1784:, where a given "piece" of a word, which a morpheme-based theory would call an inflectional morpheme, corresponds to a combination of grammatical categories, for example, "third-person plural". Morpheme-based theories usually have no problems with this situation since one says that a given morpheme has two categories. Item-and-process theories, on the other hand, often break down in cases like these because they all too often assume that there will be two separate rules here, one for third person, and the other for plural, but the distinction between them turns out to be artificial. The approaches treat these as whole words that are related to each other by analogical rules. Words can be categorized based on the pattern they fit into. This applies both to existing words and to new ones. Application of a pattern different from the one that has been used historically can give rise to a new word, such as
734:, instead of by independent "words". The three-word English phrase, "with his club", in which 'with' identifies its dependent noun phrase as an instrument and 'his' denotes a possession relation, would consist of two words or even one word in many languages. Unlike most other languages, Kwak'wala semantic affixes phonologically attach not to the lexeme they pertain to semantically but to the preceding lexeme. Consider the following example (in Kwak'wala, sentences begin with what corresponds to an English verb):
1646:
455:
1899:
1775:
Word-based morphology is (usually) a word-and-paradigm approach. The theory takes paradigms as a central notion. Instead of stating rules to combine morphemes into word forms or to generate word forms from stems, word-based morphology states generalizations that hold between the forms of inflectional
1458:
The relationship between syntax and morphology, as well as how they interact, is called "morphosyntax"; the term is also used to underline the fact that syntax and morphology are interrelated. The study of morphosyntax concerns itself with inflection and paradigms, and some approaches to morphosyntax
927:
A central publication on this topic is the volume edited by Dixon and
Aikhenvald (2002), examining the mismatch between prosodic-phonological and grammatical definitions of "word" in various Amazonian, Australian Aboriginal, Caucasian, Eskimo, Indo-European, Native North American, West African, and
1760:
Lexeme-based morphology usually takes what is called an item-and-process approach. Instead of analyzing a word form as a set of morphemes arranged in sequence, a word form is said to be the result of applying rules that alter a word-form or stem in order to produce a new one. An inflectional rule
1954:
spoken on the
Pingelap atoll and on two of the eastern Caroline Islands, called the high island of Pohnpei. Similar to other languages, words in Pingelapese can take different forms to add to or even change its meaning. Verbal suffixes are morphemes added at the end of a word to change its form.
1880:
The three models of morphology stem from attempts to analyze languages that more or less match different categories in this typology. The item-and-arrangement approach fits very naturally with agglutinative languages. The item-and-process and word-and-paradigm approaches usually address fusional
980:
Word formation includes a process in which one combines two complete words, but inflection allows the combination of a suffix with a verb to change the latter's form to that of the subject of the sentence. For example: in the present indefinite, 'go' is used with subject I/we/you/they and plural
1884:
As there is very little fusion involved in word formation, classical typology mostly applies to inflectional morphology. Depending on the preferred way of expressing non-inflectional notions, languages may be classified as synthetic (using word formation) or analytic (using syntactic phrases).
1040:. There is also word formation in the processes of clipping in which a portion of a word is removed to create a new one, blending in which two parts of different words are blended into one, acronyms in which each letter of the new word represents a specific word in the representation (NATO for
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Phonological rules constrain the sounds that can appear next to each other in a language, and morphological rules, when applied blindly, would often violate phonological rules by resulting in sound sequences that are prohibited in the language in question. For example, to form the plural of
981:
nouns, but third-person singular pronouns (he/she/it) and singular nouns causes 'goes' to be used. The '-es' is therefore an inflectional marker that is used to match with its subject. A further difference is that in word formation, the resultant word may differ from its source word's
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takes a stem, changes it as is required by the rule, and outputs a word form; a derivational rule takes a stem, changes it as per its own requirements, and outputs a derived stem; a compounding rule takes word forms, and similarly outputs a compound stem.
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An important difference between inflection and word formation is that inflected word forms of lexemes are organized into paradigms that are defined by the requirements of syntactic rules, and there are no corresponding syntactic rules for word formation.
2225:. While all those were indeed once related to each other by morphological rules, that was only the case in Latin, not in English. English borrowed such words from French and Latin but not the morphological rules that allowed Latin speakers to combine
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The distinction between inflection and word formation is not at all clear-cut. There are many examples for which linguists fail to agree whether a given rule is inflection or word formation. The next section will attempt to clarify the distinction.
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It is clear that this classification is not at all clearcut, and many languages (Latin and Greek among them) do not neatly fit any one of these types, and some fit in more than one way. A continuum of complex morphology of language may be adopted.
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paradigms. The major point behind this approach is that many such generalizations are hard to state with either of the other approaches. Word-and-paradigm approaches are also well-suited to capturing purely morphological phenomena, such as
948:
Given the notion of a lexeme, it is possible to distinguish two kinds of morphological rules. Some morphological rules relate to different forms of the same lexeme, but other rules relate to different lexemes. Rules of the first kind are
1019:
are complete word forms in their own right but are subsequently treated as parts of one form. Derivation involves affixing bound (non-independent) forms to existing lexemes, but the addition of the affix derives a new lexeme. The word
1736:. For Bloomfield, the morpheme was the minimal form with meaning, but did not have meaning itself. For Hockett, morphemes are "meaning elements", not "form elements". For him, there is a morpheme plural using allomorphs such as
2049:
Directional suffixes are not limited to motion verbs. When added to non-motion verbs, their meanings are a figurative one. The following table gives some examples of directional suffixes and their possible meanings.
1503:. In this case, the analogy applies both to the form of the words and to their meaning. In each pair, the first word means "one of X", and the second "two or more of X", and the difference is always the plural form
1514:
One of the largest sources of complexity in morphology is that the one-to-one correspondence between meaning and form scarcely applies to every case in the language. In
English, there are word form pairs like
1426:
rules, which require the verb in a sentence to appear in an inflectional form that matches the person and number of the subject. Therefore, the syntactic rules of
English care about the difference between
1709:, seek to maintain the idea of the morpheme while accommodating non-concatenated, analogical, and other processes that have proven problematic for item-and-arrangement theories and similar approaches.
1701:
is an inflectional morpheme. In its simplest and most naïve form, this way of analyzing word forms, called "item-and-arrangement", treats words as if they were made of morphemes put after each other ("
726:' (as in "apples and oranges") is to suffix '-que' to the second noun phrase: "apples oranges-and". An extreme level of the theoretical quandary posed by some phonological words is provided by the
594:, which investigates the categories of speech sounds that are distinguished within a spoken language, and thus may constitute the difference between a morpheme and another. Conversely,
973:
are examples of word formation. Informally, word formation rules form "new" words (more accurately, new lexemes), and inflection rules yield variant forms of the "same" word (lexeme).
2166:"Für die Lehre von der Wortform wähle ich das Wort "Morphologie", nach dem Vorgange der Naturwissenschaften ", "For the science of word-formation, I choose the term 'morphology' )
1527:
whose difference between the singular and the plural is signaled in a way that departs from the regular pattern or is not signaled at all. Even cases regarded as regular, such as
1579:
of
English. To "rescue" the word, a vowel sound is inserted between the root and the plural marker, and results. Similar rules apply to the pronunciation of the
2740:
1748:. Within much morpheme-based morphological theory, the two views are mixed in unsystematic ways so a writer may refer to "the morpheme plural" and "the morpheme
1044:), borrowing in which words from one language are taken and used in another, and coinage in which a new word is created to represent a new object or concept.
1358:
2179:, Kwak'wala belongs to the Northern branch of the Wakashan language family. "Kwakiutl" is still used to refer to the tribe itself, along with other terms.
1418:
The inflectional categories used to group word forms into paradigms cannot be chosen arbitrarily but must be categories that are relevant to stating the
730:
language. In Kwak'wala, as in a great many other languages, meaning relations between nouns, including possession and "semantic case", are formulated by
590:
The basic fields of linguistics broadly focus on language structure at different "scales". Morphology is considered to operate at a scale larger than
2868:
2406:
2010:
There are also directional suffixes that when added to the root word give the listener a better idea of where the subject is headed. The verb
1435:
because the choice between both forms determines the form of the verb that is used. However, no syntactic rule shows the difference between
1383:
of nouns. Also, arranging the word forms of a lexeme into tables, by classifying them according to shared inflectional categories such as
708:
Here are examples from other languages of the failure of a single phonological word to coincide with a single morphological word form. In
2310:
1909:
1829:
In the 19th century, philologists devised a now classic classification of languages according to their morphology. Some languages are
1415:(first, second, third); number (singular vs. plural); gender (masculine, feminine, neuter); and case (nominative, oblique, genitive).
1351:
1725:'s "sign base" morpheme hypothesis: As morphemes, they are dualistic signs, since they have both (phonological) form and meaning.
1279:
1274:
1269:
1257:
1252:
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856:('otter'), etc. In other words, a speaker of Kwak'wala does not perceive the sentence to consist of these phonological words:
820:
That is, to a speaker of Kwak'wala, the sentence does not contain the "words" 'him-the-otter' or 'with-his-club' Instead, the
2454:
1857:). That leads to one bound morpheme conveying multiple pieces of information. A standard example of an isolating language is
1175:
482:
1459:
exclude from its domain the phenomena of word formation, compounding, and derivation. Within morphosyntax fall the study of
632:. The Greco-Roman grammatical tradition also engaged in morphological analysis. Studies in Arabic morphology, including the
2964:(Speech). Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on South and Southeast Asian Natural Language Processing (SANLP). Mumbai: COLING.
1422:
of the language. Person and number are categories that can be used to define paradigms in
English because the language has
372:
1344:
1165:
1637:
While the associations indicated between the concepts in each item in that list are very strong, they are not absolute.
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1619:
There are three principal approaches to morphology and each tries to capture the distinctions above in different ways:
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is the complete set of related word forms associated with a given lexeme. The familiar examples of paradigms are the
1007:. The latter is a process of word formation that involves combining complete word forms into a single compound form.
504:
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are concerned with how speakers create words in specific contexts, which evolves over the history of a language.
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Für die lere von der wortform wäle ich das wort « morphologie», nach dem vorgange der naturwißenschaften
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Bloomfield's "lexical morpheme" hypothesis: morphemes, affixes and roots alike are stored in the lexicon.
1155:
432:
138:
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Van Valin, R. D., van Valin Jr, R. D., van Valin Jr, R. D., LaPolla, R. J., & LaPolla, R. J. (1997)
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and word-form. Generally, a lexeme is a set of inflected word-forms that is often represented with the
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in a language. As such, it concerns itself primarily with word formation: derivation and compounding.
1555:. Those cases, in which the same distinction is effected by alternative forms of a "word", constitute
1511:) affixed to the second word, which signals the key distinction between singular and plural entities.
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is concerned with the next-largest scale, and studies how words in turn form phrases and sentences.
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Linguistic
Fundamentals for Natural Language Processing: 100 Essentials from Morphology and Syntax
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using a modified transcription. This phenomenon of Kwak'wala was reported by
Jacobsen as cited in
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1846:
1460:
1423:
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1286:
1204:
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is a distinct field that categorises languages based on the morphological features they exhibit.
517:, including the principles by which they are formed, and how they relate to one another within a
427:
265:
242:
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The term "word" has no well-defined meaning. Instead, two related terms are used in morphology:
2873:(Speech). Voice and Grammatical Functions in Austronesian. University of Sydney. Archived from
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sign languages. Apparently, a wide variety of languages make use of the hybrid linguistic unit
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397:
307:
188:
133:
30:
1991:
is an example of a verbal prefix. It is added to the beginning of a word and means 'not.'
999:
There is a further distinction between two primary kinds of morphological word formation:
940:. The intermediate status of clitics poses a considerable challenge to linguistic theory.
8:
2449:. Robert M. W. Dixon, A. I︠U︡. Aĭkhenvalʹd. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2002.
1055:
813:
clubbed-PIVOT-DETERMINER man-ACCUSATIVE-DETERMINER otter-INSTRUMENTAL-3SG-POSSESSIVE club
238:
168:
143:
115:
3133:
by
Stephen R. Anderson, part of Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science, cowgill.ling.yale.edu
1657:. A morpheme is defined as the minimal meaningful unit of a language. In a word such as
3130:
3040:
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2777:
Arabic morphology and phonology: based on the Marāḥ al-arwāḥ by Aḥmad b. ʻAlī b. Masʻūd
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Prefixes are those that are added at the front. For example, the
Pingelapese suffix –
1842:
1781:
1780:. Examples to show the effectiveness of word-based approaches are usually drawn from
1719:'s "single morpheme" hypothesis: Roots and affixes have the same status as morphemes.
1384:
1150:
1088:
1071:
985:, but in the process of inflection, the word never changes its grammatical category.
700:, on the other hand, are different lexemes, as they refer to two different concepts.
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Lexeme-Morpheme Base Morphology: A General Theory of Inflection and Word Formation
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and the other morphemes are, in this case, derivational affixes. In words such as
1626:
Lexeme-based morphology, which normally makes use of an item-and-process approach.
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1301:
1219:
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that can only appear as part of a larger word. For example, in English the root
1870:
1866:
1623:
Morpheme-based morphology, which makes use of an item-and-arrangement approach.
994:
954:
937:
521:. Most approaches to morphology investigate the structure of words in terms of
247:
3158:
3080:
3042:
Morphological theory: an introduction to word structure in generative grammar
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2759:
2464:
1705:") like beads on a string. More recent and sophisticated approaches, such as
1702:
1291:
661:
615:
3142:
1732:
Morpheme-based morphology comes in two flavours, one Bloomfieldian and one
1576:
727:
290:
80:
2444:
1947:
1653:
In morpheme-based morphology, word forms are analyzed as arrangements of
1591:: it depends on the quality (voiced vs. unvoiced) of the final preceding
1380:
624:
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442:
417:
38:
2258:
Jones, Daniel (2003) , Peter Roach; James Hartmann; Jane Setter (eds.),
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95:
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Symmetrical Voice Systems and Precategoriality in Philippine Languages
688:
are thus considered different word-forms belonging to the same lexeme
3137:
Introduction to Linguistic Theory – Morphology: The Words of Language
2144:
2014:
means to walk. A directional suffix can be used to give more detail.
1845:
because their inflectional morphemes are "fused" together (like some
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Kishorjit, N; Vidya Raj, RK; Nirmal, Y; Sivaji, B. (December 2012).
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2176:
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1603:
Lexical morphology is the branch of morphology that deals with the
932:, possessing the grammatical features of independent words but the
619:
535:
that can exist as words by themselves, but also categories such as
527:, which are the smallest units in a language with some independent
523:
518:
2843:. LINCOM coursebooks in linguistics, 07. Muenchen: LINCOM Europa.
1837:
whose words tend to have many easily separable morphemes (such as
1604:
1592:
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731:
3087:. Cambridge studies in linguistics. Cambridge University Press.
2393:
Mémoires de l'Académie Impériale des Sciences de St.-Pétersbourg
1850:
1608:
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595:
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2882:
Hockett, Charles F. (1947). "Problems of morphemic analysis".
2798:(2nd ed.). Washington, DC: SGeorgetown University Press.
1451:. The first two are nouns, and the other two are adjectives.
965:
is an inflectional rule, and compound phrases and words like
709:
536:
2679:
Morphology: A Study of the Relation Between Meaning and Form
2561:
Introduction – 2 Syntax and morphosyntax: some basic notions
2996:(in French). Montreal: Presses de l'Université de Montréal.
2425:
2413:
2354:. Albany: NY: State University of New York Press. pp.
514:
2391:
Schleicher, August (1859). "Zur Morphologie der Sprache".
1649:
Morpheme-based morphology tree of the word "independently"
3065:. Blackwell handbooks in linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell.
3046:. Blackwell textbooks in linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell.
2001:
1995:
1979:
1973:
639:
The term "morphology" was introduced into linguistics by
2858:
Dixon, R. M. W.; Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y., eds. (2007).
1959:
means 'with' or 'at.' It is added at the end of a verb.
1411:
can be organized into tables by using the categories of
636:
of Aḥmad b. 'Alī Mas'ūd, date back to at least 1200 CE.
3145:
by Farrell Ackerman and Henry Beecher, grammar.ucsd.edu
3085:
Inflectional morphology: a theory of paradigm structure
1712:
Morpheme-based morphology presumes three basic axioms:
703:
551:
may appear as its own word, or it may be combined with
2644:
2564:
in Dufter, Andreas, and Stark, Elisabeth (eds., 2017)
1607:
that, morphologically conceived, is the collection of
832:-'the'), referring to "man", attaches not to the noun
2395:. VII°. Vol. I, N.7. St. Petersburg. p. 35.
1873:
are prototypical inflectional or fusional languages.
1629:
Word-based morphology, which normally makes use of a
505:
3121:
in Linguistics 001 by Mark Liberman, ling.upenn.edu
2656:
3039:
2970:
2372:
614:morphological analysis dates back to the linguist
3061:Spencer, Andrew; Zwicky, Arnold M., eds. (1998).
3019:Singh, Rajendra; Starosta, Stanley, eds. (2003).
2632:
2500:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.
953:rules, but those of the second kind are rules of
3156:
3101:
2193:
1571:to the end of the word would result in the form
943:
2857:
2213:in English does not mean that the English word
1833:, and have little to no morphology; others are
1815:fits the regular pattern of plural formation).
1114:
559:. Morphology also analyzes how words behave as
2910:
2817:. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
2613:
2431:
2419:
2308:
3104:Syntax : Structure, Meaning And Function
3102:van Valin, Robert D.; LaPolla, Randy (1997).
3060:
3018:
2946:. In Korsakov, Andrey Konstantinovich (ed.).
2554:
2552:
2550:
1352:
1047:
476:
2977:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
2741:"Morphology: an interview with Mark Aronoff"
2614:Haspelmath, Martin; Sims, Andrea D. (2002).
2592:
2290:. Macmillan Reference, Ltd., Yale University
2114:Action continued to a certain point in time
1640:
1475:Above, morphological rules are described as
3000:
2991:
2101:Change has caused the start of a new state
3139:by Adam Szczegielniak, scholar.harvard.edu
2911:Fabrega, Antonio; Scalise, Sergio (2012).
2841:An introduction to the study of morphology
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2405:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2390:
1755:
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988:
816:"the man clubbed the otter with his club."
483:
469:
2567:Manual of Romance Morphosyntax and Syntax
1935:Learn how and when to remove this message
1818:
651:
2968:
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2915:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
2862:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2601:Syntax: Structure, meaning, and function
2589:, p.35, Morgan & Claypool Publishers
2491:
2309:Aronoff, Mark; Fudeman, Kirsten (n.d.).
2281:
1865:(and practically all Turkic languages).
1764:
1644:
1024:, for example, is derived from the word
3037:
3009:
2919:
2881:
2838:
2774:
2738:
2717:
2697:
2662:
2446:Word : a cross-linguistic typology
2378:
2311:"Morphology and Morphological Analysis"
2217:is analyzed into a derivational prefix
957:. The generation of the English plural
646:
3157:
2683:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. pp.
2320:. Blackwell Publishing. Archived from
1539:is not pronounced the same way as the
836:("man") but to the verb; the markers -
3079:
2866:
2812:
2793:
2674:
2638:
2345:
2257:
2189:
2041:= 'away from speaker and listener' →
1906:This section may contain information
1598:
906:kwixʔid i-da-bəgwanəma χ-a-q'asa s-is
712:, one way to express the concept of '
2570:, Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG
2524:
1892:
1011:, therefore, is a compound, as both
704:Prosodic word vs. morphological word
618:, who formulated the 3,959 rules of
373:Conservative and innovative language
3143:LIGN120: Introduction to Morphology
3021:Explorations in Seamless Morphology
3003:Aspects of the theory of morphology
1407:, organizes such. For example, the
13:
2779:. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
2710:
2700:Preverbal Particles in Pingelapese
2604:, p.2, Cambridge University Press.
1841:); others yet are inflectional or
1042:North Atlantic Treaty Organization
16:Study of words and their formation
14:
3186:
3125:Intro to Linguistics – Morphology
3112:
2948:Structure of Modern English pt. 1
2860:Word: A cross-linguistic typology
2796:Introducing linguistic morphology
2288:Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science
936:-phonological lack of freedom of
2958:Manipuri Morpheme Identification
2940:Korsakov, Andrey Konstantinovich
2924:. New York: St. Martin's Press.
1897:
1575:, which is not permitted by the
1036:itself is derived from the verb
453:
3127:by Jirka Hana, ufal.mff.cuni.cz
2913:Morphology: from Data to Theory
2691:
2668:
2607:
2573:
2518:
2485:
2437:
2199:
2182:
2169:
1861:. An agglutinative language is
1661:, the morphemes are said to be
3151:by P. J. Hancox, cs.bham.ac.uk
2944:"The use of tenses in English"
2384:
2339:
2302:
2275:
2262:, Cambridge University Press,
2260:English Pronouncing Dictionary
2251:
2233:'to hang' into the derivative
2194:van Valin & LaPolla (1997)
2157:
1796:follows the normal pattern of
1551:, a vowel is added before the
1:
3106:. Cambridge University Press.
2994:Cours de morphologie générale
2492:Anderson, Stephen R. (1992).
2282:Anderson, Stephen R. (n.d.).
2244:
1470:
944:Inflection vs. word formation
2822:Bloomfield, Leonard (1933).
2724:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
2205:The existence of words like
2150:
2002:
1996:
1980:
1974:
1409:personal pronouns in English
313:Functional discourse grammar
179:Ethnography of communication
7:
2527:"Word Formation in English"
2133:
1888:
1176:Ditransitive/Monotransitive
668:. For instance, the lexeme
433:Second-language acquisition
10:
3191:
3063:The handbook of morphology
2432:Haspelmath & Sims 2002
2420:Haspelmath & Sims 2002
2088:Action has been completed
1822:
1768:
1631:word-and-paradigm approach
1048:Paradigms and morphosyntax
992:
605:
111:Syntax–semantics interface
18:
2920:Katamba, Francis (1993).
2867:Foley, William A (1998).
1912:to the article's subject.
1641:Morpheme-based morphology
1614:
1547:, and in plurals such as
1531:, are not so simple; the
423:Philosophy of linguistics
323:Interactional linguistics
3038:Spencer, Andrew (1991).
3010:Scalise, Sergio (1983).
3001:Mel'čuk, Igor A (2006).
2992:Mel'čuk, Igor A (1993).
2969:Matthews, Peter (1991).
2826:. New York: Henry Holt.
2815:A glossary of morphology
2616:Understanding Morphology
2558:Dufter and Stark (2017)
1771:Realizational morphology
1752:" in the same sentence.
672:contains the word-forms
19:Not to be confused with
3170:Linguistics terminology
2775:Åkesson, Joyce (2001).
2698:Hattori, Ryoko (2012).
2675:Bybee, Joan L. (1985).
2579:Emily M. Bender (2013)
1847:Indo-European languages
1756:Lexeme-based morphology
1567:by simply appending an
989:Types of word formation
622:morphology in the text
3149:Morphological analysis
2813:Bauer, Laurie (2004).
2794:Bauer, Laurie (2003).
2739:Aronoff, Mark (2009).
2718:Aronoff, Mark (1993).
2477:: CS1 maint: others (
2346:Beard, Robert (1995).
2140:Morphome (linguistics)
1825:Morphological typology
1819:Morphological typology
1707:distributed morphology
1650:
917:hit-the-otter with-his
844:-'the'), referring to
802:kwixʔid-i-da bəgwanəma
652:Lexemes and word-forms
600:Morphological typology
569:grammatical categories
563:, and how they may be
260:Theoretical frameworks
214:Philosophy of language
194:History of linguistics
21:Morphological typology
3165:Linguistic morphology
3012:Generative Morphology
2839:Bubenik, Vit (1999).
2496:A-Morphous Morphology
1910:important or relevant
1765:Word-based morphology
1648:
1424:grammatical agreement
1166:Nominative–absolutive
1129:Nominative–accusative
913:clubbed PIVOT-the-man
555:to form the new word
154:Conversation analysis
3119:Lecture 7 Morphology
2721:Morphology by Itself
1952:Micronesian language
1917:improve this section
1697:is the root and the
1479:between word forms:
1028:by using the prefix
983:grammatical category
647:Fundamental concepts
630:constituency grammar
547:are both morphemes;
531:. Morphemes include
398:Internet linguistics
308:Construction grammar
3014:. Dordrecht: Foris.
2534:Library of Congress
2525:Plag, Ingo (2003).
2327:on 27 February 2020
2318:What is Morphology?
2188:Example taken from
2056:Directional suffix
1280:Object–verb–subject
1275:Object–subject–verb
1270:Subject–object–verb
1258:Verb–object–subject
1253:Verb–subject–object
1248:Subject–verb–object
1141:Ergative–absolutive
1056:Linguistic typology
583:. Concepts such as
333:Systemic functional
128:Applied linguistics
70:General linguistics
2618:. London: Arnold.
2175:Formerly known as
2000:= to be correct →
1782:fusional languages
1651:
1599:Lexical morphology
513:) is the study of
438:Theory of language
408:Origin of language
363:Autonomy of syntax
318:Grammaticalization
164:Discourse analysis
159:Corpus linguistics
3081:Stump, Gregory T.
3005:. Berlin: Mouton.
2702:. pp. 31–33.
2456:978-0-511-48624-1
2401:cite encyclopedia
2131:
2130:
2075:Onset of a state
2006:= to be incorrect
1945:
1944:
1937:
1379:of verbs and the
1369:
1368:
1311:Place–manner–time
1307:Time–manner–place
1200:Dependent-marking
1151:Symmetrical voice
1134:Marked nominative
674:eat, eats, eaten,
641:August Schleicher
493:
492:
281:Distributionalism
224:Psycholinguistics
3182:
3107:
3098:
3076:
3057:
3045:
3034:
3015:
3006:
2997:
2988:
2976:
2965:
2963:
2951:
2935:
2916:
2907:
2878:
2863:
2854:
2835:
2818:
2809:
2790:
2770:
2768:
2762:. Archived from
2745:
2735:
2704:
2703:
2695:
2689:
2688:
2682:
2672:
2666:
2660:
2654:
2648:
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2636:
2630:
2629:
2611:
2605:
2596:
2590:
2577:
2571:
2556:
2545:
2544:
2542:
2541:
2531:
2522:
2516:
2515:
2499:
2489:
2483:
2482:
2476:
2468:
2441:
2435:
2429:
2423:
2417:
2411:
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2279:
2273:
2272:
2255:
2238:
2203:
2197:
2186:
2180:
2173:
2167:
2161:
2062:Non-motion verb
2053:
2052:
2005:
1999:
1983:
1977:
1940:
1933:
1929:
1926:
1920:
1901:
1900:
1893:
1839:Turkic languages
1574:
1361:
1354:
1347:
1052:
1051:
874:
843:
831:
790:
786:
782:
768:
764:
749:
745:
722:
715:
691:
671:
509:
485:
478:
471:
457:
403:LGBT linguistics
393:Internationalism
368:Compositionality
229:Sociolinguistics
204:Neurolinguistics
199:Interlinguistics
184:Ethnomethodology
26:
25:
3190:
3189:
3185:
3184:
3183:
3181:
3180:
3179:
3155:
3154:
3115:
3110:
3095:
3073:
3054:
3031:
2985:
2961:
2932:
2851:
2806:
2787:
2766:
2743:
2732:
2713:
2711:Further reading
2708:
2707:
2696:
2692:
2673:
2669:
2661:
2657:
2651:Bloomfield 1933
2649:
2645:
2637:
2633:
2626:
2612:
2608:
2597:
2593:
2578:
2574:
2557:
2548:
2539:
2537:
2529:
2523:
2519:
2512:
2490:
2486:
2470:
2469:
2457:
2443:
2442:
2438:
2430:
2426:
2418:
2414:
2398:
2397:
2389:
2385:
2377:
2373:
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2344:
2340:
2330:
2328:
2324:
2313:
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2280:
2276:
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2256:
2252:
2247:
2242:
2241:
2204:
2200:
2187:
2183:
2174:
2170:
2162:
2158:
2153:
2136:
1984:= to be good at
1978:= to be good →
1941:
1930:
1924:
1921:
1914:
1902:
1898:
1891:
1827:
1821:
1773:
1767:
1758:
1685:is the (bound)
1643:
1617:
1601:
1473:
1420:syntactic rules
1365:
1302:Free word order
1220:Syntactic pivot
1115:Morphosyntactic
1050:
997:
991:
946:
938:bound morphemes
925:
920:
916:
909:
904:
901:
894:
888:
880:
878:
872:
866:
841:
829:
818:
809:
806:-χ-a q'asa-s-is
805:
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792:
788:
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776:
770:
766:
762:
757:
751:
747:
743:
725:
720:
718:
713:
706:
689:
669:
654:
649:
610:The history of
608:
561:parts of speech
543:and the suffix
507:
489:
448:
447:
358:
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349:
261:
253:
252:
248:Writing systems
139:Anthropological
129:
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5:
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3113:External links
3111:
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2896:10.2307/410295
2890:(4): 321–343.
2879:
2877:on 2006-09-25.
2864:
2855:
2849:
2836:
2819:
2810:
2804:
2791:
2785:
2772:
2769:on 2011-07-06.
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2046:
2045:= to walk away
2036:
2035:= to walk down
2026:
2008:
2007:
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1985:
1971:
1943:
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1903:
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1823:Main article:
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1205:Double-marking
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1189:
1188:
1183:
1173:
1171:Direct-inverse
1168:
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1156:Active–stative
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1146:Split ergative
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1138:
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1111:
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1106:
1104:Oligosynthetic
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995:Word formation
993:Main article:
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955:word formation
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869:i-da-bəgwanəma
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852:instead of to
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666:small capitals
653:
650:
648:
645:
634:Marāḥ Al-Arwāḥ
612:ancient Indian
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3053:0-631-16144-9
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3030:0-7619-9594-3
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2229:and the verb
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2020:
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1371:A linguistic
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1297:OS word order
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1292:V2 word order
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1287:V1 word order
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1099:Polysynthetic
1097:
1095:
1094:Agglutinative
1092:
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1063:Morphological
1061:
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378:Descriptivism
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345:Structuralism
343:
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328:Prague circle
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2887:
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2875:the original
2869:
2859:
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2776:
2764:the original
2751:
2747:
2720:
2699:
2693:
2678:
2670:
2663:Hockett 1947
2658:
2646:
2634:
2615:
2609:
2599:
2594:
2587:Morphosyntax
2586:
2580:
2575:
2565:
2559:
2538:. Retrieved
2533:
2520:
2495:
2487:
2445:
2439:
2427:
2415:
2392:
2386:
2379:Åkesson 2001
2374:
2349:
2341:
2329:. Retrieved
2322:the original
2317:
2304:
2292:. Retrieved
2287:
2284:"Morphology"
2277:
2259:
2253:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2201:
2190:Foley (1998)
2184:
2171:
2163:
2159:
2127:Comparative
2119:
2106:
2093:
2080:
2067:
2059:Motion verb
2048:
2042:
2038:
2032:
2028:
2025:= to walk up
2022:
2018:
2011:
2009:
1988:
1987:
1967:
1963:
1956:
1946:
1931:
1922:
1915:Please help
1907:
1883:
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1828:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1801:comparatives
1793:
1789:
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1711:
1703:concatenated
1698:
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1577:phonotactics
1568:
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1457:
1453:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1417:
1377:conjugations
1370:
1265:OV languages
1243:VO languages
1215:Null-subject
1210:Head-marking
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1016:
1012:
1008:
998:
979:
975:
970:
966:
962:
958:
951:inflectional
947:
926:
923:
912:
910:-t'alwagwayu
905:
897:
895:-t'alwagwayu
890:
885:
882:
871:
868:
863:
860:
853:
849:
848:, attach to
845:
837:
833:
825:
819:
815:
812:
801:
797:
794:
781:INSTRUMENTAL
778:
772:
760:
753:
741:
739:kwixʔid-i-da
738:
707:
697:
693:
685:
681:
677:
673:
655:
638:
633:
623:
609:
589:
585:productivity
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
522:
500:
494:
291:Glossematics
271:Constituency
243:interpreting
85:
81:Lexicography
2536:. Cambridge
2221:and a root
1966:= to use →
1948:Pingelapese
1881:languages.
1525:sheep/sheep
1521:goose/geese
1449:independent
1441:dog catcher
1381:declensions
1328:Color terms
1186:Indirective
1181:Secundative
1022:independent
1009:Dog catcher
1005:compounding
967:dog catcher
810:t'alwagwayu
795:t'alwagwayu
721:NOUN-PHRASE
714:NOUN-PHRASE
628:by using a
567:to express
497:linguistics
443:Terminology
418:Orthography
338:Usage-based
239:Translating
134:Acquisition
39:Linguistics
3159:Categories
3131:Morphology
2973:Morphology
2922:Morphology
2639:Beard 1995
2540:2016-11-30
2245:References
2098:away from
1925:April 2024
1807:replacing
1798:adjectival
1788:replacing
1734:Hockettian
1723:Bloomfield
1557:allomorphy
1471:Allomorphy
1465:government
1234:Word order
1225:Theta role
1161:Tripartite
1001:derivation
971:dishwasher
842:ACCUSATIVE
789:POSSESSIVE
773:q'asa-s-is
767:DETERMINER
763:ACCUSATIVE
748:DETERMINER
625:Aṣṭādhyāyī
571:including
501:morphology
413:Orismology
298:Functional
286:Generative
276:Dependency
96:Pragmatics
86:Morphology
76:Diachronic
2832:760588323
2760:1678-8931
2473:cite book
2465:704513339
2235:dependere
2151:Footnotes
2145:Etymology
2021:= 'up' →
1981:mwahu-kin
1831:isolating
1778:morphomes
1655:morphemes
1477:analogies
1461:agreement
1445:dependent
1124:Alignment
1084:Synthetic
1077:Isolating
1034:dependent
1026:dependent
883:χ-a-q'asa
850:bəgwanəma
834:bəgwanəma
754:bəgwanəma
728:Kwak'wala
643:in 1859.
592:phonology
565:inflected
524:morphemes
388:Iconicity
383:Etymology
303:Cognitive
266:Formalist
219:Phonetics
209:Philology
101:Semantics
91:Phonology
3083:(2001).
3023:. SAGE.
2942:(1969).
2884:Language
2824:Language
2207:appendix
2177:Kwakiutl
2134:See also
2111:towards
2043:aluh-eng
2003:sa-pwung
1889:Examples
1849:such as
1843:fusional
1717:Baudouin
1373:paradigm
1333:Numerals
1089:Fusional
1072:Analytic
934:prosodic
898:with-his
875:-the-man
742:clubbed-
620:Sanskrit
557:catching
519:language
189:Forensic
169:Distance
116:Typology
31:a series
29:Part of
3175:Grammar
2585:, ch.4
2331:30 July
2294:30 July
2231:pendere
2211:pending
2033:aluh-di
2023:aluh-da
1968:ius-kin
1863:Turkish
1859:Chinese
1855:Russian
1811:(where
1792:(where
1609:lexemes
1605:lexicon
1593:phoneme
1517:ox/oxen
1319:Lexicon
1017:catcher
864:clubbed
861:kwixʔid
822:markers
732:affixes
606:History
537:affixes
529:meaning
144:Applied
54:History
49:Outline
3091:
3069:
3050:
3027:
2981:
2928:
2904:410295
2902:
2847:
2830:
2802:
2783:
2758:
2754:(12).
2728:
2622:
2508:
2504:, 75.
2463:
2453:
2362:
2266:
2215:depend
1851:Pashto
1803:) and
1677:, and
1615:Models
1549:dishes
1523:, and
1501:dishes
1499:is to
1491:is to
1483:is to
1413:person
1401:gender
1397:number
1389:aspect
1038:depend
1032:, and
930:clitic
779:otter-
658:lexeme
616:Pāṇini
596:syntax
581:aspect
579:, and
573:number
510:-ə-jee
459:Portal
357:Topics
106:Syntax
2962:(PDF)
2900:JSTOR
2767:(PDF)
2748:ReVEL
2744:(PDF)
2687:, 13.
2530:(PDF)
2358:, 3.
2325:(PDF)
2314:(PDF)
2124:from
2120:-sang
2085:down
1997:pwung
1975:mwahu
1950:is a
1871:Greek
1867:Latin
1794:older
1790:elder
1786:older
1443:, or
1385:tense
961:from
921:-club
902:-club
873:PIVOT
854:q'asa
846:otter
830:PIVOT
744:PIVOT
710:Latin
698:Eater
577:tense
549:catch
541:catch
533:roots
515:words
59:Index
3089:ISBN
3067:ISBN
3048:ISBN
3025:ISBN
2979:ISBN
2926:ISBN
2845:ISBN
2828:OCLC
2800:ISBN
2781:ISBN
2756:ISSN
2726:ISBN
2620:ISBN
2506:ISBN
2479:link
2461:OCLC
2451:ISBN
2407:link
2360:ISBN
2333:2016
2296:2016
2264:ISBN
2223:pend
2209:and
2107:-doa
2039:-eng
1908:not
1869:and
1853:and
1813:cows
1809:kine
1805:cows
1746:-ren
1744:and
1691:dogs
1687:root
1683:pend
1675:-ent
1671:pend
1589:cats
1587:and
1585:dogs
1565:dish
1545:cats
1537:dogs
1507:(or
1497:dish
1495:and
1493:cats
1485:dogs
1463:and
1447:and
1439:and
1433:dogs
1431:and
1405:case
1393:mood
1015:and
1003:and
959:dogs
891:s-is
826:i-da
798:club
761:man-
758:-χ-a
719:and
696:and
686:eats
684:and
676:and
553:-ing
545:-ing
506:mor-
241:and
234:Text
2892:doi
2227:de-
2219:de-
2094:-la
2081:-di
2072:up
2068:-da
2019:-da
2012:alu
1989:sa-
1964:ius
1957:kin
1742:-en
1695:dog
1679:-ly
1667:de-
1663:in-
1583:in
1543:in
1535:in
1509:-es
1489:cat
1487:as
1481:dog
1437:dog
1429:dog
1403:or
1030:in-
1013:dog
969:or
963:dog
838:χ-a
785:3SG
694:Eat
690:eat
682:Eat
678:ate
670:eat
664:in
508:FOL
495:In
3161::
2898:.
2888:23
2886:.
2750:.
2746:.
2685:11
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2471:{{
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