1263:
attack has been established, the outbreak can be characterized by analyzing the time, place, and person affected. This information is critical in identifying the source of the outbreak. By gathering data on cases over time, an epidemic curve can be created. The pattern of the disease is important in distinguishing between a natural outbreak and an intentional attack. In the case of a bioterrorism attack, the source is most likely a single point, with everyone coming into contact with the agent at the same time. Other factors that are investigated to determine if the outbreak is the result of a biological attack include a large epidemic, more severe disease than expected for a given pathogen, an uncommon disease for a specific area, and multiple simultaneous epidemics of different diseases.
78:
1380:(Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network), the largest anti-sexual violence organization in the United States, the backlog is the result of both a failure of law enforcement to send collected kits to forensic laboratories for analysis, and a lack of resources within these labs to process the kits effectively. In the absence of adequate funding, many districts would rather dedicate their funds to homicides or more high-profile cases, and cases of sexual violence are often swept to the side. With this, as the SAKs remain in storage, the prevalence of the issue increases, especially as more and more kits are being found each year.
1117:, and drug use. The primary objective of forensic toxicology is the accurate detection, identification, and interpretation of chemicals and their metabolites in biological samples for the purpose of providing objective evidence to support medical or legal decisions. The results of forensic toxicology analyses can be used to determine the cause and manner of death, assess the role of drugs or chemicals in impairment or toxicity, and provide evidence in criminal or civil proceedings. The field of forensic toxicology requires a thorough understanding of the
848:"is a group of alleles in an organism that are inherited together from a single parent". Sharing this haplotype among family members can cause an issue in forensic samples because these samples are often mixtures that contain more than one DNA contributor. De convolution and interpretation of mtDNA mixtures is more difficult than that of nuclear DNA, and some laboratories choose not to attempt the process Since mtDNA does not recombine, the genetic markers are not as diverse as autosomal STRs are in the case of nuclear DNA. Another issue is that of
732:
1314:
770:. qPCR is the preferred method of DNA quantitation for forensic cases because it is very precise, human-specific, qualitative, and quantitative. This technique analyses changes in fluorescence signals of amplified DNA fragments between each PCR cycle without needing to pause the reaction or open the temperature-sensitive PCR tubes. In addition to the components necessary for standard a PCR reaction (i.e. template DNA, carefully designed forward and reverse
724:
633:) technique, which can amplify even trace amount of DNA segments in-vitro. Such DNA samples, often found in crime scenes in minute amounts, degraded states and sometimes mixed with various body fluids from multiple individuals, can be effectively amplified using PCR. Beyond forensics, PCR has been applied to a wide range of fields, including disease diagnosis and virus detection.
584:, a professor at the Institute of Forensic Medicine in Turin, Italy, is another to have made significant contributions to forensics. In 1915, he discovered a method to determine the blood group of dried bloodstains, a significant advancement from prior techniques limited to analysing liquid blood. This technique was subsequently adopted for criminal investigation.
910:
conventional techniques are unable to determine the identity of the remains due to the lack of soft tissue, anthropologists are required to deduce certain characteristics based on the skeletal remains. Race, sex, age and possible ailments can often be determined through bone measurements and looking for clues throughout the skeletal structure.
663:(ALS), is required. Once identified as a potential source, presumptive tests are conducted to establish the possibility of the specified biological presence (semen, saliva, blood, urine, etc.). If positive, samples are collected and submitted for analysis in the laboratory, where confirmatory tests and further tests are performed.
1272:
thanatomicrobiome may help estimate the post-mortem interval. Currently, extensive research is being conducted to determine if there is a consistent microbial decomposition "clock" that could be used by itself or in conjunction with other techniques, such as forensic entomology, to help estimate postmortem intervals.
1295:. One such microorganism is diatoms, a type of microalgae that vary in shape and are unique to specific bodies of water. By analyzing the diatom composition in a sample of water, investigators can establish if a person or questioned piece of evidence has been in contact with a specific body of water. This is because
1244:
least four anthrax-containing envelopes in the United States in
September and October 2001. This incident resulted in 11 people contracting inhalation anthrax, leading to five fatalities, while another 11 individuals were afflicted with cutaneous anthrax. Additionally, 31 persons tested positive for exposure to
1079:
an autopsy can greatly assist investigative efforts and scene reconstruction. A forensic pathologist may also collect evidence from the body, such as trace evidence or biological fluids, that can be used in criminal investigations. They may also testify in court as expert witnesses regarding their findings.
949:
One example of the application of forensic botany is in the investigation of a death that initially appeared to be the result of a fall. Forensic botanists analyzed plant material found on the victim's clothing and compared it to samples collected from the scene. Through this analysis, they were able
786:
that complement and anneal to the DNA sequence of interest that lies between the two primers. A "reporter" (R) dye is attached at the 5’ end of the fluorescent probe, while a "quencher" (Q) dye is attached at the 3’ end. Before the DNA strands are extended by the polymerase, the reporter and quencher
1235:
Bioterrorism refers to the deliberate use of biological agents as weapons of warfare. These agents, which can be natural or genetically modified microorganisms, are intentionally disseminated to cause illness, death, or harm to humans, animals, or plants. Regardless of their origin, these biological
1078:
is a medical doctor who has extensive knowledge and expertise in both trauma and disease. They are responsible for performing autopsies and applying their knowledge of the human body and possible internal and external injuries to determine the cause and manner of death. The information obtained from
1070:
is a specialized field within forensic science that focuses on the examination of individuals who have died suddenly, unexpectedly, or violently to determine the cause and manner of death. A forensic autopsy is a postmortem examination of the body and analysis of bodily fluids to provide information
1058:
Dental evidence is a valuable tool in establishing human identity by comparing the dental features of a deceased person with antemortem dental records. Forensic odontologists can also assist in age estimation in living and deceased persons, which can be useful in cases where the identity of a person
934:, and other plant properties, to gather evidence that can aid in criminal or civil proceedings. The identification of plant material is crucial in forensic botany, as it can provide a link between an individual and a crime scene, pinpoint the geographical location of missing bodies, or establish the
835:
mtDNA can be extracted from such degraded samples since its presence in cells is much higher than nuclear DNA. There can be more than 1,000 copies of mtDNA in a cell, while there are only two copies of nuclear DNA. Nuclear DNA is inherited from both the mother and the father but mtDNA is passed down
795:
activity. The reporter dye is released from the 5’ end. It is no longer quenched, thus enabling fluorescence detection. A graph is constructed for the sample DNA comparing the presence of fluorescence (y-axis) to cycle number (x-axis) of the qPCR process. This is then compared to a standard curve of
669:
has numerous applications, such as paternity testing, identification of unknown human remains, breakthroughs in cold cases, as well as connecting suspects and/or victims to a piece (or pieces) of evidence, a scene, or another person (either a victim or suspect). Nuclear DNA evidence can be recovered
1290:
Forensic limnology is the application of limnology, the study of inland waters, to forensic science. In cases involving a body of water at or near the scene of a crime, a sample of the water can be extracted and analyzed to identify the presence and composition of microorganisms, which can act as a
1275:
One research group has made significant progress in describing such a microbial clock and believes they are within two to five years of testing it in a real crime scene scenario. However, if a reliable and consistent microbial clock is determined to exist, it remains to be seen whether it will pass
1014:
In addition to feathers, other types of bird remains can also be identified through forensic ornithology. Bones, for example, can be analyzed to determine the species of bird, as well as the age and sex of the individual. Blood samples can also be used to identify bird species through DNA analysis.
1018:
Forensic ornithology can be used in a variety of contexts, including criminal investigations, wildlife management, and conservation efforts. By providing accurate identification of bird remains, this field of study can help to bring perpetrators of wildlife crimes to justice and protect endangered
1010:
Feathers are one of the most important pieces of evidence used in forensic ornithology. Each bird species has unique feather characteristics that can be observed at both macroscopic and microscopic levels. These characteristics include the size, shape, color, and pattern of the feather, as well as
1262:
When investigating a possible bioterrorist or biowarfare attack, the epidemiologic approach is unique from a typical epidemiologic investigation. The process begins by confirming that there has been an outbreak using laboratory and clinical evidence. Once the number of cases and definition of the
1243:
It is important to note that biological agents used as weapons are often found in the environment, making it challenging to determine whether an infection is accidental or the result of a deliberate attack. One of the most notable cases of bioterrorism in recent history involved the mailing of at
909:
is applied to forensics most regularly through the collection and analysis of human skeletal remains. The primary goals of anthropological involvement include identification and aiding in scene reconstruction by determining details regarding the circumstances of the victim's death. In cases where
1392:
every day so the base population to search and compare to increases. Biological testing for cold cases, specifically homicides, encounters similar roadblocks as the SAKs - lack of funds or the DNA samples have not been properly stored; thus too much degradation has occurred for viable analyses.
1271:
Post-mortem microbiology is a field that aims to detect unexpected infections causing sudden deaths, confirm clinically suspected but unproven infections, evaluate the efficacy of antimicrobial therapy, identify emergent pathogens, and recognize medical errors. Additionally, the analysis of the
913:
This becomes necessary when conventional methods that use soft tissue fail to establish the identity of remains. By examining bone measurements and other skeletal structure characteristics, anthropologists can often determine information such as race, sex, age, and potential health conditions.
1299:
are specific to certain bodies of water, and if a sample contains diatoms found only in a specific body of water, it can be used as evidence to link a person or object to that location. Forensic limnology can be used in conjunction with other forensic techniques to provide a more comprehensive
556:
The first recorded use of forensic procedures dates back to the 7th century when the concept of using fingerprints as a means of identification was first established. By the end of the 7th century, forensic procedures were being used to ascertain the guilt of criminals, among other purposes.
1239:
Forensic microbiology plays a crucial role in the study of epidemiology. By examining microorganisms obtained from infected individuals, scientists can determine the source of infection, identify the type of infection present, and analyze the mutation pattern of the microorganism. Forensic
945:
In addition to identifying plant material, forensic botanists may also analyze soil samples for traces of plant material, which can provide valuable information about the environment in which a crime occurred. The analysis of plant material and soil samples can be performed through various
1006:
Forensic ornithology is the application of scientific techniques to the examination and identification of bird remains for legal purposes. This field of study can aid in investigations related to wildlife crimes, such as poaching, smuggling, and illegal trade of birds and their feathers.
852:— when an individual has more than one type of mtDNA in their cells. This can cause an issue in interpreting data from questioned forensic samples and known samples that contain mtDNA. Having adequate knowledge and understanding of heteroplasmy can help ensure successful interpretation.
4169:
Rasko, D. A.; Worsham, P. L.; Abshire, T. G.; Stanley, S. T.; Bannan, J. D.; Wilson, M. R.; Langham, R. J.; Decker, R. S.; Jiang, L.; Read, T. D.; Phillippy, A. M.; Salzberg, S. L.; Pop, M.; Van Ert, M. N.; Kenefic, L. J.; Keim, P. S.; Fraser-Liggett, C. M.; Ravel, J. (2011-03-22).
1253:
However, advancements in PCR and whole-genome sequencing enabled scientists to collaborate with the FBI to identify the source of the letter spores. The combination of forensic microbiology and modern technology is essential in identifying and preventing bioterrorism attacks.
941:
Forensic botany can also help investigators determine the cause of death, such as in cases where plant toxins are involved. For example, the presence of certain plant species in the stomach contents of a deceased individual may indicate accidental or intentional poisoning.
796:
the cycle fluorescence threshold (y-axis) versus the log of known DNA concentrations (x-axis). By comparing the sample data to the standard curve, one may extrapolate the DNA concentration in the sample, which is essential to move forward with PCR amplification and
1054:
who use their expertise to establish a person's identity, interpret injuries in the oral and perioral regions, analyze and compare bite marks, and assist forensic pathologists in determining the cause of death if there is a possible contributing dental condition.
839:
The main advantage of using mtDNA is its high copy number. However, there are a few disadvantages of using mtDNA as opposed to nuclear DNA. Since mtDNA is inherited maternally and passed to each offspring, all members of the maternal familial line will share a
2944:
Luo, Shiyu; Valencia, C. Alexander; Zhang, Jinglan; Lee, Ni-Chung; Slone, Jesse; Gui, Baoheng; Wang, Xinjian; Li, Zhuo; Dell, Sarah; Brown, Jenice; Chen, Stella Maris; Chien, Yin-Hsiu; Hwu, Wuh-Liang; Fan, Pi-Chuan; Wong, Lee-Jun (2018-12-18).
836:
from only the mother to all of her offspring. Due to this type of inheritance, mtDNA is useful for identification purposes in forensic work but can also be used for mass disasters, missing persons cases, complex kinship, and genetic genealogy.
885:, mtDNA was used to solve a 22-year-old cold case where the nuclear DNA evidence was not originally strong enough. After mtDNA analysis, Arbie Dean Williams was convicted of the murder of 15-year-old Linda Strait, which had occurred in 1982.
831:
when forensic samples have been degraded, are damaged, or are in very small quantities. In many cases, there may be older human remains, sometimes ancient, and the only options for DNA collection are the body's bone, teeth, or hair.
1551:
892:. Hair fibers found on the bodies of two of the children were tested and the mtDNA found to be the same for each sample. For the investigators this was a big break because it meant that the murders were likely connected.
3126:
950:
to determine that the victim had not fallen as initially suspected, but had instead been pushed. The plant material provided crucial evidence that helped investigators build a case against the suspect.
1040:, is the application of dental science to legal matters. It is a specialized field that has been instrumental in helping law enforcement detect and solve cases in criminal and civil proceedings.
4253:
Fernández-Rodríguez, A.; Burton, J.L.; Andreoletti, L.; Alberola, J.; Fornes, P.; Merino, I.; Martínez, M.J.; Castillo, P.; Sampaio-Maia, B.; Caldas, I.M.; Saegeman, V.; Cohen, M.C. (May 2019).
791:(the quencher completely absorbs/masks the fluorescence of the reporter). As the polymerase begins to extend the strand, the 5' end of the probe is degraded by the polymerase due to its
855:
There are some ways to improve success of mtDNA analysis. Preventing contamination at all testing stages and using positive and negative controls is a priority. In addition, the use of
3165:
1011:
the arrangement and structure of the barbs and barbules. By examining these features, a forensic ornithologist can determine the species of bird to which a feather belongs.
867:. In these cases primers amplifying smaller regions of HV1 and HV2 in the control region of mtDNA are used. This process has been referred to as the 'ancient DNA' approach.
716:
is performed in an attempt to individualize the sample to one person with a high degree of statistical confidence. Here, STR markers for autosomal STR are used in forensic
3630:
Longato, S.; Wöss, C.; Hatzer-Grubwieser, P.; Bauer, C.; Parson, W.; Unterberger, S. H.; Kuhn, V.; Pemberger, N.; Pallua, Anton K.; Recheis, W.; Lackner, R. (2015-04-07).
3012:
Merheb, Maxime; Matar, Rachel; Hodeify, Rawad; Siddiqui, Shoib Sarwar; Vazhappilly, Cijo George; Marton, John; Azharuddin, Syed; AL Zouabi, Hussain (2019-05-09).
3297:
874:. There was only circumstantial evidence against Ware so the admittance of mtDNA from hairs found in the victim's throat and at the scene were key to the case.
1145:. This technology has enabled the analysis of microorganisms for various applications in forensic science, including biocrime, bioterrorism and epidemiology.
3632:"Post-mortem interval estimation of human skeletal remains by micro-computed tomography, mid-infrared microscopic imaging and energy dispersive X-ray mapping"
3226:
Erdem, S.; Altunçul, H.; Filoğlu, G.; Ölçen, A. M.; Bülbül, Ö. (2011-12-01). "Sequencing of mtDNA HV1 and HV2 regions from samples with trace amount of DNA".
574:
later made further significant discoveries in forensics. In 1901, he was the first to categorise human blood into different groups: A, B, AB, and O, and thus
564:, also known as the "father of criminal identification". In 1879, he introduced a scientific approach to personal identification by developing the science of
1240:
microbiologists compare the microorganisms isolated from infected individuals to known sources of infectious pathogens to identify the cause of an outbreak.
659:
At the scene, biological evidence must be initially visibly recognized. Sometimes this is not always possible and the aid of an alternative light source, or
656:. With all of the substantial advances that have been made regarding DNA, biological evidence is recognized to be the "golden standard" in forensic science.
1372:
As DNA is a critical form of evidence in the investigation of cases of sexual violence, the backlog of untested sexual assault kits (SAKs), also known as a
1388:
With the considerable advances in DNA analysis, old, open cases with intact evidence can be examined for biological evidence. New profiles are uploaded to
614:
technique to examine the variations in the genetic code. This can be used to distinguish one individual from another. This method has become important in
1227:
By analyzing the stage of decay from bacterial decomposition or the bacterial succession patterns, scientists can estimate the time elapsed since death.
878:
34:, which aids law enforcement in the identification of potential suspects or unidentified remains. This field encompasses various sub-branches, including
1043:
The use of forensic odontology became more popular in the 1960s with the establishment of the first instructional program in the United States at the
26:
principles and techniques in the investigation of criminal and civil cases. Forensic biology is primarily concerned with analyzing biological and
1276:
scientific and legal muster. A judge would also have to determine that the microbial clock meets the standard for admission of expert testimony.
3795:
3014:"Mitochondrial DNA, a Powerful Tool to Decipher Ancient Human Civilization from Domestication to Music, and to Uncover Historical Murder Cases"
2472:
Nwawuba
Stanley, Udogadi; Mohammed Khadija, Abdullahi; Bukola, Adams Tajudeen; Omusi Precious, Imose; Ayevbuomwan Davidson, Esewi (July 2020).
1324:
1871:
989:(study of bryophytes). Bryology is the easiest to find evidence since bryophyte (a species of plants) attaches to shoes and clothes easily.
2635:
Higuchi, R.; Fockler, C.; Dollinger, G.; Watson, R. (1993). "Kinetic PCR analysis: real-time monitoring of DNA amplification reactions".
650:, is one of the most popular pieces of evidence to recover at a crime scene. More often than not, evidence containing DNA is regarded as
533:
2754:
2681:
Higuchi, R.; Dollinger, G.; Walsh, P.S.; Griffith, R. (1992). "Simultaneous amplification and detection of specific DNA sequences".
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useful since even if it is ripped apart or broken down, DNA can still be analyzed. Ways in which DNA can be analyzed is through the
1377:
1629:
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Forensic botany is the application of plant science to legal investigations. It involves the study of plant material, such as
4153:
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can be beneficial. When a sample of mtDNA is severely degraded or has been obtained from an ancient source, the use of small
1772:
3960:
Pechal, Jennifer L.; Crippen, Tawni L.; Benbow, M. Eric; Tarone, Aaron M.; Dowd, Scot; Tomberlin, Jeffery K. (2014-01-01).
3687:
Margiotta, Gabriele; Bacaro, Giovanni; Carnevali, Eugenia; Severini, Simona; Bacci, Mauro; Gabbrielli, Mario (2015-08-01).
1047:. Since then, forensic odontology has become widely known and understood by both dental and law enforcement professionals.
965:(study of pollen and spores). Palynology can produce evidence of decomposition time, location of death or the time of year.
4348:
3747:
2598:, Techniques in Life Science and Biomedicine for the Non-Expert, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 79–84,
1436:. However thanks to Hollywood's depiction of forensic science, the analysis of biological evidence has fallen prey to the
77:
3963:"The potential use of bacterial community succession in forensics as described by high throughput metagenomic sequencing"
3328:
1044:
763:
4095:"Biological weapons and bioterrorism preparedness: importance of public-health awareness and international cooperation"
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1376:, greatly affects the successful identification and prosecution of the perpetrators of these crimes. According to
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1440:, which results in the public's perception of its capabilities being severely distorted and its limits blurred.
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to assist police detective work, and it has also proved useful in resolving paternity and immigration disputes.
560:
One of the early pioneers in employing these methods, which would later evolve into the field of forensics, was
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568:. This method involved a series of body measurements for distinguishing one human individual from another.
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In 2012, mtDNA evidence allowed investigators to establish a link in a 36-year-old investigation into the
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1993:
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502:
105:
3074:
Jobling, Mark A.; Gill, Peter (October 2004). "Correction: Encoded evidence: DNA in forensic analysis".
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weapons, which can be viruses, bacteria, or fungi, are highly infectious and pose a significant threat.
1137:
Forensic microbiology has become an increasingly promising area of research with the recent advances in
743:, quantified, amplified, and visualized. There are several methods of DNA extraction possible including
1142:
771:
720:
to track down the missing, verify family connections, and potentially connect suspects to crime sites.
262:
4255:"Post-mortem microbiology in sudden death: sampling protocols proposed in different clinical settings"
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found in the DNA profile, the DNA analyst may place a statistical measure of confidence on DNA match.
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1221:
Epinecrotic microbial communities, the microorganisms that colonize the surface of a decomposing body
864:
797:
759:
630:
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519:
507:
61:
2474:"Forensic DNA Profiling: Autosomal Short Tandem Repeat as a Prominent Marker in Crime Investigation"
3869:"Chapter 6 - What Is the "Thanatomicrobiome" and What Is Its Relevance to Forensic Investigations?"
3575:
1773:"ABO Blood Type Identification and Forensic Science (1900-1960) | The Embryo Project Encyclopedia"
2162:
1968:
779:
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349:
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Zhang, Yanfang; Qu, Yiping; Gao, Ke; Yang, Qi; Shi, Bingyin; Hou, Peng; Ji, Meiju (2015-02-15).
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made a significant contribution to the fields of medicine and criminology by developing the
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4145:
Handbook Of
Forensic Genetics: Biodiversity And Heredity In Civil And Criminal Investigation
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4172:"Bacillus anthracis comparative genome analysis in support of the Amerithrax investigation"
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Forensic toxicology is an interdisciplinary field that applies principles and methods from
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2897:"High copy number of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) predicts good prognosis in glioma patients"
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techniques, including optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and DNA analysis.
782:, and a buffer solution containing Mg2+), qPCR reactions involve fluorescent dye-labelled
8:
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2415:"Forensic Autosomal Short Tandem Repeats and Their Potential Association With Phenotype"
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The thanatomicrobiome, the community of microorganisms that colonize a body after death
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Microorganisms can serve as valuable sources of evidence in criminal cases, including:
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3576:"The Role of Forensic Botany in Reconstructing the Dynamics of Trauma from High Falls"
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Javan, Gulnaz T.; Finley, Sheree J. (2018-01-01), Ralebitso-Senior, T. Komang (ed.),
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Forensic DNA Typing: Biology, Technology, and
Genetics of STR Markers, Second Edition
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Javan, Gulnaz T.; Finley, Sheree J.; Abidin, Zain; Mulle, Jennifer G. (2016-02-24).
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2531:"DNA Fingerprinting: Use of Autosomal Short Tandem Repeats in Forensic DNA Typing"
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Aquila, Isabella; Sacco, Matteo A.; Ricci, Pietrantonio; Gratteri, Santo (2019).
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Keerti, Akshunna; Ninave, Sudhir; Keerti, Akshunna; Ninave, Sudhir (2022-10-12).
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4196:
3962:
3592:
3127:"Forensic Mitochondrial DNA Analysis: Current Practice and Future Potential"
2971:
1478:
4334:
4280:
4215:
4128:
4079:
3995:
3946:
3730:
3673:
3608:
3499:
3212:
3153:
3103:
3057:
2998:
2930:
2574:
2515:
2458:
2357:
2261:
2235:
1845:
1758:
1401:
In popular culture, forensic biology is frequently portrayed in shows like
1102:
906:
849:
706:
666:
581:
409:
277:
3524:
2702:
2656:
2316:"Discovery, development, and current applications of DNA identity testing"
2139:"ALS Sheds a Different Light on Crime Scenes | Office of Justice Programs"
3903:"The Thanatomicrobiome: A Missing Piece of the Microbial Puzzle of Death"
3713:
3030:
2648:
2547:
974:
882:
828:
792:
622:
600:
454:
252:
3406:"Forensic Anthropology | Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History"
2694:
2300:
2276:
1655:"Alphonse Bertillon's Anthropometric Identification System | SciHi Blog"
3689:"Forensic botany as a useful tool in the crime scene: Report of a case"
3647:
2374:
National
Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs (July 2002).
1654:
1437:
1258:
Differentiating a biowarfare attack from a normal epidemiology outbreak
1185:
1160:
1094:
994:
748:
717:
459:
282:
87:
23:
4039:
4037:
3473:
3145:
2224:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
2780:
Forensic DNA Typing: Biology, Technology, and
Genetics of STR Markers
2731:
Forensic DNA Typing: Biology, Technology, and
Genetics of STR Markers
1114:
990:
845:
841:
474:
3748:"Solving Bird Mysteries with Forensic Ornithology - Podcast Episode"
3087:
4034:
2163:"Alternate Light Sources | Forensics | Forensic Supplies | Sirchie"
1373:
1155:
986:
980:
860:
856:
813:
710:
610:
contributed further to modern forensics. In 1984, he developed the
27:
4299:"News Feature: Can microbes keep time for forensic investigators?"
812:
to identify a possible suspect. Based on known frequencies of the
787:
are close enough in space that no fluorescence is detected by the
739:
Laboratory analysis of DNA evidence involves the sample DNA being
4349:"What are diatoms and what can they tell us about water quality?"
3629:
3458:"Evolution of Forensic Anthropological Methods of Identification"
2115:"DNA Evidence: Basics of Identifying, Gathering and Transporting"
1071:
on the cause of death, manner of death, and mechanism of injury.
1051:
592:
3686:
1994:"Forensic Biology | Sub-Fields | Significance & Application"
723:
3382:"New DNA work may offer break in 36-year-old Michigan slayings"
3354:"After 24 years, Strait murder resolved | The Spokesman-Review"
1296:
931:
679:
4397:
Creating a Plan to Test a Large Number of Sexual
Assault Kits
4093:
Roffey, R.; Lantorp, K.; Tegnell, A.; Elgh, F. (2002-08-01).
4046:"Microbial forensics: new breakthroughs and future prospects"
2733:(2 ed.). Burlington, MA, USA: Elsevier. pp. 75–79.
2680:
2634:
2373:
1323:
deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a
1110:
809:
699:
675:
671:
596:
1872:"What Are Leone Lattes's Contributions to Forensic Science?"
4230:"Epidemiology of Bioterrorism | Office of Justice Programs"
1604:"ALPHONSE BERTILLON: THE FATHER OF CRIMINAL IDENTIFICATION"
1170:
927:
923:
870:
The first use of mtDNA as evidence in court was in 1996 in
863:
can be used to improve the success of amplification during
808:. The obtained profile can be compared to known samples in
695:
687:
4168:
3772:"Forensic Odontology - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
3228:
Forensic
Science International: Genetics Supplement Series
3011:
1182:
Assisting in human identification through the analysis of
3959:
3225:
2874:. London, UK: Elsevier Academic Press. pp. 241–288.
2782:(2 ed.). Burlington, MA, USA: Elsevier. p. 78.
2755:"Choosing the Right Method for Nucleic Acid Quantitation"
1129:
used to detect and quantify them in biological matrices.
647:
591:, a German chemist, developed a chemical solution called
4092:
3572:
2528:
958:
Subdisciplines within forensic botany examples include:
3844:"Forensic Autopsy - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
2947:"Biparental Inheritance of Mitochondrial DNA in Humans"
1723:
FARHUD, Dariush D; ZARIF YEGANEH, Marjan (2013-01-01).
971:(study of the growth of rings of trees stems and roots)
758:
Quantitation is commonly conducted using a form of the
3900:
2805:
Advanced Topics in Forensic DNA Typing: Interpretation
2413:
Wyner, Nicole; Barash, Mark; McNevin, Dennis (2020).
4044:
Oliveira, Manuela; Amorim, António (December 2018).
3298:"Mitochondrial DNA: State of Tennessee v. Paul Ware"
953:
3566:
3329:"DNA Profiling Helps Solve 22-year-old Murder Case"
2943:
1722:
3961:
3796:"Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences, Third Edition"
3574:
2589:
2412:
2071:
1945:"Desert Island Discs - Alec Jeffreys - BBC Sounds"
879:National Center for Missing and Exploited Children
690:(provided the root is still intact). Furthermore,
4406:
2807:. Oxford, UK: Academic Press. pp. 213–444.
2596:DNA and RNA Isolation Techniques for Non-Experts
1700:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1930"
1230:
4303:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
4176:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2951:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2320:Proceedings (Baylor University. Medical Center)
1630:"Criminal Identification: The Bertillon System"
595:, which can be used to detect trace amounts of
4142:Amorim, Antonio; Budowle, Bruce (2016-08-30).
4043:
3430:"Forensic anthropology | science | Britannica"
2894:
2827:
2020:Fisher, Barry A. J.; Fisher, David R. (2012).
1601:
735:STR electropherogram of a three-person mixture
578:was introduced to the world of crime-solving.
4395:National Institute of Justice (March 2016). "
4292:
4290:
4141:
2676:
2674:
2630:
2628:
2080:, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 573–579,
1367:
1321:The examples and perspective in this section
1109:to aid in medical or legal investigations of
819:
527:
3512:
2019:
1869:
1819:
1579:"How Forensic Science has Evolved Over Time"
16:Forensic application of the study of biology
3866:
3073:
2724:
2722:
2720:
2588:Gautam, Akash (2022), Gautam, Akash (ed.),
2192:
2069:
1501:
4287:
2671:
2625:
1339:, or create a new section, as appropriate.
534:
520:
4373:"Addressing the Rape Kit Backlog | RAINN"
4324:
4314:
4270:
4205:
4195:
4110:
4069:
4015:
4013:
3936:
3918:
3712:
3663:
3513:Miller Coyle, Heather, ed. (2004-09-15).
3489:
3047:
3029:
2988:
2970:
2920:
2564:
2546:
2505:
2478:The Malaysian Journal of Medical Sciences
2448:
2430:
2347:
2251:
1748:
1355:Learn how and when to remove this message
694:can be recovered from the shaft of hair,
3455:
2717:
1279:
1132:
895:
730:
722:
3968:International Journal of Legal Medicine
3262:"A New DNA Test Helps Win a Conviction"
2830:"Mitochondrial DNA Typing in Forensics"
2022:Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation
1991:
1725:"A Brief History of Human Blood Groups"
1266:
1125:of drugs and chemicals, as well as the
1001:
4407:
4050:Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology
4022:"Bacteria, Biofilms and forensic PMSI"
4019:
4010:
3742:
3740:
3693:Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine
3550:"Forensic Botany and Its Applications"
3547:
3191:
3124:
2869:
2828:Gopalakrishnan, Anupama (2015-02-25).
2802:
2777:
2728:
2587:
2217:
1894:
1082:
1022:
745:organic (phenol-chloroform) extraction
4296:
3456:Wiersema, Jason M. (September 2016).
3451:
3449:
3375:
3373:
3323:
3321:
3295:
3291:
3289:
3187:
3185:
3069:
3067:
2865:
2863:
2861:
2859:
2857:
2855:
2853:
2851:
2849:
2369:
2367:
2274:
2220:"The future of forensic DNA analysis"
2188:
2186:
2184:
2182:
2076:, in Li, Stan Z.; Jain, Anil (eds.),
2015:
2013:
2011:
2009:
2007:
1652:
1576:
1479:"Forensic Biology | Forensic Science"
1062:
3875:, Academic Press, pp. 133–143,
3230:. Progress in Forensic Genetics 14.
2313:
2277:"DNA profiling and its applications"
1627:
1307:
4259:Clinical Microbiology and Infection
4099:Clinical Microbiology and Infection
3737:
3379:
2901:American Journal of Cancer Research
1969:"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1993"
1822:"Who Is Leone Lattes in Forensics?"
1045:Armed Forces Institute of Pathology
997:or other sophisticated DNA testing.
13:
3446:
3370:
3318:
3286:
3182:
3064:
2846:
2364:
2179:
2024:. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.
2004:
1992:Kanojia, Shikha (11 August 2019).
1495:
1396:
1198:Geolocation purposes by analyzing
917:
804:. DNA profiles are produced as an
14:
4431:
3820:"What is a Forensic Pathologist?"
2046:"Role of DNA in Forensic Science"
1303:
954:Subspecialties In Forensic Botany
890:murders of four Michigan children
4112:10.1046/j.1469-0691.2002.00497.x
4020:Petkar, Tejaswini (2022-10-03).
3268:. Associated Press. 1996-09-05.
3194:"Mitochondrial DNA Heteroplasmy"
2591:"DNA Isolation by Chelex Method"
2195:Fundamentals of Forensic Science
2193:Houck, Max; Siegal, Jay (2006).
1846:"Leone Lattes - Forensic's blog"
1729:Iranian Journal of Public Health
1504:Fundamentals of Forensic Science
1502:Houck, Max; Siegal, Jay (2006).
1312:
435:Traffic collision reconstruction
76:
4389:
4365:
4341:
4246:
4222:
4162:
4135:
4086:
3953:
3894:
3860:
3836:
3812:
3788:
3764:
3680:
3623:
3554:Legal Desire Media and Insights
3541:
3506:
3422:
3398:
3346:
3254:
3219:
3118:
3005:
2937:
2888:
2821:
2796:
2771:
2747:
2581:
2522:
2465:
2406:
2382:
2307:
2268:
2211:
2155:
2131:
2107:
2063:
2038:
1985:
1961:
1937:
1913:
1888:
1863:
1838:
1813:
1789:
1765:
1716:
1692:
872:State of Tennessee v. Paul Ware
705:For most forensic DNA samples,
636:
288:Questioned document examination
2332:10.1080/08998280.2005.11928051
2218:Butler, John M. (2015-08-05).
2070:Hicks, T.; Coquoz, R. (2009),
1667:
1646:
1621:
1595:
1570:
1544:
1520:
1471:
1206:Microbiomes of bodies of water
877:In 2004, with the help of the
546:
30:evidence in order to obtain a
1:
4297:Beans, Carolyn (2018-01-02).
2394:National Institute of Justice
2376:Using DNA to Solve Cold Cases
2119:National Institute of Justice
2086:10.1007/978-0-387-73003-5_106
1675:"Anthropometry | NIOSH | CDC"
1602:lepontissalien (2019-05-04).
1552:"ORIGINS OF FORENSIC SCIENCE"
1528:"Origins of Forensic Science"
1465:
1383:
1231:Bioterrorism and epidemiology
648:DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid
3581:Journal of Forensic Sciences
3240:10.1016/j.fsigss.2011.09.089
2604:10.1007/978-3-030-94230-4_10
1166:Hospital-acquired infections
7:
3462:Academic Forensic Pathology
1921:"Luminol Test | Howtosmile"
1870:Staff Writer (2015-08-04).
1820:Staff Writer (2015-08-04).
1653:Tietz, Tabea (2021-04-23).
1443:
1335:, discuss the issue on the
1300:analysis of a crime scene.
1152:Clarifying causes of death
1139:massive parallel sequencing
1050:Forensic odontologists are
938:(PMI) of a human skeleton.
827:(mtDNA) is used instead of
106:Bloodstain pattern analysis
10:
4436:
3705:10.1016/j.jflm.2015.05.003
2078:Encyclopedia of Biometrics
1895:Harris, Tom (2002-06-11).
1368:Sexual assault kit backlog
1283:
1143:next-generation sequencing
1086:
1026:
899:
820:Mitochondrial DNA analysis
714:short tandem repeats (STR)
640:
551:
4272:10.1016/j.cmi.2018.08.009
4062:10.1007/s00253-018-9414-6
3980:10.1007/s00414-013-0872-1
3907:Frontiers in Microbiology
3519:(0 ed.). CRC Press.
3296:Davis, C. Leland (1998).
2314:Saad, Rana (April 2005).
2197:. China: Academic Press.
1506:. China: Academic Press.
798:capillary electrophoresis
760:polymerase chain reaction
692:Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
631:polymerase chain reaction
405:Fire accelerant detection
3920:10.3389/fmicb.2016.00225
3125:Melton, T. (July 2012).
2490:10.21315/mjms2020.27.4.3
2432:10.3389/fgene.2020.00884
4316:10.1073/pnas.1718156114
4197:10.1073/pnas.1016657108
3593:10.1111/1556-4029.13934
3201:Forensic Science Review
3134:Forensic Science Review
3076:Nature Reviews Genetics
2972:10.1073/pnas.1810946115
2390:"What Is STR Analysis?"
2073:"Forensic DNA Evidence"
1634:Cleveland Police Museum
768:quantitative PCR (qPCR)
753:differential extraction
308:Social network analysis
3752:www.scienceofbirds.com
3192:Melton, Terry (2004).
2236:10.1098/rstb.2014.0252
736:
728:
390:Electrical engineering
22:is the application of
3848:www.sciencedirect.com
3776:www.sciencedirect.com
3548:Swetha (2020-12-26).
3525:10.1201/9780203484593
3410:naturalhistory.si.edu
2870:Butler, John (2005).
2803:Butler, John (2015).
2778:Butler, John (2005).
2729:Butler, John (2005).
2419:Frontiers in Genetics
2275:Singh, Lalji (1991).
1280:Water sample analysis
1193:Body fluid microbiome
1133:Forensic microbiology
1127:analytical techniques
902:Forensic anthropology
896:Forensic anthropology
734:
726:
661:Advanced Light Source
643:Forensic DNA analysis
420:Materials engineering
248:Facial reconstruction
36:forensic anthropology
4420:Forensic disciplines
4148:. World Scientific.
3873:Forensic Ecogenomics
3031:10.3390/cells8050433
2649:10.1038/nbt0993-1026
2548:10.7759/cureus.30210
1577:admin (2017-12-29).
1333:improve this section
1267:Post-mortem analysis
1213:post-mortem interval
1176:Shaken baby syndrome
1099:analytical chemistry
1076:forensic pathologist
1052:dental professionals
1002:Forensic ornithology
936:post-mortem interval
465:Perry Mason syndrome
253:Fingerprint analysis
4415:Branches of biology
4188:2011PNAS..108.5027R
4056:(24): 10377–10391.
2963:2018PNAS..11513039L
2957:(51): 13039–13044.
2834:Promega Connections
2695:10.1038/nbt0492-413
1897:"How Luminol Works"
1628:CPHS (2020-04-07).
1171:Sudden infant death
1089:Forensic toxicology
1083:Forensic toxicology
1034:Forensic odontology
1023:Forensic odontology
963:forensic palynology
698:, and the roots of
653:biological evidence
488:forensic entomology
425:Polymer engineering
383:Related disciplines
298:Forensic geophysics
278:Gloveprint analysis
258:Firearm examination
228:Body identification
52:forensic toxicology
44:forensic odontology
40:forensic entomology
3648:10.1039/c4ay02943g
3636:Analytical Methods
3434:www.britannica.com
3266:The New York Times
2230:(1674): 20140252.
1925:www.howtosmile.org
1850:forensicfield.blog
1455:Forensic chemistry
1286:Forensic limnology
1247:Bacillus anthracis
1211:Estimation of the
1107:clinical chemistry
1068:Forensic pathology
1063:Forensic pathology
1038:forensic dentistry
1029:Forensic dentistry
977:(study of lichens)
737:
729:
612:DNA fingerprinting
562:Alphonse Bertillon
400:Fire investigation
283:Palmprint analysis
243:Election forensics
126:Forensic genealogy
48:forensic pathology
4182:(12): 5027–5032.
4155:978-1-78634-079-5
3882:978-0-12-809360-3
3534:978-0-203-48459-3
3474:10.23907/2016.038
3358:www.spokesman.com
3146:10.1201/B15361-17
2814:978-0-12-405213-0
2789:978-0-12-147952-7
2740:978-0-12-147952-7
2613:978-3-030-94230-4
2287:(9/10): 580–585.
2204:978-0-12-356762-8
2095:978-0-387-73003-5
2031:978-1-4398-1005-7
1513:978-0-12-356762-8
1365:
1364:
1357:
825:Mitochondrial DNA
608:Sir Alec Jeffreys
544:
543:
322:Digital forensics
263:Footwear evidence
4427:
4400:
4393:
4387:
4386:
4384:
4383:
4369:
4363:
4362:
4360:
4359:
4345:
4339:
4338:
4328:
4318:
4294:
4285:
4284:
4274:
4250:
4244:
4243:
4241:
4240:
4226:
4220:
4219:
4209:
4199:
4166:
4160:
4159:
4139:
4133:
4132:
4114:
4090:
4084:
4083:
4073:
4041:
4032:
4031:
4029:
4028:
4017:
4008:
4007:
3965:
3957:
3951:
3950:
3940:
3922:
3898:
3892:
3891:
3890:
3889:
3864:
3858:
3857:
3855:
3854:
3840:
3834:
3833:
3831:
3830:
3816:
3810:
3809:
3807:
3806:
3792:
3786:
3785:
3783:
3782:
3768:
3762:
3761:
3759:
3758:
3744:
3735:
3734:
3716:
3684:
3678:
3677:
3667:
3642:(7): 2917–2927.
3627:
3621:
3620:
3578:
3570:
3564:
3563:
3561:
3560:
3545:
3539:
3538:
3510:
3504:
3503:
3493:
3453:
3444:
3443:
3441:
3440:
3426:
3420:
3419:
3417:
3416:
3402:
3396:
3395:
3393:
3392:
3380:Boyette, Chris.
3377:
3368:
3367:
3365:
3364:
3350:
3344:
3343:
3341:
3340:
3325:
3316:
3315:
3313:
3311:
3302:
3293:
3284:
3283:
3281:
3280:
3258:
3252:
3251:
3234:(1): e455–e456.
3223:
3217:
3216:
3198:
3189:
3180:
3179:
3177:
3176:
3170:
3164:. Archived from
3131:
3122:
3116:
3115:
3071:
3062:
3061:
3051:
3033:
3009:
3003:
3002:
2992:
2974:
2941:
2935:
2934:
2924:
2907:(3): 1207–1216.
2892:
2886:
2885:
2867:
2844:
2843:
2841:
2840:
2825:
2819:
2818:
2800:
2794:
2793:
2775:
2769:
2768:
2766:
2765:
2751:
2745:
2744:
2726:
2715:
2714:
2678:
2669:
2668:
2643:(9): 1026–1030.
2632:
2623:
2622:
2621:
2620:
2593:
2585:
2579:
2578:
2568:
2550:
2526:
2520:
2519:
2509:
2469:
2463:
2462:
2452:
2434:
2410:
2404:
2403:
2401:
2400:
2386:
2380:
2379:
2371:
2362:
2361:
2351:
2311:
2305:
2304:
2272:
2266:
2265:
2255:
2215:
2209:
2208:
2190:
2177:
2176:
2174:
2173:
2159:
2153:
2152:
2150:
2149:
2135:
2129:
2128:
2126:
2125:
2111:
2105:
2104:
2103:
2102:
2075:
2067:
2061:
2060:
2058:
2057:
2050:News-Medical.net
2042:
2036:
2035:
2017:
2002:
2001:
1989:
1983:
1982:
1980:
1979:
1965:
1959:
1958:
1956:
1955:
1941:
1935:
1934:
1932:
1931:
1917:
1911:
1910:
1908:
1907:
1892:
1886:
1885:
1883:
1882:
1867:
1861:
1860:
1858:
1857:
1842:
1836:
1835:
1833:
1832:
1817:
1811:
1810:
1808:
1807:
1793:
1787:
1786:
1784:
1783:
1769:
1763:
1762:
1752:
1720:
1714:
1713:
1711:
1710:
1696:
1690:
1689:
1687:
1686:
1671:
1665:
1664:
1662:
1661:
1650:
1644:
1643:
1641:
1640:
1625:
1619:
1618:
1616:
1615:
1608:TRACES DE FRANCE
1599:
1593:
1592:
1590:
1589:
1574:
1568:
1567:
1565:
1563:
1548:
1542:
1541:
1539:
1538:
1524:
1518:
1517:
1499:
1493:
1492:
1490:
1489:
1483:forensic.unl.edu
1475:
1460:Forensic science
1360:
1353:
1349:
1346:
1340:
1316:
1315:
1308:
1141:, also known as
1123:pharmacodynamics
1119:pharmacokinetics
1036:, also known as
983:(study of fungi)
969:dendrochronology
806:electropherogram
751:extraction, and
684:epithelial cells
616:forensic science
572:Karl Landsteiner
536:
529:
522:
448:Related articles
355:Network analysis
345:Malware analysis
303:Forensic geology
80:
70:Forensic science
57:
56:
20:Forensic biology
4435:
4434:
4430:
4429:
4428:
4426:
4425:
4424:
4405:
4404:
4403:
4394:
4390:
4381:
4379:
4371:
4370:
4366:
4357:
4355:
4347:
4346:
4342:
4295:
4288:
4251:
4247:
4238:
4236:
4228:
4227:
4223:
4167:
4163:
4156:
4140:
4136:
4091:
4087:
4042:
4035:
4026:
4024:
4018:
4011:
3958:
3954:
3899:
3895:
3887:
3885:
3883:
3865:
3861:
3852:
3850:
3842:
3841:
3837:
3828:
3826:
3818:
3817:
3813:
3804:
3802:
3794:
3793:
3789:
3780:
3778:
3770:
3769:
3765:
3756:
3754:
3746:
3745:
3738:
3685:
3681:
3628:
3624:
3571:
3567:
3558:
3556:
3546:
3542:
3535:
3516:Forensic Botany
3511:
3507:
3454:
3447:
3438:
3436:
3428:
3427:
3423:
3414:
3412:
3404:
3403:
3399:
3390:
3388:
3378:
3371:
3362:
3360:
3352:
3351:
3347:
3338:
3336:
3333:www.govtech.com
3327:
3326:
3319:
3309:
3307:
3300:
3294:
3287:
3278:
3276:
3260:
3259:
3255:
3224:
3220:
3196:
3190:
3183:
3174:
3172:
3168:
3129:
3123:
3119:
3088:10.1038/nrg1455
3082:(10): 739–751.
3072:
3065:
3010:
3006:
2942:
2938:
2893:
2889:
2882:
2868:
2847:
2838:
2836:
2826:
2822:
2815:
2801:
2797:
2790:
2776:
2772:
2763:
2761:
2759:www.promega.com
2753:
2752:
2748:
2741:
2727:
2718:
2679:
2672:
2633:
2626:
2618:
2616:
2614:
2586:
2582:
2527:
2523:
2470:
2466:
2411:
2407:
2398:
2396:
2388:
2387:
2383:
2372:
2365:
2312:
2308:
2281:Current Science
2273:
2269:
2216:
2212:
2205:
2191:
2180:
2171:
2169:
2167:www.sirchie.com
2161:
2160:
2156:
2147:
2145:
2137:
2136:
2132:
2123:
2121:
2113:
2112:
2108:
2100:
2098:
2096:
2068:
2064:
2055:
2053:
2044:
2043:
2039:
2032:
2018:
2005:
1990:
1986:
1977:
1975:
1967:
1966:
1962:
1953:
1951:
1943:
1942:
1938:
1929:
1927:
1919:
1918:
1914:
1905:
1903:
1893:
1889:
1880:
1878:
1868:
1864:
1855:
1853:
1844:
1843:
1839:
1830:
1828:
1818:
1814:
1805:
1803:
1795:
1794:
1790:
1781:
1779:
1771:
1770:
1766:
1721:
1717:
1708:
1706:
1698:
1697:
1693:
1684:
1682:
1673:
1672:
1668:
1659:
1657:
1651:
1647:
1638:
1636:
1626:
1622:
1613:
1611:
1600:
1596:
1587:
1585:
1575:
1571:
1561:
1559:
1556:CrimeMuseum.Org
1550:
1549:
1545:
1536:
1534:
1526:
1525:
1521:
1514:
1500:
1496:
1487:
1485:
1477:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1446:
1404:Law & Order
1399:
1397:Popular culture
1386:
1370:
1361:
1350:
1344:
1341:
1330:
1317:
1313:
1306:
1288:
1282:
1269:
1260:
1233:
1202:Soil microbiome
1190:Hair microbiome
1135:
1091:
1085:
1065:
1031:
1025:
1004:
956:
920:
918:Forensic botany
904:
898:
822:
645:
639:
582:Dr Leone Lattes
554:
549:
540:
495:
494:
493:
490:
487:
470:Pollen calendar
449:
441:
440:
439:
384:
376:
375:
374:
324:
314:
313:
312:
217:
209:
208:
184:
174:
173:
172:
116:DNA phenotyping
90:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4433:
4423:
4422:
4417:
4402:
4401:
4388:
4364:
4340:
4286:
4265:(5): 570–579.
4245:
4221:
4161:
4154:
4134:
4105:(8): 522–528.
4085:
4033:
4009:
3974:(1): 193–205.
3952:
3893:
3881:
3859:
3835:
3811:
3787:
3763:
3736:
3679:
3622:
3587:(3): 920–924.
3565:
3540:
3533:
3505:
3468:(3): 361–369.
3445:
3421:
3397:
3369:
3345:
3335:. 28 July 2010
3317:
3285:
3253:
3218:
3181:
3117:
3063:
3004:
2936:
2887:
2881:978-0121479527
2880:
2845:
2820:
2813:
2795:
2788:
2770:
2746:
2739:
2716:
2689:(4): 413–417.
2683:Bio/Technology
2670:
2637:Bio/Technology
2624:
2612:
2580:
2541:(10): e30210.
2521:
2464:
2405:
2381:
2363:
2326:(2): 130–133.
2306:
2267:
2210:
2203:
2178:
2154:
2130:
2106:
2094:
2062:
2037:
2030:
2003:
1984:
1973:NobelPrize.org
1960:
1936:
1912:
1887:
1862:
1837:
1812:
1797:"Leone Lattes"
1788:
1777:embryo.asu.edu
1764:
1715:
1704:NobelPrize.org
1691:
1666:
1645:
1620:
1594:
1569:
1558:. Crime Museum
1543:
1519:
1512:
1494:
1469:
1467:
1464:
1463:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1445:
1442:
1398:
1395:
1385:
1382:
1369:
1366:
1363:
1362:
1327:of the subject
1325:worldwide view
1320:
1318:
1311:
1305:
1304:Current issues
1302:
1293:trace evidence
1284:Main article:
1281:
1278:
1268:
1265:
1259:
1256:
1232:
1229:
1225:
1224:
1223:
1222:
1219:
1209:
1208:
1207:
1204:
1196:
1195:
1194:
1191:
1188:
1180:
1179:
1178:
1173:
1168:
1163:
1158:
1134:
1131:
1087:Main article:
1084:
1081:
1064:
1061:
1027:Main article:
1024:
1021:
1019:bird species.
1003:
1000:
999:
998:
984:
978:
972:
966:
955:
952:
919:
916:
900:Main article:
897:
894:
857:mini-amplicons
821:
818:
776:DNA polymerase
641:Main article:
638:
635:
623:Kary B. Mullis
606:Among others,
553:
550:
548:
545:
542:
541:
539:
538:
531:
524:
516:
513:
512:
511:
510:
505:
497:
496:
492:
491:
484:
482:
480:Trace evidence
477:
472:
467:
462:
457:
451:
450:
447:
446:
443:
442:
438:
437:
432:
427:
422:
417:
412:
407:
402:
397:
392:
386:
385:
382:
381:
378:
377:
373:
372:
370:Audio analysis
367:
365:Video analysis
362:
357:
352:
350:Mobile devices
347:
342:
340:Database study
337:
332:
330:Computer exams
326:
325:
320:
319:
316:
315:
311:
310:
305:
300:
295:
290:
285:
280:
275:
270:
265:
260:
255:
250:
245:
240:
235:
230:
225:
219:
218:
216:Criminalistics
215:
214:
211:
210:
207:
206:
201:
196:
191:
185:
180:
179:
176:
175:
171:
170:
165:
160:
155:
150:
145:
140:
135:
130:
129:
128:
118:
113:
108:
103:
98:
92:
91:
86:
85:
82:
81:
73:
72:
66:
65:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4432:
4421:
4418:
4416:
4413:
4412:
4410:
4398:
4392:
4378:
4377:www.rainn.org
4374:
4368:
4354:
4350:
4344:
4336:
4332:
4327:
4322:
4317:
4312:
4308:
4304:
4300:
4293:
4291:
4282:
4278:
4273:
4268:
4264:
4260:
4256:
4249:
4235:
4231:
4225:
4217:
4213:
4208:
4203:
4198:
4193:
4189:
4185:
4181:
4177:
4173:
4165:
4157:
4151:
4147:
4146:
4138:
4130:
4126:
4122:
4118:
4113:
4108:
4104:
4100:
4096:
4089:
4081:
4077:
4072:
4067:
4063:
4059:
4055:
4051:
4047:
4040:
4038:
4023:
4016:
4014:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3993:
3989:
3985:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3964:
3956:
3948:
3944:
3939:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3921:
3916:
3912:
3908:
3904:
3897:
3884:
3878:
3874:
3870:
3863:
3849:
3845:
3839:
3825:
3821:
3815:
3801:
3800:ScienceDirect
3797:
3791:
3777:
3773:
3767:
3753:
3749:
3743:
3741:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3715:
3714:11368/2840167
3710:
3706:
3702:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3683:
3675:
3671:
3666:
3661:
3657:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3637:
3633:
3626:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3577:
3569:
3555:
3551:
3544:
3536:
3530:
3526:
3522:
3518:
3517:
3509:
3501:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3452:
3450:
3435:
3431:
3425:
3411:
3407:
3401:
3387:
3383:
3376:
3374:
3359:
3355:
3349:
3334:
3330:
3324:
3322:
3306:
3299:
3292:
3290:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3257:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3237:
3233:
3229:
3222:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3195:
3188:
3186:
3171:on 2018-11-08
3167:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3140:(2): 101–22.
3139:
3135:
3128:
3121:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3070:
3068:
3059:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3032:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3008:
3000:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2940:
2932:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2891:
2883:
2877:
2873:
2866:
2864:
2862:
2860:
2858:
2856:
2854:
2852:
2850:
2835:
2831:
2824:
2816:
2810:
2806:
2799:
2791:
2785:
2781:
2774:
2760:
2756:
2750:
2742:
2736:
2732:
2725:
2723:
2721:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2677:
2675:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2631:
2629:
2615:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2592:
2584:
2576:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2525:
2517:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2468:
2460:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2433:
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2424:
2420:
2416:
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2391:
2385:
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2368:
2359:
2355:
2350:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2310:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2271:
2263:
2259:
2254:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2214:
2206:
2200:
2196:
2189:
2187:
2185:
2183:
2168:
2164:
2158:
2144:
2140:
2134:
2120:
2116:
2110:
2097:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2074:
2066:
2051:
2047:
2041:
2033:
2027:
2023:
2016:
2014:
2012:
2010:
2008:
1999:
1995:
1988:
1974:
1970:
1964:
1950:
1949:www.bbc.co.uk
1946:
1940:
1926:
1922:
1916:
1902:
1901:HowStuffWorks
1898:
1891:
1877:
1876:Reference.com
1873:
1866:
1851:
1847:
1841:
1827:
1826:Reference.com
1823:
1816:
1802:
1798:
1792:
1778:
1774:
1768:
1760:
1756:
1751:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1719:
1705:
1701:
1695:
1680:
1676:
1670:
1656:
1649:
1635:
1631:
1624:
1609:
1605:
1598:
1584:
1580:
1573:
1557:
1553:
1547:
1533:
1529:
1523:
1515:
1509:
1505:
1498:
1484:
1480:
1474:
1470:
1461:
1458:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1450:DNA profiling
1448:
1447:
1441:
1439:
1435:
1434:
1429:
1428:
1423:
1422:
1417:
1416:
1412:
1411:
1406:
1405:
1394:
1391:
1381:
1379:
1375:
1359:
1356:
1348:
1338:
1334:
1328:
1326:
1319:
1310:
1309:
1301:
1298:
1294:
1287:
1277:
1273:
1264:
1255:
1251:
1249:
1248:
1241:
1237:
1228:
1220:
1217:
1216:
1214:
1210:
1205:
1203:
1200:
1199:
1197:
1192:
1189:
1187:
1184:
1183:
1181:
1177:
1174:
1172:
1169:
1167:
1164:
1162:
1159:
1157:
1154:
1153:
1151:
1150:
1149:
1146:
1144:
1140:
1130:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1090:
1080:
1077:
1072:
1069:
1060:
1056:
1053:
1048:
1046:
1041:
1039:
1035:
1030:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
996:
992:
988:
985:
982:
979:
976:
973:
970:
967:
964:
961:
960:
959:
951:
947:
943:
939:
937:
933:
929:
925:
915:
911:
908:
903:
893:
891:
886:
884:
880:
875:
873:
868:
866:
862:
858:
853:
851:
847:
843:
837:
833:
830:
826:
817:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
794:
790:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
764:real-time PCR
761:
756:
754:
750:
746:
742:
733:
727:TaqMan Probes
725:
721:
719:
715:
712:
708:
703:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
668:
664:
662:
657:
655:
654:
649:
644:
634:
632:
628:
624:
619:
617:
613:
609:
604:
602:
598:
594:
590:
589:Albrecht. H.O
585:
583:
579:
577:
573:
569:
567:
566:anthropometry
563:
558:
537:
532:
530:
525:
523:
518:
517:
515:
514:
509:
506:
504:
501:
500:
499:
498:
489:
486:Use of DNA in
483:
481:
478:
476:
473:
471:
468:
466:
463:
461:
458:
456:
453:
452:
445:
444:
436:
433:
431:
428:
426:
423:
421:
418:
416:
413:
411:
408:
406:
403:
401:
398:
396:
393:
391:
388:
387:
380:
379:
371:
368:
366:
363:
361:
358:
356:
353:
351:
348:
346:
343:
341:
338:
336:
335:Data analysis
333:
331:
328:
327:
323:
318:
317:
309:
306:
304:
301:
299:
296:
294:
293:Vein matching
291:
289:
286:
284:
281:
279:
276:
274:
271:
269:
268:Forensic arts
266:
264:
261:
259:
256:
254:
251:
249:
246:
244:
241:
239:
236:
234:
231:
229:
226:
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