1214:
position within a sentence or presence of a preposition. For example, in some languages with bound case markings for nouns, such as
Language X, varying degrees of freedom in constituent order are observed. These languages exhibit more flexible word orders, allowing for variations like Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) structure, as in 'The cat ate the mouse,' and Object-Subject-Verb (OSV) structure, as in 'The mouse the cat ate.' To define a basic constituent order type in this case, one generally looks at frequency of different types in declarative affirmative main clauses in pragmatically neutral contexts, preferably with only old referents. Thus, for instance, Russian is widely considered an SVO language, as this is the most frequent constituent order under such conditions—all sorts of variations are possible, though, and occur in texts. In many inflected languages, such as Russian, Latin, and Greek, departures from the default word-orders are permissible but usually imply a shift in focus, an emphasis on the final element, or some special context. In the poetry of these languages, the word order may also shift freely to meet metrical demands. Additionally, freedom of word order may vary within the same language—for example, formal, literary, or archaizing varieties may have different, stricter, or more lenient constituent-order structures than an informal spoken variety of the same language.
1926:
stops, lateral fricatives and affricates, uvular and pharyngeal consonants, and dental or alveolar non-sibilant fricatives). Of this list, only about 26% of languages in a survey of over 600 with small inventories (less than 19 consonants) contain a member of this set, while 51% of average languages (19-25) contain at least one member and 69% of large consonant inventories (greater than 25 consonants) contain a member of this set. It is then seen that complex consonants are in proportion to the size of the inventory.
1777:, the classification depends on whether the subject (S) of an intransitive verb has the same case as the agent (A) or the patient (P) of a transitive verb. If a language has no cases, but the word order is AVP or PVA, then a classification may reflect whether the subject of an intransitive verb appears on the same side as the agent or the patient of the transitive verb. Bickel (2011) has argued that alignment should be seen as a construction-specific property rather than a language-specific property.
450:
1057:
both absolute and statistical can be unrestricted, meaning that they apply to most or all languages without any additional conditions. Conversely, both absolute and statistical universals can be restricted or implicational, meaning that a characteristic will be true on the condition of something else (if Y characteristic is true, then X characteristic is true). An example of an
1203:- *"Is the checking spelling after its to complete"). In this case, linguists base the typology on the non-analytic tenses (i.e. those sentences in which the verb is not split) or on the position of the auxiliary. German is thus SVO in main clauses and Welsh is VSO (and preposition phrases would go after the infinitive).
1413:(1994) suggests that constituents are ordered from shortest to longest in VO languages, and from longest to shortest in OV languages, giving rise to the attested distribution. This approach relies on the notion that OV languages have heavy subjects, and VO languages have heavy objects, which is disputed.
1810:
Linguistic typology also seeks to identify patterns in the structure and distribution of sound systems among the world's languages. This is accomplished by surveying and analyzing the relative frequencies of different phonological properties. Exemplary relative frequencies are given below for certain
1408:
Universalist explanations include a model by
Russell Tomlin (1986) based on three functional principles: (i) animate before inanimate; (ii) theme before comment; and (iii) verb-object bonding. The three-way model roughly predicts the real hierarchy (see table above) assuming no statistical difference
820:
that studies and classifies languages according to their structural features to allow their comparison. Its aim is to describe and explain the structural diversity and the common properties of the world's languages. Its subdisciplines include, but are not limited to phonological typology, which deals
1925:
with 128 consonants and 28 vowels). An interesting phonological observation found with this data is that the larger a consonant inventory a language has, the more likely it is to contain a sound from a defined set of complex consonants (clicks, glottalized consonants, doubly articulated labial-velar
932:
made a classification of the world's languages into three types: (i) languages lacking grammatical structure, e.g. Chinese; (ii) agglutinative languages, e.g. Turkish; and (iii) inflectional languages, which can be synthetic like Latin and
Ancient Greek, or analytic like French. This idea was later
1715:
mechanisms. Typological tendencies are considered as being based on language users' preference for grammars that are organized efficiently, and on their avoidance of word orderings that cause processing difficulty. Hawkins's processing theory predicts the above table but also makes predictions for
1164:
In the 1980s, linguists began to question the relevance of geographical distribution of different values for various features of linguistic structure. They may have wanted to discover whether a particular grammatical structure found in one language is likewise found in another language in the same
1160:
These labels usually appear abbreviated as "SVO" and so forth, and may be called "typologies" of the languages to which they apply. The most commonly attested word orders are SOV and SVO while the least common orders are those that are object initial with OVS being the least common with only four
1056:
Linguistic universals are patterns that can be seen cross-linguistically. Universals can either be absolute, meaning that every documented language exhibits this characteristic, or statistical, meaning that this characteristic is seen in most languages or is probable in most languages. Universals,
1213:
Some languages allow varying degrees of freedom in their constituent order, posing a problem for their classification within the subject–verb–object schema. Languages with bound case markings for nouns, for example, tend to have more flexible word orders than languages where case is defined by
1929:
Vowels contain a more modest number of phonemes, with the average being 5–6, which 51% of the languages in the survey have. About a third of the languages have larger than average vowel inventories. Most interesting though is the lack of relationship between consonant inventory size and vowel
904:
The conquest and conversion of the world by
Europeans gave rise to 'missionary linguistics' producing first-hand word lists and grammatical descriptions of exotic languages. Such work is accounted for in the ‘Catalogue of the Languages of the Populations We Know’, 1800, by the Spanish Jesuit
1784:") have two types of intransitive verbs—some of them ("active verbs") join the subject in the same case as the agent of a transitive verb, and the rest ("stative verbs") join the subject in the same case as the patient. Yet other languages behave ergatively only in some contexts (this "
1839:. According to a worldwide sample of 637 languages, 62% have the voicing contrast in stops but only 35% have this in fricatives. In the vast majority of those cases, the absence of voicing contrast occurs because there is a lack of voiced fricatives and because all languages have
981:
who proposed forty-five different types of linguistic universals based on his data sets from thirty languages. Greenberg's findings were mostly known from the nineteenth-century grammarians, but his systematic presentation of them would serve as a model for modern typology.
1084:
The main subfields of linguistic typology include the empirical fields of syntactic, phonological and lexical typology. Additionally, theoretical typology aims to explain the empirical findings, especially statistical tendencies or implicational hierarchies.
1751:), stemming directly from the semantic mapping of the sentence. Since the true correlation pairs in the above table either involve such a connective or, arguably, follow from the canonical order, orientation predicts them without making problematic claims.
1248:
The below table indicates the distribution of the dominant word order pattern of over 5,000 individual languages and 366 language families. SOV is the most common type in both although much more clearly in the data of language families including
1421:
A second major way of syntactic categorization is by excluding the subject from consideration. It is a well-documented typological feature that languages with a dominant OV order (object before verb), Japanese for example, tend to have
828:
on the grounds that typology groups languages or their grammatical features based on formal similarities rather than historic descendence. The issue of genealogical relation is however relevant to typology because modern
1396:
Though the reason of dominance is sometimes considered an unsolved or unsolvable typological problem, several explanations for the distribution pattern have been proposed. Evolutionary explanations include those by
964:
proposed typology as a large-scale empirical-analytical endeavour of comparing grammatical features to uncover the essence of language. Such a project begins from the 1961 conference on language universals at
821:
with sound features; syntactic typology, which deals with word order and form; lexical typology, which deals with language vocabulary; and theoretical typology, which aims to explain the universal tendencies.
1232:, linguists have only written evidence, perhaps written in a poetic, formalizing, or archaic style that mischaracterizes the actual daily use of the language. The daily spoken language of
1743:, which has postpositions. But there are few other profoundly exceptional languages. It is suggested more recently that the left-right orientation is limited to role-marking connectives (
1780:
Many languages show mixed accusative and ergative behaviour (for example: ergative morphology marking the verb arguments, on top of an accusative syntax). Other languages (called "
1405:(1981), who argues that the original language was SVO, which supports simpler grammar employing word order instead of case markers to differentiate between clausal roles.
1217:
On the other hand, when there is no clear preference under the described conditions, the language is considered to have "flexible constituent order" (a type unto itself).
1033:
Quantitative typology deals with the distribution and co-occurrence of structural patterns in the languages of the world. Major types of non-chance distribution include:
1165:
geographic location. Some languages split verbs into an auxiliary and an infinitive or participle and put the subject and/or object between them. For instance, German (
1099:
Syntactic typology studies a vast array of grammatical phenomena from the languages of the world. Two well-known issues include dominant order and left-right symmetry.
796:
2917:
1843:, but there are languages with no fricatives. Below is a chart showing the breakdown of voicing properties among languages in the aforementioned sample.
1076:
Qualitative typology develops cross-linguistically viable notions or types that provide a framework for the description and comparison of languages.
928:'s ‘On the Difference in Human Linguistic Structure and Its Influence on the Intellectual Development of Mankind’ (posthumous 1836). In 1818,
2808:. Quantitative linguistics: an international handbook, ed. by Gabriel Altmann, Reinhard Köhler and R. Piotrowski. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
2305:
Quantitative methods in typology. (2005). In R. Köhler, G. Altmann & R. G. Piotrowski (Eds.), (). Berlin • New York: Walter de
Gruyter.
1930:
inventory size. Below is a chart showing this lack of predictability between consonant and vowel inventory sizes in relation to each other.
2415:
Comrie, Bernard, et al. “Chapter
Introduction.” WALS Online - Chapter Introduction, The World Atlas of Language Structures Online, 2013.
869:(1544) by Johannes Drosaeus compared French and the three ‘holy languages’, Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. The approach was expanded by the
2932:
2612:
2555:
789:
1788:" is often based on the grammatical person of the arguments or on the tense/aspect of the verb). For example, only some verbs in
1409:
between SOV and SVO, and, also, no statistical difference between VOS and OVS. By contrast, the processing efficiency theory of
2837:
717:
712:
707:
695:
690:
685:
2426:
552:
2882:
2739:
1917:
Languages worldwide also vary in the number of sounds they use. These languages can go from very small phonemic inventories (
1692:
explanations were proposed in the 1980s and 1990s for the above correlations. They suggest that the brain finds it easier to
613:
477:
2927:
367:
782:
603:
2911:
Ivan G. Iliev. On the Nature of
Grammatical Case, Language Typology, and on the Origin of Cognate Objects and Subjects.
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1002:
566:
2893:
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2845:
2824:
2813:
2798:
2787:
2776:
2507:
2333:
2239:
2136:
Graffi, Giorgio (2010). "The
Pioneers of Linguistic Typology: From Gabelentz to Greenberg". In Song, Jae Jung (ed.).
2819:
Grijzenhout, J. (2009). Phonological domains : universals and deviations. Berlin; New York: Mouton de
Gruyter.
2433:
Issues in the
Linguistic Analysis of a Dead Language, with Particular Reference to Ancient Hebrew, Holmstead, R 2006
2782:
Comrie, B. (1989). Language universals and linguistic typology: Syntax and morphology. Oxford: Blackwell, 2nd edn.
1770:
1689:
578:
2912:
2949:
1014:
327:
1401:(1979), who suggests that all languages stem from an SOV language but are evolving into different kinds; and by
2866:
Song, J.J. (2001). Linguistic typology: Morphology and syntax. Harlow and London: Pearson Education (Longman).
387:
332:
105:
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734:
362:
53:
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1006:
608:
307:
173:
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Linguistic Typology. Volume 11, Issue 1, Pages 231–238, ISSN (Online) 1613-415X, ISSN (Print) 1430–0532,
1153:
1147:
1141:
1135:
1129:
1123:
593:
427:
133:
2888:
Whaley, L.J. (1997). Introduction to typology: The unity and diversity of language. Newbury Park: Sage.
1704:
1410:
1010:
825:
702:
680:
637:
571:
2877:
Song, J.J. (ed.) (2011). The Oxford Handbook of Linguistic Typology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2734:
Song, J.J. (ed.) (2011). The Oxford Handbook of Linguistic Typology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2229:
2063:
1760:
744:
561:
470:
417:
317:
143:
1069:(or unspecified in terms of number) are found in all languages. The implicational hierarchy is thus
1022:
910:
322:
265:
80:
2922:
2852:
2679:
2323:
1240:
might have exhibited a different or much more regular syntax than their written legacy indicates.
2805:
1700:
1058:
1042:
953:
929:
724:
642:
541:
422:
260:
237:
1748:
1696:
837:, emphasizing the importance of lesser-known languages in gaining insight into human language.
536:
531:
500:
372:
339:
292:
208:
188:
168:
70:
48:
43:
2257:"The myth of language universals: Language diversity and its importance for cognitive science"
2211:
2145:
993:
During the twentieth century, typology based on missionary linguistics became centered around
987:
966:
770:
652:
647:
632:
148:
2202:
Ramat, Paolo (2010). "The (Early) History of Linguistic Typology". In Song, Jae Jung (ed.).
1005:, among others. Typology is also done within the frameworks of functional grammar including
861:
was found problematic. The cross-linguistic dimension of linguistics was established in the
2581:
2524:
2362:
1038:
1018:
1001:, as an online database. The Greenbergian or universalist approach is accounted for by the
942:
925:
623:
618:
598:
463:
392:
302:
183:
128:
25:
2471:
2283:
857:
was the model language of linguistics, although transcribing Irish and Icelandic into the
8:
1736:
1229:
233:
163:
138:
2366:
1731:
Some languages exhibit regular "inefficient" patterning. These include the VO languages
2830:
2660:
2604:
2547:
2444:
2393:
2350:
2225:
2093:
2037:
1721:
983:
974:
898:
870:
521:
514:
453:
432:
402:
357:
312:
280:
270:
158:
153:
1220:
An additional problem is that in languages without living speech communities, such as
882:
2889:
2878:
2867:
2841:
2820:
2809:
2794:
2783:
2772:
2735:
2664:
2503:
2398:
2380:
2329:
2288:
2235:
2160:
2097:
2085:
1789:
1725:
1108:
994:
938:
934:
846:
588:
526:
509:
449:
297:
275:
218:
906:
886:
2856:
2712:
2650:
2596:
2539:
2466:
2456:
2388:
2370:
2306:
2278:
2268:
2207:
2172:
2141:
2115:
2080:
2075:
1918:
1785:
1732:
1250:
978:
914:
833:
aim to be representative and unbiased. Samples are collected evenly from different
583:
397:
228:
223:
198:
193:
178:
2655:
2638:
1210:
languages, as the verb invariantly occurs as the second element of a full clause.
2430:
1781:
1740:
1708:
1402:
961:
894:
878:
874:
834:
739:
657:
2833:
A. (2013). Introducing language typology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2771:
Bisang, W. (2001). Aspects of typology and universals. Berlin: Akademie Verlag.
2310:
1815:. These relative frequencies show that contrastive voicing commonly occurs with
1017:. During the early years of the twenty-first century, however, the existence of
2424:
2355:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
970:
890:
858:
242:
2716:
2273:
2256:
2119:
849:
underlying all languages were published in the Middle Ages, especially by the
2971:
2384:
2089:
1717:
1225:
1207:
1116:
729:
2860:
2793:
Croft, W. (2002). Typology and universals. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. 2nd ed.
2375:
946:
2402:
2292:
1922:
1426:. In contrast, VO languages (verb before object) like English tend to have
1423:
1398:
285:
75:
2461:
2177:
1744:
1427:
862:
817:
437:
412:
33:
1707:' parsing efficiency theory, which argues that language is a non-innate
2962:
1793:
1431:
1094:
1049:
998:
921:
765:
671:
662:
407:
90:
2906:
2608:
2551:
2926:
Bickel, B. (2005). Typology in the 21st century: major developments.
1840:
1828:
1812:
1805:
1774:
1712:
1233:
382:
377:
213:
203:
95:
85:
1191:- *"Hans suspected that Jan Marie saw to learn to swim") and Welsh (
2943:
2600:
2543:
850:
830:
1816:
1693:
756:
1921:
with six consonants and five vowels) to very large inventories (
1253:. 'NODOM' represents languages without a single dominant order.
1720:
and numeral in respect with the noun. This theory was based on
1237:
1062:
100:
2161:"Linguistic Typology: a short history and some current issues"
1221:
854:
2328:. Cambridge, London: Cambridge University Press. p. 9.
920:
More developed nineteenth-century comparative works include
1112:
1048:
correlations (for instance, areal patterns, such as with a
1703:, but not mixed. The most widely held such explanation is
1813:
speech sounds formed by obstructing airflow (obstruents)
1716:
non-correlation pairs including the order of adjective,
845:
Speculations of the existence of a (logical) general or
2952:
Linguistics for Students of Asian and African Languages
2707:
Legate, J. A. (2008). Morphological and abstract case.
2349:
Gell-Mann, Murray; Ruhlen, Merritt (October 18, 2011).
1061:
is that dual pronouns are only found in languages with
997:, which today hosts its catalogue of living languages,
1792:
behave this way, and, as a rule, only while using the
1434:
type. Several OV/VO correlations have been uncovered.
1037:
preferences (for instance, absolute and implicational
2921:
Bickel, B. (2001). What is typology? - a short note.
2110:
Plungyan, V. A. (2011). Modern linguistic typology.
917:
in almost five hundred languages (posthumous 1817).
885:'s 1767 book includes examples of English, Swedish,
2957:
1206:Many typologists classify both German and Dutch as
913:collected the first large language sample with the
2916:Plank, F. Themes in Typology: Basic Reading List.
2639:"A semantic and pragmatic explanation of harmony"
881:, who added Spanish, Italian, German and Arabic.
2969:
2348:
2255:Evans, Nicholas; Levinson, Stephen C. (2009).
986:introduced Greenbergian typological theory to
2730:
2728:
2726:
2724:
2573:
2493:
2491:
2489:
2445:"Linguistic diversity and language evolution"
2254:
2112:Herald of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 81
1503:Order of adjective and standard of comparison
1178:- *"I have a fox in-the woods seen"), Dutch (
1107:One set of types reflects the basic order of
790:
471:
2516:
1765:Another common classification distinguishes
1754:
1166:
2442:
2140:. Oxford University Press. pp. 25–42.
1192:
1179:
2721:
2486:
2206:. Oxford University Press. pp. 9–23.
2204:The Oxford Handbook of Linguistic Typology
2138:The Oxford Handbook of Linguistic Typology
2131:
2129:
2127:
797:
783:
478:
464:
2654:
2470:
2460:
2392:
2374:
2321:
2282:
2272:
2176:
2079:
1628:Place of adverbial subordinator in clause
1021:became questioned by linguists proposing
2840:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2351:"The origin and evolution of word order"
2158:
2061:
1799:
1603:Order of auxiliary verb and content verb
2224:
2212:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199281251.013.0002
2197:
2195:
2146:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199281251.013.0003
2124:
1683:
824:Linguistic typology is contrasted with
2970:
2838:Linguistic diversity in space and time
2636:
2582:"Greenbergian Word Order Correlations"
2525:"Greenbergian Word Order Correlations"
2218:
2135:
1416:
2579:
2522:
2201:
1528:Order of verb and adpositional phrase
1243:
1088:
867:Grammaticae quadrilinguis partitiones
2497:
2192:
1827:, but occurs much more rarely among
952:The word 'typology' was proposed by
368:Conservative and innovative language
2907:Association for Linguistic Typology
2228:(1974). "The Syntactic Framework".
924:'s 'Conjugation System' (1816) and
13:
2958:World Atlas of Language Structures
2680:"What is typology? - a short note"
2677:
2671:
2055:
1653:Order of noun and relative clause
1003:World Atlas of Language Structures
14:
2994:
2950:Halvor Eifring & Rolf Theil:
2900:
2618:from the original on July 1, 2010
2561:from the original on July 1, 2010
1102:
2806:Quantitative methods in typology
1841:some form of plosive (occlusive)
1543:adpositional phrase before verb
448:
2853:What, if anything, is typology?
2765:
2753:dtv Atlas zur deutschen Sprache
2745:
2701:
2630:
2436:
2418:
2409:
2342:
1578:Order of copula and predicative
1553:Order of verb and manner adverb
1531:verb before adpositional phrase
1015:Systemic Functional Linguistics
2502:. Cambridge University Press.
2472:11858/00-001M-0000-0029-2F3E-C
2315:
2299:
2284:11858/00-001M-0000-0012-C29E-4
2248:
2152:
2104:
2081:10.1080/00437956.1959.11659702
1724:research and lacks support in
1699:that are either right or left
1618:content verb before auxiliary
1071:singular < plural < dual
933:developed by others including
1:
2656:10.1080/03740463.2021.1987685
2449:Journal of Language Evolution
2325:Introducing Language Typology
2261:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
2234:. University of Texas Press.
2165:Tidsskrift for Sprogforskning
2062:Ferguson, Charles A. (1959).
2048:
1606:auxiliary before content verb
2443:Hammarström, Harald (2016).
2100:– via Tandfonline-com.
1656:noun before relative clause
1631:clause-initial subordinators
1079:
1007:Functional Discourse Grammar
308:Functional discourse grammar
174:Ethnography of communication
7:
2643:Acta Linguistica Hafniensia
2311:10.1515/9783110155785.9.554
2031:
1643:clause-final subordinators
614:Ditransitive/Monotransitive
428:Second-language acquisition
10:
2999:
2580:Dryer, Matthew S. (1992).
2523:Dryer, Matthew S. (1992).
2429:February 11, 2021, at the
2231:Proto-Indo-European Syntax
2043:
1803:
1758:
1568:manner adverb before verb
1518:standard before adjective
1478:Order of noun and genitive
1092:
1011:Role and Reference Grammar
840:
106:Syntax–semantics interface
2717:10.1162/ling.2008.39.1.55
2322:Moravcsik, Edith (2013).
2274:10.1017/S0140525X0999094X
2120:10.1134/S1019331611020158
1938:
1773:ones. In a language with
1761:Morphosyntactic alignment
1755:Morphosyntactic alignment
1556:verb before manner adverb
1506:adjective before standard
1197:'r gwirio sillafu wedi'i
1028:
418:Philosophy of linguistics
318:Interactional linguistics
1939:Vowel Quality Inventory
1593:predicate before copula
911:Johann Christoph Adelung
826:genealogical linguistics
2861:10.1515/LINGTY.2007.017
2637:Austin, Patrik (2021).
2498:Song, Jae Jung (2012).
2376:10.1073/pnas.1113716108
1769:alignment patterns and
1581:copula before predicate
1059:implicational hierarchy
954:Georg von der Gabelentz
930:August Wilhelm Schlegel
2709:Linguistic Inquiry, 39
2159:Rijkhoff, Jan (2007).
1831:, such as the English
1193:
1180:
1167:
255:Theoretical frameworks
209:Philosophy of language
189:History of linguistics
2933:"Linguistic typology"
1800:Phonological typology
1767:nominative–accusative
1739:before the verb, and
1493:genitive before noun
1472:...of, ...than, ...on
1464:of..., than..., on...
1041:, semantic maps, and
1019:linguistic universals
988:Indo-European studies
865:period. For example,
853:school. At the time,
604:Nominative–absolutive
567:Nominative–accusative
149:Conversation analysis
16:Branch of linguistics
2851:Nichols, J. (2007).
2836:Nichols, J. (1992).
2178:10.7146/tfs.v5i1.529
1936:Consonant Inventory
1647:Bob has left-because
1481:noun before genitive
1172:einen Fuchs im Wald
1161:attested instances.
969:. Speakers included
943:Franz Nicolaus Finck
926:Wilhelm von Humboldt
393:Internet linguistics
303:Construction grammar
2983:Language comparison
2978:Linguistic typology
2963:Linguistic Typology
2804:Cysouw, M. (2005).
2462:10.1093/jole/lzw002
2367:2011PNAS..10817290G
2361:(42): 17290–17295.
2226:Lehmann, Winfred P.
1771:ergative–absolutive
1737:adpositional phrase
1417:Left-right symmetry
1230:Old Church Slavonic
1154:Verb–object–subject
1148:Verb–subject–object
1142:Subject–object–verb
1136:Subject–verb–object
1130:Object–verb–subject
1124:Object–subject–verb
810:Linguistic typology
718:Object–verb–subject
713:Object–subject–verb
708:Subject–object–verb
696:Verb–object–subject
691:Verb–subject–object
686:Subject–verb–object
579:Ergative–absolutive
494:Linguistic typology
328:Systemic functional
123:Applied linguistics
65:General linguistics
2687:www.uni-leipzig.de
2038:Grammaticalization
1697:syntactic patterns
1684:Theoretical issues
1622:Mary see-to + want
1244:Theoretical issues
1089:Syntactic typology
984:Winfred P. Lehmann
975:Charles F. Hockett
958:Sprachwissenschaft
871:Port-Royal Grammar
433:Theory of language
403:Origin of language
358:Autonomy of syntax
313:Grammaticalization
159:Discourse analysis
154:Corpus linguistics
2883:978-0-19-928125-1
2740:978-0-19-928125-1
2027:
2026:
1913:
1912:
1851:Fricative Voicing
1681:
1680:
1522:Bob-than + taller
1394:
1393:
1187:zag leren zwemmen
1067:singular pronouns
995:SIL International
941:, Franz Misteli,
939:Heymann Steinthal
935:August Schleicher
847:universal grammar
835:language families
814:language typology
807:
806:
749:Place–manner–time
745:Time–manner–place
638:Dependent-marking
589:Symmetrical voice
572:Marked nominative
488:
487:
276:Distributionalism
219:Psycholinguistics
2990:
2947:
2939:
2937:
2831:Moravcsik, Edith
2759:
2758:
2749:
2743:
2732:
2719:
2705:
2699:
2698:
2696:
2694:
2684:
2675:
2669:
2668:
2658:
2634:
2628:
2627:
2625:
2623:
2617:
2586:
2577:
2571:
2570:
2568:
2566:
2560:
2529:
2520:
2514:
2513:
2495:
2484:
2483:
2481:
2479:
2474:
2464:
2440:
2434:
2422:
2416:
2413:
2407:
2406:
2396:
2378:
2346:
2340:
2339:
2319:
2313:
2303:
2297:
2296:
2286:
2276:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2222:
2216:
2215:
2199:
2190:
2189:
2187:
2185:
2180:
2156:
2150:
2149:
2133:
2122:
2108:
2102:
2101:
2083:
2068:WORD (Worcester)
2059:
1933:
1932:
1846:
1845:
1819:, as in English
1786:split ergativity
1782:active languages
1726:psycholinguistic
1672:we-seen + movies
1547:floor-on + slept
1497:John-of + father
1437:
1436:
1256:
1255:
1202:
1190:
1177:
979:Joseph Greenberg
816:) is a field of
799:
792:
785:
490:
489:
480:
473:
466:
452:
398:LGBT linguistics
388:Internationalism
363:Compositionality
224:Sociolinguistics
199:Neurolinguistics
194:Interlinguistics
179:Ethnomethodology
21:
20:
2998:
2997:
2993:
2992:
2991:
2989:
2988:
2987:
2968:
2967:
2948:, chapter 4 of
2941:
2935:
2931:
2903:
2768:
2763:
2762:
2756:
2751:König, W. (ed)
2750:
2746:
2733:
2722:
2706:
2702:
2692:
2690:
2682:
2676:
2672:
2635:
2631:
2621:
2619:
2615:
2584:
2578:
2574:
2564:
2562:
2558:
2527:
2521:
2517:
2510:
2496:
2487:
2477:
2475:
2441:
2437:
2431:Wayback Machine
2423:
2419:
2414:
2410:
2347:
2343:
2336:
2320:
2316:
2304:
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2253:
2249:
2242:
2223:
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2200:
2193:
2183:
2181:
2157:
2153:
2134:
2125:
2109:
2105:
2060:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2034:
1858:
1856:Plosive Voicing
1853:
1808:
1802:
1763:
1757:
1705:John A. Hawkins
1686:
1457:Adposition type
1419:
1411:John A. Hawkins
1403:Derek Bickerton
1246:
1105:
1097:
1091:
1082:
1063:plural pronouns
1031:
962:Louis Hjelmslev
901:, and Chinese.
883:Nicolas Beauzée
879:Claude Lancelot
875:Antoine Arnauld
843:
803:
740:Free word order
658:Syntactic pivot
553:Morphosyntactic
484:
443:
442:
353:
345:
344:
256:
248:
247:
243:Writing systems
134:Anthropological
124:
116:
115:
66:
58:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2996:
2986:
2985:
2980:
2966:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2929:
2924:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2902:
2901:External links
2899:
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2791:
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2601:10.2307/416370
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2544:10.2307/416370
2515:
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2485:
2435:
2417:
2408:
2341:
2334:
2314:
2298:
2267:(5): 420–429.
2247:
2240:
2217:
2191:
2151:
2123:
2114:(2), 101-113.
2103:
2074:(2): 325–340.
2053:
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2042:
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1804:Main article:
1801:
1798:
1759:Main article:
1756:
1753:
1685:
1682:
1679:
1678:
1676:movies we-seen
1669:
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1597:a teacher + is
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1469:
1468:postpositions
1466:
1461:
1458:
1454:
1453:
1450:
1447:
1444:
1441:
1430:as their main
1418:
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1260:
1245:
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1185:dat Jan Marie
1158:
1157:
1151:
1145:
1139:
1133:
1127:
1119:in sentences:
1104:
1103:Dominant order
1101:
1093:Main article:
1090:
1087:
1081:
1078:
1054:
1053:
1046:
1030:
1027:
990:in the 1970s.
971:Roman Jakobson
907:Lorenzo Hervás
859:Latin alphabet
842:
839:
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699:
698:
693:
688:
675:
674:
668:
667:
666:
665:
660:
655:
650:
645:
643:Double-marking
640:
635:
630:
629:
628:
627:
626:
621:
611:
609:Direct-inverse
606:
601:
596:
594:Active–stative
591:
586:
584:Split ergative
581:
576:
575:
574:
556:
555:
549:
548:
547:
546:
545:
544:
542:Oligosynthetic
539:
534:
529:
519:
518:
517:
504:
503:
497:
496:
486:
485:
483:
482:
475:
468:
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440:
435:
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423:Prescriptivism
420:
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380:
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40:
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30:
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15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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2934:
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2928:
2925:
2923:
2920:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2905:
2904:
2895:
2894:0-8039-5963-X
2891:
2887:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2873:
2872:0-582-31220-5
2869:
2865:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2847:
2846:0-226-58057-1
2843:
2839:
2835:
2832:
2829:
2826:
2825:3-110-20540-8
2822:
2818:
2815:
2814:3-11-015578-8
2811:
2807:
2803:
2800:
2799:0-521-00499-3
2796:
2792:
2789:
2788:0-226-11433-3
2785:
2781:
2778:
2777:3-050-03559-5
2774:
2770:
2769:
2754:
2748:
2741:
2737:
2731:
2729:
2727:
2725:
2718:
2714:
2711:(1), 55-101.
2710:
2704:
2688:
2681:
2674:
2666:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2633:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2595:(1): 81–138.
2594:
2590:
2583:
2576:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2538:(1): 81–138.
2537:
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2511:
2509:9781139033930
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2335:9780521193405
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2241:9780292733411
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2213:
2209:
2205:
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2179:
2174:
2170:
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2155:
2147:
2143:
2139:
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2121:
2117:
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2099:
2095:
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2077:
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2069:
2065:
2058:
2054:
2039:
2036:
2035:
2029:
2022:
2019:
2016:
2013:
2010:
2009:
2005:
2002:
1999:
1996:
1993:
1992:
1988:
1985:
1982:
1979:
1976:
1975:
1971:
1968:
1965:
1962:
1959:
1958:
1954:
1951:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1942:
1935:
1934:
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1924:
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1762:
1752:
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1749:subordinators
1746:
1742:
1738:
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1727:
1723:
1719:
1718:demonstrative
1714:
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1473:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1462:
1459:
1456:
1455:
1452:Example (OV)
1451:
1449:OV languages
1448:
1446:Example (VO)
1445:
1442:
1439:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1424:postpositions
1414:
1412:
1406:
1404:
1400:
1389:
1386:
1383:
1380:
1377:
1376:
1372:
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1267:
1264:
1261:
1258:
1257:
1254:
1252:
1241:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1226:Ancient Greek
1223:
1218:
1215:
1211:
1209:
1204:
1201:
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1196:
1189:
1188:
1184:
1176:
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1143:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1128:
1125:
1122:
1121:
1120:
1118:
1117:direct object
1114:
1110:
1100:
1096:
1086:
1077:
1074:
1072:
1068:
1064:
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1020:
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1012:
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985:
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976:
972:
968:
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959:
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948:
944:
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936:
931:
927:
923:
918:
916:
915:Lord's prayer
912:
908:
902:
900:
896:
892:
888:
884:
880:
876:
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868:
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827:
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764:
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754:
748:
746:
743:
741:
738:
736:
735:OS word order
733:
731:
730:V2 word order
728:
726:
725:V1 word order
723:
719:
716:
714:
711:
709:
706:
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692:
689:
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669:
664:
661:
659:
656:
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639:
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634:
633:Zero-marking
631:
625:
622:
620:
617:
616:
615:
612:
610:
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568:
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564:
563:
560:
559:
558:
557:
554:
551:
550:
543:
540:
538:
537:Polysynthetic
535:
533:
532:Agglutinative
530:
528:
525:
524:
523:
520:
516:
513:
512:
511:
508:
507:
506:
505:
502:
501:Morphological
499:
498:
495:
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476:
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469:
467:
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376:
374:
373:Descriptivism
371:
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366:
364:
361:
359:
356:
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349:
348:
341:
340:Structuralism
338:
334:
331:
329:
326:
324:
323:Prague circle
321:
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169:Documentation
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144:Computational
142:
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27:
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2951:
2766:Bibliography
2752:
2747:
2708:
2703:
2691:. Retrieved
2686:
2673:
2646:
2642:
2632:
2620:. Retrieved
2592:
2588:
2575:
2563:. Retrieved
2535:
2531:
2518:
2499:
2476:. Retrieved
2455:(1): 19–29.
2452:
2448:
2438:
2420:
2411:
2358:
2354:
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2324:
2317:
2301:
2264:
2260:
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2203:
2182:. Retrieved
2168:
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2071:
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2057:
2028:
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1779:
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1687:
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1663:
1659:
1646:
1639:Bob has left
1638:
1634:
1621:
1613:
1609:
1596:
1588:
1584:
1572:slowly + ran
1571:
1563:
1559:
1546:
1539:on the floor
1538:
1534:
1521:
1513:
1509:
1496:
1488:
1484:
1471:
1463:
1460:prepositions
1443:VO languages
1432:adpositional
1428:prepositions
1420:
1407:
1399:Thomas Givon
1395:
1247:
1219:
1216:
1212:
1205:
1198:
1194:
1186:
1182:
1173:
1169:
1163:
1159:
1106:
1098:
1083:
1075:
1070:
1055:
1032:
1023:evolutionary
992:
957:
951:
919:
903:
866:
844:
823:
813:
809:
808:
703:OV languages
681:VO languages
653:Null-subject
648:Head-marking
493:
286:Glossematics
266:Constituency
238:interpreting
110:
76:Lexicography
18:
2863:, July 2007
2757:(in German)
2689:(in German)
2678:Bickel, B.
2649:(1): 1–23.
2171:(1): 1–18.
2064:"Diglossia"
1745:adpositions
1735:, with the
1664:that we saw
1614:to see Mary
1440:Correlation
1043:hierarchies
967:Dobbs Ferry
863:Renaissance
818:linguistics
766:Color terms
624:Indirective
619:Secundative
438:Terminology
413:Orthography
333:Usage-based
234:Translating
129:Acquisition
34:Linguistics
2972:Categories
2942:(275
2622:January 1,
2565:January 1,
2500:Word Order
2049:References
2020:220 (32%)
2017:345 (51%)
2014:115 (17%)
2006:178 (26%)
1989:237 (35%)
1972:265 (39%)
1906:416 (65%)
1903:221 (35%)
1895:242 (38%)
1881:395 (62%)
1829:fricatives
1796:(aorist).
1794:perfective
1711:to innate
1709:adaptation
1690:processing
1095:Word order
1050:Sprachbund
1039:universals
1025:typology.
999:Ethnologue
947:Max Müller
922:Franz Bopp
873:(1660) of
672:Word order
663:Theta role
599:Tripartite
408:Orismology
293:Functional
281:Generative
271:Dependency
91:Pragmatics
81:Morphology
71:Diachronic
2755:dtv 1994
2665:244941417
2385:0027-8424
2098:239352211
2090:0043-7956
1806:Phonology
1728:studies.
1713:cognitive
1701:branching
1589:a teacher
1262:Languages
1234:Sophocles
1183:vermoedde
1080:Subfields
889:, Irish,
831:data sets
562:Alignment
522:Synthetic
515:Isolating
383:Iconicity
378:Etymology
298:Cognitive
261:Formalist
214:Phonetics
204:Philology
96:Semantics
86:Phonology
2693:March 6,
2613:Archived
2589:Language
2556:Archived
2532:Language
2427:Archived
2403:21987807
2293:19857320
2032:See also
1977:Average
1949:Average
1817:plosives
1790:Georgian
1688:Several
1514:than Bob
1268:Families
1251:isolates
1073:(etc.).
960:(1891).
851:Modistae
771:Numerals
527:Fusional
510:Analytic
184:Forensic
164:Distance
111:Typology
26:a series
24:Part of
2478:May 19,
2394:3198322
2363:Bibcode
2184:May 19,
2044:Sources
1919:Rotokas
1741:Finnish
1733:Chinese
1668:either
1635:because
1489:of John
1199:gwblhau
1174:gesehen
1109:subject
956:in his
899:Quechua
887:Lappish
841:History
757:Lexicon
139:Applied
49:History
44:Outline
2940:
2892:
2881:
2870:
2844:
2823:
2812:
2797:
2786:
2775:
2738:
2663:
2609:416370
2607:
2552:416370
2550:
2506:
2401:
2391:
2383:
2332:
2291:
2238:
2096:
2088:
2011:Total
1994:Large
1960:Small
1955:Total
1952:Large
1946:Small
1900:Total
1867:Total
1722:corpus
1660:movies
1564:slowly
1510:taller
1485:father
1288:65.3%
1238:Cicero
1228:, and
1115:, and
1065:while
1029:Method
1013:, and
977:, and
945:, and
895:Basque
454:Portal
352:Topics
101:Syntax
2936:(PDF)
2683:(PDF)
2661:S2CID
2616:(PDF)
2605:JSTOR
2585:(PDF)
2559:(PDF)
2548:JSTOR
2528:(PDF)
2094:S2CID
1837:knees
1833:niece
1775:cases
1694:parse
1535:slept
1390:0.3%
1373:0.8%
1356:7.1%
1344:NODOM
1339:4.1%
1322:7.4%
1299:40.3%
1296:2,117
1282:43.3%
1279:2,275
1222:Latin
1181:Hans
1156:(VOS)
1150:(VSO)
1144:(SOV)
1138:(SVO)
1132:(OVS)
1126:(OSV)
891:Welsh
855:Latin
54:Index
2890:ISBN
2879:ISBN
2868:ISBN
2842:ISBN
2821:ISBN
2810:ISBN
2795:ISBN
2784:ISBN
2773:ISBN
2736:ISBN
2695:2017
2624:2021
2567:2021
2504:ISBN
2480:2022
2399:PMID
2381:ISSN
2330:ISBN
2289:PMID
2236:ISBN
2186:2022
2086:ISSN
2023:680
1983:105
1966:153
1923:!Xóõ
1909:637
1892:198
1878:218
1875:117
1872:Yes
1861:Yes
1835:and
1825:need
1823:and
1821:neat
1747:and
1610:want
1384:0.3%
1367:0.7%
1350:2.3%
1333:3.3%
1316:9.5%
1305:15%
1259:Type
1170:habe
1168:Ich
1113:verb
877:and
812:(or
236:and
229:Text
2944:KiB
2857:doi
2713:doi
2651:doi
2597:doi
2540:doi
2467:hdl
2457:doi
2389:PMC
2371:doi
2359:108
2307:doi
2279:hdl
2269:doi
2208:doi
2173:doi
2142:doi
2116:doi
2076:doi
2003:57
2000:87
1997:34
1986:98
1980:34
1969:65
1963:47
1889:44
1886:No
1864:No
1674:or
1560:ran
1378:OSV
1361:OVS
1347:124
1330:174
1327:VOS
1313:503
1310:VSO
1293:SVO
1285:239
1276:SOV
1236:or
1195:Mae
2974::
2723:^
2685:.
2659:.
2647:54
2645:.
2641:.
2611:.
2603:.
2593:68
2591:.
2587:.
2554:.
2546:.
2536:68
2534:.
2530:.
2488:^
2465:.
2451:.
2447:.
2397:.
2387:.
2379:.
2369:.
2357:.
2353:.
2287:.
2277:.
2265:32
2263:.
2259:.
2194:^
2167:.
2163:.
2126:^
2092:.
2084:.
2072:15
2070:.
2066:.
1662:+
1637:+
1612:+
1587:+
1585:is
1562:+
1537:+
1512:+
1487:+
1381:19
1364:40
1353:26
1336:15
1319:27
1302:55
1271:%
1224:,
1208:V2
1111:,
1009:,
973:,
949:.
937:,
909:.
897:,
893:,
28:on
2946:)
2938:.
2896:.
2885:.
2874:.
2859::
2848:.
2827:.
2816:.
2801:.
2790:.
2779:.
2742:.
2715::
2697:.
2667:.
2653::
2626:.
2599::
2569:.
2542::
2512:.
2482:.
2469::
2459::
2453:1
2405:.
2373::
2365::
2338:.
2309::
2295:.
2281::
2271::
2244:.
2214:.
2210::
2188:.
2175::
2169:5
2148:.
2144::
2118::
2078::
1387:1
1370:3
1265:%
1052:)
1045:)
798:e
791:t
784:v
479:e
472:t
465:v
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