Forensic linguistics

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unsigned. The second text received on September 27 was the “Dear Boss” letter, which was signed “Jack the Ripper”. The third notable piece of writing was a postcard titled “Saucy Jacky” received on October 1, 1888. The postcard addressed the double murder of Elizabeth Stride and Catherine Eddowes on September 30, 1888 and was also signed “Jack the Ripper”. The final important text was titled “Moab the Midian”, contained elements of a triple homicide, was justified by religious motives, and was received on October 5, 1888. These are the three most important texts regarding the Ripper case, according to forensic linguistic analysis. Jack the Ripper became very famous, very quickly, and people enjoyed writing in false letters on his behalf. These three letters were received before any publicity came to the case, and therefore are considered the most reliable. Linguists went on to analyze the texts claiming to be from the Ripper to determine whether or not they were written by the same person. A JRC (Jack the Ripper Corpus) was compiled with the 209 texts containing 17, 643 words. The average length of one piece of text was 83 tokens, with the minimum being 7 and the maximum being 648. Looking at the addressee’s, 67% were to Scotland Yard or other law enforcement units, 20% were to common citizens, and 13% were to unknown addressees. The majority of the postmarks were from London, however some of them were from all over the United Kingdom. All of the letters were handwritten, and 4% contained drawings depicting items like knives and coffins. 75% of the letters were signed “Jack the Ripper” or “Jack the Whitechapel Ripper”, “JR”, or “jack ripper and son”. 14% used other pseudonyms like “Jim the Cutter” and “Bill the Bowler”. 11% were not signed. The dates of the 209 texts ranged from September 24, 1888 to October 14th, 1896, however 62% of the texts in the JRC were received during October through November 1888. The term “author clustering” refers to the process carried out in order to determine if a set of texts has the same author. The Ripper texts were too short to use current computation methods of author clustering and authorship identification, so the Jaccard coefficient and Jaccard deviation was used. The Jaccard coefficient is the number of shared features between both texts divided by the total number of features in both texts. This method is currently applied to text messages and short texts, like emails, newspaper articles, and personal narratives. In simpler terms, it does a plagiarism check, but hoping for a match. This analyzes for word n-grams, which are strings of words of a certain length (n). The more n-gram words in common, the more similarities between the two documents, the higher the likeliness they are not independent. The method of using word n-grams is called frequency-based stylometrics. Although this method is not as reliable as looking for function words, simple word frequencies, or character n-grams, word strings are rarer because combinations of words are at the core of language processing. They reveal idiolectal nature because every author subconsciously uses their own idiosyncratic set of lexical choices. For the JRC, they looked at the presence and absence of word n-grams instead of the frequency of word n-grams because the texts were so short. Because they’re using the presence and absence instead of the frequency, the Jaccard distance is used. This will provide a more inclusive answer consisting of major groups of texts that are more like each other, and then smaller groups can be examined after. The JRC was analyzed against a Comparison corpus consisting of the following: COHA, CLMET3, and EOBC. All of the JRC texts were compared to each other and the comparison corpora with a word n-gram of n=2, and a radial dendrogram was produced. From this, “Dear Boss” and “Saucy Jacky” were deemed the most similar with a Jaccard distance of 0.93. That degree of dissimilarity can be found in less than 5% of the texts in the JRC. Moab the Midian came in with the next most similarities. The final conclusion was that Dear Boss and Saucy Jacky cannot be considered independent from one another because they share more word 2-gram uses than 95% of all other possible pairs of texts in the JRC. Of the pre-publication texts, Moab the Midian is almost as close as Dear Boss is to Saucy Jacky and is the only text that is like both.

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full text, evidence is once again altered unwittingly. There must be emphasis on the text being the evidence. A transcription of an audio file should never be assumed to be completely accurate. Each type of transcription contains its own problems. A handwritten document might contain unusual spellings which may result in ambiguous meanings, illegible handwriting, and illustrations that are difficult to comprehend. A scanned document is tricky, as scanning may alter the original document. Audio and video documents can include repetitions, hesitation, nonsensical talk, jargon which can be hard to understand, and speakers mumbling incoherently and inaudibly. Non-linguistic sounds such as crying and laughing may also be included in the audio and video text which cannot be transcribed easily. Because of this, civil libertarians have argued that interrogations in major criminal cases should be recorded and the recordings kept, as well as transcribed.

1835:– long after the police thought she had died. Using information from the two phones, the linguists were able to study the texting styles of both parents to see if they could obtain any more information about what happened that day. It turned out that the texts sent from the wife's phone were actually the husband pretending to be the wife so that no one would know she was murdered, and everyone would believe that she perished in the house fire. The forensic linguists were able to figure this out by studying the husband's texting style, spelling errors, and more, and were able to come to the conclusion that the texts sent after the wife was thought to be deceased were actually the husband texting from her phone pretending to be her. Without this knowledge, it would have been much more difficult to convict the husband of 42: 1798:, giving police and forensic scientists little information to go on about what might have happened to Jenny. After looking through her phone for clues, forensic linguists came to the conclusion that the texts sent from her phone around the time that she disappeared seemed very different from her usual texting style, and soon started looking to her ex-boyfriend, David Hodgson, for clues of what happened to her, including looking through his phone and studying his texting style. The forensic linguists found a number of stylistic similarities between David's texting style and the messages sent from Jenny's phone around the time she went missing. Using the timeframe of when she went missing, combined with the differences in texting styles and other forensic details, Jenny's 1853:

individual uses languages differently and this difference can be observed as a fingerprint. It is formed as a result of merged language style. A person's linguistic fingerprint can be reconstructed from the individual's daily interactions and relate to a variety of self-reported personality characteristics, situational variables, and physiological markers (e.g. blood pressure, cortisol, testosterone). In the process of an investigation, the emphasis should be on the relative rather than absolute difference between the authors and how investigators can classify their texts. John Olsson, however, argues that although the concept of linguistic fingerprinting is attractive to law enforcement agencies, there is so far little hard evidence to support the notion.

1812:, the forensic linguist examined the written confession of Patrick Molloy, one of the defendants – a confession which he had retracted immediately – and a written record of an interview which the police claimed took place immediately before the confession was dictated. Molloy denied that the interview had ever taken place, and the analysis indicated that the answers in the interview were not consistent with the questions being asked. The linguist came to the conclusion that the interview had been fabricated by police. The conviction against the Bridgewater Four was quashed before the linguist in the case, Malcolm Coulthard, could produce his evidence. 1511:

suggesting mere alterations to original ideas. Keller used "vast wealth" instead of "treasure" (230 times less common in the language), "bethought" instead of "concluded" (approximately 450 times less common), and "bade them" instead of "told them" (approximately 30 times less common). Keller used the phrase "ever since that time", but Canby chose "from that time" (the latter 50 times more common than the former). Keller also used "I cannot imagine", but Canby used "I do not know". "Know" is approximately ten times more common than "imagine". Keller relied on a lexis that is less common than that of Canby. The Flesch and

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emotions from the jury. For example, in an instance where a lawyer is examining a hostile witness, they will often use language to limit the response of the witness, in order to avoid having the witness present conflicting evidence. In this instance, yes/no questions will be targeted, and questions with room for elaboration, such as wh-formation questions, will likely be avoided. In a situation where a lawyer interviews a friendly witness whose testimony could potentially strengthen the story constructed by the lawyer, the opposite may occur, where wh-questions are targeted to allow for elaboration.

1766:, made direct intervention in the conflict. Appedole played a major role with the Mexican government to avoid a military solution to the 1995 Zapatista Crisis by demonstrating that, contrary to the accusations announced by President Ernesto Zedillo, Rafael Guillén was no terrorist. Max Appedole identified Marcos' linguistic fingerprint, based on Marcos' specific, unique way of speaking, recognized his literary style in all Marcos' manifestos that were published in the media, and linked them to literary tournaments organized by the Jesuits in which they competed in Mexico. Everyone has an 1223:

tactics including putting the blame onto the victim and asking questions with ambiguous phrasing to elicit specific responses from people. In addition, language structure in witness or suspect interviews can have an impact on the statements which are made from these. In the case of Derek Bentley, elicitation of a narrative through questions rather than a natural account resulted in a wrongful prosecution and sentence of the death penalty. Analysis of the statement revealed the statement was not Bentley's own words and was constructed by the police officers.

1565:(commonly called the "Unabomber Manifesto") and notified the authorities. FBI agents searching Kaczynski's hut found hundreds of documents written by Kaczynski but not published anywhere. An analysis produced by FBI Supervisory Special Agent James R. Fitzgerald identified numerous lexical items and phrases common to the two documents. Some were more distinctive than others, but the prosecution argued that even the more common words and phrases being used by Kaczynski became distinctive when used in combination with one another. 1770:, encompassing vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation, that differs from the way other people talk. He confirmed that he had no doubt that Marcos was his friend Rafael Guillén, a pacifist. Max Appedole closed the first successful linguistic profiling confirmation case in the history of law enforcement. Based on these achievements, a new science was developed, giving way to what is now called forensic linguistics. This motivated a new division of forensic linguistics called "criminal profiling in law enforcement". 1083:, in the case of an alleged murder by Evans in 1949. Evans was suspected of murdering his wife and baby, and he was tried and hanged for the crime. Yet, when Svartvik studied the statements allegedly given by Evans, he found that there were different stylistic markers involved, and Evans did not actually give the statements to the police officers as had been stated at the trial. Sparked by this case, forensic linguists in the UK at the time were focused on questioning the validity of police 1261:

accurate information and the caller trusts the recipient to ask only pertinent questions. If the caller uses a rising pitch at the end of every turn, it might represent a lack of commitment; the recipient's use of a rising pitch indicates doubt or desire for clarification. The call ideally moves from nil knowledge on the part of the recipient to a maximum amount of knowledge in a minimum possible period of time. This makes the emergency call unlike any other kind of service encounter.

1114:. The Associated Press reported, "Duncan McLure, of Johnson City, uncle of the girl, is the only member of the family to spell his name 'McLure' instead of 'McClure'. The letter he received, supposedly from the kidnappers, was addressed to him by the proper name, indicating that the writer was familiar with the difference in spelling." Other work of forensic linguistics in the United States concerned the rights of individuals with regard to understanding their 1300: 939: 1312:

relationship between them and the writer. Suicide notes generally have sentences alluding to the act of killing oneself, or the method of suicide that was undertaken. The contents of a suicide note could be intended to make the addressee suffer or feel guilt. Genuine suicide letters are short, typically less than 300 words in length. Extraneous or irrelevant material is often excluded from the text.

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indicted for terrorism, arrest warrants were issued, and arrests were made in a military action. The Mexican government alleges some Zapatistas to be terrorists, among them Marcos. There was a storm of political pressures claiming for a fast military solution to the 1995 Zapatista Crisis. On 9 February 1995, in a televised special presidential broadcast, President

1413:) are now frequently used by forensic linguists. These include corpora of suicide notes, mobile phone texts, police statements, police interview records, and witness statements. They are used to analyze language, understand how it is used, and to reduce the effort needed to identify words that tend to occur near each other (collocations or collocates). 1802:, David Hodgson, was convicted. The analysis of the text messages and their submission in court helped to pave the way for forensic linguistics to be acknowledged as a science in UK law, rather than opinion. To this day, her body has not been found, but justice was still served for her and her family because of forensic linguistics. 1280:]. In the sentence, the kidnapper makes the claim that the child is in good hands, but to make such a claim, the note would have to have been written before the perpetrator entered the premises. Therefore, the claim is false (at the time of writing) since the kidnapper had not even encountered the child when he wrote the note. 1673:; the authorship of letters to an Internet child pornography service; the contemporaneity of an arsonist's diary; the comparison between a set of mobile phone texts and a suspect's police interview, and the reconstruction of a mobile phone text conversation. Some well-known examples include an appeal against the conviction of 1287:

syntactic structures, stylistic patterns, punctuation, and even spelling while analyzing ransom notes. In the case of the Lindbergh ransom note, forensic linguists compared similarities of writing styles from the note to that of writing of the suspect, creating a better chance at discovering who wrote the note.

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compared with the average sentence length of the text. The two sets of values should track each other. Any altered section of the text would show a distinct discrepancy between the values of the two reference points. The tampered-with section will exhibit a different pattern from the rest of the text.

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In order to carry out the CUSUM test on habits of utilizing two- to three-letter words and vowel-initial words in a sentential clause, the occurrences of each type of word in the text must be identified and the distribution plotted in each sentence. The CUSUM distribution for these two habits will be

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Bomb threats are another form of threat communication. It is the Forensic Linguists job to determine the validity of the statement and if the note has been tampered with. Linguists often work with other interrelated fields such as cyber analysts if the threat is made through text or an internet forum

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In an Australian case reported by Eagleson, a "farewell letter" had apparently been written by a woman prior to her disappearance. The letter was compared with a sample of her previous writing and that of her husband. Eagleson came to the conclusion that the letter had been written by the husband of

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The forensic phonetician is concerned with the production of accurate transcriptions of what was being said. Transcriptions can reveal information about a speaker's social and regional background. Forensic phonetics can determine similarities between the speakers of two or more separate recordings.

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This refers to the study of dialects in a methodological manner based on anthropological information. It is becoming more important to conduct systematic studies of dialects, especially within the English language, because they are no longer as distinct as they once were due to the onslaught of mass

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Forensic stylistics was used to analyze the texts of Jack the Ripper dating back to 1888. Jack the ripper’s first letter to the police was received on September 24, 1888. Its contents contained the details of the second murder of Annie Chapman, who was killed on September 8, 1888, and the letter was

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The CUSUM (cumulative sum) method for text analysis has also been developed. CUSUM analysis works even on short texts and relies on the assumption that each speaker has a unique set of habits, thus rendering no significant difference between their speech and writing. Speakers tend to utilize two- to

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Lawyers employ specific tactics for both themselves and their witnesses to come off as more or less truthful to the jury and the people of the courtroom. For example, the lawyer may refer to the witness by their first name or a nickname to humanize the witness, or they may speak using slang in order

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Police officers use specific language to elicit certain responses from civilians. Because of a police officer's social stature, and the way they often phrase "requests" as "commands", people may be confused as to what their rights are when they are being questioned by police. Officers use linguistic

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was pivotal to the beginning of the forensic linguistics field. His case led to the creation of the Miranda rights and pushed the focus of forensic linguistics on witness questioning rather than police statements. Various cases came about that challenged whether or not suspects truly understood what

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speculated that he was a dangerous guerrilla fighter. This theory gained much traction at the end of 1994, after the dissident Zapatista Comandante, Salvador Morales Garibay, gave away the identity of his former fellow Zapatistas to the Mexican government, among them Marcos' identity. They all were

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Firstly, language is not an inherited property, but one which is socially acquired. Because acquisition is continuous and life-long, an individual's use of language is always susceptible to variation from a variety of sources, including other speakers, the media, and macro-social changes. Education

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founded in 1991 as the International Association for Forensic Phonetics (IAFP), the International Association for Forensic and Legal Linguistics (IAFLL), founded as the International Association of Forensic Linguists (IAFL) in 1993, and the Austrian Association for Legal Linguistics (AALL), founded

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Another disputed utterance was between a police officer and a suspect. One of the topics of conversation was a third man known as "Ernie". The poor signal of the recording made "Ernie" sound like "Ronnie". The surveillance tape presented acoustic problems: an intrusive electronic-sounding crackle,

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The paucity of documents (ransom notes, threatening letters, etc.) in most criminal cases in a forensic setting means there is often too little text upon which to base a reliable identification. However, the information provided may be adequate to eliminate a suspect as an author or narrow down an

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statements either admit the crime, leaving the witness with an impression of honesty and forthrightness, or deny the crime, leaving the witness with an impression of innocence. They may also denounce witnesses as dishonest, critique law enforcement as corrupt in an attempt to portray innocence, or

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Ransom demands in the style of written notes have been present in many notable cases. The style of writing used in a ransom note is examined by forensic linguists in order to determine the writing's true intent, as well as to determine who wrote the note. Forensic linguists look at factors such as

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Communication problems may occur between the written law and lay persons due to the complex nature of the language and vocabulary used in these legal texts. Forensic linguists will study these texts to understand how these issues arise, and if necessary, provide explanations or translations of the

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The two main types of transcriptions are written documents and video and audio records. Accurate, reliable text transcription is important because the text is the data which becomes the available evidence. If a transcription is wrong, the evidence is altered. If there is failure to transcribe the

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A linguistic fingerprint is a concept put forward by some scholars that each human being uses language differently, and that this difference between people involves a collection of markers which stamps a speaker/writer as unique, similar to a fingerprint. Under this view, it is assumed that every

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In 2009, there was a house fire where a father was able to save his children, but his wife died in the house. The police thought that the fire was actually not an accident, but instead a cover-up of the father murdering the mother. The forensic linguists were able to obtain the phones of both the

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The second rule is to testify with truth. It is not the linguists job to prove innocence or guilt, that lies with the judge and jury. However, it is the linguist duty to provide linguistic truth. Their primary job is to help the judge and jury understand the evidence provided in a scientific way.

1727:. When the case was reopened, a forensic linguist found that the frequency and usage of the word "then" in police transcripts suggested the transcripts were not verbatim statements but had been partially authored by police interviewers; this and other evidence led to Bentley's posthumous pardon. 1584:

event. According to the method, the close analysis of a covert recording can produce useful deductions. The use of "I" instead of "we" in a recording highlights non-complicity in a conspiracy. The utterance of "yeah" and "uh-huh" as responses indicate that the suspect understands the suggestion,

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is typically brief, concise, and highly propositional with a degree of evasiveness. A credible suicide letter must be making a definite unequivocal proposition in a situational context. The proposition of genuine suicide is thematic, directed to the addressee (or addressees), and relevant to the

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Urgency plays a role in emergency calls, so hesitations, signs of evasiveness, and incomplete or overly short answers indicate that the caller might be making a false or hoax call. A genuine call has distinctive interlocking and slight overlap of turns. The recipient trusts the caller to provide

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In an emergency call, the recipient or emergency operator's ability to extract primarily linguistic information in threatening situations and to come up with the required response in a timely manner is crucial to the successful completion of the call. Emphasis on intonation, voice pitch, and the

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Since language can be used to elicit responses in the legal process, the right to an interpreter plays a part in the fairness of the trial. "The right to an interpreter is essentially a procedural right that derives from the right to a fair trial: everyone charged with a criminal offence has the

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During the examination process, language plays a substantial role in the presentation of a story to the courtroom. A defendant's ambiguity may be deemed unacceptable. The language used by the lawyer to construct the story to the courtroom elicits specific responses from the witness, and specific

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programs as well as the Aston Institute for Forensic Linguistics (AIFL), founded in 2019 and formerly known as the Aston Centre for Forensic Linguistics which was founded in 2008, that studies forensic texts and conducts research using a variety of methods from numerous areas of linguistics. The

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In the 1980s, Australian linguists discussed the application of linguistics and sociolinguistics to legal issues. They discovered that a phrase such as "the same language" is open to interpretation. Aboriginal people have their own understanding and use of "English", something that is not always

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The lawyer works in constructing the language of the legal process of the courtroom, and specific witnesses may respond to the lawyer's questions in different ways, eliciting new language tactics and opinions from the jury. For example, witnesses may use direct or indirect speech based on their

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Among other things, this area examines language as it is used in cross-examination, evidence presentation, judge's direction, police cautions, police testimonies in court, summing up to a jury, interview techniques, the questioning process in court, and in other areas such as police interviews.

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media and population mobility. Political and social issues have also caused languages to straddle geographical borders resulting in certain language varieties spoken in multiple countries, leading to complications when determining an individual's origin by means of his/her language or dialect.

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in the United States. These warnings let the defendant know that they have the right to be silent, since whatever they say from the moment they are in police custody can and will be used against them in a court of law. The recipients who are advised of these rights must have a certain level of

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The first rule is being a qualified expert witness. Strong academic credentials make it easier for the court and the jury to allow linguists to testify. When taking on cases Forensic Linguists are careful as it may be dangerous to pursue a case that the linguist cannot provide full expertise.

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in 1892. An investigation revealed that "The Frost King" had been plagiarized from Margaret Canby's "Frost Fairies", which had been read to Keller some time earlier. Keller was found to have made only minute changes to common words and phrases and used less common words to say the same thing,

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took pride in using rare phrases and avoided common source words, Condon was fond of expanding existing words into phrases and existing phrases into more extensive ones. Condon was also found to have borrowed from a wide range of Graves' work. However, in the plagiarism case between King and

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program, and the Institute for Forensic Linguistics, Threat Assessment, and Strategic Analysis, which conducts special projects, research, and internships in forensic linguistics. This institute contains the Forensic Linguistics Capital Case Innocence Project, formed in 2014, which involves

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Evidence from forensic linguistics has more power to eliminate someone as a suspect than to prove him or her guilty. Linguistic expertise has been employed in criminal cases to defend an individual suspected of a crime and during government investigations. Forensic linguists have given

1787:]. Investigators found that letters written by Turner's friend Howard Simmerson shared linguistic similarities with the text messages, suggesting that Simmerson had been aware of the contents of the messages. Simmerson was eventually found guilty of Turner's murder. 1226:

When a victim is invoking their right to a lawyer, there are directions stating that the request may not come off as ambiguous. In fact, if the request is not stated in a way that the officer deems to be clear, the victim may not receive their request for counsel at all.

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was misheard by the police transcriber as "hallucinogenic". The police transcriber heard "but if it's, as you say, it's hallucinogenic, it's in the Sigma catalogue". However, the actual utterance was "but if it's, as you say, it's German, it's in the Sigma catalogue".

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Forensic linguistics is an umbrella term covering many applications to legal contexts. These are often split between written and spoken items. It is common for forensic linguistics to refer only to written text, whereas anything involving samples of speech is known as

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Social media statements are often context-specific, and their interpretation can be highly subjective. Forensic application of a selection of stylistic and stylometric techniques has been done in a simulated authorship attribution case involving texts in relation to

1127:– leading to a distinction of coercive versus voluntary interrogations. An early application of forensic linguistics in the United States was related to the status of trademarks as words or phrases in the language. One of the bigger cases involved fast food giant 1861:

Intra-author variations are the ways in which one author's texts differ from each other. Inter-author variations are the ways in which different authors' writing varies. Two texts by one author do not necessarily vary less than texts by two different authors.

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readability test showed that Canby's text had more originality than Keller's. Canby's text obtained a higher grade on the reading ease scale compared to Keller's. The distinctions between Keller and Canby's text are at the lexical and phrasal level.

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previous societal experiences, gender differences, socioeconomic differences, or differences in education level. Using particular dialects, slang, or sentence formations could assist in making the witness more or less truthful to the jury.

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The third rule is to maintain composure throughout the examination. The linguist should be prepared for cross-examination. It is important for them to maintain neutrality and only provide scientific facts based on their expert knowledge.

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is the complement of forensic voice identification. Transcripts of surveilled video records can sometimes allow expert speechreaders to identify speech content or style where the identity of the talker is apparent from the video record.

1554:. Carey's and Graves' texts (source texts) were noticeably shorter, pithier, and simpler in structure, while Condon's and King's texts relied on "purple" devices, extending the existing text and flourishing their language significantly. 1269:

Threat is a counterpart of a promise and is an important feature in a ransom demand. Ransom demands are also examined to identify between genuine and false threats. An example of a ransom note analysis can be seen in the case of the

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while feedback markers such as "yeah" and "uh-huh" do not denote the suspect's agreement to the suggestion. Discourse analysts are not always allowed to testify but during preparation for a case they are often useful to lawyers.

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to create less social distance between themselves and the courtroom. The lawyer may also avoid using slang, and instead use complicated law terminology to set themselves apart from the courtroom and define their status.

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The 2000s saw a considerable shift in the field of forensic linguistics, which has been described as a coming-of-age of the discipline, as it spread to many countries around the world, from Europe to Australia and

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The greater the time lapse between two works, the greater the likely variation. Language changes more than we realize in a relatively short span of time, influencing our susceptibility to language changes around

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Forensic linguistics; An Introduction to Language, Crime and Law (with original cases in Bureau of Police Investigation and Courts) by Azizi, Syrous & Momeni, Negar, Tehran: JahadDaneshgahi Publication,

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This category focuses on more written and spoken evidence where the examiner will determine the meaning, content, speaker identification, and determination of author to find the bases of the plagiarism.

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Digital communicative texts, such as social media posts or text messages, typically display features which are not seen in traditional linguistics. Individuals may employ a variety of methods to convey

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extent to which there is cooperation between the caller and the recipient at any one time are also very important in analyzing an emergency call. Full cooperation includes frank and timely responses.

1934:, which are often used to replace non-verbal gestures or facial expressions. The use of emoji and emoticons for authorship identification is still a relatively new idea in forensic linguistics. 1613:

Voice recording as a supplement to the transcription can be useful as it allows victims and witnesses to indicate whether the voice of a suspect is that of the accused, i.e. alleged, criminal.

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Archibald Carey, almost half of King's doctoral dissertation was discovered to have been copied from another theology student. King simply changed the names of the mountains and used much more

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right to certain minimum procedural guarantees, and these include the right to the free assistance of an interpreter where s/he cannot understand or speak the language of the concerned court."

1723:, had been hanged in 1953 for his part in the murder of PC Sidney Miles; he had been convicted partly on the basis of his statement to police, allegedly transcribed verbatim from a spoken 3097: 3374:

Nini, Andrea. “An Authorship Analysis of the Jack the Ripper Letters.” Digital Scholarship in the Humanities, vol. 33, no. 3, 2018, pp. 621–636., https://doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqx065.

1561:, who was eventually convicted of being the "Unabomber". Ted's brother, David Kaczynski, recognized his writing style in the phrase "cool-headed logicians" in the published 35,000-word 1781:

from Julie's mobile phone, such as "Stopping at jills, back later need to sort my head out", and "Tell kids not to worry. sorting my life out. be in touch to get some things" [

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in a wide variety of cases, including abuse of process, where police statements were found to be too similar to have been independently produced by police officers; the authorship of

1274:, where the first ransom note (sometimes referred to as the Nursery Note) stated: "We warn you for making anyding public or for notify the Polise the child is in gut care" [ 1143:

appreciated by speakers of the dominant version of English, i.e. "white English". The Aboriginal people also bring their own culturally-based interactional styles to the interview.

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can have a profoundly homogenizing effect on language use. Research into authorship identification is ongoing. The term authorship attribution is now felt to be too deterministic.

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the sound of the car engine, the playing of the car radio, the movement of the target vehicle, and the intrusive noise all coincided with the first syllable of the disputed name.

3330:""Depends on Who I'm Writing To"—The Influence of Addressees and Personality Traits on the Use of Emoji and Emoticons, and Related Implications for Forensic Authorship Analysis" 1365:

Author identification (determining who wrote an anonymous text by making comparisons to known writing samples of a suspect; such as threat letters, mobile phone texts or emails)

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Some fiction writers are journalists. Due to the different demands of each medium, they can be completely different from one another and this results in intra-author variation.

1384:(the analysis of the structure of written or spoken utterance to determine who is introducing topics or whether a suspect is agreeing to engage in criminal conspiracy) 2625:

C. Hardaker (2015). The ethics of online aggression: Where does "virtual" end, and "reality" begin? BAAL Conference on The Ethics of Online Research Methods. Cardiff.

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in 2017, but it can now provide the scientific community with a range of textbooks such as Coulthard, Johnson and Wright (2017), Gibbons (2003), and Olsson (2008).

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Investigating the use of forensic stylistic and stylometric techniques in the analysis of authorship on a publicly accessible social networking site (Facebook)

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Kidnappers may write statements that later end up being true, such as "your child is being held in a private location" being written ahead of time.

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seek an element of revenge in their last moments. Death row statements are made within the heavily institutionalized setting of death row prisons.

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Coulthard, M., Johnson, A., and Wright, D. (2017) An Introduction to Forensic Linguistics: Language in Evidence. (2nd edition). London: Routledge.

1816:

the missing woman, who subsequently confessed to having written it and to having killed his wife. The features analyzed included sentence breaks,

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Additionally, certain leading institutions have developed programs of study and institutes focused on forensic linguistics. In the United States,

1971: 3105: 3279: 1773:

Forensic linguistic evidence also played a role in the investigation of the 2005 disappearance of Julie Turner, a 40-year-old woman living in

1435:

has stated that nobody has found a "homogenous data" in idiolects, and there are many reasons why it is difficult to provide such evidence.

1378:, also known as forensic phonetics (used to determine, through acoustic qualities, if the voice on a tape recorder is that of the defendant) 1047:

The discipline of forensic linguistics is not homogeneous; it involves a range of experts and researchers in different areas of the field.

3053: 1352:

These areas of application have varying degrees of acceptability or reliability within the field. Linguists have provided evidence in:

497: 1887:

A politician writing a political speech, which is a public text, will differ greatly from a private text to a friend or family member.

2198: 2527: 2831:

Fitzgerald, J. R. (2004). "Using a forensic linguistic approach to tracking the Unabomber.". In Campbell, J.; DeNevi, D. (eds.).

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When texts are being measured in different genres, considerable variation is observed even though they are by the same author.

1450:

frequency, type-token ratio, punctuation (both in terms of overall density and syntactic boundaries), and the measurements of

2607: 2181: 2063: 1682: 966: 1997: 1752: 2376:

Pavlenko, Aneta (March 2008). ""I'm Very Not About the Law Part": Nonnative Speakers of English and the Miranda Warnings".

1512: 1107:– the type of stylist language and vocabulary used by members of the law enforcement when transcribing witness statements. 856: 41: 3408:

Coulthard, M., May, A., and Sousa-Silva, R. (2021) The Handbook of Forensic Linguistics (2nd edition). London: Routledge.

3256: 1923:

in order to better communicate tone of voice, volume, and expression, such as using capital letters to portray shouting.

1805:

Forensic linguist John Olsson gave evidence in a murder trial on the meaning of "jooking" in connection with a stabbing.

3027: 2974: 1467: 2921: 2508: 1719:'s conviction for murder in 1998, although there were other non-linguistic issues. Nineteen-year-old Bentley, who was 2805: 2458: 449: 2710:

Grant, T. D. (2008). "Approaching questions in forensic authorship analysis". In Gibbons, J.; Turell, M. T. (eds.).

3609: 1795: 1092: 398: 3532:. Eds. Deborah Schiffrin, Deborah Tannen, and Heidi E. Hamilton. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 437–452. 2922:"'Manhunt: Unabomber' explores how a federal investigator caught Ted Kaczynski and changed FBI profiling forever" 816: 353: 251: 89: 2256: 3310: 1959: 876: 821: 594: 490: 383: 211: 1131:

claiming that it had originated the process of attaching unprotected words to the "Mc" prefix (referred to as

1013:

There are principally three areas of application for linguists working on written texts in forensic contexts:

3599: 3484:

Koenig, J. (2014). "Getting the Truth: Discover the Real Message Know Truth Know Deception", Principia Media.

1758:

After the government revealed Marcos' identity in January 1995, Max Appedole, old friend, classmate with the

851: 542: 368: 2129: 1831:

father and mother, and realized that there were texts still being sent from the mother's phone the whole day

3604: 3594: 3224:

Eagleson, Robert. (1994). 'Forensic analysis of personal written texts: a case study', John Gibbons (ed.),

2110: 2023: 1824: 1731: 1471: 796: 662: 388: 221: 1875:

Personal letters contain more inter-relationship bonding strategies than academic articles or term papers.

3145: 2779: 2545:

Alduais, Ahmed; Al-Khulaidi, Mohammed Ali; Allegretta, Silvia; Abdulkhalek, Mona Mohammed (23 May 2023).

1446:

Authorship measures that analysts use include word length average, average number of syllables per word,

1344:) or unethical (e.g. intended to harm) or whether they are not (e.g. simply provocative or free speech). 1327:

The Forensic Linguistics Institute holds a corpus of these documents and is conducting research on them.

1136: 916: 622: 466: 69: 2354: 1193:

The range of topics within forensic linguistics is diverse, but research occurs in the following areas:

1099:), many of the major concerns were of the statements police officers used. Numerous times, the topic of 3578: 3477:

Koenig, B.J. (1986). "Spectrographic voice identification: a forensic survey", letter to the editor of

3470:

Hoover, D. L. (2001). "Statistical stylistics and authorship attribution: an empirical investigation",

3238: 1763: 226: 1427:

The identification of whether a given individual said or wrote something relies on analysis of their

959: 906: 806: 632: 483: 471: 25: 2166:

International Perspectives on Translation, Education and Innovation in Japanese and Korean Societies

1640:

There are three ethical rules that linguists are to follow when taking part in court proceedings.

1525: 1111: 811: 754: 569: 3545: 3296:

Pennebaker, J. W. (1990). 'Physiological factors influencing the reporting of physical symptoms'.

3198: 2161: 1791: 911: 749: 726: 328: 313: 271: 1739:

announced Subcomandante Marcos to be one Rafael Sebastián Guillén Vicente, born 19 June 1957 to

998:

context of law, language, crime investigation, trial, and judicial procedure. It is a branch of

1954: 1628: 1534: 861: 828: 781: 697: 677: 657: 559: 537: 532: 298: 162: 3120: 2489: 2528:"'The Case Of: JonBenét Ramsey': Investigator Says He and His Colleagues Will Name a Suspect" 2474:

Ali, Siddig Ahmed (November 2013). "The Role of Forensic Translation in Courtroom Contexts".

1900:

A writer can publish pseudonymously or anonymously, disguising output to prevent recognition.

1720: 637: 111: 101: 59: 3061: 1678: 1478:

three-letter words in a sentence and their utterances tend to include vowel-initial words.

1463: 1271: 952: 881: 791: 617: 514: 428: 358: 323: 201: 167: 2992:"PGR ordena la captura y devela la identidad del Subcomandante Marcos (9 de febrero 1995)" 2231: 1926:

With the rise of digital communication, the world has also seen an increase in the use of

8: 2281: 1694: 1541:, Condon's work is rich in clichés such as "in his superstitious heart of hearts". While 1459: 1375: 999: 722: 652: 627: 599: 393: 261: 191: 186: 157: 152: 131: 116: 96: 3564: 3559: 3518:

Pennycook, A. (1996). "Borrowing others words: text, ownership, memory and plagiarism",

1110:

In the US, forensic linguistics can be traced back as early as 1927 to a ransom note in

2389: 2335: 2134: 1716: 1674: 1577: 1381: 1182: 1169: 1164: 1160: 1088: 942: 921: 891: 846: 801: 769: 759: 647: 642: 363: 303: 293: 236: 206: 196: 121: 106: 74: 2863:

The Chronicle of Crime: The infamous felons of modern history and their hideous crimes

3351: 3264: 2902: 2761: 2568: 2454: 2393: 2327: 2177: 2059: 1820: 1447: 938: 786: 764: 707: 318: 285: 126: 2728:. Internal Report CSR-3-90, Department of Computer Science, University of Edinburgh. 2339: 2117:. Associated Press. 9 September 1927. p. 2 – via NYS Historic Newspapers. 3341: 3076: 2894: 2751: 2692: 2558: 2385: 2319: 2169: 1949: 1809: 1759: 1422: 1173: 1096: 995: 886: 717: 712: 687: 682: 667: 308: 266: 64: 33: 3196: 3172: 2563: 2546: 1210:

competency in the English language in order to completely understand the warning.

3549: 2756: 2739: 2656:

Coulthard, M. (2004). Author identification, idiolect and linguistic uniqueness.

2308:"Forensic Linguistics: the application of language description in legal contexts" 2173: 2001: 1736: 1455: 1451: 1206: 1119: 1115: 433: 333: 79: 3497:

McGehee, F. (1937). "The reliability of the identification of the human voice",

2216:

Johnson, Alison; Coulthard, Malcolm. "Current debates in forensic linguistics".

2162:"The Interdisciplinary Study of Law and Language: Forensic Linguistics in Japan" 1778: 1666: 1520: 1503: 1409:

Specialist databases of samples of spoken and written natural language (called

731: 443: 145: 3346: 3329: 3009: 2991: 2882: 2696: 1340:. Analysis of social media postings can reveal whether they are illegal (e.g. 1299: 3588: 3355: 2906: 2898: 2765: 2639: 2572: 2397: 2331: 2139: 1690: 1601: 1580:

deals with analyzing written, oral, or sign language use, or any significant

1558: 1530: 1432: 1392: 1128: 1084: 1072: 256: 231: 84: 1185:

provides a master's degree and Ph.D. programmes in forensic speech science.

1151:. Today, not only does the field have professional associations such as the 2738:

Ariani, Mohsen Ghasemi; Sajedi, Fatemeh; Sajedi, Mahin (19 December 2014).

1943: 1920: 1686: 1597: 1547: 1542: 1499: 1388: 1341: 1308: 1076: 1060: 774: 564: 373: 241: 3487:

Koenig, J. (2018). "Getting the Truth: I am D.B. Cooper", Principia Media.

3446:

Grant, T. (2008). "Quantifying evidence in forensic authorship analysis",

3098:"Maestros y condiscípulos de Tampico recuerdan a Rafael Sebastián Guillén" 1139:'s intention of opening a chain of economy hotels to be called "McSleep". 3453:

Grant, T. and Baker, K. (2001). "Reliable, valid markers of authorship",

1709: 1410: 1064: 991: 926: 901: 522: 418: 216: 3467:

Hollien, H. (2002). "Forensic Voice Identification". New York: Harcourt.

3199:"Txt Crimes, Sex Crimes And Murder: The Science of Forensic Linguistics" 2323: 2089: 1730:

During the investigative stage in identifying Subcomandante Marcos, the

3525: 3432:

Gibbons, J., V Prakasam, K V Tirumalesh, and H Nagarajan (eds) (2004).

3427:

Forensic Linguistics: an introduction to language in the Justice System

3411:

Ellis, S. (1994). "Case report: The Yorkshire Ripper enquiry, Part 1",

3197:

British Association for the Advancement of Science (8 September 2008).

2544: 1977: 1964: 1946:, Centennial Olympic Park bomber at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta 1817: 1748: 1507: 1495: 1494:

One of the earliest cases where forensic stylistics was used to detect

1369: 896: 579: 423: 246: 51: 2307: 1153:

International Association for Forensic Phonetics and Acoustics (IAFPA)

3569: 1774: 1724: 1670: 1581: 1551: 1356: 1320: 1075:. It was in regard to re-analyzing the statements given to police at 871: 866: 702: 692: 584: 574: 438: 3280:"Forensic Linguists Use Spelling Mistakes to Help Convict Criminals" 3215:

Trial of Rehan Asghar, Central Criminal Court, London, January 2008.

1172:

cases to locate any possibilities of appeal. In the United Kingdom,

3298:

The Science of Self-report: Implications for Research and Practice.

1931: 1767: 1428: 1337: 3574: 3490:

Maley, Y. (1994). "The language of the law", in J. Gibbons (ed.),

2833:

Profilers: Leading investigators take you inside the criminal mind

2509:"The Ransom Notes: An Analysis of Their Content & 'Signature'" 1347: 1020:

understanding language use in forensic and judicial processes, and

2199:"Gründung der Österreichischen Gesellschaft für Rechtslinguistik" 1744: 1080: 3460:

Heydon, G. (2014). "Forensic Linguistics: Forms and Processes",

2947:

Whose text is it? On the linguistic investigation of authorship

2844: 2842: 1836: 1799: 1777:. After she was reported missing, her partner received several 1264: 1132: 589: 3555:

International Association for Forensic Phonetics and Acoustics

1027:

Forensic speech science also has many different applications:

3393:

An Introduction to Forensic Linguistics: Language in Evidence

2850:

An introduction to forensic linguistics: Language in evidence

2282:"Aston Institute for Forensic Linguistics | Aston University" 1927: 1740: 1177: 1148: 3543:

International Association for Forensic and Legal Linguistics

3511:

Nolan, F. and Grabe, E. (1996). "Preparing a voice lineup",

2839: 2740:"Forensic Linguistics: A Brief Overview of the Key Elements" 1087:. As seen in numerous famous cases (e.g. the convictions of 2673:. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, p192. 1617: 1506:", in which the deaf-blind American author was accused of 1783: 1454:(unique words in a text). Statistical approaches include 1276: 1152: 3554: 1205:

One area of the language of legal texts encompasses the

3542: 2615:(MA in Linguistics thesis). University of South Africa. 1715:

Forensic linguistics contributed to the overturning of

1519:

Other examples of plagiarism include the cases between

3528:(2001). "Discourse Analysis in the Legal Context". In 2746:. 14th Language, Literature and Stylistics Symposium. 1069:

The Evans Statements: A Case for Forensic Linguistics"

2257:"Linguistics: Innocence Project | Hofstra University" 2595:. London: Continuum International Publishing Group. 2448: 2416:

Speaking of Crime: The Language of Criminal Justice

1118:during the interrogation process. The 1963 case of 2737: 2232:"Linguistics Institute: Home | Hofstra University" 1213: 2633: 2631: 2018:. Department of Language and Linguistic Science. 1402:Reconstruction of mobile phone text conversations 1397:Language Analysis for the Determination of Origin 3586: 2409: 2407: 1808:During the appeal against the conviction of the 1168:supervised interns reanalyzing language data in 3439:Gibbons, J. and M. Teresa Turell (eds) (2008). 2835:. New York: Prometheus Books. pp. 193–222. 1972:International Association of Forensic Linguists 1348:Use of linguistic evidence in legal proceedings 3060:(in Spanish). 10 December 2006. Archived from 2806:"Boston U. Panel Finds Plagiarism by Dr. King" 2628: 2586: 2584: 2582: 2547:"Forensic linguistics: A scientometric review" 2444: 2442: 2440: 2414:Solan, Lawrence M.; Tiersma, Peter M. (2005). 2218:The Routledge Handbook of Forensic Linguistics 1557:Another famous example is that in the case of 1196: 3121:"Speech Patterns in Messages Betray a Killer" 2683:Miller, C. (1984). "Genre as social action". 2593:An Introduction to Language Crime and the Law 2404: 2359:International Journal of Forensic Linguistics 2355:"A Literature Review of Forensic Linguistics" 2049: 2047: 2045: 2043: 2041: 2039: 2037: 2035: 2033: 960: 491: 3479:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 2433:. London: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 19-34. 2413: 2215: 1847: 1755:School of Sciences and Arts for the Design. 1600:was used during the investigations into the 1537:and Archibald Carey. Judging by the text in 1265:Ransom demands or other threat communication 3300:Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Publishers, pp. 299-316 3104:(in Spanish). 6 August 1995. Archived from 2973:(in Spanish). February 1999. Archived from 2579: 2437: 3138: 2830: 2449:Olsson, John; Luchjenbroers, June (2013). 2030: 1588: 1368:Forensic stylistics (identifying cases of 1017:understanding language of the written law, 967: 953: 498: 484: 3345: 2964:"Entrevista con Salvador Morales Garibay" 2848:Coulthard, M., & Johnson, A. (2007). 2755: 2744:Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 2562: 2428: 2305: 2127: 2083: 2081: 2079: 2077: 2075: 1904: 3171:Mitchell, Elizabeth (8 September 2008). 3170: 2375: 1913: 1616:A man accused of manufacturing the drug 1416: 1359:and other intellectual property disputes 1298: 994:knowledge, methods, and insights to the 3575:en clair: forensic linguistics and more 3570:Società Italiana di Linguistica Forense 3448:Journal of Speech, Language and the Law 3118: 3010:"MEXICO: CRACKDOWN ON ZAPATISTA REBELS" 2880: 2724:Morton, A.Q., and S. Michaelson (1990) 2605: 2506: 2352: 2196: 2159: 2128:Ayres, Jr, B. Drummond (22 July 1988). 1443:author from a small group of suspects. 1315: 16:Application of linguistics to forensics 3587: 3277: 2876: 2874: 2872: 2870: 2682: 2590: 2111:"Think Corning Girl Wrote Ransom Note" 2072: 2058:(Second ed.). London: Continuum. 2053: 1842: 1485: 1246: 3398:Coulthard, M. and Johnson, A (2010). 3391:Coulthard, M. and Johnson, A (2007). 3384:Baldwin, J. R. and P. French (1990). 3327: 3074: 2949:", in S. Sarangi and R.M. Coulthard: 2919: 2709: 2526:Potts, Kimberly (17 September 2016). 2525: 2507:Falzini, Mark W. (9 September 2008). 1607: 1572: 1291:to test for validity or alterations. 1023:the provision of linguistic evidence. 3400:The Handbook of Forensic Linguistics 3367:Coulthard, M. and Johnson, A. (2007) 2168:. Cham: Springer. pp. 197–206. 2130:"McDonald's, to Court: 'Mc' Is Ours" 1990: 1391:) tracing the linguistic history of 1043:audio enhancement and authentication 857:Conservative and innovative language 3173:"The case for forensic linguistics" 2867: 2637: 2473: 2008: 13: 3530:The Handbook of Discourse Analysis 3441:Dimensions of Forensic Linguistics 3378: 3239:"Man Jailed over Wife Fire Murder" 3146:"Life term for man who shot lover" 3119:Svoboda, Elizabeth (11 May 2009). 3077:"La Otra campaña, pintada de azul" 2881:Butters, Ronald R. (13 May 2011). 2712:Dimensions of Forensic Linguistics 2538: 2390:10.1002/j.1545-7249.2008.tb00205.x 2369: 2087: 2016:"What is forensic speech science?" 2000:. Aston University. Archived from 1753:Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana 1712:) both employ forensic linguists. 1294: 1176:has developed master's degree and 14: 3621: 3536: 3472:Literary and Linguistic Computing 3228:, London: Longman, 362–373. 1998:"Centre for Forensic Linguistics" 1563:Industrial Society and Its Future 1251: 1188: 3328:Marko, Karoline (3 March 2022). 3054:"Marcos sí es Sebastián Guillén" 2998:(in Spanish). 23 September 2009. 1839:and get justice for the family. 1693:as the so-called "Unabomber" by 937: 399:Traffic collision reconstruction 40: 3462:Masyarakat Linguistik Indonesia 3321: 3303: 3290: 3271: 3249: 3231: 3218: 3209: 3190: 3164: 3112: 3090: 3068: 3046: 3028:"Marcos, en la mira de Zedillo" 3020: 3002: 2984: 2956: 2939: 2920:Jones, Abigail (29 July 2017). 2913: 2855: 2824: 2798: 2772: 2731: 2718: 2703: 2676: 2663: 2650: 2619: 2599: 2519: 2500: 2482: 2467: 2422: 2346: 2299: 2274: 2249: 2224: 2220:. London: Routledge. p. 1. 2090:"What is Forensic Linguistics?" 2022:. 30 March 2021. Archived from 1706:Nederlands Forensisch Instituut 1330: 1214:The language of legal processes 252:Questioned document examination 3311:"Recording Police Questioning" 2887:Journal of English Linguistics 2431:Language and the Legal Process 2418:. University of Chicago Press. 2209: 2197:Leisser, Daniel (5 May 2017). 2190: 2160:Okawara, Mami Hiraike (2018). 2153: 2121: 2103: 1960:Native-language identification 1472:discriminant function analysis 1: 3499:Journal of General Psychology 2564:10.1080/23311983.2023.2214387 1983: 1794:disappeared on 30 June 2005. 1071:an analysis of statements by 3443:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 3388:. London: Pinter Publishers. 3278:Oliver, Huw (9 April 2015). 3075:Trejo, Ángel (22 May 2006). 2784:jamenjivarblog.wordpress.com 2757:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12.078 2714:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 2551:Cogent Arts & Humanities 2174:10.1007/978-3-319-68434-5_13 1856: 1751:, a former professor at the 1689:; and the identification of 1387:Language analysis (forensic 1059:first appeared in 1968 when 797:Functional discourse grammar 663:Ethnography of communication 7: 3034:(in Spanish). 5 August 2002 2685:Quarterly Journal of Speech 2429:Coulthard, Malcolm (2002). 2306:Coulthard, Malcolm (2010). 1937: 1659: 1362:Disputes of meaning and use 1303:Stefan Zweig Suicide Letter 1197:The language of legal texts 1034:disputed utterance analysis 917:Second-language acquisition 70:Bloodstain pattern analysis 10: 3626: 3494:. London: Longman, 246–69. 3436:New Delhi: Orient Longman. 3334:Frontiers in Communication 2945:Coulthard, R.M. (2000). " 2852:. Oxford: Routledge:162-3. 2476:Arab World English Journal 2164:. In Hebert, D. G. (ed.). 1764:Instituto Cultural Tampico 1700:The criminal laboratories 1602:Yorkshire Ripper tape hoax 1420: 1137:Quality Inns International 1050: 595:Syntax–semantics interface 3347:10.3389/fcomm.2022.840646 2951:Discourse and Social Life 2697:10.1080/00335638409383686 1848:Linguistic fingerprinting 1685:' charismatic leader, by 1635: 1063:, a Swedish professor of 907:Philosophy of linguistics 807:Interactional linguistics 369:Fire accelerant detection 2899:10.1177/0022022111403849 2671:Sociolinguistic patterns 1879:Fiction vs. Non-Fiction: 1796:Her body was never found 1677:; the identification of 1539:The Manchurian Candidate 1526:The Manchurian Candidate 3610:Branches of linguistics 3418:Fairclough, N. (1989). 2780:"WHEN HELEN FROZE OVER" 2353:Umiyati, Mirsa (2020). 2115:Plattsburgh Daily Press 1721:functionally illiterate 1589:Linguistic dialectology 1529:, and English novelist 1183:University of York also 1135:) and was unhappy with 1008:forensic speech science 272:Social network analysis 3504:McMenamin, G. (1993). 3413:Forensic Linguistics 1 2883:"Forensic Linguistics" 2669:Labov, William (1972) 2644:www.languageandlaw.org 2640:"forensic linguistics" 2606:Michell, C.S. (2013). 1955:Forensic speechreading 1905:Forensic transcription 1629:Forensic speechreading 1535:Martin Luther King Jr. 1304: 990:is the application of 744:Theoretical frameworks 698:Philosophy of language 678:History of linguistics 354:Electrical engineering 3257:"Professor Tim Grant" 2591:Olsson, John (2004). 2054:Olsson, John (2008). 2004:on 27 September 2010. 1967:(authorship analysis) 1914:Digital Communication 1704:(in Germany) and the 1468:multivariate analysis 1417:Author identification 1302: 638:Conversation analysis 384:Materials engineering 212:Facial reconstruction 3600:Forensic disciplines 3513:Forensic Linguistics 3508:Amsterdam: Elsevier. 3506:Forensic Stylistics. 3492:Language and the Law 3455:Forensic Linguistics 3434:Language in the Law. 3425:Gibbons, J. (2003). 3402:. London: Routledge. 3395:. London: Routledge. 3226:Language and the Law 3108:on 22 December 2015. 3086:(in Spanish): 13–15. 2861:Martin Fido (1994), 2451:Forensic Linguistics 2056:Forensic Linguistics 1679:Subcomandante Marcos 1464:Poisson distribution 1376:Voice identification 1316:Death row statements 1272:Lindbergh kidnapping 1057:forensic linguistics 988:language and the law 980:Forensic linguistics 882:Internet linguistics 792:Construction grammar 429:Perry Mason syndrome 217:Fingerprint analysis 3605:Legal communication 3595:Applied linguistics 3579:Dr. Claire Hardaker 3565:Linguagem e Direito 3560:Linguística Forense 3267:on 25 January 2021. 3245:. 11 December 2009. 3064:on 17 October 2013. 3058:EnLineaDirecta.info 2980:on 17 October 2013. 2658:Applied Linguistics 2532:Yahoo Entertainment 2324:10.3917/ls.132.0015 2203:Abendgymnasium Wien 1885:Private vs. Public: 1843:Additional concepts 1695:James R. Fitzgerald 1486:Forensic stylistics 1474:of function words. 1460:Bayesian statistics 1247:Forensic text types 1000:applied linguistics 817:Systemic functional 612:Applied linguistics 554:General linguistics 452:forensic entomology 389:Polymer engineering 347:Related disciplines 262:Forensic geophysics 242:Gloveprint analysis 222:Firearm examination 192:Body identification 3548:4 May 2012 at the 3422:. London: Longman. 3420:Language and Power 3386:Forensic phonetics 3315:The New York Times 3125:The New York Times 2953:. London, Longman. 2810:The New York Times 2513:Archival Ramblings 2312:Langage et société 2135:The New York Times 2020:University of York 1823:, and deletion of 1732:Mexican government 1608:Forensic phonetics 1578:Discourse analysis 1573:Discourse analysis 1405:Forensic phonetics 1382:Discourse analysis 1305: 1170:capital punishment 1161:Hofstra University 1123:their rights meant 1073:Timothy John Evans 1031:speaker comparison 922:Theory of language 892:Origin of language 847:Autonomy of syntax 802:Grammaticalization 648:Discourse analysis 643:Corpus linguistics 364:Fire investigation 247:Palmprint analysis 207:Election forensics 90:Forensic genealogy 3481:, 79(6): 2088–90. 3474:, XIV(4): 421–44. 3152:. 8 November 2005 2812:. 11 October 1991 2660:, 25(4), 431-447. 2183:978-3-319-68432-1 2065:978-0-8264-6109-4 1702:Bundeskriminalamt 1112:Corning, New York 1097:Bridgewater Three 1040:speaker profiling 984:legal linguistics 977: 976: 765:Distributionalism 708:Psycholinguistics 508: 507: 286:Digital forensics 227:Footwear evidence 3617: 3360: 3359: 3349: 3325: 3319: 3318: 3307: 3301: 3294: 3288: 3287: 3275: 3269: 3268: 3263:. Archived from 3261:Aston University 3253: 3247: 3246: 3235: 3229: 3222: 3216: 3213: 3207: 3206: 3194: 3188: 3187: 3185: 3183: 3168: 3162: 3161: 3159: 3157: 3142: 3136: 3135: 3133: 3131: 3116: 3110: 3109: 3094: 3088: 3087: 3081: 3072: 3066: 3065: 3050: 3044: 3043: 3041: 3039: 3024: 3018: 3017: 3006: 3000: 2999: 2988: 2982: 2981: 2979: 2968: 2960: 2954: 2943: 2937: 2936: 2934: 2932: 2917: 2911: 2910: 2878: 2865: 2859: 2853: 2846: 2837: 2836: 2828: 2822: 2821: 2819: 2817: 2802: 2796: 2795: 2793: 2791: 2776: 2770: 2769: 2759: 2735: 2729: 2722: 2716: 2715: 2707: 2701: 2700: 2680: 2674: 2667: 2661: 2654: 2648: 2647: 2638:Tiersma, Peter. 2635: 2626: 2623: 2617: 2616: 2614: 2603: 2597: 2596: 2588: 2577: 2576: 2566: 2542: 2536: 2535: 2523: 2517: 2516: 2504: 2498: 2497: 2490:"The Kidnapping" 2486: 2480: 2479: 2471: 2465: 2464: 2446: 2435: 2434: 2426: 2420: 2419: 2411: 2402: 2401: 2373: 2367: 2366: 2350: 2344: 2343: 2303: 2297: 2296: 2294: 2292: 2278: 2272: 2271: 2269: 2267: 2253: 2247: 2246: 2244: 2242: 2228: 2222: 2221: 2213: 2207: 2206: 2194: 2188: 2187: 2157: 2151: 2150: 2148: 2146: 2125: 2119: 2118: 2107: 2101: 2100: 2094: 2085: 2070: 2069: 2051: 2028: 2027: 2026:on 12 July 2024. 2012: 2006: 2005: 1994: 1950:Forensic science 1834: 1810:Bridgewater Four 1502:'s short story " 1498:was the case of 1423:Author profiling 1174:Aston University 1163:has developed a 1126: 1106: 1079:police station, 969: 962: 955: 941: 887:LGBT linguistics 877:Internationalism 852:Compositionality 713:Sociolinguistics 688:Neurolinguistics 683:Interlinguistics 668:Ethnomethodology 510: 509: 500: 493: 486: 412:Related articles 319:Network analysis 309:Malware analysis 267:Forensic geology 44: 34:Forensic science 21: 20: 3625: 3624: 3620: 3619: 3618: 3616: 3615: 3614: 3585: 3584: 3550:Wayback Machine 3539: 3520:TESOL Quarterly 3457:VIII(1): 66–79. 3381: 3379:Further reading 3364: 3363: 3326: 3322: 3317:. 15 June 2004. 3309: 3308: 3304: 3295: 3291: 3276: 3272: 3255: 3254: 3250: 3237: 3236: 3232: 3223: 3219: 3214: 3210: 3195: 3191: 3181: 3179: 3169: 3165: 3155: 3153: 3144: 3143: 3139: 3129: 3127: 3117: 3113: 3096: 3095: 3091: 3079: 3073: 3069: 3052: 3051: 3047: 3037: 3035: 3026: 3025: 3021: 3016:. 23 July 2015. 3008: 3007: 3003: 2990: 2989: 2985: 2977: 2966: 2962: 2961: 2957: 2944: 2940: 2930: 2928: 2918: 2914: 2879: 2868: 2860: 2856: 2847: 2840: 2829: 2825: 2815: 2813: 2804: 2803: 2799: 2789: 2787: 2778: 2777: 2773: 2736: 2732: 2723: 2719: 2708: 2704: 2681: 2677: 2668: 2664: 2655: 2651: 2636: 2629: 2624: 2620: 2612: 2604: 2600: 2589: 2580: 2543: 2539: 2524: 2520: 2505: 2501: 2488: 2487: 2483: 2472: 2468: 2461: 2447: 2438: 2427: 2423: 2412: 2405: 2378:TESOL Quarterly 2374: 2370: 2351: 2347: 2304: 2300: 2290: 2288: 2286:www.aston.ac.uk 2280: 2279: 2275: 2265: 2263: 2261:www.hofstra.edu 2255: 2254: 2250: 2240: 2238: 2236:www.hofstra.edu 2230: 2229: 2225: 2214: 2210: 2195: 2191: 2184: 2158: 2154: 2144: 2142: 2126: 2122: 2109: 2108: 2104: 2092: 2086: 2073: 2066: 2052: 2031: 2014: 2013: 2009: 1996: 1995: 1991: 1986: 1940: 1916: 1907: 1859: 1850: 1845: 1832: 1737:Ernesto Zedillo 1667:expert evidence 1662: 1638: 1610: 1591: 1575: 1488: 1456:factor analysis 1425: 1419: 1350: 1333: 1318: 1297: 1295:Suicide letters 1267: 1254: 1249: 1216: 1207:Miranda warning 1199: 1191: 1165:master's degree 1124: 1120:Ernesto Miranda 1104: 1101:police register 1053: 973: 932: 931: 842: 834: 833: 745: 737: 736: 732:Writing systems 623:Anthropological 613: 605: 604: 555: 547: 504: 459: 458: 457: 454: 451: 434:Pollen calendar 413: 405: 404: 403: 348: 340: 339: 338: 288: 278: 277: 276: 181: 173: 172: 148: 138: 137: 136: 80:DNA phenotyping 54: 17: 12: 11: 5: 3623: 3613: 3612: 3607: 3602: 3597: 3583: 3582: 3572: 3567: 3562: 3557: 3552: 3538: 3537:External links 3535: 3534: 3533: 3523: 3516: 3509: 3502: 3495: 3488: 3485: 3482: 3475: 3468: 3465: 3458: 3451: 3444: 3437: 3430: 3423: 3416: 3415:, ii, 197–206. 3409: 3406: 3403: 3396: 3389: 3380: 3377: 3376: 3375: 3372: 3368: 3362: 3361: 3320: 3302: 3289: 3270: 3248: 3230: 3217: 3208: 3189: 3163: 3137: 3111: 3089: 3067: 3045: 3019: 3001: 2983: 2955: 2938: 2912: 2893:(2): 196–202. 2866: 2854: 2838: 2823: 2797: 2771: 2730: 2717: 2702: 2691:(2): 151–157. 2675: 2662: 2649: 2627: 2618: 2598: 2578: 2537: 2518: 2499: 2481: 2466: 2459: 2453:. Bloomsbury. 2436: 2421: 2403: 2368: 2345: 2298: 2273: 2248: 2223: 2208: 2189: 2182: 2152: 2120: 2102: 2088:Olsson, John. 2071: 2064: 2029: 2007: 1988: 1987: 1985: 1982: 1981: 1980: 1975: 1968: 1962: 1957: 1952: 1947: 1939: 1936: 1915: 1912: 1906: 1903: 1902: 1901: 1895: 1888: 1882: 1876: 1870: 1858: 1855: 1849: 1846: 1844: 1841: 1743:immigrants in 1661: 1658: 1657: 1656: 1651: 1650: 1646: 1637: 1634: 1609: 1606: 1590: 1587: 1574: 1571: 1521:Richard Condon 1513:Flesch–Kincaid 1504:The Frost King 1487: 1484: 1452:hapax legomena 1421:Main article: 1418: 1415: 1407: 1406: 1403: 1400: 1393:asylum seekers 1385: 1379: 1373: 1366: 1363: 1360: 1349: 1346: 1332: 1329: 1317: 1314: 1296: 1293: 1266: 1263: 1253: 1252:Emergency call 1250: 1248: 1245: 1215: 1212: 1198: 1195: 1190: 1189:Areas of study 1187: 1116:Miranda rights 1093:Guildford Four 1085:interrogations 1067:, used it in " 1052: 1049: 1045: 1044: 1041: 1038: 1035: 1032: 1025: 1024: 1021: 1018: 975: 974: 972: 971: 964: 957: 949: 946: 945: 934: 933: 930: 929: 924: 919: 914: 912:Prescriptivism 909: 904: 899: 894: 889: 884: 879: 874: 869: 864: 859: 854: 849: 843: 840: 839: 836: 835: 832: 831: 826: 825: 824: 819: 814: 809: 804: 799: 794: 789: 779: 778: 777: 772: 767: 762: 757: 746: 743: 742: 739: 738: 735: 734: 729: 720: 715: 710: 705: 700: 695: 690: 685: 680: 675: 670: 665: 660: 655: 650: 645: 640: 635: 630: 625: 620: 614: 611: 610: 607: 606: 603: 602: 597: 592: 587: 582: 577: 572: 567: 562: 556: 553: 552: 549: 548: 546: 545: 540: 535: 529: 526: 525: 519: 518: 506: 505: 503: 502: 495: 488: 480: 477: 476: 475: 474: 469: 461: 460: 456: 455: 448: 446: 444:Trace evidence 441: 436: 431: 426: 421: 415: 414: 411: 410: 407: 406: 402: 401: 396: 391: 386: 381: 376: 371: 366: 361: 356: 350: 349: 346: 345: 342: 341: 337: 336: 334:Audio analysis 331: 329:Video analysis 326: 321: 316: 314:Mobile devices 311: 306: 304:Database study 301: 296: 294:Computer exams 290: 289: 284: 283: 280: 279: 275: 274: 269: 264: 259: 254: 249: 244: 239: 234: 229: 224: 219: 214: 209: 204: 199: 194: 189: 183: 182: 180:Criminalistics 179: 178: 175: 174: 171: 170: 165: 160: 155: 149: 144: 143: 140: 139: 135: 134: 129: 124: 119: 114: 109: 104: 99: 94: 93: 92: 82: 77: 72: 67: 62: 56: 55: 50: 49: 46: 45: 37: 36: 30: 29: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3622: 3611: 3608: 3606: 3603: 3601: 3598: 3596: 3593: 3592: 3590: 3580: 3576: 3573: 3571: 3568: 3566: 3563: 3561: 3558: 3556: 3553: 3551: 3547: 3544: 3541: 3540: 3531: 3527: 3526:Shuy, Roger W 3524: 3522:, 30: 201–30. 3521: 3517: 3515:, 3 i, 74–94. 3514: 3510: 3507: 3503: 3501:, 17: 249–71. 3500: 3496: 3493: 3489: 3486: 3483: 3480: 3476: 3473: 3469: 3466: 3463: 3459: 3456: 3452: 3449: 3445: 3442: 3438: 3435: 3431: 3428: 3424: 3421: 3417: 3414: 3410: 3407: 3404: 3401: 3397: 3394: 3390: 3387: 3383: 3382: 3373: 3369: 3366: 3365: 3357: 3353: 3348: 3343: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3324: 3316: 3312: 3306: 3299: 3293: 3285: 3281: 3274: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3252: 3244: 3240: 3234: 3227: 3221: 3212: 3204: 3200: 3193: 3178: 3174: 3167: 3151: 3147: 3141: 3126: 3122: 3115: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3093: 3085: 3078: 3071: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3049: 3033: 3029: 3023: 3015: 3011: 3005: 2997: 2993: 2987: 2976: 2972: 2971:Letras Libres 2965: 2959: 2952: 2948: 2942: 2927: 2923: 2916: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2877: 2875: 2873: 2871: 2864: 2858: 2851: 2845: 2843: 2834: 2827: 2811: 2807: 2801: 2786:. 5 June 2014 2785: 2781: 2775: 2767: 2763: 2758: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2734: 2727: 2726:The Qsum Plot 2721: 2713: 2706: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2679: 2672: 2666: 2659: 2653: 2645: 2641: 2634: 2632: 2622: 2611: 2610: 2602: 2594: 2587: 2585: 2583: 2574: 2570: 2565: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2541: 2533: 2529: 2522: 2514: 2510: 2503: 2495: 2491: 2485: 2477: 2470: 2462: 2460:9781472569578 2456: 2452: 2445: 2443: 2441: 2432: 2425: 2417: 2410: 2408: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2372: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2349: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2302: 2287: 2283: 2277: 2262: 2258: 2252: 2237: 2233: 2227: 2219: 2212: 2204: 2200: 2193: 2185: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2156: 2141: 2137: 2136: 2131: 2124: 2116: 2112: 2106: 2098: 2097:thetext.co.uk 2091: 2084: 2082: 2080: 2078: 2076: 2067: 2061: 2057: 2050: 2048: 2046: 2044: 2042: 2040: 2038: 2036: 2034: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2011: 2003: 1999: 1993: 1989: 1979: 1976: 1973: 1969: 1966: 1963: 1961: 1958: 1956: 1953: 1951: 1948: 1945: 1942: 1941: 1935: 1933: 1929: 1924: 1922: 1911: 1899: 1896: 1892: 1889: 1886: 1883: 1880: 1877: 1874: 1871: 1868: 1865: 1864: 1863: 1854: 1840: 1838: 1828: 1826: 1822: 1819: 1813: 1811: 1806: 1803: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1792:Jenny Nicholl 1788: 1786: 1785: 1780: 1779:text messages 1776: 1771: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1756: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1733: 1728: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1717:Derek Bentley 1713: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1698: 1696: 1692: 1691:Ted Kaczynski 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1675:Derek Bentley 1672: 1668: 1653: 1652: 1647: 1643: 1642: 1641: 1633: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1619: 1614: 1605: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1586: 1583: 1579: 1570: 1566: 1564: 1560: 1559:Ted Kaczynski 1555: 1553: 1549: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1531:Robert Graves 1528: 1527: 1522: 1517: 1514: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1492: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1434: 1433:William Labov 1430: 1424: 1414: 1412: 1404: 1401: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1383: 1380: 1377: 1374: 1371: 1367: 1364: 1361: 1358: 1355: 1354: 1353: 1345: 1343: 1339: 1328: 1325: 1322: 1313: 1310: 1301: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1281: 1279: 1278: 1273: 1262: 1258: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1211: 1208: 1203: 1194: 1186: 1184: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1166: 1162: 1157: 1154: 1150: 1144: 1140: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1108: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1089:Derek Bentley 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1048: 1042: 1039: 1037:voice parades 1036: 1033: 1030: 1029: 1028: 1022: 1019: 1016: 1015: 1014: 1011: 1009: 1003: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 970: 965: 963: 958: 956: 951: 950: 948: 947: 944: 940: 936: 935: 928: 925: 923: 920: 918: 915: 913: 910: 908: 905: 903: 900: 898: 895: 893: 890: 888: 885: 883: 880: 878: 875: 873: 870: 868: 865: 863: 862:Descriptivism 860: 858: 855: 853: 850: 848: 845: 844: 838: 837: 830: 829:Structuralism 827: 823: 820: 818: 815: 813: 812:Prague circle 810: 808: 805: 803: 800: 798: 795: 793: 790: 788: 785: 784: 783: 780: 776: 773: 771: 768: 766: 763: 761: 758: 756: 753: 752: 751: 748: 747: 741: 740: 733: 730: 728: 724: 721: 719: 716: 714: 711: 709: 706: 704: 701: 699: 696: 694: 691: 689: 686: 684: 681: 679: 676: 674: 671: 669: 666: 664: 661: 659: 658:Documentation 656: 654: 651: 649: 646: 644: 641: 639: 636: 634: 633:Computational 631: 629: 626: 624: 621: 619: 616: 615: 609: 608: 601: 598: 596: 593: 591: 588: 586: 583: 581: 578: 576: 573: 571: 568: 566: 563: 561: 558: 557: 551: 550: 544: 541: 539: 536: 534: 531: 530: 528: 527: 524: 521: 520: 516: 512: 511: 501: 496: 494: 489: 487: 482: 481: 479: 478: 473: 470: 468: 465: 464: 463: 462: 453: 450:Use of DNA in 447: 445: 442: 440: 437: 435: 432: 430: 427: 425: 422: 420: 417: 416: 409: 408: 400: 397: 395: 392: 390: 387: 385: 382: 380: 377: 375: 372: 370: 367: 365: 362: 360: 357: 355: 352: 351: 344: 343: 335: 332: 330: 327: 325: 322: 320: 317: 315: 312: 310: 307: 305: 302: 300: 299:Data analysis 297: 295: 292: 291: 287: 282: 281: 273: 270: 268: 265: 263: 260: 258: 257:Vein matching 255: 253: 250: 248: 245: 243: 240: 238: 235: 233: 232:Forensic arts 230: 228: 225: 223: 220: 218: 215: 213: 210: 208: 205: 203: 200: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 185: 184: 177: 176: 169: 166: 164: 163:Psychotherapy 161: 159: 156: 154: 151: 150: 147: 142: 141: 133: 130: 128: 125: 123: 120: 118: 115: 113: 110: 108: 105: 103: 100: 98: 95: 91: 88: 87: 86: 85:DNA profiling 83: 81: 78: 76: 73: 71: 68: 66: 63: 61: 58: 57: 53: 52:Physiological 48: 47: 43: 39: 38: 35: 32: 31: 27: 23: 22: 19: 3577:(podcast by 3529: 3519: 3512: 3505: 3498: 3491: 3478: 3471: 3464:31(1): 1–10. 3461: 3454: 3447: 3440: 3433: 3429:. 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