted. This is how, on 3 July 1880, in front of the port of
5651:
2470:
has been triggered a pre-set number of times. To further complicate matters, influence mines may be programmed to arm themselves (or disarm automatically—known as
2351:
Active countermeasures are ways to clear a path through a minefield or remove it completely. This is one of the most important tasks of any mine warfare flotilla.
1641:
These mines usually weigh between 150 and 1,500 kg (330 and 3,310 lb), including between 125 and 1,400 kg (276 and 3,086 lb) of explosives.
1849:
to lay mines around the UK. In WWII, aircraft came into favour for mine laying with one of the largest examples being the mining of the Japanese sea routes in
845:
fleet, which dominated much of the battle of the Atlantic, was small at the beginning of the war and much of the early action by German forces involved mining
5441:
2459:(lit. mine-search). In both cases pilots were required to fly at low altitude (up to about 200 feet above the sea) and at fairly low speeds to be effective.
2129:
For the purpose of clearing all types of naval mines, the Royal Navy employed German crews and minesweepers from June 1945 to January 1948, organised in the
4816:
2025:. First, aerial mines would have to be developed further and manufactured in large numbers. Second, laying the mines would require a sizable air group. The
1522:
First used during WWI, their use became more general in WWII. The sophistication of influence mine fuses has increased considerably over the years as first
722:
lost two battleships, four cruisers, two destroyers and a torpedo-boat to offensively laid mines during the war. Most famously, on 15 May 1904, the Russian
3479:
took Penaud and several British captains to examine Cronstadt. While still 2 miles out the two surveying ships were struck by 'infernals'. The fleet left
2082:
on 30 March 1944 in concert with simultaneous conventional bombing and strafing attacks. The dropping of 78 mines deterred 32 Japanese ships from escaping
85:
at the end of their useful life, naval mines need to be found and dismantled after the end of hostilities; an often prolonged, costly, and hazardous task.
764:
Beginning around the start of the 20th century, submarine mines played a major role in the defense of U.S. harbours against enemy attacks as part of the
5363:
4312:
4050:
386:, scuttled the project as "not fair and honest warfare". In 1854, during the unsuccessful attempt of the Anglo-French (101 warships) fleet to seize the
3227:
National Research Council (U.S.). Ocean Studies Board, National Research Council (U.S.). Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources (2000).
1607:
or render themselves safe after a preset period of time. Generally, the more sophisticated the mine design, the more likely it is to have some form of
3788:
2517:
sonars and high fidelity sidescaning sonar are used for mine location. Mines are hunted using sonar, then inspected and destroyed either by divers or
4134:
2139:
and 300 vessels. Mine clearing was not always successful: a number of ships were damaged or sunk by mines after the war. Two such examples were the
5617:
4505:
4473:
3261:
2578:
A more drastic method is simply to run a ship through the minefield, letting other ships safely follow the same path. An early example of this was
1782:. This weapon was experimental and never went into production. There have been some reports that North Korea may be developing a nuclear mine. The
596:). In 1901 underwater minefields became the responsibility of the US Army's Artillery Corps, and in 1907 this was a founding responsibility of the
6011:
5497:
4441:
4406:
4371:
4107:
3577:
3180:
6134:
6020:
3950:
2957:
2029:
had the carrying capacity but considered mining to be the navy's job. The US Navy lacked suitable aircraft. Johnson set about convincing General
1457:
5213:
4265:
179:
159:
Mines have been employed as offensive or defensive weapons in rivers, lakes, estuaries, seas, and oceans, but they can also be used as tools of
4164:
4028:
156:
naval minefields still exist because they are too extensive and expensive to clear. Some 1940s-era mines may remain dangerous for many years.
5192:
DSTO-GD-0109, September 1996. Ship Structures and Materials Division, Aeronautical and Maritime Research Laboratory. Retrieved 16 March 2009.
3977:
3373:
The Crimean War (1854–1856) was the first war to see the successful use of land and sea mines, both of which were the work of Immanuel Nobel.
2295:—a simple sonar looking forward and warning the crew if it detects possible mines ahead. It is only effective when the ship is moving slowly.
1675:
The mine is hydrostatically controlled to maintain a pre-set depth below the water's surface independently of the rise and fall of the tide.
2219:
broke in half and sank off the coast South Korea in 2010, was caused by the bubble jet effect, according to an international investigation.
443:
was designed by German-born, Russian engineer Jacobi, in 1853. The mine was tied to the sea bottom by an anchor. A cable connected it to a
4617:
514:
was a mine attached to a long pole and detonated when the ship carrying it rammed another one and withdrew a safe distance. The submarine
167:
The decision-makers' perception of the minefield is a critical factor. Minefields designed for psychological effect are usually placed on
6190:
5520:
2439:
The distance sweep mimics the sound and magnetism of a ship and is pulled behind the sweeper. It has floating coils and large underwater
888:
during low tide. Additionally, the land belonged to the army and a base with men and workshops was at hand. Experts were dispatched from
2171:
underneath the keel, then HSF is equal to KSF, but explosions that are not directly underneath the ship will have a lower value of KSF.
1319:
and sugar. When the vial was crushed, the acid ignited the perchlorate-sugar mix, and the resulting flame ignited the gunpowder charge.
5329:
5247:
2055:
in February 1943. Aerial minelaying operations involved a coalition of British, Australian and American aircrews, with the RAF and the
2044:
408:
suffered damage due to the underwater explosions of Russian naval mines. Russian naval specialists set more than 1,500 naval mines, or
231:
3524:
3063:
5920:(Personal account of mine countermeasures operations in Operation Desert Storm during the Gulf War 1991, including the mining of USS
2048:
6029:
5185:
3823:
3684:
2252:
1358:
597:
3858:
3414:
struck first one and then another mine, giving her the dubious distinction of being the first warship damaged by enemy mines. HMS
5385:
4530:
884:
The British experienced a stroke of luck in November 1939, when a German mine was dropped from an aircraft onto the mudflats off
768:. The mines employed were controlled mines, anchored to the bottoms of the harbours, and detonated under control from large mine
705:
6104:
5419:
1374:
Floating mines typically have a mass of around 200 kg (440 lb), including 80 kg (180 lb) of explosives e.g.
6086:
5675:
4668:
2540:
in 2003. The US Navy claims that these dolphins were effective in helping to clear more than 100 antiship mines and underwater
2101:
1043:
Mining campaigns could have devastating consequences. The U.S. effort against Japan, for instance, closed major ports, such as
761:
or mechanical devices that activated a blast upon tipping. Several mine-laying ships were destroyed when their cargo exploded.
6122:
4579:
2651:. Counter-mining is normally used as a last resort or if other equipment is not available. One example was at the entrance to
1003:
6047:
5973:
4346:
4287:
4241:
3327:
3135:
2466:
Another anti-sweeping mechanism is a ship-counter in the mine fuze. When enabled, this allows detonation only after the mine
950:
process, where their hulls had a slight "south" bias induced into them which offset the concentration-effect almost to zero.
585:
576:
565:
452:
5591:
5565:
4962:
4198:
3620:
2518:
2087:
abandoned Palau as a base when their first ship attempting to traverse the swept channel was damaged by a mine detonation.
1308:. When a ship's hull crushes the metal horn, it cracks the vial inside it, allowing the acid to run down a tube and into a
527:
on 17 February 1864. A Harvey torpedo was a type of floating mine towed alongside a ship and was briefly in service in the
100:
mines requiring physical ignition. Mines may be placed by aircraft, ships, submarines, or individual swimmers and boatmen.
3386:
1778:
During the Cold War, a test was conducted with a naval mine fitted with tactical nuclear warheads for the "Baker" shot of
286:
to make weapons, including the failed "floating petard". Weapons of this type were apparently tried by the English at the
6210:
2598:
2130:
1219:
5270:
3274:
Gilbert, Jason A., L/Cdr, USN. "Combined Mine Countermeasures Force", Naval War College paper (Newport, RI, 2001), p. 2.
2589:. However, as mine warfare became more developed this method became uneconomical. This method was revived by the German
1436:
in France to float down the river, becoming active after a time calculated to be long enough to reach German territory.
3743:
3614:
2619:
obviated the need to continuous and painstaking sweeping, but the cost was high. Over half the 100 or so ships used as
1915:
charge. From April to June 1940, the Luftwaffe laid 1,000 mines in British waters. Soviet ports were mined, as was the
1105:, mines laid by North Korean forces caused 70% of the casualties suffered by U.S. naval vessels and caused 4 sinkings.
829:
6068:
5697:
Hanning, Marcus A.; Smyers, Richard Paul & Thorne, Phil (2010). "Question 11/46: Japanese Use of Mines in WW II".
4915:
1491:
These mines are triggered by the influence of a ship or submarine, rather than direct contact. Such mines incorporate
650:, on 13 September 1880, which having captured and checked a beautiful boat, it exploded when hoisting it on its side.
5939:
5913:
5893:
5793:
5730:
5647:
5313:
5079:
5054:
5003:
4946:
4872:
4847:
4762:
4737:
3653:
3561:
3449:
3396:
3351:
3238:
3211:
2123:
1300:
limiting the damage to the direct effects of the explosion and usually affecting only the vessel that triggers them.
1148:
was probably responsible for the minelaying. In response the U.S., Britain, France, and three other nations launched
750:
Following the end of the Russo-Japanese War, several nations attempted to have mines banned as weapons of war at the
456:
5929:
2672:
MK56 ASW mine (the oldest still in use by the United States) was developed in 1966. More advanced mines include the
5829:, by United States. Adjutant-General's Office. Military Information Division, a publication from 1901, now in the
5449:
3034:
2001:
1413:
1226:
4642:
2611:. Typically an old cargo ship, loaded with cargo that made her less vulnerable to sinking (wood for example), the
718:, and most of his crew in the process. The toll inflicted by mines was not confined to the Russians, however. The
6200:
6170:
6165:
5979:
5764:
4808:
3700:
15 June, it was learned that the mouth of the river was protected by electric mines, that the forts at Taku were.
2529:
1763:
480:
374:
used an electric detonator to destroy a moving vessel to demonstrate an underwater mine of his own design to the
5097:
4786:
824:
4706:
2932:
2185:
1916:
1182:
1124:
1075:
1009:
467:
from attacking them. It gradually phased out its direct competitor the Nobel mine on the insistence of Admiral
6077:
6059:
5023:
1416:'s British fleet did not pursue and destroy the outnumbered German High Seas Fleet when it turned away at the
5355:
4085:
3101:
3011:
751:
612:
464:
316:
that was floated toward the enemy, detonated by a sparking mechanism if it struck a ship. It was used on the
4054:
1580:
programmed specifically to ignore all surface vessels regardless of size and exclusively target submarines.
6180:
3784:
2498:
1463:
Modern examples usually weigh 200 kg (440 lb), including 80 kg (180 lb) of explosives (
1312:
which until then contained no acid electrolyte. This energizes the battery, which detonates the explosive.
531:
in the 1870s. Other "torpedoes" were attached to ships or propelled themselves. One such weapon called the
447:
which powered it from the shore, the power of its explosive charge was equal to 14 kg (31 lb) of
309:
5203:"Investigation Result on the Sinking of ROKS "Cheonan" by The Joint Civilian-Military Investigation Group"
4548:
6205:
2280:
1731:
A torpedo mine is a self-propelled variety, able to lie in wait for a target and then pursue it e.g. the
742:
736:
726:
690:
5625:
5489:
4497:
4465:
4433:
4398:
4363:
3346:. Praeger Security International; War, technology, and history. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 29.
3172:
2615:
was run ahead of the ship to be protected, detonating any mines that might be in their path. The use of
6175:
6160:
6008:
2937:
2056:
1783:
1720:
1560:
1177:
640:
flies when capturing a sloop mined by the Peruvians. A similar fate occurred with the gunboat schooner
104:
is the practice of the removal of explosive naval mines, usually by a specially designed ship called a
3744:"Climate Change & Naval War—A Scientific Assessment 2005—Trafford on demand publishing, Canada/UK"
3643:
1948:
compound. Special aerial mine designs finally arrived in 1943–1944, the AMD-500 and AMD-1000. Various
757:
Many early mines were fragile and dangerous to handle, as they contained glass containers filled with
5202:
2632:
2628:
2567:
2299:
1556:
799:
589:
283:
5530:
5119:
Page: 41, author: Gordon Williamson, John White, publisher: Osprey Publishing, accessed: 9 July 2008
4257:
4024:
3785:"Mark Chirnside's Reception Room: Olympic, Titanic & Britannic: Olympic Interview, January 2005"
938:
the entire area between the two ships. The older methods continued to be used in smaller areas. The
5718:
2867:
2843:
2180:
1736:
1572:
515:
451:. In the summer of 1853, the production of the mine was approved by the Committee for Mines of the
274:
The first plan for a sea mine in the West was by Ralph Rabbards, who presented his design to Queen
148:
Their flexibility and cost-effectiveness make mines attractive to the less powerful belligerent in
5761:"WW2 People's War—An archive of World War Two memories—written by the public, gathered by the BBC"
3981:
3688:
2191:
mine attack being a good example of a contact mine detonating amidships and underneath the ship).
2179:
Usually only created by contact mines, direct damage is a hole blown in the ship. Among the crew,
1890:
In some cases, mines are automatically activated upon contact with the water. In others, a safety
2332:
1530:
have been incorporated into designs. Simple magnetic sensors have been superseded by total-field
1453:
765:
2765:
Type: aircraft-laid bottom mine (with descent to water slowed by a parachute or other mechanism)
1555:) and ignore all others. The sophistication of modern electronic mine fuzes incorporating these
6195:
5525:
4609:
2967:
2648:
2425:
2213:
1744:
1429:
1222:
have made frequent use of naval mines, laying over 150 in the Red Sea throughout the conflict.
780:
719:
711:
275:
5144:
5129:
3320:
Power struggles: scientific authority and the creation of practical electricity before Edison.
2432:
instead of a second minesweeper. These are torpedo-shaped towed bodies, similar in shape to a
5239:
5113:
4233:
4226:
3703:(Issue 143 of Document (United States. War Dept.))(Original from the New York Public Library)
3683:. Adjutant-General's Office, Military Information Division, Washington, D.C., United States:
3228:
3125:
2947:
2926:
2552:
2359:
2146:
which was scrapped after hitting a mine in a previously cleared area off the Greek island of
1949:
1700:
1593:
1316:
1309:
1202:
1156:
694:
604:
521:
160:
5325:
1649:
Several specialized mines have been developed for other purposes than the common minefield.
1291:
Naval mines may be classified into three major groups; contact, remote and influence mines.
1047:, for days, and by the end of the Pacific War had cut the amount of freight passing through
732:
6185:
4108:"Houthis increase use of suicide drone boats in recent weeks | FDD's Long War Journal"
3520:
3418:
came to her assistance after the first explosion, only to strike a mine herself. When HMS
3055:
2590:
2582:
2209:
2119:
2105:
2091:
2022:
1850:
1845:
Historically several methods were used to lay mines. During WWI and WWII, the Germans used
1779:
1608:
1315:
Earlier forms of the detonator employed a vial of sulfuric acid surrounded by a mixture of
1209:
673:
against the French; they planted nine torpedo mines in the river and blocked the entrance.
593:
561:
287:
2104:
concluded that it would have been more efficient to combine the United States's effective
1024:
The Allies and Germany deployed acoustic mines in World War II, against which even wooden-
8:
6026:
3410:
While nosing about the defences off Kronstadt on 9 June 1855, the British paddle steamer
2952:
2447:
2410:
2075:
1696:
975:
642:
6147:
updates to above article on naval mines due to Korean War and types and measures against
5624:. Corpus Christi, Texas: Commander Mobile Mine Assembly Group, U.S. Navy. Archived from
3819:
3714:"Naval mine - contained explosive device placed in water to destroy ships or submarines"
3678:
2078:
torpedo bombers, the US Navy mounted a direct aerial mining attack on enemy shipping in
1074:
In 1988, an Iranian M-08 mine made a 25-foot (8 m) hole in the hull of the frigate
5179:
4527:
3854:
3255:
2999:
2906:
2726:
2669:
2586:
2525:
2451:
2406:
2402:
2324:
2288:
2026:
1576:
1540:
1512:
1230:
1117:
1098:
1029:
997:
961:
934:
917:
701:
619:
580:
539:
398:
375:
367:
337:
149:
5393:
3809:
Campbell, John, "Naval Weapons of World War Two" (London: Conway Maritime Press, 1985)
2012:
1786:
prohibits the placement of nuclear weapons on the seabed beyond a 12-mile coast zone.
1175:. A Soviet tanker was among the ships damaged by these mines. In 1986, in the case of
947:
685:, Imperial Chinese forces deployed a command-detonated mine field at the mouth of the
320:
as a drift mine, destroying a small boat near its intended target, a British warship.
234:
tell of naval explosives in the 16th century, used to fight against Japanese pirates (
5969:
5935:
5909:
5889:
5789:
5726:
5706:
5415:
5309:
5075:
5050:
4999:
4942:
4868:
4843:
4758:
4733:
4342:
4323:
4237:
3649:
3610:
3557:
3445:
3392:
3357:
3347:
3323:
3234:
3207:
3131:
2429:
2375:
2060:
1575:, with all the programmability this implies, such as the ability to quickly load new
1417:
1379:
1109:
1025:
869:
ordered the intact recovery of one of these new mines to be of the highest priority.
866:
850:
627:
532:
413:
391:
383:
279:
175:
5672:
5308:
Oceanography and Mine Warfare. Ocean Studies Board, National Research Council, 2000
5178:
Department of Defence. Defence Science and Technology Organisation. Warren D. Reid,
5020:"United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Summary Report (Pacific War). July 1, 1946"
4676:
4228:
The Russian Rockefellers: the Saga of the Nobel Family and the Russian Oil Industry
4165:"Here's what makes sea mines Russia's biggest challenge in Ukraine's Mariupol port"
2962:
2839:
2417:
batteries prevented the British and French from clearing a way through minefields.
2266:
1600:
1585:
1568:
1445:
1018:
958:
658:
654:
359:, carrying 40 barrels of gunpowder and rigged to explode by a clockwork mechanism.
348:
213:
6123:"Fighting The Submarine Mine – How Navies Combat A Deadly Sea Weapon" October 1941
6044:
4291:
1460:, which were emplaced or in reserve from the 1890s until the end of World War II.
1059:
than 500 minesweepers (of a variety of types) were damaged or sunk clearing them.
714:, sending the holed vessel to the bottom and killing the fleet commander, Admiral
542:
of 1861–1865 also saw the successful use of mines. The first ship sunk by a mine,
6144:
6129:
6117:
6099:
6081:
6063:
6051:
6033:
6015:
5679:
5189:
5101:
4969:
4534:
4319:
4202:
3439:
3341:
2687:
2284:
1997:
1767:
1707:
1691:
1552:
1375:
1014:
993:
682:
662:
569:
421:
20:
5992:(Describes American efforts to combat Iranian mine campaign in the Persian Gulf)
5569:
4781:
The Soviet Navy at the Outbreak and During the Great Patriotic War: Introduction
3092:
Greer, William L.; Bartholomew, James (1986). "The Psychology of Mine Warfare".
2354:
2279:
avoid magnetic signatures. These ships may use special propulsion systems, with
1507:. The fuses on such mines may incorporate one or more of the following sensors:
172:
makes it a credible threat, but minefields work more on the mind than on ships.
3435:
2898:
2579:
2433:
2096:
2036:
1936:
1920:
1904:
1747:
1732:
1706:
These are mines containing a moving weapon as a warhead, either a torpedo or a
1527:
1168:
996:
for repairs. Incidents like this resulted in many of the boats that sailed to
968:
901:
788:
715:
557:
507:
472:
417:
363:
317:
305:
297:
250:
89:
4894:
Mines Away!: The Significance of US Army Air Forces Minelaying in World War II
3844:
Piekalkiewicz, Janusz, "Sea War: 1939–1945" (Poole, UK: Blandford Press, 1987)
248:
made several timed, drifting explosives, to harass Japanese pirate ships. The
6154:
5868:
5849:
5830:
5710:
5568:. U.S. Navy Small Business Innovation Research. 21 March 2007. Archived from
5278:
4865:
Spying Without Spies: Origins of America's Secret Nuclear Surveillance System
3361:
2893:
2652:
2545:
2247:
2235:-differential over the width of the human body is sufficient to stun or kill
2201:
2155:
1965:
1961:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1871:
1604:
1449:
1305:
1134:
854:
784:
758:
666:
623:
499:
484:
444:
352:
333:
259:
28:
2366:
tows a minesweeping sled while conducting simulated mine clearing operations
1812:
455:. In 1854, 60 Jacobi mines were laid in the vicinity of the Forts Pavel and
308:
developed the first American naval mine, for use against the British in the
5159:
4907:
3750:
3549:
2973:
2942:
2768:
Detection System: Magnetic/seismic/pressure target detection devices (TDDs)
2702:
Detection System: Magnetic/seismic/pressure target detection devices (TDDs)
2608:
2603:
2533:
2395:
2167:
2140:
2135:
2052:
2040:
2030:
1838:
1740:
1531:
1394:
1140:
In the summer of 1984, magnetic sea mines damaged at least 19 ships in the
1131:
1113:
1094:
1062:
The U.S. began adding delay counters to their magnetic mines in June 1945.
906:
885:
880:, magnetic–minesweeping gear being deployed behind a Royal Navy minesweeper
838:
636:
608:
554:
511:
503:
468:
448:
433:
328:
217:
153:
101:
70:
62:
4963:"The United States Strategic Bombing Surveys (European War) (Pacific War)"
2490:
2043:
and other bomber aircraft took part in localized mining operations in the
1242:
1215:. When the war concluded, eight countries conducted clearance operations.
203:
A 14th-century illustration of a naval mine and page description from the
6002:
5416:"Paravane – Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary"
4135:"Ukraine says Russia planting mines in Black Sea as shipping perils grow"
2916:
2859:
2835:
2673:
2594:
2571:
2505:
2232:
1621:
1544:
1492:
1332:
985:
810:
776:
550:
440:
425:
371:
341:
226:
205:
168:
140:
105:
6069:
Belgian-Netherlands Naval Mine Warfare School, NATO Center of Excellence
5945:
3026:
1487:
bomber during WWII and landed on the ground. Fuse mechanisms are visible
1412:
mechanism might not function as intended and the mines may remain live.
1152:, a minesweeping operation in the Red Sea involving more than 46 ships.
849:
routes and ports around Britain. German submarines also operated in the
575:
After 1865 the United States adopted the mine as its primary weapon for
5072:
The Development of Mine Warfare: A Most Murderous and Barbarous Conduct
4996:
The Development of Mine Warfare: A Most Murderous and Barbarous Conduct
4939:
The Development of Mine Warfare: A Most Murderous and Barbarous Conduct
4840:
The Development of Mine Warfare: A Most Murderous and Barbarous Conduct
4730:
The Development of Mine Warfare: A Most Murderous and Barbarous Conduct
4646:
3343:
The Development of Mine Warfare: A Most Murderous and Barbarous Conduct
2541:
2513:
2385:, 7 June 1944. Note her broken back, with smoke pouring from amidships.
2382:
2308:
2261:
1985:
1972:
1969:
1953:
1834:
1830:
1589:
1548:
1535:
1523:
1496:
1444:
Frequently used in combination with coastal artillery and hydrophones,
1102:
939:
912:
889:
528:
387:
379:
245:
5963:
4077:
2158:, Italy in December 1945, caught fire, was beached, and broke in two.
1000:
being degaussed in a marathon four-day effort by degaussing stations.
5965:
Inside the Danger Zone: The U.S. Military in the Persian Gulf 1987–88
5931:
No Higher Honor: Saving the USS Samuel B. Roberts in the Persian Gulf
5755:] (in Russian). Vol. II. Moscow: Soviet Academy of Sciences.
5094:
4778:
3677:
Slocum, Stephan L'H.; Reichmann, Carl; Chaffee, Adna Romanza (1901).
2921:
2911:
2863:
2313:
1957:
1874:
or deployed from specialized mine racks on the sides of the submarine
1638:
use multiple types of sensors, which are less sensitive to sweeping.
1500:
1484:
1164:
1101:
ships, whereas air and missile attacks have damaged four. During the
1044:
905:
detonate. The mechanism had an adjustable sensitivity, calibrated in
723:
686:
607:, a pioneer in mine warfare, successfully deployed mines against the
543:
476:
460:
356:
313:
268:
199:
183:
118:
97:
66:
58:
19:"Naval mining" redirects here. For civilian resource extraction, see
5846:
Reports on military operations in South Africa and China. July, 1901
4698:
1989:
1559:
capabilities makes it much more difficult to detonate the mine with
1353:
872:
6074:
6056:
5019:
4556:
2854:
2850:
2537:
2414:
2370:
2340:
2067:
1952:
torpedo bombers were pressed into the role of aerial mining in the
1818:
1750:. The mine designation was disinformation to conceal its function.
1597:
1516:
1508:
1432:" in 1940 and again in 1944 where floating mines were put into the
1367:
1194:
1082:
1070:
1052:
925:
769:
488:
240:). This kind of naval mine was loaded in a wooden box, sealed with
122:
5760:
3606:
Maritime Taiwan: Historical Encounters with the East and the West
3388:
Very Special Ships: Abdiel Class Fast Minelayers of World War Two
2871:
2563:
2528:) have been trained to hunt and mark mines, most famously by the
2236:
2147:
2016:
A B-29 Superfortress dropping sea mines over Japanese home waters
1891:
1504:
1342:
1172:
1141:
803:
647:
495:
293:
264:
221:
134:
126:
74:
4580:"U.S. military enters new generation of sea mine warfare – News"
1883:
Dropping from the shore – typically smaller, shallow-water mines
1611:
to hinder clearance by divers or remotely piloted submersibles.
1592:. Even though modern mines are generally powered by a long life
1479:
82:
3480:
3444:. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. (published 2011). pp. 288–289.
3441:
The Crimean War: British Grand Strategy Against Russia, 1853–56
1846:
1468:
1383:
1338:
1112:
from 1980 to 1988, the belligerents mined several areas of the
1033:
846:
842:
670:
631:
130:
3108:
3149:
3147:
2363:
2292:
2083:
2079:
1433:
1185:
ruled that this mining was a violation of international law.
1145:
1086:
897:
351:
made extensive use of explosive devices designed by inventor
241:
236:
5510:
Slide 34 of 81. Hosted by Federation of American Scientists.
4518:
Slide 40 of 81. Hosted by Federation of American Scientists.
4486:
Slide 33 of 81. Hosted by Federation of American Scientists.
4454:
Slide 31 of 81. Hosted by Federation of American Scientists.
4419:
Slide 17 of 81. Hosted by Federation of American Scientists.
3939:(Annapolis, Md. : Naval Institute Press, 1993), p. 200.
3498:
Brown. D.K., Before the Ironclad, London (1990), pp. 152–154
2826:
According to a statement made to the UK Parliament in 2002:
2739:
latter three mines are actually a single type of electronic
2627:
An updated form of this method is the use of small unmanned
953:
Initially, major warships and large troopships had a copper
16:
Weapon for use in waters, triggered by the target's approach
4384:
Slide 1 of 81. Hosted by Federation of American Scientists.
2846:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2467:
1993:
1198:
1048:
794:, became the largest vessel ever sunk by a naval mine. The
93:
4258:"World War 2 Era Contact Sea Mine - Victorian Collections"
3156:
3144:
436:
operation. During the next 72 hours, 33 mines were swept.
6005:(1912) by United States War Department (Document no. 399)
5827:
Publication, Issue 33 Document (United States. War Dept.)
5162:
after hitting a mine in December 1947. (Elphick, p. 402.)
1626:
1464:
1160:
1040:
detonating. This made them a great deal harder to sweep.
471:. The Nobel mines were bought from Swedish industrialist
212:
Naval mines were first invented by Chinese innovators of
5865:
Reports on military operations in South Africa and China
5275:
US Naval Submarine Medical Research Lab Technical Report
4637:
4635:
4051:"U.S. Mining Nicaragua's harbours (February–March 1984)"
3873:
3680:
Reports on military operations in South Africa and China
2705:
Dimensions: 0.485 by 4.09 m (19.1 by 161.0 in)
2166:
The damage that may be caused by a mine depends on the "
2133:(GMSA), which consisted of 27,000 members of the former
1867:
Aircraft – descent to the water is slowed by a parachute
1495:
sensors designed to detect the presence of a vessel and
828:
A contact mine being deployed from the German minelayer
3820:"The Double-L Sweep – Biography of Sir Charles Goodeve"
3002:(1985). "Mine Warfare: A Pillar of Maritime Strategy".
2805:
Dimensions: 0.570 by 2.9 m (22.4 by 114.2 in)
2443:. It is the only sweep effective against bottom mines.
1822:(left), a converted Japanese-built landing craft, 1987.
1398:
Sequence of laying a moored contact mine with a plummet
397:(9 June 1855, the first successful mining in history),
6009:
Technical details of German Second World War sea mines
5496:. Surface Warfare Officers School Command, U.S. Navy.
5181:
The Response of Surface Ships to Underwater Explosions
4504:. Surface Warfare Officers School Command, U.S. Navy.
4472:. Surface Warfare Officers School Command, U.S. Navy.
4440:. Surface Warfare Officers School Command, U.S. Navy.
4405:. Surface Warfare Officers School Command, U.S. Navy.
4370:. Surface Warfare Officers School Command, U.S. Navy.
3676:
3501:
2970:(aerial mining campaign against North Vietnam in 1972)
2033:
of the efficacy of heavy bombers laying aerial mines.
6057:
Henry Norton Sulivan: a depiction of early Naval Mine
4632:
3667:(Original from the University of Wisconsin – Madison)
588:, which trained officers and men in their use at the
224:, in his 14th-century military treatise known as the
2714:
Explosives: 230 kg (510 lb) high explosive
2255:
during mine clearance operations in the Persian Gulf
2102:
United States Strategic Bombing Survey (Pacific War)
2051:
theaters, beginning with a successful attack on the
1864:
Converted merchant ships – rolled or slid down ramps
1483:
German parachute-retarded magnetic mine. Dropped by
1389:
1116:
and nearby waters. On 24 July 1987, the supertanker
5741:
Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Part 7
5696:
5464:
4811:
Sovet Air Forces "Autumn Storm" Air Order of Battle
2771:
Dimensions: 0.74 by 3.25 m (29 by 128 in)
2405:, either purpose-built military ships or converted
1923:could carry two medium or one large mine while the
1036:, 200 bombs were needed to detonate just 13 mines.
216:and were described in thorough detail by the early
5805:Aircraft Profile No. 177: The Junkers Ju 52 Series
5268:
4225:
1519:displacement caused by the proximity of a vessel.
1081:, forcing the ship to seek temporary repairs in a
735:and succeeded in sinking the Japanese battleships
5908:. Clementsport: The Canadian Peacekeeping Press.
3908:
3906:
3896:
3894:
3892:
3890:
3888:
3609:(illustrated ed.). M.E. Sharpe. p. 97.
3173:"Historic Figures: Cornelius Drebbel (1572–1633)"
3123:
3024:
2607:("block breaker"). The type was also used during
1880:Camouflaged boats – masquerading as fishing boats
942:continued to be swept by aircraft, for instance.
117:Mines can be laid in many ways: by purpose-built
6152:
5900:(Canonical general text about U.S. mine warfare)
5886:Weapons That Wait: Mine Warfare in the U.S. Navy
5349:
5347:
4341:(Third ed.). CDSG Press. pp. 333–374.
3645:Reilly's Battery: a story of the Boxer Rebellion
3201:
3091:
1898:
5884:Hartmann, Gregory K.; Truver, Scott C. (1991).
5650:. Publications.parliament.uk. 4 November 2002.
5442:"Britain's Vickers Wellington bomber, 'Wimpey'"
4675:. SinoDefence.com. 16 June 2008. Archived from
4192:
4190:
4001:
3999:
3922:
3920:
3918:
3554:Historical Dictionary of the Russo-Japanese War
3056:"Isle of Wight: WW2 sea mine detonated by Navy"
2958:Submarine mines in United States harbor defense
2802:Detection System: Total field magnetic exploder
2597:. Left with a surfeit of idle ships due to the
2532:. Mine-clearance dolphins were deployed in the
491:. British ships did not dare to approach them.
6045:Description of mines used by the United States
5883:
3903:
3885:
3204:Discoveries and inventions of the 19th century
1877:Combat boats – rolled off the side of the boat
96:mechanisms are much more effective than early
5673:SSK Collins Class (Type 471) Attack Submarine
5483:
5481:
5479:
5344:
5158:, which broke in three and sank in the North
4427:
4425:
4339:American Seacoast Defenses, A Reference Guide
3953:. U.S. Naval History & Heritage Command.
2319:A simpler variation of this technique called
2112:
1123:by Iran near Farsi Island. On 14 April 1988,
5682:. Naval Technology. Retrieved on 2010-12-02.
4187:
3996:
3915:
3260:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1439:
382:. However, opposition from former president
61:device placed in water to damage or destroy
5446:World War II Vehicles, Tanks, and Airplanes
5271:"The Effects of Underwater Blast on Divers"
5174:
5172:
5170:
5168:
3855:"Wiping – Biography of Sir Charles Goodeve"
2933:Royal Navy's Admiralty Mining Establishment
2814:Explosives: 164 kg (362 lb) HBX-3
2756:fitted which converts them into sea mines.
1886:Attack divers – smaller shallow-water mines
700:The next major use of mines was during the
5555:, p. 58. New York: 1953, Harper & Row.
5476:
5304:
5302:
5300:
5298:
5296:
5240:"South Korea Cites Attack in Ship Sinking"
5095:German Mine Sweeping Administration (GMSA)
5069:
4993:
4936:
4837:
4727:
4422:
4392:
4390:
3641:
3521:"Coast Artillery: Submarine Mine Defenses"
3339:
2497:minehunting drone, such are operated from
2273:
282:was employed in the Office of Ordnance by
5958:(Describes mine damage to a U.S. frigate)
4196:
3937:Japanese Merchant Marine in World War Two
3544:
3542:
3384:
3299:
3297:
3295:
3277:
3130:(3 ed.). Asiapac Books. p. 18.
3127:Origins of Chinese science and technology
3087:
3085:
3083:
3081:
2601:, the Germans introduced a ship known as
2346:
1860:Other methods to lay minefields include:
1406:
704:of 1904–1905. Two mines blew up when the
5927:
5237:
5165:
4888:
4886:
4884:
4610:"The Origins of Military Mines: Part II"
4577:
4313:"How Mines Help Guard America's Harbors"
3233:. National Academies Press. p. 12.
3027:"Swedish navy locates German WWII mines"
2998:
2720:
2681:MK67 SLMM Submarine Launched Mobile Mine
2562:
2489:
2424:Minesweepers protect themselves with an
2369:
2353:
2253:United States Navy Marine Mammal Program
2246:
2011:
1825:
1811:
1690:
1478:
1393:
1352:
1241:
1069:
1002:
911:
871:
823:
598:United States Army Coast Artillery Corps
592:at Willets Point, New York (later named
560:'s famous/apocryphal command during the
327:
292:
198:
139:
35:
27:
5779:
5487:
5356:"Sunday Ship History: Degaussing Ships"
5353:
5293:
4862:
4546:
4528:MK 67 Submarine-Laid Mobile Mine (SLMM)
4495:
4463:
4431:
4396:
4387:
4361:
4053:. Homepage.ntlworld.com. Archived from
3978:"Terrorism: Scouring the Red Sea Floor"
3948:
3879:
3434:
2849:on a Stonefish mine contains acoustic,
2066:A single B-24 dropped three mines into
1895:out of its activation and blast zones.
1735:. Generally, torpedo mines incorporate
1348:
494:In the 19th century, mines were called
300:mines destroying a British ship in 1777
256:The Exploitation of the Works of Nature
6153:
6021:'Stonefish' – a British influence mine
5903:
5717:
5566:"Influence Sweeping of Pressure Mines"
5490:"Mine Counter-Counter Measures (MCCM)"
4336:
4197:Hartshorn, Derick S. (17 April 2010).
3548:
3539:
3527:from the original on 11 September 2017
3292:
3078:
2877:
1130:struck an Iranian mine in the central
579:. In the decade following 1868, Major
312:. It was a watertight keg filled with
5802:
5767:from the original on 18 February 2007
5746:
5494:Mine Warfare Introduction: The Threat
5470:
5219:from the original on 26 February 2021
5044:
4881:
4819:from the original on 13 February 2012
4752:
4508:from the original on 22 December 2015
4502:Mine Warfare Introduction: The Threat
4470:Mine Warfare Introduction: The Threat
4438:Mine Warfare Introduction: The Threat
4403:Mine Warfare Introduction: The Threat
4368:Mine Warfare Introduction: The Threat
4268:from the original on 15 November 2023
3975:
3949:Marolda, Edward J. (26 August 2003).
3507:
3322:Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
3183:from the original on 27 December 2019
2777:Weight: 1,086 kg (2,394 lb)
1789:
676:
566:Damn the torpedoes, full speed ahead!
453:Ministry of War of the Russian Empire
366:exploded an underwater mine using an
5968:. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press.
5961:
5934:. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press.
5888:. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press.
5863:This article incorporates text from
5844:This article incorporates text from
5825:This article incorporates text from
5654:from the original on 26 October 2016
5422:from the original on 28 January 2012
5150:A third example is the liberty ship
4918:from the original on 4 December 2008
4590:from the original on 8 February 2012
4547:Stewart, Cameron (30 October 2011).
4232:. Hoover Institution Press. p.
4223:
4132:
4075:
3976:Smith, William E. (27 August 1984).
3861:from the original on 18 October 2008
3826:from the original on 18 October 2008
3791:from the original on 29 January 2021
3602:
3584:from the original on 15 October 2022
3556:. The Scarecrow Press. p. 238.
3066:from the original on 7 November 2020
2658:
2283:, to reduce magnetic signature, and
2194:
1304:containing a glass vial filled with
611:during both the Crimean War and the
5982:from the original on 29 August 2009
5366:from the original on 5 October 2011
4620:from the original on 31 August 2021
4537:. Fas.org. Retrieved on 2010-12-02.
4031:from the original on 4 January 2010
3391:. Seaforth Publishing. p. 11.
3114:Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 203–205.
2811:Weight: 909 kg (2,004 lb)
2725:MK 62 Quick Strike deployed from a
2711:Weight: 754 kg (1,662 lb)
2339:Some ships are built with magnetic
2131:German Mine Sweeping Administration
1816:Captured Iranian mine laying ship,
1743:, code-named Fido, was actually an
1670:
1567:Modern influence mines such as the
1551:sounds from a particular design of
323:
13:
6191:Naval weapons of the United States
5877:
5448:. Wwiivehicles.com. Archived from
5269:Cudahy, E & Parvin, S (2001).
5250:from the original on 28 April 2010
5104:(in German), accessed: 9 June 2008
4669:"Type 918 (Wolei Class) Minelayer"
4498:"Russian UDM-E Bottom Cylindrical"
4201:. Mineman Memories. Archived from
4114:from the original on 24 March 2020
4088:from the original on 30 April 2011
3720:. 24 November 2009. Archived from
3283:
2312:(more correctly, de-oerstedted or
2242:
1695:A CAPTOR mine being loaded onto a
1661:
1474:
14:
6222:
5996:
5596:Jane's Underwater Warfare Systems
5500:from the original on 4 March 2016
5354:Tempest, Mark (4 November 2007).
5332:from the original on 26 June 2017
4789:from the original on 16 June 2008
4709:from the original on 31 July 2019
4476:from the original on 9 March 2016
4444:from the original on 2 April 2015
4409:from the original on 2 April 2015
4374:from the original on 19 July 2016
4145:from the original on 8 April 2022
3037:from the original on 9 March 2016
2641:
2231:The resulting gas cavitation and
2124:Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force
1978:
1739:acoustic and magnetic fuzes. The
1678:
1390:Moored contact mines with plummet
665:, Chinese forces in Taiwan under
121:, refitted ships, submarines, or
5856:
5837:
5818:
5666:
5640:
5610:
5584:
5558:
5529:. September 2003. Archived from
5238:Sang-Hun, Choe (25 April 2010).
5026:from the original on 16 May 2008
4175:from the original on 18 May 2022
4133:Saul, Jonathan (30 March 2022).
3303:
2699:Type: Submarine-laid bottom mine
2389:
2327:which saved time and resources.
2174:
2007:
1644:
1294:
1227:2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
1188:
731:planted a 50-mine minefield off
568:" refers to a minefield laid at
92:detonated by complex electronic
5904:Hewitt, James Terrance (1998).
5788:. London: Imperial War Museum.
5545:
5513:
5434:
5408:
5378:
5318:
5262:
5231:
5195:
5137:
5122:
5107:
5088:
5063:
5038:
5012:
4987:
4955:
4930:
4900:
4856:
4842:. Greenwood. pp. 129–130.
4831:
4801:
4771:
4746:
4721:
4691:
4661:
4602:
4571:
4540:
4521:
4489:
4457:
4355:
4330:
4306:
4280:
4250:
4217:
4157:
4126:
4100:
4069:
4043:
4017:
4008:
3969:
3957:from the original on 1 May 2015
3942:
3929:
3847:
3838:
3812:
3803:
3777:
3768:
3736:
3706:
3670:
3635:
3596:
3570:
3513:
3492:
3428:
3378:
3333:
3312:
3268:
3220:
3195:
3162:Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 199.
3153:Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 205.
2799:Type: Aircraft laid moored mine
2558:
2530:U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program
2222:
2184:on its outer hull surface (the
1942:
1917:Arctic convoy route to Murmansk
1773:
1726:
1686:
1652:
1632:
1614:
1326:
1171:port in 1984 in support of the
1065:
819:
498:, a name probably conferred by
483:. Despite their high cost (100
481:Alexander Sergeyevich Menshikov
5488:Garrold, Tim (December 1998).
5392:. Charles Lees. Archived from
4496:Garrold, Tim (December 1998).
4464:Garrold, Tim (December 1998).
4432:Garrold, Tim (December 1998).
4397:Garrold, Tim (December 1998).
4362:Garrold, Tim (December 1998).
3648:. R. Rosen Press. p. 95.
3603:Tsai, Shih-shan Henry (2009).
3206:. Bracken Books. p. 161.
3165:
3117:
3048:
3025:Paul O'Mahony (16 June 2009),
3018:
2992:
2485:
2106:anti-shipping submarine effort
1807:
1764:Submarine Launched Mobile Mine
1753:
1713:
1357:A German contact mine laid in
1183:International Court of Justice
876:The towed, electric cables of
697:from sending ships to attack.
590:Engineer School of Application
479:with the Russian head of navy
112:
1:
6092:Can Mines Conqueror Sea Power
5782:In Trust for the Nation: HMS
5598:. Janes.com. 8 September 2011
4337:Berhow, Mark A., ed. (2015).
3318:Schiffer, Michael B. (2008).
3230:Oceanography and Mine Warfare
3102:United States Naval Institute
3012:United States Naval Institute
2980:
2821:
1992:and the German naval base at
1899:Aerial mining in World War II
1798:
1762:One such design is the Mk 67
1584:high-value target such as an
1201:naval mines severely damaged
752:Hague Peace Conference (1907)
613:Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878)
390:fortress, British steamships
5906:Desert Sailor: A War of Mine
5277:. NSMRL-1218. Archived from
4863:Ziegler, Charles A. (1995).
2985:
2834:However, a British company (
2808:Depth Range: Moderate depths
2281:low magnetic electric motors
2251:A bottlenose dolphin of the
857:, and along the U.S. coast.
586:U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
428:of 1853–1856. The mining of
310:American War of Independence
278:in 1574. The Dutch inventor
194:
49:An explosion of a naval mine
7:
6071:(archived 12 November 2011)
6003:Manual for submarine mining
5807:. Profile Publications Ltd.
5743:. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
5723:Winston Churchill's Toyshop
5070:Youngblood, Norman (2006).
4994:Youngblood, Norman (2006).
4937:Youngblood, Norman (2006).
4838:Youngblood, Norman (2006).
4728:Youngblood, Norman (2006).
4262:victoriancollections.net.au
4084:. Unofficial US Navy Site.
3340:Youngblood, Norman (2006).
2886:
2663:
2306:A steel-hulled ship can be
1870:Submarines – launched from
1837:on a shipping barge in the
1283:-torpedo mine/CAPTOR mine,
1275:-moored mine (short wire),
669:took measures to reinforce
549:, foundered in 1862 in the
10:
6227:
6211:American Civil War weapons
6041:(archived 3 November 2013)
6039:List of various mine types
6027:Development of Minewarfare
6023:(archived 6 December 2008)
5928:Peniston, Bradley (2006).
5689:
5618:"General Mine Information"
5386:"Mine Sweeping Operations"
5074:. Greenwood. p. 141.
4998:. Greenwood. p. 139.
4941:. Greenwood. p. 138.
4732:. Greenwood. p. 127.
3980:. Time.com. Archived from
3642:MacCloskey, Monro (1969).
3385:Nicholson, Arthur (2015).
3124:Asiapac Editorial (2007).
2938:Royal Naval Patrol Service
2774:Depth Range: Shallow water
2708:Depth Range: Shallow water
2393:
2381:after striking a mine off
2154:which hit a minefield off
2113:Clearing WWII aerial mines
2057:Royal Australian Air Force
1909:
1902:
1833:Iraqi mines hidden inside
1784:Seabed Arms Control Treaty
1721:Te-1 rocket propelled mine
1561:electronic countermeasures
1330:
1271:-moored mine (long wire),
1225:In the first month of the
1178:Nicaragua v. United States
924:, magnetic mine exploder,
766:Endicott and Taft Programs
362:In 1812, Russian engineer
189:
178:, specifically the Eighth
18:
6136:"Mines Are Dirty Tricks"
5962:Wise, Harold Lee (2007).
5648:"Hansard Written Answers"
5592:"Pressure sweep (Sweden)"
5045:Levie, Howard S. (1992).
4753:Levie, Howard S. (1992).
4645:. Sei Spa. Archived from
4549:"Australian Mine Warfare"
3202:Robert Routledge (1989).
2780:Explosives: Various loads
2300:SQQ-32 Mine-hunting sonar
2287:propellers, to limit the
2161:
1557:digital signal processing
1499:when it comes within the
1458:remotely controlled mines
1440:Remotely controlled mines
693:, to prevent the western
432:led to the world's first
332:Infernal machines in the
284:King Charles I of England
6050:18 December 2014 at the
6032:8 September 2019 at the
5739:Needham, Joseph (1986).
5551:Cousteau, Jacques Yves.
5049:. Springer. p. 89.
4908:"National Park Service.
4867:. Praeger. p. 118.
4757:. Springer. p. 92.
4224:Tolf, Robert W. (1982).
2963:Stonefish influence mine
2524:Sea mammals (mainly the
1237:
1097:, mines have damaged 14
1013:lays naval mines in the
646:in front of the port of
267:described their use for
180:Hague Convention of 1907
88:Modern mines containing
5747:Tarle, Yevgeny (1944).
5418:. Merriam-webster.com.
4643:"MN103-MANTA Sea Mines"
4533:14 October 2015 at the
4025:"Reagan foreign policy"
3787:. Markchirnside.co.uk.
2838:) does manufacture the
2794:General characteristics
2760:General characteristics
2694:General characteristics
2333:special treatment steel
2274:Passive countermeasures
2049:China Burma India (CBI)
1454:Board of Fortifications
1137:, wounding 10 sailors.
634:, the gunned transport
506:, which gives powerful
258:) treatise, written by
6201:Coastal fortifications
6171:Anti-submarine weapons
6166:Anti-submarine warfare
6080:28 August 2011 at the
6062:28 August 2011 at the
6014:4 October 2011 at the
5780:Wingate, John (2004).
5521:"Uncle Sam's Dolphins"
3578:"The Port-Hopping War"
2968:Operation Pocket Money
2832:
2729:
2649:sympathetic detonation
2575:
2508:
2386:
2367:
2347:Active countermeasures
2256:
2017:
1842:
1823:
1703:
1488:
1430:Operation Royal Marine
1407:Drifting contact mines
1399:
1362:
1288:
1150:Operation Intense Look
1090:
1021:
1007:The Finnish minelayer
929:
881:
834:
781:North Sea Mine Barrage
344:
301:
276:Elizabeth I of England
209:
145:
144:British Mk 14 sea mine
50:
33:
6143:15 April 2023 at the
6116:15 April 2023 at the
5871:in the United States.
5852:in the United States.
5833:in the United States.
5803:Smith, J. R. (1966).
5699:Warship International
5678:18 April 2009 at the
5188:16 March 2022 at the
5116:German Seaman 1939–45
4705:. The Ordnance Shop.
4699:"Aircraft-Laid Mines"
4673:Naval Forces: Vessels
3718:World Wide Inventions
2948:Mine planter (vessel)
2927:Destroyer minesweeper
2862:tail-fin section and
2828:
2724:
2583:actions at Mobile Bay
2574:used for minesweeping
2566:
2553:Jacques Yves Cousteau
2551:French naval officer
2493:
2413:in 1915, when mobile
2373:
2357:
2250:
2015:
2004:during World War II.
1950:Soviet Naval Aviation
1829:
1815:
1766:(which is based on a
1701:Loring Air Force Base
1694:
1482:
1397:
1356:
1317:potassium perchlorate
1246:Types of naval mines:
1245:
1218:Houthi forces in the
1157:Reagan administration
1155:On the orders of the
1144:. The U.S. concluded
1073:
1028:ships (in particular
1006:
915:
875:
827:
605:Imperial Russian Navy
475:who had entered into
331:
296:
271:in the 14th century.
202:
161:psychological warfare
143:
48:
31:
6110:Mine Killers at Work
5526:Smithsonian Magazine
5114:Google book review:
2591:Imperial German Navy
2210:Baengnyeong incident
2120:Operation Starvation
2092:Operation Starvation
1851:Operation Starvation
1780:Operation Crossroads
1609:anti-handling device
1428:Churchill promoted "
1349:Moored contact mines
562:Battle of Mobile Bay
465:British Baltic Fleet
288:Siege of La Rochelle
57:is a self-contained
6181:Area denial weapons
5725:. Roundwood Press.
5533:on 1 September 2007
5452:on 18 November 2011
5047:Mine Warfare at Sea
4809:"George Mellinger.
4755:Mine Warfare at Sea
4076:Doehring, Thoralf.
4027:. Ontheissues.org.
3756:on 8 September 2008
3031:The Local Europe AB
2953:Singer (naval mine)
2878:Modern mine warfare
2817:Date Deployed: 1966
2783:Date Deployed: 1983
2717:Date Deployed: 1987
2448:RAF Coastal Command
2411:Battle of Gallipoli
2323:, was developed by
2076:Grumman TBF Avenger
1973:Douglas Boston IIIs
1741:U.S. Mark 24 "mine"
1697:B-52 Stratofortress
1577:acoustic signatures
1541:acoustic signatures
1361:during World War II
1231:London P&I Club
1121:Bridgeton was mined
336:in 1861 during the
6206:Chinese inventions
6128:6 May 2023 at the
6098:6 May 2023 at the
6075:W.L.Clowes in 1855
5628:on 7 November 2006
5244:The New York Times
5100:2008-04-20 at the
4815:. J-aircraft.com.
4559:on 7 February 2011
4553:Naval Mine Warfare
4318:6 May 2023 at the
3984:on 29 October 2010
3724:on 3 November 2013
3436:Lambert, Andrew D.
2907:Corfu Channel case
2730:
2670:United States Navy
2587:American Civil War
2576:
2526:bottlenose dolphin
2509:
2502:-class minehunters
2472:self-sterilization
2452:Vickers Wellington
2387:
2368:
2325:Charles F. Goodeve
2289:acoustic signature
2257:
2150:in June 1945, and
2027:US Army Air Forces
2018:
1939:could carry more.
1843:
1824:
1790:Daisy-chained mine
1704:
1489:
1400:
1363:
1289:
1099:United States Navy
1091:
1022:
935:Vickers Wellington
930:
918:Vickers Wellington
882:
835:
702:Russo-Japanese War
677:Early 20th century
620:War of the Pacific
581:Henry Larcom Abbot
540:American Civil War
376:United States Navy
368:electrical circuit
345:
338:American Civil War
302:
220:artillery officer
210:
186:and French coast.
150:asymmetric warfare
146:
51:
34:
6176:Anti-ship weapons
6161:Explosive weapons
6108:, November 1943,
5975:978-1-59114-970-5
5362:. Eaglespeak.us.
4975:on 25 August 2003
4466:"Influence Mines"
4348:978-0-9748167-3-9
4324:Popular Mechanics
4243:978-0-8179-6581-5
4110:. 11 March 2020.
3935:Parillo, Mark P.
3882:, pp. 34–35.
3510:, pp. 44–45.
3328:978-0-262-19582-9
3137:978-981-229-376-3
2659:National arsenals
2303:
2267:military dolphins
2195:Bubble jet effect
2188:Samuel B. Roberts
2061:Thomas C. Kinkaid
2045:Southwest Pacific
1759:attacking phase.
1456:in 1885 included
1418:Battle of Jutland
1359:Australian waters
1310:lead–acid battery
1127:Samuel B. Roberts
1078:Samuel B. Roberts
851:Mediterranean Sea
831:Hansestadt Danzig
710:struck them near
622:(1879-1883), the
533:Whitehead torpedo
520:used one to sink
414:Moritz von Jacobi
410:infernal machines
384:John Quincy Adams
280:Cornelius Drebbel
176:International law
46:
6218:
5991:
5989:
5987:
5957:
5955:
5953:
5944:. Archived from
5919:
5899:
5860:
5859:
5841:
5840:
5822:
5821:
5808:
5799:
5776:
5774:
5772:
5756:
5736:
5714:
5683:
5670:
5664:
5663:
5661:
5659:
5644:
5638:
5637:
5635:
5633:
5614:
5608:
5607:
5605:
5603:
5588:
5582:
5581:
5579:
5577:
5562:
5556:
5553:The Silent World
5549:
5543:
5542:
5540:
5538:
5517:
5511:
5509:
5507:
5505:
5485:
5474:
5468:
5462:
5461:
5459:
5457:
5438:
5432:
5431:
5429:
5427:
5412:
5406:
5405:
5403:
5401:
5382:
5376:
5375:
5373:
5371:
5351:
5342:
5341:
5339:
5337:
5322:
5316:
5306:
5291:
5290:
5288:
5286:
5266:
5260:
5259:
5257:
5255:
5235:
5229:
5228:
5226:
5224:
5218:
5207:
5199:
5193:
5176:
5163:
5152:Robert Dale Owen
5143:Elphick, Peter.
5141:
5135:
5128:Elphick, Peter.
5126:
5120:
5111:
5105:
5092:
5086:
5085:
5067:
5061:
5060:
5042:
5036:
5035:
5033:
5031:
5016:
5010:
5009:
4991:
4985:
4984:
4982:
4980:
4974:
4968:. Archived from
4967:
4959:
4953:
4952:
4934:
4928:
4927:
4925:
4923:
4904:
4898:
4897:
4890:
4879:
4878:
4860:
4854:
4853:
4835:
4829:
4828:
4826:
4824:
4805:
4799:
4798:
4796:
4794:
4775:
4769:
4768:
4750:
4744:
4743:
4725:
4719:
4718:
4716:
4714:
4695:
4689:
4688:
4686:
4684:
4679:on 9 August 2010
4665:
4659:
4658:
4656:
4654:
4639:
4630:
4629:
4627:
4625:
4606:
4600:
4599:
4597:
4595:
4575:
4569:
4568:
4566:
4564:
4555:. Archived from
4544:
4538:
4525:
4519:
4517:
4515:
4513:
4493:
4487:
4485:
4483:
4481:
4461:
4455:
4453:
4451:
4449:
4429:
4420:
4418:
4416:
4414:
4394:
4385:
4383:
4381:
4379:
4359:
4353:
4352:
4334:
4328:
4310:
4304:
4303:
4301:
4299:
4290:. Archived from
4288:"Mines – Hormuz"
4284:
4278:
4277:
4275:
4273:
4254:
4248:
4247:
4231:
4221:
4215:
4214:
4212:
4210:
4199:"Moored-contact"
4194:
4185:
4184:
4182:
4180:
4161:
4155:
4154:
4152:
4150:
4130:
4124:
4123:
4121:
4119:
4104:
4098:
4097:
4095:
4093:
4073:
4067:
4066:
4064:
4062:
4057:on 13 March 2013
4047:
4041:
4040:
4038:
4036:
4021:
4015:
4012:
4006:
4003:
3994:
3993:
3991:
3989:
3973:
3967:
3966:
3964:
3962:
3946:
3940:
3933:
3927:
3924:
3913:
3912:Parillo, p. 201.
3910:
3901:
3900:Parillo, p. 200.
3898:
3883:
3877:
3871:
3870:
3868:
3866:
3851:
3845:
3842:
3836:
3835:
3833:
3831:
3816:
3810:
3807:
3801:
3800:
3798:
3796:
3781:
3775:
3772:
3766:
3765:
3763:
3761:
3755:
3749:. Archived from
3748:
3740:
3734:
3733:
3731:
3729:
3710:
3704:
3702:
3697:
3695:
3674:
3668:
3666:
3664:
3662:
3639:
3633:
3632:
3630:
3628:
3619:. Archived from
3600:
3594:
3593:
3591:
3589:
3574:
3568:
3567:
3546:
3537:
3536:
3534:
3532:
3517:
3511:
3505:
3499:
3496:
3490:
3489:
3460:
3458:
3432:
3426:
3425:
3407:
3405:
3382:
3376:
3375:
3370:
3368:
3337:
3331:
3316:
3310:
3309:
3301:
3290:
3289:
3281:
3275:
3272:
3266:
3265:
3259:
3251:
3249:
3247:
3224:
3218:
3217:
3199:
3193:
3192:
3190:
3188:
3169:
3163:
3160:
3154:
3151:
3142:
3141:
3121:
3115:
3112:
3106:
3105:
3089:
3076:
3075:
3073:
3071:
3052:
3046:
3045:
3044:
3042:
3022:
3016:
3015:
3000:McDonald, Wesley
2996:
2734:MK65 Quickstrike
2297:
2002:European Theatre
1671:Oscillating mine
1586:aircraft carrier
1446:controlled mines
1414:Admiral Jellicoe
1267:-drifting mine,
1263:-drifting mine,
1220:Yemeni Civil War
1019:Continuation War
659:Keelung Campaign
655:Battle of Tamsui
463:), to deter the
349:Raid on Boulogne
324:The 19th century
298:David Bushnell’s
47:
6226:
6225:
6221:
6220:
6219:
6217:
6216:
6215:
6151:
6150:
6145:Wayback Machine
6138:, February 1951
6130:Wayback Machine
6118:Wayback Machine
6106:Popular Science
6100:Wayback Machine
6088:Popular Science
6082:Wayback Machine
6064:Wayback Machine
6052:Wayback Machine
6034:Wayback Machine
6016:Wayback Machine
5999:
5985:
5983:
5976:
5951:
5949:
5948:on 12 July 2006
5942:
5916:
5896:
5880:
5878:Further reading
5875:
5857:
5838:
5819:
5796:
5770:
5768:
5759:
5733:
5692:
5687:
5686:
5680:Wayback Machine
5671:
5667:
5657:
5655:
5646:
5645:
5641:
5631:
5629:
5616:
5615:
5611:
5601:
5599:
5590:
5589:
5585:
5575:
5573:
5572:on 8 March 2012
5564:
5563:
5559:
5550:
5546:
5536:
5534:
5519:
5518:
5514:
5503:
5501:
5486:
5477:
5469:
5465:
5455:
5453:
5440:
5439:
5435:
5425:
5423:
5414:
5413:
5409:
5399:
5397:
5396:on 2 April 2009
5384:
5383:
5379:
5369:
5367:
5352:
5345:
5335:
5333:
5324:
5323:
5319:
5307:
5294:
5284:
5282:
5267:
5263:
5253:
5251:
5236:
5232:
5222:
5220:
5216:
5212:. 20 May 2010.
5205:
5201:
5200:
5196:
5190:Wayback Machine
5177:
5166:
5142:
5138:
5127:
5123:
5112:
5108:
5102:Wayback Machine
5093:
5089:
5082:
5068:
5064:
5057:
5043:
5039:
5029:
5027:
5018:
5017:
5013:
5006:
4992:
4988:
4978:
4976:
4972:
4965:
4961:
4960:
4956:
4949:
4935:
4931:
4921:
4919:
4906:
4905:
4901:
4892:
4891:
4882:
4875:
4861:
4857:
4850:
4836:
4832:
4822:
4820:
4807:
4806:
4802:
4792:
4790:
4785:. Rusnavy.com.
4777:
4776:
4772:
4765:
4751:
4747:
4740:
4726:
4722:
4712:
4710:
4697:
4696:
4692:
4682:
4680:
4667:
4666:
4662:
4652:
4650:
4649:on 16 July 2011
4641:
4640:
4633:
4623:
4621:
4608:
4607:
4603:
4593:
4591:
4576:
4572:
4562:
4560:
4545:
4541:
4535:Wayback Machine
4526:
4522:
4511:
4509:
4494:
4490:
4479:
4477:
4462:
4458:
4447:
4445:
4430:
4423:
4412:
4410:
4395:
4388:
4377:
4375:
4360:
4356:
4349:
4335:
4331:
4327:, December 1940
4320:Wayback Machine
4311:
4307:
4297:
4295:
4294:on 30 July 2019
4286:
4285:
4281:
4271:
4269:
4256:
4255:
4251:
4244:
4222:
4218:
4208:
4206:
4205:on 12 July 2012
4195:
4188:
4178:
4176:
4163:
4162:
4158:
4148:
4146:
4131:
4127:
4117:
4115:
4106:
4105:
4101:
4091:
4089:
4074:
4070:
4060:
4058:
4049:
4048:
4044:
4034:
4032:
4023:
4022:
4018:
4013:
4009:
4004:
3997:
3987:
3985:
3974:
3970:
3960:
3958:
3947:
3943:
3934:
3930:
3925:
3916:
3911:
3904:
3899:
3886:
3878:
3874:
3864:
3862:
3853:
3852:
3848:
3843:
3839:
3829:
3827:
3818:
3817:
3813:
3808:
3804:
3794:
3792:
3783:
3782:
3778:
3773:
3769:
3759:
3757:
3753:
3746:
3742:
3741:
3737:
3727:
3725:
3712:
3711:
3707:
3693:
3691:
3675:
3671:
3660:
3658:
3656:
3640:
3636:
3626:
3624:
3623:on 13 July 2010
3617:
3601:
3597:
3587:
3585:
3576:
3575:
3571:
3564:
3547:
3540:
3530:
3528:
3523:. 25 May 2016.
3519:
3518:
3514:
3506:
3502:
3497:
3493:
3456:
3454:
3452:
3433:
3429:
3403:
3401:
3399:
3383:
3379:
3366:
3364:
3354:
3338:
3334:
3317:
3313:
3302:
3293:
3282:
3278:
3273:
3269:
3253:
3252:
3245:
3243:
3241:
3225:
3221:
3214:
3200:
3196:
3186:
3184:
3171:
3170:
3166:
3161:
3157:
3152:
3145:
3138:
3122:
3118:
3113:
3109:
3090:
3079:
3069:
3067:
3062:. 19 May 2019.
3054:
3053:
3049:
3040:
3038:
3023:
3019:
2997:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2889:
2880:
2824:
2792:
2791:
2737:
2736:
2688:Mark 37 torpedo
2684:
2683:
2666:
2661:
2644:
2599:Allied blockade
2561:
2488:
2398:
2392:
2349:
2296:
2285:Voith-Schneider
2276:
2245:
2243:Countermeasures
2225:
2212:, in which the
2197:
2177:
2164:
2152:Nathaniel Bacon
2115:
2090:In March 1945,
2037:B-24 Liberators
2010:
1998:Royal Air Force
1981:
1945:
1912:
1907:
1901:
1810:
1801:
1792:
1776:
1768:Mark 37 torpedo
1756:
1729:
1716:
1689:
1681:
1673:
1664:
1662:Anti-sweep mine
1655:
1647:
1635:
1617:
1594:lithium battery
1528:microprocessors
1477:
1475:Influence mines
1442:
1409:
1392:
1351:
1335:
1329:
1297:
1279:-bottom mines,
1247:
1240:
1191:
1068:
1015:Gulf of Finland
978:Queen Elizabeth
967:and the liners
955:degaussing coil
822:
800:the sister ship
683:Boxer Rebellion
679:
663:Sino-French War
657:(1884), in the
577:coastal defense
508:electric shocks
422:Gulf of Finland
326:
232:Chinese records
197:
192:
115:
90:high explosives
36:
24:
21:deep sea mining
17:
12:
11:
5:
6224:
6214:
6213:
6208:
6203:
6198:
6193:
6188:
6183:
6178:
6173:
6168:
6163:
6149:
6148:
6132:
6120:
6102:
6090:, March 1940,
6084:
6072:
6066:
6054:
6042:
6036:
6024:
6018:
6006:
5998:
5997:External links
5995:
5994:
5993:
5974:
5959:
5940:
5925:
5914:
5901:
5894:
5879:
5876:
5874:
5873:
5854:
5835:
5815:
5814:
5810:
5809:
5800:
5794:
5777:
5757:
5749:Крымская война
5744:
5737:
5731:
5719:Macrae, Stuart
5715:
5693:
5691:
5688:
5685:
5684:
5665:
5639:
5609:
5583:
5557:
5544:
5512:
5475:
5463:
5433:
5407:
5377:
5343:
5317:
5292:
5281:on 3 July 2009
5261:
5230:
5194:
5164:
5136:
5121:
5106:
5087:
5080:
5062:
5055:
5037:
5011:
5004:
4986:
4954:
4947:
4929:
4899:
4896:. Diane. 1992.
4880:
4873:
4855:
4848:
4830:
4800:
4779:"Rusnavy.com.
4770:
4763:
4745:
4738:
4720:
4690:
4660:
4631:
4601:
4578:Jon Rabiroff.
4570:
4539:
4520:
4488:
4456:
4421:
4399:"World War II"
4386:
4354:
4347:
4329:
4305:
4279:
4249:
4242:
4216:
4186:
4171:. 5 May 2022.
4156:
4125:
4099:
4068:
4042:
4016:
4014:Gilbert, p.v5.
4007:
4005:Gilbert, p. 8.
3995:
3968:
3951:"Mine Warfare"
3941:
3928:
3926:Gilbert, p. 5.
3914:
3902:
3884:
3872:
3846:
3837:
3811:
3802:
3776:
3774:Gilbert, p. 4.
3767:
3735:
3705:
3669:
3654:
3634:
3616:978-0765623287
3615:
3595:
3569:
3562:
3538:
3512:
3500:
3491:
3450:
3427:
3397:
3377:
3352:
3332:
3311:
3291:
3288:. p. 161.
3276:
3267:
3239:
3219:
3212:
3194:
3164:
3155:
3143:
3136:
3116:
3107:
3077:
3047:
3017:
2990:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2976:
2971:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2924:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2904:
2896:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2879:
2876:
2823:
2820:
2819:
2818:
2815:
2812:
2809:
2806:
2803:
2800:
2787:
2785:
2784:
2781:
2778:
2775:
2772:
2769:
2766:
2732:
2719:
2718:
2715:
2712:
2709:
2706:
2703:
2700:
2679:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2643:
2642:Counter-mining
2640:
2560:
2557:
2487:
2484:
2434:Harvey torpedo
2394:Main article:
2391:
2388:
2348:
2345:
2275:
2272:
2244:
2241:
2224:
2221:
2196:
2193:
2176:
2173:
2163:
2160:
2144:Pierre Gibault
2114:
2111:
2097:Fumimaro Konoe
2009:
2006:
1988:, the port of
1980:
1979:United Kingdom
1977:
1962:Ilyushin DB-3s
1944:
1941:
1937:Heinkel He 111
1921:Heinkel He 115
1911:
1908:
1905:Parachute mine
1900:
1897:
1888:
1887:
1884:
1881:
1878:
1875:
1868:
1865:
1809:
1806:
1800:
1797:
1791:
1788:
1775:
1772:
1755:
1752:
1748:homing torpedo
1733:Mark 60 CAPTOR
1728:
1725:
1715:
1712:
1688:
1685:
1680:
1679:Ascending mine
1677:
1672:
1669:
1663:
1660:
1654:
1651:
1646:
1643:
1634:
1631:
1616:
1613:
1547:powerplant or
1476:
1473:
1441:
1438:
1408:
1405:
1391:
1388:
1350:
1347:
1331:Main article:
1328:
1325:
1296:
1293:
1239:
1236:
1190:
1187:
1067:
1064:
920:fitted with a
902:magnetic field
821:
818:
716:Stepan Makarov
678:
675:
628:Manuel Cuadros
558:David Farragut
485:Russian rubles
473:Immanuel Nobel
418:Immanuel Nobel
412:, designed by
378:and President
364:Pavel Shilling
325:
322:
318:Delaware River
306:David Bushnell
251:Tiangong Kaiwu
214:Imperial China
196:
193:
191:
188:
114:
111:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6223:
6212:
6209:
6207:
6204:
6202:
6199:
6197:
6196:Naval weapons
6194:
6192:
6189:
6187:
6184:
6182:
6179:
6177:
6174:
6172:
6169:
6167:
6164:
6162:
6159:
6158:
6156:
6146:
6142:
6139:
6137:
6133:
6131:
6127:
6124:
6121:
6119:
6115:
6112:
6111:
6107:
6103:
6101:
6097:
6094:
6093:
6089:
6085:
6083:
6079:
6076:
6073:
6070:
6067:
6065:
6061:
6058:
6055:
6053:
6049:
6046:
6043:
6040:
6037:
6035:
6031:
6028:
6025:
6022:
6019:
6017:
6013:
6010:
6007:
6004:
6001:
6000:
5981:
5977:
5971:
5967:
5966:
5960:
5947:
5943:
5941:1-59114-661-5
5937:
5933:
5932:
5926:
5923:
5917:
5915:1-896551-17-3
5911:
5907:
5902:
5897:
5895:0-87021-753-4
5891:
5887:
5882:
5881:
5872:
5870:
5869:public domain
5864:
5855:
5853:
5851:
5850:public domain
5845:
5836:
5834:
5832:
5831:public domain
5826:
5817:
5816:
5812:
5811:
5806:
5801:
5797:
5795:1-901623-72-6
5791:
5787:
5783:
5778:
5766:
5762:
5758:
5754:
5750:
5745:
5742:
5738:
5734:
5732:0-900093-22-6
5728:
5724:
5720:
5716:
5712:
5708:
5704:
5700:
5695:
5694:
5681:
5677:
5674:
5669:
5653:
5649:
5643:
5627:
5623:
5619:
5613:
5597:
5593:
5587:
5571:
5567:
5561:
5554:
5548:
5532:
5528:
5527:
5522:
5516:
5499:
5495:
5491:
5484:
5482:
5480:
5473:, p. 16.
5472:
5467:
5451:
5447:
5443:
5437:
5421:
5417:
5411:
5395:
5391:
5387:
5381:
5365:
5361:
5357:
5350:
5348:
5331:
5327:
5321:
5315:
5314:0-309-51587-4
5311:
5305:
5303:
5301:
5299:
5297:
5280:
5276:
5272:
5265:
5249:
5245:
5241:
5234:
5215:
5211:
5204:
5198:
5191:
5187:
5184:
5182:
5175:
5173:
5171:
5169:
5161:
5157:
5153:
5149:
5147:
5140:
5134:
5132:
5125:
5118:
5117:
5110:
5103:
5099:
5096:
5091:
5083:
5081:0-275-98419-2
5077:
5073:
5066:
5058:
5056:0-7923-1526-X
5052:
5048:
5041:
5025:
5022:. Anesi.com.
5021:
5015:
5007:
5005:0-275-98419-2
5001:
4997:
4990:
4971:
4964:
4958:
4950:
4948:0-275-98419-2
4944:
4940:
4933:
4917:
4913:
4912:. Appendices"
4911:
4903:
4895:
4889:
4887:
4885:
4876:
4874:0-275-95049-2
4870:
4866:
4859:
4851:
4849:0-275-98419-2
4845:
4841:
4834:
4818:
4814:
4812:
4804:
4788:
4784:
4782:
4774:
4766:
4764:0-7923-1526-X
4760:
4756:
4749:
4741:
4739:0-275-98419-2
4735:
4731:
4724:
4708:
4704:
4700:
4694:
4678:
4674:
4670:
4664:
4648:
4644:
4638:
4636:
4619:
4615:
4611:
4605:
4589:
4585:
4581:
4574:
4558:
4554:
4550:
4543:
4536:
4532:
4529:
4524:
4507:
4503:
4499:
4492:
4475:
4471:
4467:
4460:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4428:
4426:
4408:
4404:
4400:
4393:
4391:
4373:
4369:
4365:
4364:"Title Slide"
4358:
4350:
4344:
4340:
4333:
4326:
4325:
4321:
4317:
4314:
4309:
4293:
4289:
4283:
4267:
4263:
4259:
4253:
4245:
4239:
4235:
4230:
4229:
4220:
4204:
4200:
4193:
4191:
4174:
4170:
4166:
4160:
4144:
4140:
4136:
4129:
4113:
4109:
4103:
4087:
4083:
4081:
4072:
4056:
4052:
4046:
4030:
4026:
4020:
4011:
4002:
4000:
3983:
3979:
3972:
3956:
3952:
3945:
3938:
3932:
3923:
3921:
3919:
3909:
3907:
3897:
3895:
3893:
3891:
3889:
3881:
3876:
3860:
3856:
3850:
3841:
3825:
3821:
3815:
3806:
3790:
3786:
3780:
3771:
3752:
3745:
3739:
3723:
3719:
3715:
3709:
3701:
3690:
3686:
3682:
3681:
3673:
3657:
3655:9780823901456
3651:
3647:
3646:
3638:
3622:
3618:
3612:
3608:
3607:
3599:
3583:
3579:
3573:
3565:
3563:0-8108-4927-5
3559:
3555:
3551:
3550:Kowner, Rotem
3545:
3543:
3526:
3522:
3516:
3509:
3504:
3495:
3488:
3486:
3483:on the 20th.
3482:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3453:
3451:9781409410119
3447:
3443:
3442:
3437:
3431:
3424:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3400:
3398:9781848322356
3394:
3390:
3389:
3381:
3374:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3353:9780275984199
3349:
3345:
3344:
3336:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3315:
3308:. p. 80.
3307:
3300:
3298:
3296:
3287:
3286:Robert Fulton
3280:
3271:
3263:
3257:
3242:
3240:0-309-06798-7
3236:
3232:
3231:
3223:
3215:
3213:1-85170-267-9
3209:
3205:
3198:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3168:
3159:
3150:
3148:
3139:
3133:
3129:
3128:
3120:
3111:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3088:
3086:
3084:
3082:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3051:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3021:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2995:
2991:
2975:
2972:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2920:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2902:
2897:
2895:
2894:Bomb disposal
2892:
2891:
2884:
2875:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2831:
2827:
2816:
2813:
2810:
2807:
2804:
2801:
2798:
2797:
2796:
2795:
2790:
2782:
2779:
2776:
2773:
2770:
2767:
2764:
2763:
2762:
2761:
2757:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2735:
2728:
2723:
2716:
2713:
2710:
2707:
2704:
2701:
2698:
2697:
2696:
2695:
2691:
2689:
2682:
2677:
2675:
2671:
2656:
2654:
2653:Grand Harbour
2650:
2639:
2636:
2635:
2631:(such as the
2630:
2625:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2605:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2581:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2556:
2554:
2549:
2547:
2546:Umm Qasr Port
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2522:
2520:
2515:
2507:
2503:
2501:
2496:
2492:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2473:
2469:
2464:
2460:
2458:
2453:
2449:
2446:During WWII,
2444:
2442:
2437:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2422:
2418:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2397:
2390:Mine sweeping
2384:
2380:
2379:
2372:
2365:
2361:
2356:
2352:
2344:
2342:
2337:
2334:
2328:
2326:
2322:
2317:
2315:
2311:
2310:
2304:
2301:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2271:
2268:
2263:
2254:
2249:
2240:
2238:
2234:
2229:
2220:
2218:
2217:
2211:
2206:
2203:
2202:shaped charge
2192:
2190:
2189:
2182:
2181:fragmentation
2175:Direct damage
2172:
2169:
2159:
2157:
2156:Civitavecchia
2153:
2149:
2145:
2142:
2141:liberty ships
2138:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2125:
2121:
2110:
2107:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2072:
2069:
2064:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2041:PBY Catalinas
2038:
2034:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2014:
2008:United States
2005:
2003:
2000:(RAF) in the
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1940:
1938:
1934:
1933:Junkers Ju 88
1930:
1929:Dornier Do 18
1926:
1925:Heinkel He 59
1922:
1918:
1906:
1896:
1893:
1885:
1882:
1879:
1876:
1873:
1872:torpedo tubes
1869:
1866:
1863:
1862:
1861:
1858:
1854:
1852:
1848:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1821:
1820:
1814:
1805:
1796:
1787:
1785:
1781:
1771:
1769:
1765:
1760:
1751:
1749:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1724:
1722:
1711:
1709:
1702:
1698:
1693:
1684:
1676:
1668:
1659:
1650:
1645:Unusual mines
1642:
1639:
1630:
1628:
1623:
1612:
1610:
1606:
1605:self-destruct
1602:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1581:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1569:BAE Stonefish
1565:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1537:
1533:
1532:magnetometers
1529:
1525:
1520:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1503:range of the
1502:
1498:
1494:
1486:
1481:
1472:
1470:
1466:
1461:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1450:Robert Fulton
1447:
1437:
1435:
1431:
1426:
1422:
1419:
1415:
1404:
1396:
1387:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1372:
1369:
1360:
1355:
1346:
1344:
1340:
1334:
1324:
1320:
1318:
1313:
1311:
1307:
1306:sulfuric acid
1301:
1295:Contact mines
1292:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1251:-underwater,
1250:
1244:
1235:
1232:
1228:
1223:
1221:
1216:
1214:
1213:
1207:
1206:
1200:
1196:
1189:Post Cold War
1186:
1184:
1180:
1179:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1153:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1138:
1136:
1135:shipping lane
1133:
1129:
1128:
1122:
1120:
1115:
1111:
1110:Iran–Iraq War
1106:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1079:
1072:
1063:
1060:
1056:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1041:
1037:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1011:
1005:
1001:
999:
995:
990:
989:
982:
980:
979:
973:
972:
966:
965:
960:
956:
951:
949:
943:
941:
936:
927:
923:
919:
914:
910:
908:
903:
899:
894:
893:
887:
879:
874:
870:
868:
862:
858:
856:
855:Caribbean Sea
852:
848:
844:
840:
833:
832:
826:
817:
815:
814:
808:
807:
801:
797:
793:
792:
786:
785:hospital ship
782:
778:
773:
771:
767:
762:
760:
759:nitroglycerin
755:
753:
748:
746:
745:
740:
739:
734:
730:
729:
725:
721:
720:Japanese Navy
717:
713:
709:
708:
707:Petropavlovsk
703:
698:
696:
695:Allied forces
692:
688:
684:
674:
672:
668:
667:Liu Mingchuan
664:
660:
656:
651:
649:
645:
644:
639:
638:
633:
629:
625:
624:Peruvian Navy
621:
616:
614:
610:
606:
601:
599:
595:
591:
587:
582:
578:
573:
571:
567:
563:
559:
556:
552:
548:
547:
541:
536:
534:
530:
526:
525:
519:
518:
513:
509:
505:
501:
500:Robert Fulton
497:
492:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
450:
446:
445:galvanic cell
442:
437:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
402:
396:
395:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
360:
358:
354:
353:Robert Fulton
350:
343:
339:
335:
334:Potomac River
330:
321:
319:
315:
311:
307:
299:
295:
291:
289:
285:
281:
277:
272:
270:
266:
261:
260:Song Yingxing
257:
253:
252:
247:
243:
239:
238:
233:
229:
228:
223:
219:
215:
208:
207:
201:
187:
185:
181:
177:
173:
170:
164:
162:
157:
155:
151:
142:
138:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
110:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
86:
84:
78:
76:
72:
71:depth charges
68:
64:
63:surface ships
60:
56:
30:
26:
22:
6135:
6109:
6105:
6091:
6087:
5984:. Retrieved
5964:
5950:. Retrieved
5946:the original
5930:
5921:
5905:
5885:
5866:
5862:
5847:
5843:
5828:
5824:
5804:
5785:
5781:
5769:. Retrieved
5752:
5748:
5740:
5722:
5705:(2): 95–99.
5702:
5698:
5668:
5656:. Retrieved
5642:
5630:. Retrieved
5626:the original
5622:Mine History
5621:
5612:
5600:. Retrieved
5595:
5586:
5574:. Retrieved
5570:the original
5560:
5552:
5547:
5535:. Retrieved
5531:the original
5524:
5515:
5502:. Retrieved
5493:
5466:
5454:. Retrieved
5450:the original
5445:
5436:
5424:. Retrieved
5410:
5398:. Retrieved
5394:the original
5390:Minesweeping
5389:
5380:
5368:. Retrieved
5359:
5334:. Retrieved
5326:"Degaussing"
5320:
5283:. Retrieved
5279:the original
5274:
5264:
5252:. Retrieved
5243:
5233:
5221:. Retrieved
5209:
5197:
5180:
5160:Adriatic Sea
5155:
5151:
5145:
5139:
5130:
5124:
5115:
5109:
5090:
5071:
5065:
5046:
5040:
5028:. Retrieved
5014:
4995:
4989:
4977:. Retrieved
4970:the original
4957:
4938:
4932:
4920:. Retrieved
4909:
4902:
4893:
4864:
4858:
4839:
4833:
4821:. Retrieved
4810:
4803:
4791:. Retrieved
4780:
4773:
4754:
4748:
4729:
4723:
4711:. Retrieved
4702:
4693:
4681:. Retrieved
4677:the original
4672:
4663:
4651:. Retrieved
4647:the original
4622:. Retrieved
4613:
4604:
4592:. Retrieved
4583:
4573:
4561:. Retrieved
4557:the original
4552:
4542:
4523:
4510:. Retrieved
4501:
4491:
4478:. Retrieved
4469:
4459:
4446:. Retrieved
4437:
4411:. Retrieved
4402:
4376:. Retrieved
4367:
4357:
4338:
4332:
4322:
4308:
4296:. Retrieved
4292:the original
4282:
4270:. Retrieved
4261:
4252:
4227:
4219:
4207:. Retrieved
4203:the original
4177:. Retrieved
4168:
4159:
4147:. Retrieved
4138:
4128:
4116:. Retrieved
4102:
4090:. Retrieved
4079:
4071:
4059:. Retrieved
4055:the original
4045:
4033:. Retrieved
4019:
4010:
3986:. Retrieved
3982:the original
3971:
3959:. Retrieved
3944:
3936:
3931:
3880:Wingate 2004
3875:
3863:. Retrieved
3849:
3840:
3828:. Retrieved
3814:
3805:
3793:. Retrieved
3779:
3770:
3758:. Retrieved
3751:the original
3738:
3726:. Retrieved
3722:the original
3717:
3708:
3699:
3692:. Retrieved
3679:
3672:
3659:. Retrieved
3644:
3637:
3625:. Retrieved
3621:the original
3605:
3598:
3586:. Retrieved
3572:
3553:
3531:11 September
3529:. Retrieved
3515:
3503:
3494:
3484:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3462:
3455:. Retrieved
3440:
3430:
3419:
3415:
3411:
3409:
3402:. Retrieved
3387:
3380:
3372:
3365:. Retrieved
3342:
3335:
3319:
3314:
3305:
3285:
3279:
3270:
3244:. Retrieved
3229:
3222:
3203:
3197:
3185:. Retrieved
3176:
3167:
3158:
3126:
3119:
3110:
3097:
3093:
3068:. Retrieved
3059:
3050:
3039:, retrieved
3030:
3020:
3007:
3003:
2994:
2974:George Gosse
2943:Shock factor
2900:
2881:
2844:computerised
2833:
2829:
2825:
2793:
2788:
2786:
2759:
2758:
2733:
2731:
2693:
2692:
2680:
2678:
2667:
2645:
2633:
2626:
2621:Sperrbrecher
2620:
2617:Sperrbrecher
2616:
2613:Sperrbrecher
2612:
2609:World War II
2604:Sperrbrecher
2602:
2577:
2570:ROVs of the
2559:Mine running
2550:
2534:Persian Gulf
2523:
2510:
2499:
2494:
2480:
2476:
2471:
2465:
2461:
2457:Minensuch(e)
2456:
2445:
2440:
2438:
2423:
2419:
2403:minesweepers
2399:
2396:Minesweeping
2377:
2374:Minesweeper
2350:
2338:
2329:
2320:
2318:
2307:
2305:
2277:
2258:
2230:
2226:
2223:Shock effect
2215:
2207:
2198:
2187:
2178:
2168:shock factor
2165:
2151:
2143:
2136:Kriegsmarine
2134:
2128:
2116:
2089:
2073:
2065:
2053:Yangon River
2035:
2031:Curtis LeMay
2023:home islands
2019:
1982:
1960:, including
1946:
1943:Soviet Union
1913:
1889:
1859:
1855:
1844:
1839:Persian Gulf
1817:
1802:
1793:
1777:
1774:Nuclear mine
1761:
1757:
1737:computerised
1730:
1727:Torpedo mine
1717:
1705:
1687:Homing mines
1682:
1674:
1665:
1656:
1653:Bouquet mine
1648:
1640:
1636:
1633:Bottom mines
1618:
1615:Moored mines
1582:
1573:computerised
1566:
1521:
1490:
1462:
1443:
1427:
1423:
1410:
1401:
1373:
1364:
1336:
1327:Limpet mines
1321:
1314:
1302:
1298:
1290:
1287:-rising mine
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1259:-submarine.
1256:
1252:
1248:
1224:
1217:
1211:
1204:
1192:
1176:
1154:
1149:
1139:
1132:Persian Gulf
1126:
1118:
1114:Persian Gulf
1107:
1095:World War II
1092:
1077:
1066:Cold War era
1061:
1057:
1042:
1038:
1030:minesweepers
1023:
1010:Ruotsinsalmi
1008:
987:
984:The cruiser
983:
977:
970:
963:
954:
952:
944:
931:
921:
891:
886:Shoeburyness
883:
877:
863:
859:
839:World War II
836:
830:
820:World War II
812:
805:
795:
790:
774:
763:
756:
749:
743:
737:
727:
706:
699:
680:
652:
641:
635:
617:
609:Ottoman Navy
602:
574:
555:Rear Admiral
545:
537:
523:
517:H. L. Hunley
516:
512:spar torpedo
504:torpedo fish
493:
469:Fyodor Litke
449:black powder
438:
434:minesweeping
429:
409:
405:
400:
393:
361:
346:
340:, sketch by
303:
273:
255:
249:
235:
225:
218:Ming dynasty
211:
204:
174:
169:trade routes
165:
158:
154:World War II
147:
116:
102:Minesweeping
87:
79:
54:
52:
25:
6186:Naval mines
5952:31 December
5813:Attribution
5771:19 February
5753:Crimean War
5658:5 September
5632:31 December
5602:31 December
5576:31 December
5537:31 December
5504:31 December
5456:31 December
5426:31 December
5400:31 December
5370:31 December
4979:31 December
4713:31 December
4683:31 December
4653:31 December
4614:man.fas.org
4563:31 December
4512:31 December
4480:31 December
4448:31 December
4434:"Mechanism"
4413:31 December
4378:31 December
4209:31 December
4169:India Today
4092:31 December
3961:31 December
3694:19 February
3661:19 February
3246:31 December
3177:BBC History
3094:Proceedings
3070:18 November
3004:Proceedings
2917:Minesweeper
2860:aerodynamic
2836:BAE Systems
2674:MK60 CAPTOR
2595:World War I
2585:during the
2572:German Navy
2542:booby traps
2536:during the
2514:minehunters
2506:German Navy
2500:Frankenthal
2486:Minehunting
2233:shock-front
1835:oil barrels
1831:Camouflaged
1808:Mine laying
1754:Mobile mine
1714:Rocket mine
1622:area denial
1545:gas turbine
1536:hydrophones
1524:transistors
1333:Limpet mine
1193:During the
1108:During the
1017:during the
777:World War I
733:Port Arthur
712:Port Arthur
689:before the
681:During the
653:During the
618:During the
594:Fort Totten
572:, Alabama.
551:Yazoo River
441:Jacobi mine
426:Crimean War
424:during the
372:Samuel Colt
342:Alfred Waud
227:Huolongjing
206:Huolongjing
113:Description
106:minesweeper
6155:Categories
5471:Smith 1966
5360:EagleSpeak
5223:27 January
5154:, renamed
4298:26 October
4272:26 October
3795:16 January
3760:10 October
3687:. p.
3588:15 October
3508:Tarle 1944
3463:On 9 June
3457:31 January
3404:31 January
3367:31 January
2981:References
2899:HMHS
2870:explosive
2853:and water
2822:Royal Navy
2743:fitted to
2580:Farragut's
2495:Pinguin B3
2383:Utah Beach
2298:(See also
2262:degaussing
1986:Elbe River
1970:Lend-Lease
1954:Baltic Sea
1903:See also:
1799:Dummy mine
1590:oil tanker
1549:cavitation
1511:, passive
1493:electronic
1103:Korean War
1087:Dubai, UAE
971:Queen Mary
948:degaussing
940:Suez Canal
907:milligauss
809:, and the
789:HMHS
691:Dagu forts
564:in 1864, "
529:Royal Navy
524:Housatonic
502:after the
380:John Tyler
370:. In 1842
269:land mines
246:Qi Jiguang
244:. General
119:minelayers
67:submarines
55:naval mine
5786:1939–1972
5711:0043-0374
5336:1 October
5148:, p. 108.
5133:, p. 309.
4624:31 August
4080:Princeton
3728:12 August
3362:1556-4924
3306:Trafalgar
3256:cite book
2986:Citations
2922:Minelayer
2912:Land mine
2901:Britannic
2864:parachute
2840:Stonefish
2727:P-3 Orion
2376:USS
2341:inductors
2309:degaussed
2186:USS
1958:Black Sea
1553:propeller
1526:and then
1515:or water
1485:Luftwaffe
1255:-bottom,
1210:USS
1205:Princeton
1203:USS
1165:Nicaragua
1125:USS
1076:USS
1045:Hiroshima
986:HMS
976:RMS
969:RMS
964:Ark Royal
962:HMS
890:HMS
867:Churchill
853:, in the
811:RMS
796:Britannic
791:Britannic
772:onshore.
770:casemates
724:minelayer
687:Hai River
643:Covadonga
544:USS
522:USS
496:torpedoes
477:collusion
461:Kronstadt
457:Alexander
420:, in the
399:HMS
392:HMS
388:Kronstadt
357:fireships
347:The 1804
314:gunpowder
304:American
290:in 1627.
195:Early use
184:North Sea
98:gunpowder
83:time fuze
69:. Unlike
59:explosive
6141:Archived
6126:Archived
6114:Archived
6096:Archived
6078:Archived
6060:Archived
6048:Archived
6030:Archived
6012:Archived
5986:27 April
5980:Archived
5765:Archived
5721:(1971).
5676:Archived
5652:Archived
5498:Archived
5420:Archived
5364:Archived
5330:Archived
5285:22 March
5254:25 April
5248:Archived
5214:Archived
5210:BBC News
5186:Archived
5156:Kalliopi
5098:Archived
5024:Archived
4916:Archived
4817:Archived
4787:Archived
4707:Archived
4618:Archived
4588:Archived
4531:Archived
4506:Archived
4474:Archived
4442:Archived
4407:Archived
4372:Archived
4316:Archived
4266:Archived
4173:Archived
4143:Archived
4118:12 March
4112:Archived
4086:Archived
4082:(CG 59)"
4029:Archived
3955:Archived
3859:Archived
3824:Archived
3789:Archived
3627:24 April
3582:Archived
3552:(2006).
3525:Archived
3438:(1990).
3284:Philip.
3181:Archived
3104:: 58–62.
3064:Archived
3060:BBC News
3035:archived
2887:See also
2855:pressure
2851:magnetic
2664:US mines
2538:Iraq War
2430:paravane
2415:howitzer
2407:trawlers
2314:depermed
2068:Haiphong
2047:and the
1956:and the
1819:Iran Ajr
1598:mu-metal
1543:(e.g. a
1517:pressure
1513:acoustic
1509:magnetic
1497:detonate
1368:littoral
1195:Gulf War
1083:dry dock
1055:by 90%.
1053:Yokohama
926:Ismailia
878:Double-L
489:Lisy Nos
404:and HMS
123:aircraft
5922:Tripoli
5784:Belfast
5763:. BBC.
5690:Sources
5146:Liberty
5131:Liberty
4910:Peleliu
4813:(2001)"
4584:Stripes
4149:8 April
4139:Reuters
3865:10 July
3485:Vulture
3477:D'Assas
3473:Firefly
3416:Firefly
3187:5 March
3041:8 March
2872:warhead
2634:Seehund
2593:during
2568:Seehund
2504:of the
2426:oropesa
2216:Cheonan
2148:Kythira
1910:Germany
1892:lanyard
1847:U-boats
1841:, 2003.
1505:warhead
1343:mollusk
1212:Tripoli
1173:Contras
1169:Sandino
1142:Red Sea
998:Dunkirk
988:Belfast
959:carrier
928:, Egypt
837:During
813:Olympic
806:Titanic
802:of the
775:During
744:Yashima
738:Hatsuse
661:of the
648:Chancay
416:and by
406:Firefly
401:Vulture
265:Jiao Yu
222:Jiao Yu
190:History
135:torpedo
127:warhead
75:harbour
5972:
5938:
5912:
5892:
5861:
5842:
5823:
5792:
5729:
5709:
5312:
5078:
5053:
5030:7 July
5002:
4945:
4922:24 May
4871:
4846:
4823:7 July
4793:7 July
4761:
4736:
4594:7 July
4345:
4240:
4179:18 May
4061:7 July
4035:7 July
3988:7 July
3830:9 July
3652:
3613:
3560:
3481:Seskar
3469:Dragon
3465:Merlin
3448:
3423:mines.
3420:Vulcan
3412:Merlin
3395:
3360:
3350:
3326:
3304:Best.
3237:
3210:
3134:
3010:(10).
2360:MH-53E
2321:wiping
2237:divers
2162:Damage
2074:Using
1990:Lübeck
1919:. The
1708:rocket
1601:needle
1469:torpex
1384:amatol
1339:limpet
1181:, the
1163:mined
1159:, the
1093:Since
1034:Penang
1026:hulled
994:Rosyth
892:Vernon
847:convoy
843:U-boat
841:, the
671:Tamsui
632:Callao
570:Mobile
430:Vulcan
394:Merlin
131:rocket
5751:[
5703:XLVII
5217:(PDF)
5206:(PDF)
4973:(PDF)
4966:(PDF)
4703:Mines
4078:"USS
3754:(PDF)
3747:(PDF)
3100:(2).
3014:: 48.
2544:from
2450:used
2441:drums
2364:HM-15
2362:from
2293:sonar
2214:ROKS
2084:Koror
2080:Palau
1966:Il-4s
1501:blast
1434:Rhine
1380:minol
1238:Types
1199:Iraqi
1146:Libya
898:brass
546:Cairo
242:putty
237:wokou
5988:2007
5970:ISBN
5954:2011
5936:ISBN
5910:ISBN
5890:ISBN
5790:ISBN
5773:2007
5727:ISBN
5707:ISSN
5660:2017
5634:2011
5604:2011
5578:2011
5539:2011
5506:2011
5458:2011
5428:2011
5402:2011
5372:2011
5338:2017
5310:ISBN
5287:2009
5256:2010
5225:2014
5076:ISBN
5051:ISBN
5032:2013
5000:ISBN
4981:2011
4943:ISBN
4924:2008
4869:ISBN
4844:ISBN
4825:2013
4795:2013
4759:ISBN
4734:ISBN
4715:2011
4685:2011
4655:2011
4626:2021
4596:2013
4565:2011
4514:2011
4482:2011
4450:2011
4415:2011
4380:2011
4343:ISBN
4300:2015
4274:2019
4238:ISBN
4211:2011
4181:2022
4151:2022
4120:2020
4094:2011
4063:2013
4037:2013
3990:2013
3963:2011
3867:2008
3832:2008
3797:2022
3762:2009
3730:2012
3696:2011
3663:2011
3650:ISBN
3629:2014
3611:ISBN
3590:2022
3558:ISBN
3533:2017
3475:and
3459:2016
3446:ISBN
3406:2016
3393:ISBN
3369:2016
3358:ISSN
3348:ISBN
3324:ISBN
3262:link
3248:2011
3235:ISBN
3208:ISBN
3189:2007
3132:ISBN
3072:2020
3043:2016
2929:WWII
2847:fuze
2789:MK56
2753:Mk84
2751:and
2749:Mk83
2745:Mk82
2741:fuze
2668:The
2629:ROVs
2519:ROVs
2468:fuze
2378:Tide
2208:The
1994:Kiel
1968:and
1935:and
1571:are
1341:, a
1208:and
1049:Kobe
974:and
804:RMS
798:was
741:and
728:Amur
603:The
538:The
510:. A
439:The
94:fuze
3689:533
3685:GPO
3098:112
3008:111
2868:PBX
2428:or
2358:An
1745:ASW
1699:at
1627:RDX
1588:or
1471:).
1467:or
1465:TNT
1382:or
1376:TNT
1167:'s
1161:CIA
1085:in
922:DWI
637:Loa
133:or
129:by
65:or
6157::
5978:.
5924:.)
5701:.
5620:.
5594:.
5523:.
5492:.
5478:^
5444:.
5388:.
5358:.
5346:^
5328:.
5295:^
5273:.
5246:.
5242:.
5208:.
5167:^
4914:.
4883:^
4701:.
4671:.
4634:^
4616:.
4612:.
4586:.
4582:.
4551:.
4500:.
4468:.
4436:.
4424:^
4401:.
4389:^
4366:.
4264:.
4260:.
4236:.
4234:18
4189:^
4167:.
4141:.
4137:.
3998:^
3917:^
3905:^
3887:^
3857:.
3822:.
3716:.
3698:.
3580:.
3541:^
3471:,
3467:,
3461:.
3408:.
3371:.
3356:.
3294:^
3258:}}
3254:{{
3179:.
3175:.
3146:^
3096:.
3080:^
3058:.
3033:,
3029:,
3006:.
2874:.
2747:,
2690:.
2548:.
2239:.
2126:.
2039:,
1975:.
1964:,
1931:,
1927:,
1853:.
1723:.
1710:.
1386:.
1378:,
1345:.
1257:SS
1197:,
1119:SS
916:A
909:.
816:.
787:,
754:.
747:.
615:.
600:.
553:.
230:.
137:.
53:A
5990:.
5956:.
5918:.
5898:.
5798:.
5775:.
5735:.
5713:.
5662:.
5636:.
5606:.
5580:.
5541:.
5508:.
5460:.
5430:.
5404:.
5374:.
5340:.
5289:.
5258:.
5227:.
5183:.
5084:.
5059:.
5034:.
5008:.
4983:.
4951:.
4926:.
4877:.
4852:.
4827:.
4797:.
4783:"
4767:.
4742:.
4717:.
4687:.
4657:.
4628:.
4598:.
4567:.
4516:.
4484:.
4452:.
4417:.
4382:.
4351:.
4302:.
4276:.
4246:.
4213:.
4183:.
4153:.
4122:.
4096:.
4065:.
4039:.
3992:.
3965:.
3869:.
3834:.
3799:.
3764:.
3732:.
3665:.
3631:.
3592:.
3566:.
3535:.
3330:.
3264:)
3250:.
3216:.
3191:.
3140:.
3074:.
2302:)
1625:(
1285:7
1281:6
1277:5
1273:4
1269:3
1265:2
1261:1
1253:B
1249:A
1089:.
1051:–
459:(
254:(
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.