Biology - Knowledge

14458: 3101:, animals were selectively bred for specific traits. Given that traits are inherited, populations contain a varied mix of traits, and reproduction is able to increase any population, Darwin argued that in the natural world, it was nature that played the role of humans in selecting for specific traits. Darwin inferred that individuals who possessed heritable traits better adapted to their environments are more likely to survive and produce more offspring than other individuals. He further inferred that this would lead to the accumulation of favorable traits over successive generations, thereby increasing the match between the organisms and their environment. 2148:. In strenuous exercise, when energy demands exceed energy supply, the respiratory chain cannot process all of the hydrogen atoms joined by NADH. During anaerobic glycolysis, NAD regenerates when pairs of hydrogen combine with pyruvate to form lactate. Lactate formation is catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase in a reversible reaction. Lactate can also be used as an indirect precursor for liver glycogen. During recovery, when oxygen becomes available, NAD attaches to hydrogen from lactate to form ATP. In yeast, the waste products are ethanol and carbon dioxide. This type of fermentation is known as alcoholic or 2828: 1382: 2171: 3073: 3147: 2628: 4192: 14482: 1836: 12144: 3507: 973: 14494: 2390: 1137: 1938: 14420: 13975: 13149: 12807: 786: 1610: 13985: 5186: 2024: 1746: 14446: 12795: 773: 14470: 1552:, which is a large family of organic compounds that are composed of hydrogen atoms bonded to a chain of carbon atoms. A hydrocarbon backbone can be substituted by other elements such as oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S), which can change the chemical behavior of that compound. Groups of atoms that contain these elements (O-, H-, P-, and S-) and are bonded to a central carbon atom or skeleton are called 1491: 3790: 12827: 4378: 13995: 12817: 47: 71: 4274: 4002: 2238:(PSI). The transport of electrons is coupled to the movement of protons (or hydrogen) from the stroma to the thylakoid membrane, which forms a pH gradient across the membrane as hydrogen becomes more concentrated in the lumen than in the stroma. This is analogous to the proton-motive force generated across the inner mitochondrial membrane in aerobic respiration. 3203:

of descendants of a particular species or population. When a lineage divides into two, it is represented as a fork or split on the phylogenetic tree. Phylogenetic trees are the basis for comparing and grouping different species. Different species that share a feature inherited from a common ancestor

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into an early eukaryote about one billion years ago, which gave rise to chloroplasts. The first several clades that emerged following primary endosymbiosis were aquatic and most of the aquatic photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms are collectively described as algae, which is a term of convenience as

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that may be removed from the cell. This serves the purpose of oxidizing the electron carriers so that they can perform glycolysis again and removing the excess pyruvate. Fermentation oxidizes NADH to NAD so it can be re-used in glycolysis. In the absence of oxygen, fermentation prevents the buildup

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In the global ecosystem or biosphere, matter exists as different interacting compartments, which can be biotic or abiotic as well as accessible or inaccessible, depending on their forms and locations. For example, matter from terrestrial autotrophs are both biotic and accessible to other organisms

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designated as Q. In the second stage, electrons move from the quinone primary electron acceptor through a series of electron carriers until they reach a final electron acceptor, which is usually the oxidized form of NADP, which is reduced to NADPH, a process that takes place in a protein complex

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containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. The different stages of mitosis all together define the mitotic phase of an animal cell cycle—the division of the mother cell into two genetically identical daughter cells. The cell cycle is a vital process by which a single-celled

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that can later be released to fuel the organism's metabolic activities via cellular respiration. This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water. In most cases, oxygen is released as a waste product. Most plants,

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at the start of chapter XII noted “The first and most important of the conclusions which may be drawn from the observations given in this volume, is that generally cross-fertilisation is beneficial and self-fertilisation often injurious, at least with the plants on which I experimented.”

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on the cell. Before binary fission, DNA in the bacterium is tightly coiled. After it has uncoiled and duplicated, it is pulled to the separate poles of the bacterium as it increases the size to prepare for splitting. Growth of a new cell wall begins to separate the bacterium (triggered by

1981:, in which one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical, each step being facilitated by a specific enzyme. Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable reactions that require energy that will not occur by themselves, by 2724: 3595: 10157: 4362:

of a trophic level per unit of time is about one-tenth of the energy of the trophic level that it consumes. Waste and dead material used by decomposers as well as heat lost from metabolism make up the other ninety percent of energy that is not consumed by the next trophic level.

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began promoting the now universal ideas that (1) the basic unit of organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics of life, although they opposed the idea that (3) all cells come from the division of other cells, continuing to support

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Biologists could say, with confidence, that forms change, and that natural selection is an important force for change. Yet they could say nothing about how that change is accomplished. How bodies or body parts change, or how new structures arise, remained complete

4473:, and ecosystem diversity. The concern stems from estimates suggesting that up to 50% of all species on the planet will disappear within the next 50 years, which has contributed to poverty, starvation, and will reset the course of evolution on this planet. 3042:, meaning that they are ancient and very similar in widely separated groups of animals. Differences in deployment of toolkit genes affect the body plan and the number, identity, and pattern of body parts. Among the most important toolkit genes are the 6073: 2046:, which break large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy. Respiration is one of the key ways a cell releases chemical energy to fuel cellular activity. The overall reaction occurs in a series of biochemical steps, some of which are 3115:

A species is a group of organisms that mate with one another and speciation is the process by which one lineage splits into two lineages as a result of having evolved independently from each other. For speciation to occur, there has to be

10173: 3771:, mouth, and on the skin. Their morphological, metabolic, and geographical diversity permits them to play multiple ecological roles: carbon fixation; nitrogen cycling; organic compound turnover; and maintaining microbial symbiotic and 9467:"There are more viruses than stars in the universe. Why do only some infect us? – More than a quadrillion quadrillion individual viruses exist on Earth, but most are not poised to hop into humans. Can we find the ones that are?" 2319:

cells, for example, can reproduce uncontrollably because they release signals that initiate their own self-division. In paracrine signaling, the ligand diffuses to nearby cells and affects them. For example, brain cells called

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are separated into two new nuclei. Cell division gives rise to genetically identical cells in which the total number of chromosomes is maintained. In general, mitosis (division of the nucleus) is preceded by the S stage of

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The history of life on Earth traces how organisms have evolved from the earliest emergence of life to present day. Earth formed about 4.5 billion years ago and all life on Earth, both living and extinct, descended from a

6070: 2990:, and growth. Determination sets the developmental fate of a cell, which becomes more restrictive during development. Differentiation is the process by which specialized cells arise from less specialized cells such as 1392:

Life arose from the Earth's first ocean, which formed some 3.8 billion years ago. Since then, water continues to be the most abundant molecule in every organism. Water is important to life because it is an effective

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living together in a community have on each other. They can be either of the same species (intraspecific interactions), or of different species (interspecific interactions). These effects may be short-term, like

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Brandeis M. New-age ideas about age-old sex: separating meiosis from mating could solve a century-old conundrum. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc. 2018 May;93(2):801-810. doi: 10.1111/brv.12367. Epub 2017 Sep 14. PMID

8421: 2978:(plant or animal) goes through a series of changes, starting from a single cell, and taking on various forms that are characteristic of its life cycle. There are four key processes that underlie development: 2344:

of plants to reach their target cells. Once a ligand binds with a receptor, it can influence the behavior of another cell, depending on the type of receptor. For instance, neurotransmitters that bind with an

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and the erosion of biotic interactions. It is concerned with factors that influence the maintenance, loss, and restoration of biodiversity and the science of sustaining evolutionary processes that engender

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and carbon dioxide. Acetyl-CoA enters the citric acid cycle, which takes places inside the mitochondrial matrix. At the end of the cycle, the total yield from 1 glucose (or 2 pyruvates) is 6 NADH, 2 FADH

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showing the movement of carbon between land, atmosphere, and oceans in billions of tons per year. Yellow numbers are natural fluxes, red are human contributions, white are stored carbon. Effects of the

1977:) of compounds (such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids). Usually, catabolism releases energy, and anabolism consumes energy. The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into 2249:

in the second and third stages, respectively, provide the energy and electrons to drive the synthesis of glucose by fixing atmospheric carbon dioxide into existing organic carbon compounds, such as

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in an organism. The three main purposes of metabolism are: the conversion of food to energy to run cellular processes; the conversion of food/fuel to monomer building blocks; and the elimination of

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that are available. The carrying capacity of a population can be affected by changing environmental conditions such as changes in the availability of resources and the cost of maintaining them. In

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Photosynthesis – the synthesis by organisms of organic chemical compounds, esp. carbohydrates, from carbon dioxide using energy obtained from light rather than the oxidation of chemical compounds.

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in 1865. This outlined the principles of biological inheritance. However, the significance of his work was not realized until the early 20th century when evolution became a unified theory as the

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are eukaryotes that digest foods outside their bodies, secreting digestive enzymes that break down large food molecules before absorbing them through their cell membranes. Many fungi are also

2509:). Both of these cell division cycles are used in the process of sexual reproduction at some point in their life cycle. Both are believed to be present in the last eukaryotic common ancestor. 9554:"The Secret Life of a Coronavirus - An oily, 100-nanometer-wide bubble of genes has killed more than two million people and reshaped the world. Scientists don't quite know what to make of it" 3858:), protists by themselves do not constitute a separate clade as some protists may be more closely related to plants, fungi, or animals than they are to other protists. Like groupings such as 1505:

are molecules that contain carbon bonded to another element such as hydrogen. With the exception of water, nearly all the molecules that make up each organism contain carbon. Carbon can form

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Sugar in the form of glucose is the main nutrient used by animal and plant cells in respiration. Cellular respiration involving oxygen is called aerobic respiration, which has four stages:

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is the transcription factor that stimulates transcription when it binds to the sequence near or at the promoter. Negative regulation occurs when another transcription factor called a

2673:, states that genes of different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes, i.e., genes are unlinked. An exception to this rule would include traits that are 1907:, all of which provide support for the cell and are involved in the movement of the cell and its organelles. In terms of their structural composition, the microtubules are made up of 4860:

Mosconi, Francesco; Julou, Thomas; Desprat, Nicolas; Sinha, Deepak Kumar; Allemand, Jean-François; Vincent Croquette; Bensimon, David (2008). "Some nonlinear challenges in biology".

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have helped increase the Earth's carrying capacity for humans over time, which has stymied the attempted predictions of impending population decline, the most famous of which was by

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Wible, John R.; Rougier, Guillermo W.; Novacek, Michael J.; et al. (June 21, 2007). "Cretaceous eutherians and Laurasian origin for placental mammals near the K/T boundary".

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Yanes, Oscar; Clark, Julie; Wong, Diana M.; Patti, Gary J.; Sánchez-Ruiz, Antonio; Benton, H. Paul; Trauger, Sunia A.; Desponts, Caroline; Ding, Sheng; Siuzdak, Gary (June 2010).

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The beneficial effect of genetic complementation, derived from outcrossing (cross-fertilization) is also referred to as hybrid vigor or heterosis. Charles Darwin in his 1878 book

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Bernstein H, Byerly HC, Hopf FA, Michod RE. Genetic damage, mutation, and the evolution of sex. Science. 1985 Sep 20;229(4719):1277-81. doi: 10.1126/science.3898363. PMID 3898363

1961:. These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolic reactions may be categorized as 9466: 1895:

that provide storage and structural support as well as being involved in reproduction and breakdown of plant seeds. Eukaryotic cells also have cytoskeleton that is made up of

4904: 3034:. Morphogenesis, or the development of body form, is the result of spatial differences in gene expression. A small fraction of the genes in an organism's genome called the 3898:, which are microscopic freshwater algae that may have resembled in form to the early unicellular ancestor of Plantae. Unlike glaucophytes, the other algal clades such as 10725:

Koh, Lian Pin; Dunn, Robert R.; Sodhi, Navjot S.; Colwell, Robert K.; Proctor, Heather C.; Smith, Vincent S. (2004). "Species coextinctions and the biodiversity crisis".

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Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "Water and carbon: The chemical basis of life".

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with up to four other atoms, enabling it to form diverse, large, and complex molecules. For example, a single carbon atom can form four single covalent bonds such as in

2645:, specifically, is the process by which genes and traits are passed on from parents to offspring. It has several principles. The first is that genetic characteristics, 6154:

Lodish, Harvey; Berk, Arnold.; Kaiser, Chris A.; Krieger, Monty; Scott, Matthew P.; Bretscher, Anthony; Ploegh, Hidde; Matsudaira, Paul (2008). "Cellular energetics".

7543: 1788:, allowing small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water to pass through while restricting the movement of larger molecules and charged particles such as 7448: 5987: 5814:

Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "Lipids, membranes, and the first cells".

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that corresponds to a region of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that carries genetic information that controls form or function of an organism. DNA is composed of two

3810:) that gave rise to mitochondria and chloroplasts, both of which are now part of modern-day eukaryotic cells. The major lineages of eukaryotes diversified in the 2245:

from the thylakoid lumen to the stroma through the ATP synthase is coupled to the synthesis of ATP by that same ATP synthase. The NADPH and ATPs generated by the

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that loosely attach to the outer side of the cell membrane, acting as enzymes shaping the cell. Cell membranes are involved in various cellular processes such as

3303:, which lasted approximately 4 billion years. Each eon can be divided into eras, with the Phanerozoic eon that began 539 million years ago being subdivided into 922:

Life on Earth, which emerged more than 3.7 billion years ago, is immensely diverse. Biologists have sought to study and classify the various forms of life, from

4342:, which are the species that obtain energy by breaking apart organic compounds from other organisms. Heterotrophs that consume plants are primary consumers (or 9209:

Moissl-Eichinger. C.; Pausan, M.; Taffner, J.; Berg, G.; Bang, C.; Schmitz, R. A. (January 2018). "Archaea Are Interactive Components of Complex Microbiomes".

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Ohtomo, Yoko; Kakegawa, Takeshi; Ishida, Akizumi; et al. (January 2014). "Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks".

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Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "Nucleic acids and the RNA world".

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Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "An introduction to carbohydrate".

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of a new cycle. In contrast to mitosis, meiosis results in four haploid daughter cells by undergoing one round of DNA replication followed by two divisions.

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writings on population growth, and his own morphological expertise and extensive natural observations, forged a more successful evolutionary theory based on

1014:(384–322 BCE) contributed extensively to the development of biological knowledge. He explored biological causation and the diversity of life. His successor, 6189: 5734:

Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "Protein structure and function".

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encode proteins that are not involved in gene regulation. In addition to regulatory events involving the promoter, gene expression can also be regulated by

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Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "Biology and the three of life".

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dates from 1.85 billion years ago, and while they may have been present earlier, their diversification accelerated when they started using oxygen in their

10053: 9553: 8592: 3870:, the protist grouping is not a formal taxonomic group but is used for convenience. Most protists are unicellular; these are called microbial eukaryotes. 11268: 2140:

of NADH in the cytoplasm and provides NAD for glycolysis. This waste product varies depending on the organism. In skeletal muscles, the waste product is

8768: 8743: 3631:. Archaea and bacteria are generally similar in size and shape, although a few archaea have very different shapes, such as the flat and square cells of 1424:

O). Because the O–H bonds are polar, the oxygen atom has a slight negative charge and the two hydrogen atoms have a slight positive charge. This polar

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of a protein. Gene expression can be influenced by positive or negative regulation, depending on which of the two types of regulatory proteins called

1081:. Advances in microscopy had a profound impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, biologists pointed to the central importance of the 13104: 10372: 9341:"The collapse of the two-kingdom system, the rise of protistology and the founding of the International Society for Evolutionary Protistology (ISEP)" 8378: 8138: 2336:. In juxtacrine signaling, there is direct contact between the signaling and responding cells. Finally, hormones are ligands that travel through the 1689:

are the fundamental units of life, that all living things are composed of one or more cells, and that all cells arise from preexisting cells through

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O'Malley, Maureen A.; Leger, Michelle M.; Wideman, Jeremy G.; Ruiz-Trillo, Iñaki (2019-02-18). "Concepts of the last eukaryotic common ancestor".

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of that dominant allele. During gamete formation, the alleles for each gene segregate, so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene.

10782: 10494: 9013: 8554: 6129: 8374:"Terrestrial-marine teleconnections in the Devonian: links between the evolution of land plants, weathering processes, and marine anoxic events" 6626:

Hörandl E. Apomixis and the paradox of sex in plants. Ann Bot. 2024 Mar 18:mcae044. doi: 10.1093/aob/mcae044. Epub ahead of print. PMID 38497809

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through conservation action plans that direct research, monitoring, and education programs that engage concerns at local through global scales.

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Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Ecological and evolutionary consequences within and among species".

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Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "The structure and function of large biological molecules".

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Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "Evolution, the themes of biology, and scientific inquiry".

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than it is as a solid (or ice). This unique property of water allows ice to float above liquid water such as ponds, lakes, and oceans, thereby

13413: 8859: 7299: 6520: 5222: 1640:, and fats, largely nonpolar and hydrophobic (water-repelling) substances. Proteins are the most diverse of the macromolecules. They include 2054:, it clearly does not resemble one when it occurs in a cell because of the slow, controlled release of energy from the series of reactions. 12863: 8546: 7929: 7473:

Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "Descent with modifications: A Darwinian view of life".

3157: 9853: 6926: 6751: 4817: 2649:, are discrete and have alternate forms (e.g., purple vs. white or tall vs. dwarf), each inherited from one of two parents. Based on the 8000:

Rosing, Minik T. (January 29, 1999). "C-Depleted Carbon Microparticles in >3700-Ma Sea-Floor Sedimentary Rocks from West Greenland".

5206: 4078:. Because viruses possess some but not all characteristics of life, they have been described as "organisms at the edge of life", and as 4066:—pieces of DNA that can move between cells—while others may have evolved from bacteria. In evolution, viruses are an important means of 3475:

became the most abundant land vertebrates; one archosaur group, the dinosaurs, dominated the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. After the

3212:). Phylogeny provides the basis of biological classification. This classification system is rank-based, with the highest rank being the 2861:

in 1958. According to the Central Dogma, genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to protein. There are two gene expression processes:

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Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "Meiosis".

3476: 3163: 107: 6568:"Targeting Bacterial Cell Division: A Binding Site-Centered Approach to the Most Promising Inhibitors of the Essential Protein FtsZ" 1632:

include monomers and polymers of sugars. Lipids are the only class of macromolecules that are not made up of polymers. They include

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Darwin, C. R. 1878. The effects of cross and self fertilisation in the vegetable kingdom. London: John Murray. darwin-online.org.uk

5565: 5444:, chapter 10: "Darwin's evidence for evolution and common descent"; and chapter 11: "The causation of evolution: natural selection" 4552: 3155: 10031: 8260: 2009:

of the rate of a metabolic reaction, for example in response to changes in the cell's environment or to signals from other cells.

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Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "Carbon and the molecular diversity of life".

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eon and many of the major steps in early evolution are thought to have taken place in this environment. The earliest evidence of

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process whereby each strand serves as a template for a new strand of DNA. Mutations are heritable changes in DNA. They can arise

2604:, often produced as a byproduct of sexual reproduction, may provide long-term advantages to those sexual lineages that engage in 3160: 1126: 3165: 13874: 13236: 11319: 11142: 11115: 11083: 11056: 11026: 10997: 10965: 10935: 10906: 10866: 10591: 10563: 10477: 10304: 10167: 10099: 9958: 9933: 9847: 9821: 8693: 7976: 7876: 7417: 7293: 6722: 6695: 6335: 5981: 5467: 5320: 5295: 5263: 5236: 5156: 5125: 5098: 5064: 5028: 4844: 3468: 3199:, a diagram showing lines of descent among organisms or their genes. Each line drawn on the time axis of a tree represents a 2650: 1355:

is the branch of biology that seeks to understand the molecular basis of biological activity in and between cells, including

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Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "The distribution of Earth's ecological systems".

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Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "The distribution of Earth's ecological systems".

8480: 8187: 7423: 1460:. Thus, a large amount of energy is needed to break the hydrogen bonds between water molecules to convert liquid water into 13678: 12570: 8618: 7502: 6018: 5473: 5269: 5131: 5021:

The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context

3429:, at least 2.7 billion years ago. Microorganisms are thought to have paved the way for the inception of land plants in the 2670: 2275:

to receive, process, and transmit signals with its environment and with itself. Signals can be non-chemical such as light,

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Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "The origin and diversification of eukaryotes".

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that feed on the waste products or dead bodies of organisms. On average, the total amount of energy incorporated into the

13246: 12152: 2690: 2544:) fully develops, resulting in the complete split of the bacterium. The new daughter cells have tightly coiled DNA rods, 904: 718: 6682:

Griffiths, Anthony J. F.; Miller, Jeffrey H.; Suzuki, David T.; Lewontin, Richard C.; Gelbart, William M., eds. (2000).

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indefinitely to produce more of the same stem cell. Cellular differentiation dramatically changes a cell's size, shape,

1408:. Once dissolved in water, these solutes are more likely to come in contact with one another and therefore take part in 13036: 13011: 11740: 10641: 10403: 10347: 10323:

Edwards, Katrina. "Microbiology of a Sediment Pond and the Underlying Young, Cold, Hydrologically Active Ridge Flank".

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play a role in the synthesis and packaging of proteins, respectively. Biomolecules such as proteins can be engulfed by

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were able to reify the third tenet, and by the 1860s most biologists accepted all three tenets which consolidated into

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with a broad scope but has several unifying themes that tie it together as a single, coherent field. For instance, all

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Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "Membrane structure and function".

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A phylogeny is an evolutionary history of a specific group of organisms or their genes. It can be represented using a

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Hillis, David M.; Heller, H. Craig; Hacker, Sally D.; Laskowski, Marta J.; Sadava, David E. (2020). "Studying life".

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by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can be readily used by plants and other microbes.

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Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Carbon and molecular diversity of life".

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results from the cohesive force due to the attraction between molecules at the surface of the liquid. Water is also

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Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "The chemical context of life".

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Modell, Harold; Cliff, William; Michael, Joel; McFarland, Jenny; Wenderoth, Mary Pat; Wright, Ann (December 2015).

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relationships with plants and animals. Most bacteria have not been characterised, and only about 27 percent of the

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Rybicki, E. P. (1990). "The classification of organisms at the edge of life, or problems with virus systematics".

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Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "The evolution and diversity of fungi".

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Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Reconstructing and using phylogenies".

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Algae-like multicellular land plants are dated back to about 1 billion years ago, although evidence suggests that

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showed that organic compounds could be synthesized abiotically within a closed system mimicking the conditions of

1464:. As a molecule, water is not completely stable as each water molecule continuously dissociates into hydrogen and 50:

Biology is the science of life. It spans multiple levels from biomolecules and cells to organisms and populations.

13267: 12983: 12923: 12893: 8908:"Geomicrobiology of high-level nuclear waste-contaminated vadose sediments at the Hanford site, Washington state" 6179: 4547: 3855: 3161: 2907:

bind to the DNA sequence close to or at a promoter. A cluster of genes that share the same promoter is called an

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If oxygen were not present, pyruvate would not be metabolized by cellular respiration but undergoes a process of

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sequence itself. Thus, different cells can have very different physical characteristics despite having the same

2135:. The pyruvate is not transported into the mitochondrion but remains in the cytoplasm, where it is converted to 2093:, and 2 ATP molecules. Finally, the next stage is oxidative phosphorylation, which in eukaryotes, occurs in the 12958: 11195: 8580: 7205:

Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Genes, development, and evolution".

3940: 3272: 2942: 2938: 2229:. The absorbed light energy is used to remove electrons from a donor (water) to a primary electron acceptor, a 2082: 810: 8884: 6099:

Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Cells: The working units of life".

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A (a) trophic pyramid and a (b) simplified food web. The trophic pyramid represents the biomass at each level.

3169: 2811:, particles emitted by unstable isotopes). Mutations can lead to phenotypic effects such as loss-of-function, 2042:

into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products. The reactions involved in respiration are

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Canchaya, C.; Fournous, G.; Chibani-Chennoufi, S. (August 2003). "Phage as agents of lateral gene transfer".

8780: 8739: 8726: 8718: 6657:

Griffiths, Anthony J.; Wessler, Susan R.; Carroll, Sean B.; Doebley, John (2015). "The genetics revolution".

4932: 4563: 3154: 3128:. Speciation can occur when there are physical barriers that divide an ancestral species, a process known as 2878: 2819:

for evolution. Others are harmful if they were to result in a loss of function of genes needed for survival.

2397:

exchange genetic information during meiosis I. The daughter cells divide again in meiosis II to form haploid

1413: 4096:

Ecology is the study of the distribution and abundance of life, the interaction between organisms and their

3740:

with no other organisms. Improved molecular detection tools led to the discovery of archaea in almost every

3168: 1129:, treated species as artificial categories and living forms as malleable—even suggesting the possibility of 13399: 13178: 12973: 12953: 12778: 10061: 8588: 7136:

Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Regulation of gene expression".

5509:"Gregor Mendel's principles of inheritance form the cornerstone of modern genetics. So just what are they?" 4573: 4055: 3714: 3619:), a term that has fallen out of use. Archaeal cells have unique properties separating them from the other 2776: 1372: 1201: 10364: 9440:

Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Animal origins and diversity".

7897:

Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "The history of life on Earth".

6819:

Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "DNA and its role in heredity".

6421:

Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Cell membranes and signaling".

4281:

A community is a group of populations of species occupying the same geographical area at the same time. A

14122: 14116: 13955: 13370: 13152: 12849: 12768: 10678:"Links between global taxonomic diversity, ecological diversity and the expansion of vertebrates on land" 10002:

Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "Population ecology".

9471: 8776: 7685: 6259: 6226: 6184: 4522: 2767:. The genetic information is held within genes, and the complete assemblage in an organism is called its 1376: 38: 3152: 2937:), thereby allowing transcription to occur. Specific genes that can be activated by inducers are called 2929:, which is part of an operon, to prevent transcription. Repressors can be inhibited by compounds called 2560:

Meiosis is a central feature of sexual reproduction in eukaryotes, and the most fundamental function of

1420:

with a bent shape formed by the polar covalent bonds of two hydrogen (H) atoms to one oxygen (O) atom (H

14436: 13932: 12948: 12216: 11283: 7372: 6254: 6221: 6040:

Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2002).

5367: 3209: 2585: 2366: 2073:. Glycolysis is a metabolic process that occurs in the cytoplasm whereby glucose is converted into two 2034:

Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in cells to convert

1584: 17: 10780: 10525: 8964: 6125: 3173: 1993:—they allow a reaction to proceed more rapidly without being consumed by it—by reducing the amount of 1452:

the liquid below from the cold air above. Water has the capacity to absorb energy, giving it a higher

13978: 13945: 13205: 12251: 12211: 12176: 11788: 11367: 11344: 11312: 11226: 10953: 9387:

Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "The evolution of plants".

6388: 6355: 6279:

Bryant, D. A.; Frigaard, N. U. (Nov 2006). "Prokaryotic photosynthesis and phototrophy illuminated".

3316: 3153: 2812: 2740: 2580:, are likely maintained respectively by the adaptive advantages of recombinational repair of genomic 2077:, with two net molecules of ATP being produced at the same time. Each pyruvate is then oxidized into 2070: 1797: 1591:, thus suggesting that complex organic molecules could have arisen spontaneously in early Earth (see 1417: 1257: 1046:

working in Greek philosopher traditions, while natural history drew heavily on Aristotelian thought.

803: 86: 10338:

Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Ecological communities".

8417:"Precambrian animal diversity: Putative phosphatized embryos from the Doushantuo Formation of China" 7593:

Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Processes of evolution".

3487:

may have accelerated evolution by providing opportunities for new groups of organisms to diversify.

3150: 13960: 13898: 12908: 12820: 11531: 11340: 7564: 4532: 4067: 3654: 3434: 3415: 2995: 2983: 2862: 2346: 2246: 2145: 2105:

that is coupled to the pumping of protons (hydrogen ions) across the inner mitochondrial membrane (

2066: 1146: 1086: 713: 31: 9765:"Are viruses alive? The replicator paradigm sheds decisive light on an old but misguided question" 7868: 7283: 6512: 3170: 3151: 14308: 13171: 13026: 12963: 12903: 12303: 11437: 10885: 8083: 4953:; et al. (March 1, 2018). "Constraining the Time Interval for the Origin of Life on Earth". 3588: 3512: 2979: 2888: 2698: 2370: 2284: 1726: 955: 880: 13422: 8558: 7922: 7751:"Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya" 6683: 2373:

cascades. The process by which a chemical or physical signal is transmitted through a cell as a

2101:

that transfer electrons from one complex to another, thereby releasing energy from NADH and FADH

2006: 1919:) whereas intermediate filaments are made up of fibrous proteins. Microfilaments are made up of 896: 13488: 13056: 13006: 12978: 12938: 12380: 12062: 12004: 11647: 8850: 6281: 4955: 4537: 4282: 3411: 3172: 3117: 2975: 2913: 2866: 2423:, and the subsequent partitioning of its cytoplasm into two daughter cells in a process called 2296: 2242: 2136: 2110: 1864: 1785: 1534: 1472:, the number of hydrogen ions balances (or equals) the number of hydroxyl ions, resulting in a 1453: 1368: 1166: 1095: 708: 314: 9837: 7239:

Slack, J.M.W. (2007). "Metaplasia and transdifferentiation: from pure biology to the clinic".

6922: 6739: 5056: 4821: 3555:. Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its 3171: 2097:. Oxidative phosphorylation comprises the electron transport chain, which is a series of four 14462: 13950: 13573: 13548: 13528: 13344: 13339: 13077: 12465: 12440: 12420: 11760: 11501: 11431: 11411: 10243: 9949:

Chapin III, F. Stuart; Matson, Pamela A.; Mooney, Harold A. (2002). "The ecosystem concept".

8626: 7816:. From the Century of the Genome to the Century of the Organism: New Theoretical Approaches. 7734:

Futuyma, Douglas J.; Kirkpatrick, Mark (2017). "Phylogeny: The unity and diversity of life".

4909: 4542: 4386: 4381: 4311: 4256: 4150:

and is incorporated into plant tissue. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals move

3658: 3633: 3426: 3276: 3129: 3035: 3018:, and responsiveness to signals, which are largely due to highly controlled modifications in 2971: 2896: 2884: 2642: 2573: 2541: 2498: 2394: 2329: 2308: 2288: 2250: 2221:. Light absorption is the initial step of photosynthesis whereby light energy is absorbed by 2187: 2121: 1900: 1868: 1440:

as it is able to adhere to the surface of any polar or charged non-water molecules. Water is

1182: 1155: 1122: 1050: 399: 374: 354: 189: 169: 9561: 7860: 5191:

One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the

5048: 14024: 13793: 13603: 13553: 13109: 13082: 13021: 12968: 12685: 12495: 12445: 12256: 12226: 12097: 12057: 12019: 11667: 11305: 10811: 10734: 10128: 9287: 9050: 8979: 8919: 8868: 8806: 8635: 8497: 8429: 8344: 8289: 8056: 8011: 7762: 7040: 6989: 5080: 4974: 4869: 4772: 4439: 4395: 4314:, harmful to both partners. Every species participates as a consumer, resource, or both in 3850:

organisms that are not plants, fungi, or animals. While it is likely that protists share a

3706: 3638: 3098: 3067: 2918: 2904: 2658: 2654: 2634:

depicting a cross between two pea plants heterozygous for purple (B) and white (b) blossoms

2149: 2018: 1966: 1801: 1718: 1429: 1405: 1265: 947: 870: 741: 619: 429: 379: 6327: 6317: 2883:

The regulation of gene expression by environmental factors and during different stages of

1965:—the breaking down of compounds (for example, the breaking down of glucose to pyruvate by 1428:

of water allows it to attract other water molecules via hydrogen bonds, which makes water

8: 14235: 14170: 13708: 13578: 13262: 13114: 13051: 12943: 12928: 12773: 12763: 12600: 12470: 12181: 12171: 12092: 12034: 11288: 9977:

Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Populations".

8965:"Novel Microbial Diversity and Functional Potential in the Marine Mammal Oral Microbiome" 8476: 8247: 7861: 5557: 5221:

Fahd, Toufic (1996). "Botany and agriculture". In Morelon, Régis; Rashed, Roshdi (eds.).

4512: 4494: 4307: 4268: 4224: 4212: 4115: 4097: 4075: 3972: 3948: 3620: 3280: 3245: 3200: 3120:. Reproductive isolation can result from incompatibilities between genes as described by 3038:

control the development of that organism. These toolkit genes are highly conserved among

2569: 2378: 2374: 2304: 2300: 2051: 2002: 1986: 1942: 1769: 1702: 1657: 1425: 1386: 756: 746: 534: 404: 96: 10815: 10738: 10132: 9291: 9143: 9054: 8983: 8923: 8872: 8810: 8639: 8501: 8433: 8348: 8293: 8060: 8015: 7766: 7623:

Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Speciation".

7523: 7044: 6993: 6342:

This initial incorporation of carbon into organic compounds is known as carbon fixation.

4978: 4873: 4776: 4481:

upon which people depend. Conservation biologists research and educate on the trends of

4013: 3433:

period. Land plants were so successful that they are thought to have contributed to the

3026:. With a few exceptions, cellular differentiation almost never involves a change in the 2780: 2210:

of the Earth's atmosphere, and supplies most of the energy necessary for life on Earth.

1855:

that have their own lipid bilayers or are spatially units. These organelles include the

14486: 13869: 13823: 13803: 13788: 13613: 13608: 13231: 13226: 13194: 13124: 13072: 12933: 12918: 12898: 12872: 12715: 12695: 12680: 12505: 12500: 12298: 12246: 12129: 12124: 12039: 11994: 11921: 11843: 11793: 11355: 11350: 10834: 10799: 10758: 10702: 10677: 10517: 10445: 10420: 10247: 10091: 9922: 9789: 9764: 9691: 9643: 9616: 9526: 9499: 9321: 9076: 9005: 8830: 8513: 8400: 8373: 8313: 8210: 8160: 8133: 8114: 8087: 7837: 7697: 7535: 7527: 7346: 7321: 7264: 7064: 7013: 6904: 6661:(11th ed.). Sunderland, Massachusetts: W.H. Freeman & Company. pp. 1–30. 6594: 6567: 6061:

The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing

5889: 4998: 4964: 4885: 4793: 4760: 4736: 4703: 4557: 4527: 4507: 4478: 4186: 3979:—but it has been estimated there are over 7 million animal species in total. They have 3911: 3612: 3480: 3456: 3205: 3125: 3011: 3007: 2694: 2622: 2337: 2207: 2206:

perform photosynthesis, which is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the

1982: 1954: 1813: 1805: 1449: 1249: 1237: 1197: 1118: 1003: 967: 703: 649: 629: 614: 439: 434: 103: 91: 11491: 10027: 9722: 9120: 9095: 8940: 8907: 8647: 7179: 7162: 2827: 13984: 13808: 13688: 13543: 13284: 12913: 12700: 12580: 12435: 12102: 11828: 11516: 11506: 11465: 11237: 11138: 11121: 11111: 11105: 11101: 11089: 11079: 11062: 11052: 11022: 11003: 10993: 10987: 10971: 10961: 10941: 10931: 10912: 10902: 10895: 10862: 10839: 10750: 10707: 10647: 10637: 10587: 10559: 10553: 10473: 10450: 10399: 10343: 10300: 10275: 10210: 10163: 10095: 10007: 9982: 9954: 9929: 9900: 9843: 9817: 9794: 9726: 9683: 9648: 9531: 9445: 9420: 9392: 9362: 9313: 9258: 9226: 9191: 9125: 9068: 8997: 8945: 8822: 8699: 8689: 8685: 8457: 8452: 8416: 8305: 8242: 8165: 8047: 8027: 8002: 7982: 7972: 7902: 7872: 7829: 7825: 7790: 7785: 7750: 7701: 7664: 7628: 7598: 7478: 7413: 7351: 7289: 7256: 7210: 7184: 7141: 7105: 7056: 7005: 6959: 6896: 6853: 6846: 6824: 6718: 6691: 6662: 6599: 6546: 6494: 6484: 6461: 6451: 6426: 6331: 6323: 6298: 6159: 6104: 6010: 5977: 5950: 5914: 5881: 5844: 5819: 5794: 5769: 5739: 5709: 5684: 5656: 5594: 5463: 5424: 5416: 5384: 5376: 5316: 5291: 5259: 5232: 5152: 5121: 5094: 5060: 5049: 5024: 4990: 4926: 4889: 4881: 4840: 4798: 4784: 4741: 4723: 4682: 4648: 4614: 4482: 4220: 4208: 4158: 4123: 4071: 4020: 3882: 3674: 3646: 3616: 3564: 3283:

that divides the history of the Earth into major divisions, starting with four eons (

3217: 3196: 3076: 2816: 2601: 2532: 2350: 2125: 2062: 1994: 1978: 1781: 1645: 1485: 1409: 1352: 1336: 1241: 1178: 908: 900: 884: 862: 751: 634: 514: 369: 202: 140: 10762: 9325: 9009: 8931: 8214: 7539: 6908: 5488: 3802:

Eukaryotes are hypothesized to have split from archaea, which was followed by their

2815:, and conditional mutations. Some mutations are beneficial, as they are a source of 2784: 2783:

as a result of replication errors that were not corrected by proofreading or can be

2531:

in eukaryotes, binary fission in prokaryotes takes place without the formation of a

14516: 14223: 14112: 14082: 13533: 13129: 12810: 12425: 12112: 11999: 11609: 11572: 11457: 11427: 11291: 10829: 10819: 10742: 10697: 10689: 10629: 10621: 10509: 10440: 10432: 10239: 10200: 10136: 9784: 9776: 9718: 9695: 9675: 9638: 9628: 9521: 9511: 9352: 9303: 9295: 9271: 9218: 9181: 9115: 9107: 9080: 9058: 8987: 8935: 8927: 8880: 8876: 8834: 8814: 8797: 8735: 8643: 8614: 8517: 8505: 8488: 8447: 8437: 8395: 8387: 8352: 8317: 8297: 8280: 8256: 8202: 8183: 8155: 8147: 8109: 8101: 8064: 8019: 7841: 7821: 7780: 7770: 7693: 7519: 7498: 7341: 7333: 7268: 7248: 7174: 7095: 7068: 7048: 7017: 6997: 6886: 6589: 6579: 6290: 5893: 5873: 5086: 5002: 4982: 4877: 4788: 4780: 4731: 4715: 4399: 4335: 4252: 4244: 4174: 4119: 4079: 4016: 3764: 3572: 3548: 3525: 3484: 3233: 3213: 3090: 2358: 2325: 2276: 2214: 1851:. In addition to biomolecules, eukaryotic cells have specialized structures called 1820:

and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures such as a

1793: 1698: 1553: 1502: 1402: 1381: 1344: 1335:

constituting essentially all the remainder. Different elements can combine to form

1292: 1253: 1043: 1027: 790: 359: 198: 11244: 10228:

Wootton, JT; Emmerson, M (2005). "Measurement of Interaction Strength in Nature".

10074:

a community of animals, plants, or humans among whose members interbreeding occurs

9111: 4493:

the well-being of human society. Organizations and citizens are responding to the

3894:

not all algae are closely related. Algae comprise several distinct clades such as

14423: 14298: 14253: 14147: 14142: 14132: 14017: 13921: 13818: 13783: 13119: 12710: 12675: 12024: 11966: 11808: 11745: 11587: 11461: 11166: 11016: 10786: 10617: 10611: 9208: 8521: 8218: 8129: 8023: 7407: 7369: 7100: 7083: 6264: 6231: 6077: 5455: 5313:

Biology in the Nineteenth Century: Problems of Form, Function, and Transformation

5253: 5115: 5051:

A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century

4568: 4338:, which can then be used by the rest of the community. At the next level are the 4216: 3768: 3698: 3584: 3552: 3265: 3229: 3225: 3072: 3019: 2946: 2840: 2772: 2669:

individuals produce gametes with an equal frequency of two alleles. Finally, the

2416: 2341: 2218: 2194: 2170: 2118: 2098: 1958: 1872: 1817: 1613:

The (a) primary, (b) secondary, (c) tertiary, and (d) quaternary structures of a

1561: 1530: 1433: 1228:

and bacteria, along with the discovery of the double-helical structure of DNA by

1159: 1090: 838: 644: 609: 12841: 11415: 10141: 10116: 9780: 8651: 7966: 6002: 2627: 2174:

Photosynthesis changes sunlight into chemical energy, splits water to liberate O

174: 14498: 14474: 14450: 13988: 13673: 13483: 12799: 12565: 12375: 12206: 12201: 12191: 12186: 12087: 12029: 11961: 11956: 11818: 11813: 11707: 11662: 11639: 11521: 11511: 11453: 10983: 10893:

Alberts, B.; Johnson, A.; Lewis, J.; Raff, M.; Roberts, K.; Walter, P. (2002).

10669: 10412: 8905: 8675: 8275: 7755:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

7559: 6584: 6041: 5363: 5023:(2nd ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. pp. 1–20. 4490: 4419: 4236: 4162: 4147: 4143: 4024: 3952: 3890: 3878: 3851: 3710: 3661:. Other aspects of archaeal biochemistry are unique, such as their reliance on 3568: 3521: 3440: 3398:

of coexisting bacteria and archaea were the dominant form of life in the early

3379: 3003: 2999: 2736: 2686: 2631: 2520: 2482: 2477: 2412: 2354: 2272: 2266: 2165: 2035: 1750: 1686: 1677: 1565: 1518: 1469: 1205: 1174: 1162: 1141: 1130: 1113:

Meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians.

1103: 1082: 1066: 1007: 895:

of plants and animals, and evolution of populations. Hence, there are multiple

846: 777: 499: 309: 10625: 10205: 10188: 9299: 9222: 8992: 7229:

Slack, J.M.W. (2013) Essential Developmental Biology. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford.

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can be estimated by multiplying population density by the area or volume. The

2226: 14510: 14481: 14107: 13753: 13648: 13538: 13513: 13508: 13354: 12645: 12540: 12430: 12405: 12400: 12293: 12241: 12236: 12014: 11931: 11833: 11798: 11567: 11279:: A biological journal publishing significant peer-reviewed scientific papers 11252: 11249: 11161: 11066: 10916: 10651: 10214: 9708: 6977: 6947: 6712: 6565: 6498: 6465: 6250: 6217: 5864:

Mazzarello, P. (May 1999). "A unifying concept: the history of cell theory".

5197: 5192: 4950: 4727: 4719: 4327: 4191: 4154:

and energy through the system. They also influence the quantity of plant and

4044: 4036: 4005: 3960: 3807: 3702: 3666: 3532: 3422: 3395: 3336: 3141: 2987: 2858: 2485:

develops into a mature organism, as well as the process by which hair, skin,

2473: 2424: 2315:. In autocrine signaling, the ligand affects the same cell that releases it. 2292: 2241:

During the third stage of photosynthesis, the movement of protons down their

2235: 2203: 2124:. The transfer of electrons terminates with molecular oxygen being the final 1932: 1904: 1860: 1809: 1773: 1761: 1734: 1690: 1621: 1604: 1569: 1506: 1233: 1189: 1170: 1114: 991: 579: 474: 364: 339: 334: 13163: 11125: 11093: 11007: 10975: 10945: 10824: 10746: 9186: 9169: 8703: 8415:

Jun-Yuan, Chen; Oliveri, Paola; Chia-Wei, Li; et al. (April 25, 2000).

7986: 7775: 5908: 4350:). And those that eat secondary consumers are tertiary consumers and so on. 2506: 1668:. Their function is to store, transmit, and express hereditary information. 1556:. There are six prominent functional groups that can be found in organisms: 990:

The earliest of roots of science, which included medicine, can be traced to

14331: 14317: 13798: 13778: 13743: 13738: 13728: 13723: 13703: 13683: 13593: 13563: 13523: 13503: 13493: 13473: 13468: 13463: 13458: 12690: 12670: 12635: 12630: 12620: 12615: 12595: 12575: 12485: 12455: 12415: 12395: 12385: 12365: 12360: 12355: 12350: 12231: 12221: 12196: 11853: 11687: 11604: 11562: 11423: 11190: 10843: 10754: 10711: 10693: 10454: 10436: 9798: 9730: 9687: 9652: 9633: 9535: 9516: 9366: 9317: 9230: 9195: 9072: 9001: 8949: 8826: 8461: 8442: 8391: 8309: 8169: 8151: 8105: 7833: 7355: 7260: 7188: 7109: 6963: 6900: 6603: 6302: 6014: 5885: 5388: 4994: 4802: 4745: 4474: 4445: 4423: 4346:) whereas heterotrophs that consume herbivores are secondary consumers (or 4334:) such as plants and algae that convert energy and inorganic material into 4330:

within any food web, with the lowest level being the primary producers (or

3964: 3863: 3827: 3803: 3729: 3501: 3375: 2892: 2792: 2760: 2666: 2502: 2254: 2190: 2132: 2114: 2106: 2074: 1974: 1916: 1912: 1856: 1848: 1829: 1710: 1637: 1629: 1340: 1245: 1229: 1209: 1099: 1015: 982: 977: 939: 624: 604: 569: 564: 554: 549: 529: 509: 419: 389: 349: 329: 319: 299: 294: 289: 284: 184: 12143: 11205: 9357: 9340: 9129: 8357: 8332: 8031: 7794: 7444: 7060: 7009: 4986: 3506: 2415:

that cause it to divide into two daughter cells. These events include the

1835: 1445: 14290: 14165: 13848: 13843: 13813: 13768: 13713: 13653: 13638: 13633: 13598: 13558: 13448: 13438: 13433: 13089: 12740: 12735: 12705: 12660: 12605: 12545: 12530: 12525: 12490: 12450: 12340: 12330: 12325: 12009: 11735: 11657: 11536: 11526: 11477: 11419: 11256: 11222: 10398:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 916–934. 10342:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 898–915. 10274:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 882–897. 9981:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 864–897. 9899:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 845–863. 9549: 9497: 9444:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 469–519. 9419:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 451–468. 9391:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 420–449. 9257:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 402–419. 8188:"The origin of the Metazoa in the light of the Proterozoic fossil record" 7901:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 357–376. 7807: 7663:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 325–342. 7627:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 343–356. 7597:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 299–324. 7337: 7209:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 273–298. 7140:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 215–233. 6823:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 172–193. 4517: 4427: 4415: 4407: 4394:

whereas the matter in rocks and minerals are abiotic and inaccessible. A

4339: 4291: 3936: 3907: 3903: 3895: 3811: 3694: 3662: 3602: 3529: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3023: 2950: 2934: 2853:

in the proteins of an organism's body. This process is summarized by the

2808: 2796: 2702: 2674: 2605: 2577: 2461: 2448: 2333: 2253:(RuBP) in a sequence of light-independent (or dark) reactions called the 2222: 2141: 1896: 1888: 1884: 1777: 1714: 1682: 1664:. Twenty amino acids are used in proteins. Nucleic acids are polymers of 1649: 1592: 1588: 1549: 1526: 1514: 1461: 1356: 1136: 1107: 1058: 995: 923: 919:, perform experiments, and form conclusions about the world around them. 912: 853:, which can be transmitted to future generations. Another major theme is 674: 669: 639: 594: 539: 479: 464: 459: 424: 384: 274: 264: 259: 179: 125: 10251: 9679: 9308: 8818: 8301: 8278:; et al. (May 26, 2011). "Earth's earliest non-marine eukaryotes". 7738:(4th ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 401–429. 6425:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 82–104. 4354:

heterotrophs are able to consume at multiple levels. Finally, there are

2926: 938:, fungi, plants, and animals. These various organisms contribute to the 14382: 14263: 13833: 13828: 13773: 13758: 13698: 13663: 13658: 13628: 13588: 13568: 13498: 13478: 13031: 12725: 12720: 12665: 12650: 12590: 12555: 12550: 12520: 12480: 12460: 12390: 12370: 12119: 11946: 11838: 11783: 11712: 11692: 11652: 11557: 11473: 11407: 11403: 11231: 11018:

The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance

10633: 10521: 9769:

Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences

9096:"Walsby's square bacterium: fine structure of an orthogonal procaryote" 7578:

Futuyma, Douglas J.; Kirkpatrick, Mark (2017). "Evolutionary biology".

7531: 6103:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 60–81. 6066: 5708:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 56–65. 5541:

Futuyma, Douglas J.; Kirkpatrick, Mark (2017). "Evolutionary Biology".

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includes all the processes involved in the flow of genetic information.

2752: 2744: 2678: 2512: 2494: 2493:

are renewed. After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the

2486: 2453: 2406: 2389: 2078: 2058: 2043: 1950: 1880: 1825: 1706: 1694: 1693:. Most cells are very small, with diameters ranging from 1 to 100 1665: 1661: 1653: 1614: 1316: 1217: 1074: 1070: 1054: 1039: 999: 916: 892: 858: 659: 654: 599: 584: 524: 489: 484: 454: 414: 394: 324: 304: 164: 159: 14493: 13391: 11263: 8206: 7052: 6891: 6874: 6158:(6th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. pp. 479–532. 3748:. Archaea are particularly numerous in the oceans, and the archaea in 3649:

that are more closely related to those of eukaryotes, notably for the

3615:

as bacteria, receiving the name archaebacteria (in the Archaebacteria

2332:

to bind with a receptor on an adjacent cell such as another neuron or

1937: 1609: 14341: 14303: 14258: 14248: 14188: 14009: 13748: 13733: 13718: 13668: 13643: 13379: 13375: 13333: 13312: 13221: 13099: 13046: 13041: 13016: 12640: 12625: 12610: 12560: 12535: 12276: 12077: 11989: 11871: 11803: 11775: 11682: 11496: 11485: 11481: 11449: 11176: 8261:

10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0.CO;2-6

8132:; Javaux, Emmanuelle J.; Hewitt, David; et al. (June 29, 2006). 8068: 7582:(4th ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 3–26. 7001: 6566:

Casiraghi, A.; Suigo, L.; Valoti, E.; Straniero, V. (February 2020).

5545:(4th ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 3–26. 5228: 4403: 4372: 4347: 4343: 4331: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4139: 4109: 4059: 4048: 3915: 3899: 3835: 3819: 3784: 3772: 3745: 3737: 3722: 3690: 3624: 3580: 3576: 3472: 3444: 3403: 3391: 3383: 3371: 3304: 3253: 3189: 3181: 3083: 2991: 2954: 2922: 2850: 2804: 2748: 2693:, which states that genes are found on chromosomes, was supported by 2662: 2469: 2465: 2457: 2428: 2420: 2039: 2028: 1990: 1962: 1852: 1821: 1765: 1754: 1722: 1573: 1332: 1286: 1062: 1011: 943: 931: 876: 866: 854: 699: 574: 559: 544: 494: 469: 222: 135: 130: 10513: 9063: 9038: 8414: 7809: 7252: 4231:

that can be sustained by that specific environment, given the food,

3673:. Archaea use more energy sources than eukaryotes: these range from 3611:

constitute the other domain of prokaryotic cells and were initially

2597:

The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom

1843:

Within the cytoplasm of a cell, there are many biomolecules such as

1533:(CO). Moreover, carbon can form very long chains of interconnecting 14445: 14392: 14336: 14268: 14203: 14089: 14077: 14049: 13838: 13763: 13693: 13623: 13618: 13443: 13329: 13298: 13094: 12794: 12730: 12655: 12585: 12515: 12510: 12335: 12269: 11866: 11823: 11722: 11594: 11469: 11445: 11217: 9614: 9277: 8854: 7322:"Metabolic oxidation regulates embryonic stem cell differentiation" 5283: 4969: 4466: 4453: 4351: 4323: 4286: 4240: 4200: 4127: 4028: 3984: 3956: 3944: 3935:

Animals are multicellular eukaryotes. With few exceptions, animals

3874: 3867: 3831: 3823: 3814:

about 1.5 billion years ago and can be classified into eight major

3752:

may be one of the most abundant groups of organisms on the planet.

3749: 3686: 3670: 3467:, dominated the land, but most of this group became extinct in the 3460: 3356: 3348: 3344: 3332: 3328: 3320: 3312: 3308: 3087: 3050: 3043: 2957:, which is a complex of DNA and protein found in eukaryotic cells. 2846: 2768: 2764: 2732: 2682: 2638: 2589: 2545: 2316: 1998: 1970: 1876: 1465: 1437: 1398: 1348: 1328: 1308: 1304: 1078: 1023: 951: 842: 772: 664: 589: 519: 449: 444: 269: 238: 217: 13890: 9170:"Archaea associated with human surfaces: not to be underestimated" 8962: 8509: 6875:"The bacterial nucleoid: a highly organized and dynamic structure" 5423:. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press: Cambridge, 2002. 5369:

The foundations of The origin of species, a sketch written in 1842

4489:, and the negative effect these are having on our capabilities to 4477:

affects the functioning of ecosystems, which provide a variety of

4142:. These biotic and abiotic components are linked together through 3798:, a single-celled eukaryote that can both move and photosynthesize 3789: 3471:

252 million years ago. During the recovery from this catastrophe,

3374:

from their common ancestor. Biologists regard the ubiquity of the

3252:(originally Archaebacteria), bacteria (originally eubacteria), or 2186:

Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to

2023: 1745: 1490: 1240:. From the 1950s onwards, biology has been vastly extended in the 14387: 14375: 14243: 14218: 14178: 14157: 14127: 13853: 13583: 13453: 13291: 12745: 12475: 12345: 12262: 12107: 12082: 12067: 12049: 11896: 11861: 11702: 11697: 11624: 11619: 11599: 11392: 10467: 9345:

International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology

8906:

Fredrickson, J. K.; Zachara, J. M.; Balkwill, D. L. (July 2004).

5877: 4470: 4449: 4444:

Conservation biology is the study of the conservation of Earth's

4359: 4232: 4228: 4204: 4155: 4135: 4091: 4063: 4047:

have been described in detail. Viruses are found in almost every

4040: 3980: 3976: 3968: 3925: 3843: 3794: 3741: 3718: 3697:) use sunlight as an energy source, and other species of archaea 3678: 3608: 3598: 3556: 3479:

66 million years ago killed off the non-avian dinosaurs, mammals

3399: 3387: 3367: 3340: 3288: 3249: 3241: 3185: 2930: 2788: 2661:; an organism with at least one dominant allele will display the 2561: 2549: 2528: 2524: 2516: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2362: 2312: 2230: 1908: 1892: 1844: 1729:, every cell in the organism's body is derived ultimately from a 1633: 1625: 1542: 1510: 1495: 1457: 1441: 1394: 1312: 1035: 935: 927: 888: 679: 409: 279: 226: 212: 9498:

Koonin, E. V.; Senkevich, T. G.; Dolja, V. V. (September 2006).

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Montévil, M; Mossio, M; Pocheville, A; Longo, G (October 2016).

6872: 6545:(6th ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson. pp. 271–289. 5380: 4905:"How Did Life Become Complex, And Could It Happen Beyond Earth?" 4758: 4146:

and energy flows. Energy from the sun enters the system through

3086:

is a central organizing concept in biology. It is the change in

2755:. The set of chromosomes in a cell is collectively known as its 2723: 972: 14370: 14363: 14072: 14067: 14041: 13518: 13305: 12410: 11941: 11926: 11886: 11881: 11755: 11677: 11672: 11582: 11180: 9762: 9585: 8474: 6062: 5969: 4377: 4170: 4151: 3921: 3839: 3650: 3628: 3594: 3544: 3464: 3452: 3284: 3221: 3039: 3031: 2911:, found mainly in prokaryotes and some lower eukaryotes (e.g., 2908: 2756: 2646: 2565: 2505:), and sister chromatids are separated in the second division ( 2490: 2432: 2398: 2321: 2280: 2094: 1730: 1725:, whereas eukaryotes can be single-celled or multicellular. In 1641: 1538: 1324: 1320: 1300: 1296: 1269: 344: 234: 46: 11185: 9811: 8619:"Assessing the record and causes of Late Triassic extinctions" 8273: 7748: 7684:

Kitching, Ian J.; Forey, Peter L.; Williams, David M. (2001).

6656: 5907:

Campbell, Neil A.; Williamson, Brad; Heyden, Robin J. (2006).

4051:

on Earth and are the most numerous type of biological entity.

3842:, and animals. Five of these clades are collectively known as 3049:. Hox genes determine where repeating parts, such as the many 2456:(during which the DNA is replicated) and is often followed by 1887:

such as a cell wall that provides support for the plant cell,

14400: 14358: 14351: 14346: 14183: 14137: 14099: 14057: 12072: 11971: 11903: 11891: 11629: 11577: 10581: 10421:"Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time" 9666:

Edwards, R.A.; Rohwer, F. (June 2005). "Viral metagenomics".

8843: 6681: 6243: 6210: 4418:) compartments of Earth. There are biogeochemical cycles for 4302:

of the species involved. A long-term interaction is called a

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Conservation biology: an evolutionary-ecological perspective

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Barry, Patrick L. (January 28, 2002). Phillips, Tony (ed.).

8372:

Algeo, Thomas J.; Scheckler, Stephen E. (January 29, 1998).

7163:"Eukaryotic mRNPs may represent posttranscriptional operons" 6278: 3906:

are multicellular. Green algae comprise three major clades:

2681:

can be performed to experimentally determine the underlying

2299:

a cell. There are generally four types of chemical signals:

1867:(ATP) to power cellular processes. Other organelles such as 1220:

that held the trait-carrying units that had become known as

1158:, who presented a coherent theory of evolution. The British 14278: 14213: 14208: 14198: 14193: 14062: 11951: 11936: 11876: 11552: 11441: 11397: 11200: 10989:

Why Big Fierce Animals are Rare: An Ecologist's Perspective

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Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity

6172: 4701: 4642: 4389:, such as volcanic and tectonic activity, are not included. 3756: 3642: 2714: 2540:

polymerization and "Z-ring" formation). The new cell wall (

2537: 1221: 1154:

Serious evolutionary thinking originated with the works of

1121:

for the natural world in 1735, and in the 1750s introduced

850: 834: 150: 11297: 10117:"The flexible application of carrying capacity in ecology" 8044: 6540: 6322:(International ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: 6000: 5838: 5818:(6th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Pearson. pp. 119–141. 5813: 5793:(6th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Pearson. pp. 107–118. 5788: 5733: 5650: 5375:. Cambridge: Printed at the University Press. p. 53. 4761:"Self-organization and entropy reduction in a living cell" 4676: 4195:

Reaching carrying capacity through a logistic growth curve

4126:) components (e.g., water, light, radiation, temperature, 3983:

with each other and their environments, forming intricate

3299:), the first three of which are collectively known as the 2411:

The cell cycle is a series of events that take place in a

2050:

reactions. Although cellular respiration is technically a

1311:

account for most (96%) of the mass of all organisms, with

11730: 10613:

Conservation biology: foundations, concepts, applications

10508:(11). American Institute of Biological Sciences: 727–34. 10162:(5th ed.). Brooks/Cole, a part of Cengage Learning. 10001: 9756: 8333:"Early life on land and the first terrestrial ecosystems" 7928:. International Stratigraphic Commission. February 2022. 7472: 7449:

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine

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Alberts, B.; Johnson, A.; Lewis, J.; et al. (2002).

5944: 5843:(6th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Pearson. pp. 93–106. 5763: 5678: 5588: 4608: 3682: 3244:. All organisms can be classified as belonging to one of 3027: 2718: 2568:

that is passed on to progeny by parents. Two aspects of

2447:. Mitosis is part of the cell cycle, in which replicated 2369:. Activation of G protein-coupled receptors can initiate 1789: 1628:. Monomers include sugars, amino acids, and nucleotides. 1213: 1065:

and the diversity of microscopic life. Investigations by

907:

that they use. Like other scientists, biologists use the

11275: 10777:

Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis.

10006:(11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 1188–1211. 8794: 8740:

10.1130/1052-5173(2005)015<4:TEOTDI>2.0.CO;2

6065:. It is also common to describe small molecules such as 5906: 5738:(6th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Pearson. pp. 78–92. 5655:(6th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Pearson. pp. 55–77. 5460:

Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory

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Lindberg, David C. (2007). "Science before the Greeks".

4948: 4859: 4001: 3928:, feeding on dead organic matter, making them important 3370:

indicate that they have diverged through the process of

2945:

that are almost constantly active. In contrast to both,

2689:

can be used to predict the results of a test cross. The

2113:. Energy from the proton motive force drives the enzyme 1949:

All cells require energy to sustain cellular processes.

1923:

molecules that interact with other strands of proteins.

1018:, began the scientific study of plants. Scholars of the 869:. Finally, all organisms are able to regulate their own 11614: 10586:(3rd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. 10425:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

10297:

Oxford dictionary of biochemistry and molecular biology

9665: 9617:"Structural and functional studies of archaeal viruses" 9286:(3). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 338–344. 6153: 6042:"Cell Movements and the Shaping of the Vertebrate Body" 6039: 4681:(6th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Pearson. pp. 1–18. 4402:

of matter are turned over or moved through the biotic (

3627:. Archaea are further divided into multiple recognized 2439:

cells), there are two distinct types of cell division:

1473: 1359:

synthesis, modification, mechanisms, and interactions.

11225:

A peer-reviewed, open-access journal published by the

10960:(7th ed.). Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company. 10189:"Historical Biogeography: Evolution in Time and Space" 9948: 9830: 9167: 8855:"Major Patterns in the History of Carnivorous Mammals" 8245:(January 7, 1998). "The origins of multicellularity". 8128: 7477:(11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 466–483. 6923:"Genotype definition – Medical Dictionary definitions" 5949:(11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 126–142. 4820:. Texas State University at San Marcos. Archived from 3053:

of snakes, will grow in a developing embryo or larva.

1883:

have additional organelles that distinguish them from

1468:

ions before reforming into a water molecule again. In

14434: 10393: 10337: 10269: 9976: 9894: 9439: 9414: 9386: 9332: 9252: 8717:

Fastovsky, David E.; Sheehan, Peter M. (March 2005).

7896: 7683: 7658: 7622: 7592: 7204: 7154: 7135: 6980:(August 1970). "Central dogma of molecular biology". 6873:

Thanbichler, M; Wang, SC; Shapiro, L (October 2005).

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Davies, PC; Rieper, E; Tuszynski, JA (January 2013).

3124:. Reproductive isolation also tends to increase with 1188:

The basis for modern genetics began with the work of

10265: 10263: 10261: 10231:

Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics

9972: 9970: 9615:

Lawrence C. M.; Menon S.; Eilers, B. J. (May 2009).

8769:"Dinosaur Extinction Spurred Rise of Modern Mammals" 8468: 5768:(11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 66–92. 5683:(11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 56–65. 5593:(11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 28–43. 5255:

A History of the Life Sciences, Revised and Expanded

5117:

A History of the Life Sciences, Revised and Expanded

3721:; unlike bacteria, no known species of Archaea form 2960: 2845:

Gene expression is the molecular process by which a

2588:

which masks the expression of deleterious recessive

2271:

Cell signaling (or communication) is the ability of

861:

is also important to life as it allows organisms to

11271:

science journal – see sections of the life sciences

10724: 9842:. New York: Marshall Cavendish. 2004. p. 238. 9410: 9408: 9382: 9380: 9378: 9376: 9248: 9246: 9244: 9242: 9240: 8365: 7892: 7890: 7888: 7319: 6675: 4613:(11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 2–26. 2564:appears to be conservation of the integrity of the 2353:of a target cell. Other types of receptors include 1891:that harvest sunlight energy to produce sugar, and 1624:are large molecules made up of smaller subunits or 1397:, capable of dissolving solutes such as sodium and 10924:Begon, M.; Townsend, C. R.; Harper, J. L. (2005). 10894: 10551: 9921: 9763:Koonin, E. V.; Starokadomskyy, P. (October 2016). 9592:. International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. 8719:"The Extinction of the Dinosaurs in North America" 8612: 7733: 7654: 7652: 7650: 7648: 7646: 7644: 7618: 7616: 7614: 7577: 7200: 7198: 7131: 7129: 7127: 7125: 7123: 7121: 7119: 6845: 6814: 6812: 6810: 6808: 6806: 6804: 6802: 6650: 6416: 6414: 6347: 6094: 6092: 6090: 6088: 6086: 5540: 4298:, or long-term; both often strongly influence the 3455:originated about 525 million years ago during the 3256:(includes the fungi, plant, and animal kingdoms). 2917:). In positive regulation of gene expression, the 2555: 1224:. A focus on new kinds of model organisms such as 857:, which explains the unity and diversity of life. 12871: 10675: 10387: 10331: 10299:. Oxford : Oxford University Press. p. 508. 10258: 10115:Chapman, Eric J.; Byron, Carrie J. (2018-01-01). 9967: 9888: 8379:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 8139:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 8075: 7412:. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. pp. 4–6. 6710: 6450:(6th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 6383: 6381: 6309: 6274: 6272: 5994: 5055:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 4944: 4942: 3889:. Plant cells were derived by endosymbiosis of a 3705:, no known species of archaea does both. Archaea 2519:and bacteria) can also undergo cell division (or 1780:that sit between phospholipids to maintain their 1660:. The basic unit (or monomer) of a protein is an 1385:Model of hydrogen bonds (1) between molecules of 37:"Biological" redirects here. For other uses, see 14508: 11206:Journal of the History of Biology (springer.com) 11137:(3rd ed.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth. 10992:(reissue ed.). Princeton University Press. 10676:Sahney, S.; Benton, M. J.; Ferry, P. A. (2010). 9942: 9500:"The ancient Virus World and evolution of cells" 9433: 9405: 9373: 9237: 8716: 8606: 8088:"Archaean metabolic evolution of microbial mats" 7885: 7749:Woese, CR; Kandler, O; Wheelis, ML (June 1990). 7677: 7405: 6952:Symposia of the Society for Experimental Biology 6634: 6632: 5646: 5644: 5642: 5640: 5638: 5636: 5634: 5632: 5630: 5047:Grant, Edward (2007). "Ancient Egypt to Plato". 4837:Molecular Biology, Principles of Genome Function 3315:eras. These three eras together comprise eleven 1548:The simplest form of an organic molecule is the 1073:and helped to develop techniques of microscopic 10804:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 10227: 8963:Dudek, N. K.; Sun, C. L.; Burstein, D. (2017). 8849: 8555:California State Polytechnic University, Pomona 8330: 7993: 7810:"Theoretical principles for biology: Variation" 7641: 7611: 7586: 7406:Hall, Brian K.; Hallgrímsson, Benedikt (2007). 7195: 7116: 6799: 6704: 6411: 6083: 5729: 5727: 5725: 5697: 5628: 5626: 5624: 5622: 5620: 5618: 5616: 5614: 5612: 5610: 4122:) organisms in conjunction with the nonliving ( 3149: 2152:. The ATP generated in this process is made by 849:that process hereditary information encoded in 10930:(4th ed.). Blackwell Publishing Limited. 9885:(2006), p. 522; Smith & Smith 2012, p. G-5 9873:Tansley (1934); Molles (1999), p. 482; Chapin 8371: 7362: 7160: 7075: 6378: 6269: 6149: 6147: 6145: 6143: 6141: 6139: 6001:Tom Herrmann; Sandeep Sharma (March 2, 2019). 5857: 5410: 4939: 4913:. Archived from the original on 17 August 2018 4672: 4670: 4668: 4666: 4664: 4138:, and soil) of their environment is called an 2887:can occur at each step of the process such as 2393:In meiosis, the chromosomes duplicate and the 14025: 13906: 13407: 13193: 13179: 13105:History of the creation-evolution controversy 12857: 11313: 9542: 9491: 8860:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 8481:"Lower Cambrian vertebrates from south China" 8176: 8038: 7867:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 6629: 6513:"10.2 The Cell Cycle – Biology 2e | OpenStax" 5224:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 5042: 5040: 4818:"Aquarena Wetlands Project glossary of terms" 3366:The similarities among all known present-day 2763:. In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within the 2739:chains that coil around each other to form a 1339:such as water, which is fundamental to life. 1236:in 1953, marked the transition to the era of 1185:to independently reach the same conclusions. 811: 11294:journal publishing essays of broad relevance 11276:International Journal of Biological Sciences 10547: 10545: 10468:Soulé, Michael E.; Wilcox, Bruce A. (1980). 10418: 10114: 9458: 8134:"Eukaryotic organisms in Proterozoic oceans" 8081: 7814:Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology 7727: 7571: 7468: 7466: 7464: 7462: 7161:Keene, Jack D.; Tenenbaum, Scott A. (2002). 6534: 5832: 5807: 5782: 5759: 5757: 5755: 5722: 5674: 5672: 5607: 5584: 5582: 5534: 5502: 5500: 5210:(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 5014: 5012: 4809: 4638: 4636: 4634: 4632: 4630: 3885:Plantae, which would exclude fungi and some 2727:Bases lie between two spiraling DNA strands. 2705:between eye color and sex in these insects. 2685:of an organism with a dominant phenotype. A 1859:, which contains most of the cell's DNA, or 1784:at various temperatures. Cell membranes are 1165:, combining the biogeographical approach of 10779:World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C. 10577: 10575: 10461: 10155: 9995: 9951:Principles of Terrestrial Ecosystem Ecology 9812:Begon, M; Townsend, CR; Harper, JL (2006). 9737: 9168:Bang, C.; Schmitz, R. A. (September 2015). 9093: 8331:Beraldi-Campesi, Hugo (February 23, 2013). 8235: 7863:Life Evolving: Molecules, Mind, and Meaning 7852: 6837: 6136: 6033: 5976:(4th ed.). New York: Garland Science. 4661: 4604: 4602: 4600: 4598: 4596: 4594: 4592: 4590: 2849:encoded in DNA gives rise to an observable 1002:. Their contributions shaped ancient Greek 946:, where they play specialized roles in the 14032: 14018: 13913: 13899: 13414: 13400: 13186: 13172: 12864: 12850: 11320: 11306: 10605: 10603: 7692:(2nd ed.). Elsevier. pp. 33–45. 7491: 7281: 7081: 6445: 6353: 5863: 5037: 4896: 3732:, living in extreme environments, such as 1705:. There are generally two types of cells: 1042:. Medicine was especially well studied by 818: 804: 13880:Timeline of biology and organic chemistry 13242:Timeline of biology and organic chemistry 13135:Relationship between religion and science 10833: 10823: 10701: 10542: 10472:. Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. 10444: 10294: 10204: 10186: 10140: 10060:. Oxford University Press. Archived from 9913: 9788: 9702: 9642: 9632: 9608: 9578: 9525: 9515: 9356: 9307: 9185: 9161: 9119: 9062: 8991: 8939: 8451: 8441: 8399: 8356: 8159: 8113: 7784: 7774: 7459: 7345: 7178: 7099: 6890: 6765: 6731: 6690:(7th ed.). New York: W. H. 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New York: Cambridge University Press. 5214: 5196: 5144: 5018: 4587: 4553:National Association of Biology Teachers 4376: 4272: 4190: 4000: 3788: 3641:similarity to bacteria, archaea possess 3593: 3505: 3145: 3071: 2826: 2722: 2641:is the scientific study of inheritance. 2626: 2388: 2169: 2022: 1936: 1834: 1744: 1608: 1489: 1380: 1135: 971: 45: 13421: 10927:Ecology: From Individuals to Ecosystems 10797: 10600: 10362: 10356: 10149: 9814:Ecology: From individuals to ecosystems 9743: 7964: 7953: 7858: 6843: 6714:Genetics: Analysis of Genes and Genomes 5310: 3495: 3481:increased rapidly in size and diversity 3410:. Later, around 1.7 billion years ago, 2012: 1800:that go across the membrane serving as 1697:and are therefore only visible under a 1057:. It was then that scholars discovered 14: 14509: 14039: 11133:Tobin, Allan; Dusheck, Jennie (2005). 9548: 9351:(6). 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By breaking down dead 3975:—of which around 1 million are 3856:last eukaryotic common ancestor 3846:, which are mostly microscopic 3451:, along with most other modern 3122:Bateson–Dobzhansky–Muller model 3093:of populations over successive 2901:post-translational modification 2651:law of dominance and uniformity 2556:Sexual reproduction and meiosis 2154:substrate-level phosphorylation 1941:Example of an enzyme-catalysed 1053:'s dramatic improvement of the 13037:One gene–one enzyme hypothesis 9586:"Virus Taxonomy: 2019 Release" 9280:Nature Ecology & Evolution 8881:10.1146/annurev.earth.27.1.463 5258:. CRC Press. pp. 133–44. 4853: 4828: 4316:consumer–resource interactions 4262: 4180: 4054:The origins of viruses in the 4031:. Viruses infect all types of 3744:, including soil, oceans, and 3435:Late Devonian extinction event 3279:. Geologists have developed a 3273:last universal common ancestor 2751:, and circular chromosomes in 2616: 2083:pyruvate dehydrogenase complex 1792:. Cell membranes also contain 1347:within and relating to living 1022:who wrote on biology included 13: 1: 11236:: General journal publishing 11159: 11078:(2nd ed.). Bison Books. 10897:Molecular Biology of the Cell 10558:. Oxford: Blackwell Science. 9723:10.1016/S1369-5274(03)00086-9 9112:10.1128/JB.148.1.352-360.1981 8767:Roach, John (June 20, 2007). 8648:10.1016/S0012-8252(03)00082-5 8422:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 7180:10.1016/s1097-2765(02)00559-2 6046:Molecular Biology of the Cell 5973:Molecular Biology of the Cell 4580: 4285:is the effect that a pair of 4199:A population is the group of 4103: 4035:, from animals and plants to 3778: 3463:, including the ancestors of 3459:. During the Permian period, 3104: 3036:developmental-genetic toolkit 2879:Regulation of gene expression 2671:law of independent assortment 2384: 1926: 1291:All organisms are made up of 897:subdisciplines within biology 11021:. Harvard University Press. 9668:Nature Reviews. 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June 1970. 6185:Online Etymology Dictionary 5148:The Epic History of Biology 4523:List of biological websites 4500: 4495:current biodiversity crisis 4448:with the aim of protecting 4058:are unclear: some may have 3539:in length, bacteria have a 2611: 2523:). Unlike the processes of 2367:G protein-coupled receptors 2117:to synthesize more ATPs by 1377:Water distribution on Earth 1144:penned his first sketch of 915:, pose questions, generate 833:is the scientific study of 39:Biological (disambiguation) 10: 14533: 13256:Institutions, publications 10883: 10857:Soule, Michael E. (1986). 10798:Jackson, J. B. C. (2008). 10616:(2nd ed.). New York: 10493:Soulé, Michael E. (1986). 9881:(2005); p. 400; Gurevitch 8551:ZOO 138 Vertebrate Zoology 7923:"Stratigraphic Chart 2022" 7031:"Central dogma reversed". 6585:10.3390/antibiotics9020069 6244: 6211: 5556:Noble, Ivan (2003-04-14). 5454:Larson, Edward J. 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London: 8681:Vertebrate Palaeontology 8195:Paleontological Research 7565:On the Origin of Species 7503:"The Units of Selection" 7409:Strickberger's Evolution 5252:Magner, Lois N. (2002). 5114:Magner, Lois N. (2002). 4720:10.1152/advan.00107.2015 4533:List of biology journals 4460:from excessive rates of 4068:horizontal gene transfer 3937:consume organic material 3701:, but unlike plants and 3575:. Bacteria also live in 3524:that constitute a large 3204:are described as having 2743:. It is found as linear 2701:, which established the 2146:lactic acid fermentation 2067:electron transport chain 1671: 1362: 1147:On the Origin of Species 719:List of research methods 32:Biology (disambiguation) 12304:species discovery curve 11432:Response to environment 11076:On Becoming a Biologist 10886:Bibliography of biology 10825:10.1073/pnas.0802812105 10747:10.1126/science.1101101 10610:Van Dyke, Fred (2008). 10159:Fundamentals of Ecology 9924:Fundamentals of Ecology 9920:Odum, Eugene P (1971). 9144:"Archaea Basic Biology" 9100:Journal of Bacteriology 8851:Van Valkenburgh, Blaire 7776:10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576 7326:Nature Chemical Biology 6844:Russell, Peter (2001). 6448:A dictionary of biology 6260:A Greek–English Lexicon 6227:A Greek–English Lexicon 5910:Biology: Exploring Life 5207:Encyclopædia Britannica 4306:. Symbioses range from 3932:in ecological systems. 3759:. They are part of the 3520:Bacteria are a type of 3513:Gemmatimonas aurantiaca 3412:multicellular organisms 2324:release ligands called 2243:concentration gradients 2085:, which also generates 1749:Structure of an animal 1727:multicellular organisms 1719:single-celled organisms 1709:cells, which contain a 1498:are vital to organisms. 1069:led to new interest in 1034:(865–925) who wrote on 998:in around 3000 to 1200 956:biophysical environment 190:Response to environment 13489:Biological engineering 13382:development strategies 13057:Spontaneous generation 13007:Germ theory of disease 12984:Zoology (through 1859) 12779:Plant morphology terms 12381:Biological engineering 12063:Biological interaction 10694:10.1098/rsbl.2009.1024 10437:10.1098/rspb.2007.1370 10086:Hartl, Daniel (2007). 9634:10.1074/jbc.R800078200 9517:10.1186/1745-6150-1-29 9211:Trends in Microbiology 8475:D-G., Shu; H-L., Luo; 8443:10.1073/pnas.97.9.4457 8392:10.1098/rstb.1998.0195 8152:10.1098/rstb.2006.1843 8106:10.1098/rspb.1999.0934 7971:. Sinauer Associates. 7285:Handbook of Stem Cells 6282:Trends in Microbiology 6156:Molecular Cell Biology 6126:"Cellular Respiration" 6003:"Physiology, Membrane" 4574:Terminology of biology 4538:List of biology topics 4390: 4326:. There are different 4283:biological interaction 4278: 4196: 4074:in a way analogous to 4009: 3799: 3605: 3517: 3427:terrestrial ecosystems 3414:began to appear, with 3192: 3118:reproductive isolation 3080: 3062:Evolutionary processes 2976:multicellular organism 2914:Caenorhabditis elegans 2836: 2799:) or radiation (e.g., 2728: 2635: 2499:Homologous chromosomes 2431:(i.e., animal, plant, 2417:duplication of its DNA 2402: 2395:homologous chromosomes 2328:that diffuse across a 2183: 2031: 1946: 1901:intermediate filaments 1865:adenosine triphosphate 1840: 1757: 1618: 1585:Miller–Urey experiment 1499: 1454:specific heat capacity 1389: 1369:Planetary habitability 1151: 1096:spontaneous generation 1020:medieval Islamic world 987: 976:Diagram of a fly from 881:levels of organization 709:List of biology awards 315:Biological engineering 51: 13574:Developmental biology 13549:Computational biology 13529:Cellular microbiology 13345:Environmental science 13340:Physical anthropology 13078:Philosophy of biology 12466:Developmental biology 12441:Computational biology 12421:Cellular microbiology 11761:Mendelian inheritance 11673:Energy transformation 11074:Janovy, John (2004). 10884:Further information: 10810:(Suppl 1): 11458–65. 9839:Habitats of the world 9358:10.1099/ijs.0.02587-0 9187:10.1093/femsre/fuv010 8627:Earth-Science Reviews 8613:Tanner, Lawrence H.; 8358:10.1186/2192-1709-2-1 7445:"Evolution Resources" 7373:"The Origins of Form" 6251:Liddell, Henry George 6218:Liddell, Henry George 4987:10.1089/ast.2017.1674 4910:Astrobiology Magazine 4835:Craig, Nancy (2014). 4543:List of life sciences 4380: 4276: 4259:in the 18th century. 4194: 4004: 3961:embryonic development 3792: 3677:, such as sugars, to 3634:Haloquadratum walsbyi 3597: 3509: 3500:Further information: 3277:3.5 billion years ago 3179: 3130:allopatric speciation 3075: 2905:transcription factors 2830: 2809:ultraviolet radiation 2726: 2713:Further information: 2643:Mendelian inheritance 2630: 2574:meiotic recombination 2392: 2287:, which can be found 2283:) that interact with 2251:ribulose bisphosphate 2173: 2109:), which generates a 2095:mitochondrial cristae 2026: 1987:spontaneous reactions 1940: 1931:Further information: 1869:endoplasmic reticulum 1838: 1802:membrane transporters 1748: 1612: 1515:double covalent bonds 1493: 1484:Further information: 1384: 1285:Further information: 1202:series of experiments 1183:Alfred Russel Wallace 1156:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1139: 1125:for all his species. 1051:Anton van Leeuwenhoek 1010:philosophers such as 975: 871:internal environments 400:Developmental biology 375:Computational biology 355:Cellular microbiology 49: 14299:Evolutionary history 13794:Reproductive biology 13679:Mathematical biology 13604:Evolutionary biology 13554:Conservation biology 13110:Human Genome Project 13022:Great chain of being 12989:Zoology (since 1859) 12924:Evolutionary thought 12894:Agricultural science 12686:Reproductive biology 12571:Mathematical biology 12496:Evolutionary biology 12446:Conservation biology 12257:Two-hybrid screening 12227:Protein purification 12058:Biogeochemical cycle 12020:Internal environment 11668:Cellular respiration 11201:OneZoom Tree of Life 11015:Mayr, Ernst (1982). 9552:(26 February 2021). 8775:. Washington, D.C.: 8477:Conway Morris, Simon 8337:Ecological Processes 8184:Fedonkin, Mikhail A. 8086:(December 7, 1999). 7965:Futuyma, DJ (2005). 7499:Lewontin, Richard C. 7447:. Washington, D.C.: 7338:10.1038/nchembio.364 6772:Miko, Ilona (2008). 6738:Miko, Ilona (2008). 6356:"Cell communication" 5507:Miko, Ilona (2008). 4440:Conservation biology 4396:biogeochemical cycle 3981:complex interactions 3496:Bacteria and Archaea 3425:formed the earliest 3416:differentiated cells 3099:artificial selection 3068:Evolutionary biology 2787:by an environmental 2731:A gene is a unit of 2697:'s experiments with 2464:; which divides the 2150:ethanol fermentation 2019:Cellular respiration 2013:Cellular respiration 1967:cellular respiration 1527:triple covalent bond 1266:Human Genome Project 1216:as the component of 742:Agricultural science 620:Reproductive biology 505:Mathematical biology 430:Evolutionary biology 380:Conservation biology 30:For other uses, see 14236:Natural environment 13579:Ecological genetics 13423:Branches of biology 13323:Related disciplines 13263:Bachelor of Science 13115:Humboldtian science 13052:Sequence hypothesis 12959:Molecular evolution 12471:Ecological genetics 12182:Gel electrophoresis 12172:Genetic engineering 12125:Population dynamics 12035:Reproductive system 11255:journal publishing 10816:2008PNAS..10511458J 10739:2004Sci...305.1632K 10133:2018GEcoC..1300365C 10058:Oxford Dictionaries 9680:10.1038/nrmicro1163 9590:talk.ictvonline.org 9292:2019NatEE...3..338O 9055:2006Natur.441..289P 9039:"Time for a change" 8984:2017CBio...27E3752D 8924:2004ApEnM..70.4230F 8873:1999AREPS..27..463V 8819:10.1038/nature05854 8811:2007Natur.447.1003W 8805:(7147): 1003–1006. 8640:2004ESRv...65..103T 8547:"Synapsid Reptiles" 8502:1999Natur.402...42S 8434:2000PNAS...97.4457C 8349:2013EcoPr...2....1B 8302:10.1038/nature09943 8294:2011Natur.473..505S 8248:Integrative Biology 8146:(1470): 1023–1038. 8100:(1436): 2375–2382. 8061:2014NatGe...7...25O 8016:1999Sci...283..674R 7767:1990PNAS...87.4576W 7045:1970Natur.226.1198. 6994:1970Natur.227..561C 5866:Nature Cell Biology 5493:. pp. 134–138. 4979:2018AsBio..18..343P 4874:2008Nonli..21..131M 4777:2013BiSys.111....1D 4513:Glossary of biology 4406:) and the abiotic ( 4269:Community (ecology) 4076:sexual reproduction 3963:. Over 1.5 million 3707:reproduce asexually 3591:in the laboratory. 3281:geologic time scale 2570:sexual reproduction 2379:signal transduction 2338:circulatory systems 2297:located deep inside 2295:of another cell or 2277:electrical impulses 2227:thylakoid membranes 2111:proton motive force 2052:combustion reaction 2044:catabolic reactions 1806:peripheral proteins 1770:extracellular space 1764:that separates its 1703:electron microscope 1658:structural proteins 1535:carbon–carbon bonds 1416:, water is a small 1414:molecular structure 1281:Atoms and molecules 747:Biomedical sciences 405:Ecological genetics 57:Part of a series on 13870:History of biology 13804:Structural biology 13789:Relational biology 13614:Generative biology 13609:Freshwater biology 13232:History of biology 13227:Notable biologists 13215:People and history 13125:Natural philosophy 13073:History of science 12873:History of biology 12800:Biology portal 12696:Structural biology 12681:Relational biology 12506:Generative biology 12501:Freshwater biology 12299:mark and recapture 12247:Restriction enzyme 12040:Respiratory system 11995:Circulatory system 11922:Epidermis (botany) 11102:Johnson, George B. 11049:The Way Life Works 10785:2019-10-14 at the 10396:Principles of Life 10365:"The Carbon Cycle" 10340:Principles of Life 10295:Smith, AL (1997). 10272:Principles of Life 10092:Sinauer Associates 10030:. Biology Online. 9979:Principles of Life 9897:Principles of Life 9558:The New York Times 9442:Principles of Life 9417:Principles of Life 9389:Principles of Life 9255:Principles of Life 8686:Chapman & Hall 8676:Benton, Michael J. 8276:Brasier, Martin D. 8243:Bonner, John Tyler 8186:(March 31, 2003). 7899:Principles of Life 7661:Principles of Life 7625:Principles of Life 7595:Principles of Life 7207:Principles of Life 7138:Principles of Life 6821:Principles of Life 6543:Biological Science 6423:Principles of Life 6101:Principles of Life 6076:2020-01-22 at the 5841:Biological Science 5816:Biological Science 5791:Biological Science 5736:Biological Science 5706:Principles of Life 5653:Biological Science 5417:Gould, Stephen Jay 4679:Biological Science 4558:Outline of biology 4528:List of biologists 4508:Biology in fiction 4391: 4279: 4197: 4187:Population ecology 4070:, which increases 4043:. More than 6,000 4010: 3949:reproduce sexually 3881:eukaryotes of the 3806:with bacteria (or 3800: 3647:metabolic pathways 3606: 3561:acidic hot springs 3535:. Typically a few 3518: 3457:Cambrian explosion 3443:appear during the 3193: 3126:genetic divergence 3081: 3016:metabolic activity 3012:membrane potential 2943:constitutive genes 2869:(RNA to protein). 2837: 2729: 2636: 2623:Classical genetics 2403: 2347:inotropic receptor 2184: 2065:(or Krebs cycle), 2032: 1997:needed to convert 1979:metabolic pathways 1973:—the building up ( 1955:chemical reactions 1947: 1841: 1758: 1753:depicting various 1646:transport proteins 1619: 1500: 1410:chemical reactions 1390: 1345:chemical processes 1250:Har Gobind Khorana 1238:molecular genetics 1198:classical genetics 1152: 1117:published a basic 1004:natural philosophy 988: 968:History of biology 934:organisms such as 926:organisms such as 901:research questions 778:Biology portal 630:Structural biology 615:Relational biology 440:Generative biology 435:Freshwater biology 52: 14432: 14431: 14410: 14409: 14083:chemical elements 14007: 14006: 13888: 13887: 13809:Synthetic biology 13689:Molecular biology 13544:Cognitive biology 13389: 13388: 13285:Omne vivum ex ovo 13277:Terms and phrases 13161: 13160: 13027:Hierarchy of life 12974:Plant systematics 12954:Molecular biology 12839: 12838: 12701:Synthetic biology 12581:Molecular biology 12436:Cognitive biology 12312: 12311: 12138: 12137: 11829:Natural selection 11610:Organic compounds 11507:Scientific method 11497:Emergent property 11438:Hierarchy of life 11408:Energy processing 11289:interdisciplinary 11238:original research 11144:978-0-534-40653-0 11135:Asking About Life 11117:978-0-03-016723-2 11085:978-0-8032-7620-8 11058:978-0-7637-1688-2 11028:978-0-674-36446-2 10999:978-0-691-02364-9 10967:978-0-8053-7146-8 10937:978-1-4051-1117-1 10908:978-0-8153-3218-3 10868:978-0-87893-795-0 10593:978-0-87893-518-5 10565:978-0-86542-371-8 10479:978-0-87893-800-1 10369:Earth Observatory 10306:978-0-19-854768-6 10169:978-0-534-42066-6 10101:978-0-87893-308-2 9960:978-0-387-95443-1 9935:978-0-534-42066-6 9849:978-0-7614-7523-1 9823:978-1-4051-1117-1 9627:(19): 12599–603. 8978:(24): 3752–3762. 8695:978-0-412-73800-5 8615:Lucas, Spencer G. 8581:"The Great Dying" 8386:(1365): 113–130. 8288:(7348): 505–509. 8207:10.2517/prpsj.7.9 8082:Nisbet, Euan G.; 8048:Nature Geoscience 8010:(5402): 674–676. 7978:978-0-87893-187-3 7878:978-0-19-515605-8 7501:(November 1970). 7419:978-1-4496-4722-3 7295:978-0-12-385943-3 7053:10.1038/2261198a0 6978:Crick, Francis H. 6948:Crick, Francis H. 6892:10.1002/jcb.20519 6724:978-0-7637-1511-3 6697:978-0-7167-3520-5 6519:. 28 March 2018. 6337:978-0-321-73975-9 6324:Pearson Education 5983:978-0-8153-3218-3 5469:978-1-58836-538-5 5322:978-0-521-29293-1 5297:978-0-19-515618-8 5265:978-0-203-91100-6 5238:978-0-415-12410-2 5158:978-1-4899-6327-7 5127:978-0-203-91100-6 5100:978-3-319-90118-3 5066:978-052-1-68957-1 5030:978-0-226-48205-7 4951:Pudritz, Ralph E. 4846:978-0-19-965857-2 4483:biodiversity loss 4387:slow carbon cycle 4382:Fast carbon cycle 4336:organic compounds 4245:human populations 4221:carrying capacity 4207:that occupies an 4072:genetic diversity 4017:infectious agents 3912:coleochaetophytes 3675:organic compounds 3565:radioactive waste 3275:that lived about 3197:phylogenetic tree 3079:for darker traits 3077:Natural selection 2994:. Stem cells are 2941:, in contrast to 2865:(DNA to RNA) and 2817:genetic variation 2657:while others are 2602:Genetic variation 2533:spindle apparatus 2357:receptors (e.g., 2326:neurotransmitters 2126:electron acceptor 2099:protein complexes 2063:citric acid cycle 2027:Respiration in a 1995:activation energy 1863:, which generate 1794:membrane proteins 1554:functional groups 1503:Organic compounds 1486:Organic chemistry 1480:Organic compounds 1476:that is neutral. 1353:Molecular biology 1293:chemical elements 1179:natural selection 909:scientific method 887:of a cell to the 885:molecular biology 859:Energy processing 828: 827: 752:Health technology 635:Synthetic biology 515:Molecular biology 370:Cognitive biology 165:Energy processing 16:(Redirected from 14524: 14497: 14496: 14485: 14484: 14473: 14472: 14471: 14461: 14460: 14459: 14449: 14448: 14440: 14422: 14421: 14294: 14284: 14283: 14224:tropical cyclone 14174: 14034: 14027: 14020: 14011: 14010: 13997: 13996: 13987: 13977: 13976: 13956:Physical science 13915: 13908: 13901: 13892: 13891: 13534:Chemical biology 13416: 13409: 13402: 13393: 13392: 13188: 13181: 13174: 13165: 13164: 13151: 13150: 13130:Natural theology 12866: 12859: 12852: 12843: 12842: 12829: 12828: 12819: 12818: 12809: 12808: 12802: 12798: 12797: 12774:Ecological terms 12426:Chemical biology 12287:Field techniques 12160: 12159: 12146: 12005:Digestive system 12000:Endocrine system 11573:Chemical element 11532:Biology journals 11428:Self-replication 11383: 11382: 11322: 11315: 11308: 11299: 11298: 11148: 11129: 11097: 11070: 11043: 11041: 11040: 11011: 10979: 10949: 10920: 10900: 10873: 10872: 10854: 10848: 10847: 10837: 10827: 10795: 10789: 10773: 10767: 10766: 10733:(5690): 1632–4. 10722: 10716: 10715: 10705: 10673: 10667: 10666: 10664: 10663: 10607: 10598: 10597: 10579: 10570: 10569: 10549: 10540: 10539: 10537: 10536: 10530: 10524:. Archived from 10499: 10490: 10484: 10483: 10465: 10459: 10458: 10448: 10431:(1636): 759–65. 10416: 10410: 10409: 10391: 10385: 10384: 10382: 10380: 10360: 10354: 10353: 10335: 10329: 10328: 10320: 10314: 10313: 10292: 10286: 10285: 10267: 10256: 10255: 10225: 10219: 10218: 10208: 10184: 10178: 10177: 10172:. Archived from 10153: 10147: 10146: 10144: 10112: 10106: 10105: 10083: 10077: 10076: 10071: 10069: 10050: 10044: 10043: 10041: 10039: 10024: 10018: 10017: 10004:Campbell Biology 9999: 9993: 9992: 9974: 9965: 9964: 9946: 9940: 9939: 9927: 9917: 9911: 9910: 9892: 9886: 9871: 9865: 9864: 9862: 9861: 9834: 9828: 9827: 9809: 9803: 9802: 9792: 9760: 9754: 9753: 9741: 9735: 9734: 9706: 9700: 9699: 9663: 9657: 9656: 9646: 9636: 9612: 9606: 9605: 9603: 9601: 9582: 9576: 9575: 9573: 9571: 9565: 9560:. Archived from 9546: 9540: 9539: 9529: 9519: 9495: 9489: 9488: 9486: 9484: 9475:. Archived from 9462: 9456: 9455: 9437: 9431: 9430: 9412: 9403: 9402: 9384: 9371: 9370: 9360: 9336: 9330: 9329: 9311: 9275: 9269: 9268: 9250: 9235: 9234: 9206: 9200: 9199: 9189: 9165: 9159: 9158: 9156: 9155: 9140: 9134: 9133: 9123: 9091: 9085: 9084: 9066: 9034: 9028: 9027: 9025: 9024: 9018: 8995: 8969: 8960: 8954: 8953: 8943: 8903: 8897: 8896: 8894: 8892: 8847: 8841: 8838: 8791: 8789: 8788: 8779:. Archived from 8764: 8758: 8757: 8755: 8754: 8748: 8723: 8714: 8708: 8707: 8672: 8666: 8665: 8663: 8662: 8656: 8650:. Archived from 8634:(1–2): 103–139. 8623: 8610: 8604: 8603: 8601: 8600: 8576: 8570: 8569: 8567: 8566: 8557:. Archived from 8542: 8536: 8535: 8533: 8532: 8526: 8520:. Archived from 8485: 8472: 8466: 8465: 8455: 8445: 8428:(9): 4457–4462. 8412: 8406: 8405: 8403: 8369: 8363: 8362: 8360: 8328: 8322: 8321: 8271: 8265: 8264: 8239: 8233: 8232: 8230: 8229: 8223: 8217:. Archived from 8192: 8180: 8174: 8173: 8163: 8130:Knoll, Andrew H. 8126: 8120: 8119: 8117: 8079: 8073: 8072: 8069:10.1038/ngeo2025 8042: 8036: 8035: 7997: 7991: 7990: 7962: 7956: 7951: 7945: 7944: 7942: 7940: 7934: 7927: 7919: 7913: 7912: 7894: 7883: 7882: 7866: 7856: 7850: 7849: 7805: 7799: 7798: 7788: 7778: 7746: 7740: 7739: 7731: 7725: 7723: 7721: 7719: 7681: 7675: 7674: 7656: 7639: 7638: 7620: 7609: 7608: 7590: 7584: 7583: 7575: 7569: 7557: 7551: 7550: 7548: 7507: 7495: 7489: 7488: 7475:Campbell Biology 7470: 7457: 7456: 7441: 7435: 7434: 7432: 7431: 7403: 7397: 7396: 7390: 7388: 7370:Carroll, Sean B. 7366: 7360: 7359: 7349: 7317: 7311: 7310: 7308: 7307: 7279: 7273: 7272: 7236: 7230: 7227: 7221: 7220: 7202: 7193: 7192: 7182: 7173:(6): 1161–1167. 7158: 7152: 7151: 7133: 7114: 7113: 7103: 7079: 7073: 7072: 7028: 7022: 7021: 7002:10.1038/227561a0 6974: 6968: 6967: 6944: 6938: 6937: 6935: 6934: 6919: 6913: 6912: 6894: 6870: 6864: 6863: 6851: 6841: 6835: 6834: 6816: 6797: 6796: 6794: 6793: 6778:Nature Education 6769: 6763: 6762: 6760: 6759: 6744:Nature Education 6735: 6729: 6728: 6708: 6702: 6701: 6679: 6673: 6672: 6654: 6648: 6645: 6639: 6636: 6627: 6624: 6618: 6614: 6608: 6607: 6597: 6587: 6563: 6557: 6556: 6538: 6532: 6531: 6529: 6528: 6509: 6503: 6502: 6476: 6470: 6469: 6443: 6437: 6436: 6418: 6409: 6408: 6406: 6404: 6393:Nature Education 6389:"Cell signaling" 6385: 6376: 6375: 6373: 6371: 6360:Nature Education 6351: 6345: 6344: 6313: 6307: 6306: 6276: 6267: 6247: 6246: 6240: 6234: 6214: 6213: 6207: 6201: 6200: 6198: 6197: 6180:"photosynthesis" 6176: 6170: 6169: 6151: 6134: 6133: 6124:Bailey, Regina. 6121: 6115: 6114: 6096: 6081: 6060: 6058: 6057: 6048:(4th ed.). 6037: 6031: 6030: 6028: 6026: 5998: 5992: 5991: 5967: 5961: 5960: 5947:Campbell Biology 5942: 5936: 5935: 5933: 5932: 5904: 5898: 5897: 5861: 5855: 5854: 5836: 5830: 5829: 5811: 5805: 5804: 5786: 5780: 5779: 5766:Campbell Biology 5761: 5750: 5749: 5731: 5720: 5719: 5701: 5695: 5694: 5681:Campbell Biology 5676: 5667: 5666: 5648: 5605: 5604: 5591:Campbell Biology 5586: 5577: 5576: 5574: 5573: 5553: 5547: 5546: 5538: 5532: 5531: 5529: 5528: 5513:Nature Education 5504: 5495: 5494: 5484: 5478: 5477: 5451: 5445: 5438: 5432: 5414: 5408: 5407: 5405: 5403: 5397: 5374: 5359: 5353: 5346: 5340: 5333: 5327: 5326: 5308: 5302: 5301: 5280: 5274: 5273: 5249: 5243: 5242: 5218: 5212: 5211: 5190: 5188: 5187: 5181: 5175: 5174: 5172: 5170: 5142: 5136: 5135: 5111: 5105: 5104: 5077: 5071: 5070: 5054: 5044: 5035: 5034: 5016: 5007: 5006: 4972: 4946: 4937: 4936: 4930: 4922: 4920: 4918: 4900: 4894: 4893: 4857: 4851: 4850: 4832: 4826: 4825: 4813: 4807: 4806: 4796: 4756: 4750: 4749: 4739: 4699: 4693: 4692: 4674: 4659: 4658: 4640: 4625: 4624: 4611:Campbell Biology 4606: 4253:Green revolution 4175:nutrient cycling 4080:self-replicators 3877:, predominantly 3765:human microbiome 3541:number of shapes 3516:(-=1 Micrometer) 3485:mass extinctions 3148: 2996:undifferentiated 2947:structural genes 2813:gain-of-function 2777:semiconservative 2419:and some of its 2371:second messenger 2361:for the hormone 2342:vascular systems 2215:Light absorption 1959:metabolic wastes 1733:in a fertilized 1578:sulfhydryl group 1343:is the study of 1254:Robert W. Holley 1194:modern synthesis 1123:scientific names 1044:Islamic scholars 930:and bacteria to 820: 813: 806: 793: 788: 787: 780: 776: 775: 714:List of journals 360:Chemical biology 73: 54: 53: 21: 14532: 14531: 14527: 14526: 14525: 14523: 14522: 14521: 14507: 14506: 14503: 14491: 14479: 14469: 14467: 14457: 14455: 14443: 14435: 14433: 14428: 14406: 14323: 14292: 14273: 14230: 14172: 14152: 14143:Gaia hypothesis 14133:Plate tectonics 14094: 14044: 14038: 14008: 14003: 13965: 13937: 13924: 13922:Natural science 13919: 13889: 13884: 13858: 13819:Systems biology 13784:Quantum biology 13425: 13420: 13390: 13385: 13359: 13318: 13272: 13251: 13210: 13197: 13192: 13162: 13157: 13139: 13120:Natural history 13061: 12999: 12993: 12949:Model organisms 12886: 12880: 12870: 12840: 12835: 12792: 12791: 12783: 12769:Botanical terms 12752: 12751: 12750: 12711:Systems biology 12676:Quantum biology 12308: 12282: 12164: 12154: 12147: 12134: 12044: 12025:Muscular system 11982: 11976: 11967:Vascular tissue 11914: 11908: 11848: 11809:History of life 11770: 11751:Gene regulation 11746:Gene expression 11717: 11634: 11541: 11372: 11331: 11326: 11245:Biology Letters 11233:Current Biology 11186:OSU's Phylocode 11175: 11156: 11151: 11145: 11132: 11118: 11100: 11086: 11073: 11059: 11046: 11038: 11036: 11029: 11014: 11000: 10984:Colinvaux, Paul 10982: 10968: 10952: 10938: 10923: 10909: 10892: 10888: 10882: 10880:Further reading 10877: 10876: 10869: 10855: 10851: 10796: 10792: 10787:Wayback Machine 10774: 10770: 10723: 10719: 10682:Biology Letters 10674: 10670: 10661: 10659: 10644: 10618:Springer-Verlag 10608: 10601: 10594: 10580: 10573: 10566: 10550: 10543: 10534: 10532: 10528: 10514:10.2307/1310054 10497: 10491: 10487: 10480: 10466: 10462: 10417: 10413: 10406: 10392: 10388: 10378: 10376: 10361: 10357: 10350: 10336: 10332: 10321: 10317: 10307: 10293: 10289: 10282: 10268: 10259: 10226: 10222: 10185: 10181: 10170: 10154: 10150: 10113: 10109: 10102: 10084: 10080: 10067: 10065: 10064:on 4 March 2016 10052: 10051: 10047: 10037: 10035: 10026: 10025: 10021: 10014: 10000: 9996: 9989: 9975: 9968: 9961: 9947: 9943: 9936: 9918: 9914: 9907: 9893: 9889: 9872: 9868: 9859: 9857: 9850: 9836: 9835: 9831: 9824: 9810: 9806: 9761: 9757: 9742: 9738: 9707: 9703: 9664: 9660: 9613: 9609: 9599: 9597: 9584: 9583: 9579: 9569: 9567: 9547: 9543: 9496: 9492: 9482: 9480: 9463: 9459: 9452: 9438: 9434: 9427: 9413: 9406: 9399: 9385: 9374: 9337: 9333: 9276: 9272: 9265: 9251: 9238: 9207: 9203: 9166: 9162: 9153: 9151: 9142: 9141: 9137: 9092: 9088: 9064:10.1038/441289a 9035: 9031: 9022: 9020: 9016: 8972:Current Biology 8967: 8961: 8957: 8904: 8900: 8890: 8888: 8853:(May 1, 1999). 8848: 8844: 8786: 8784: 8765: 8761: 8752: 8750: 8746: 8721: 8715: 8711: 8696: 8673: 8669: 8660: 8658: 8654: 8621: 8611: 8607: 8598: 8596: 8577: 8573: 8564: 8562: 8543: 8539: 8530: 8528: 8524: 8496:(6757): 42–46. 8483: 8473: 8469: 8413: 8409: 8370: 8366: 8329: 8325: 8272: 8268: 8240: 8236: 8227: 8225: 8221: 8190: 8181: 8177: 8127: 8123: 8080: 8076: 8043: 8039: 7998: 7994: 7979: 7963: 7959: 7952: 7948: 7938: 7936: 7932: 7925: 7921: 7920: 7916: 7909: 7895: 7886: 7879: 7857: 7853: 7806: 7802: 7761:(12): 4576–79. 7747: 7743: 7732: 7728: 7717: 7715: 7708: 7682: 7678: 7671: 7657: 7642: 7635: 7621: 7612: 7605: 7591: 7587: 7576: 7572: 7560:Darwin, Charles 7558: 7554: 7546: 7505: 7496: 7492: 7485: 7471: 7460: 7443: 7442: 7438: 7429: 7427: 7420: 7404: 7400: 7386: 7384: 7377:Natural History 7367: 7363: 7318: 7314: 7305: 7303: 7296: 7280: 7276: 7253:10.1038/nrm2146 7237: 7233: 7228: 7224: 7217: 7203: 7196: 7159: 7155: 7148: 7134: 7117: 7080: 7076: 7030: 7029: 7025: 6988:(5258): 561–3. 6975: 6971: 6945: 6941: 6932: 6930: 6921: 6920: 6916: 6871: 6867: 6860: 6842: 6838: 6831: 6817: 6800: 6791: 6789: 6770: 6766: 6757: 6755: 6736: 6732: 6725: 6709: 6705: 6698: 6680: 6676: 6669: 6655: 6651: 6646: 6642: 6637: 6630: 6625: 6621: 6615: 6611: 6564: 6560: 6553: 6539: 6535: 6526: 6524: 6511: 6510: 6506: 6491: 6477: 6473: 6458: 6444: 6440: 6433: 6419: 6412: 6402: 6400: 6387: 6386: 6379: 6369: 6367: 6352: 6348: 6338: 6314: 6310: 6289:(11): 488–496. 6277: 6270: 6265:Perseus Project 6241: 6237: 6232:Perseus Project 6208: 6204: 6195: 6193: 6178: 6177: 6173: 6166: 6152: 6137: 6122: 6118: 6111: 6097: 6084: 6078:Wayback Machine 6055: 6053: 6038: 6034: 6024: 6022: 5999: 5995: 5984: 5968: 5964: 5957: 5943: 5939: 5930: 5928: 5921: 5905: 5901: 5862: 5858: 5851: 5837: 5833: 5826: 5812: 5808: 5801: 5787: 5783: 5776: 5762: 5753: 5746: 5732: 5723: 5716: 5702: 5698: 5691: 5677: 5670: 5663: 5649: 5608: 5601: 5587: 5580: 5571: 5569: 5554: 5550: 5539: 5535: 5526: 5524: 5505: 5498: 5485: 5481: 5470: 5452: 5448: 5439: 5435: 5415: 5411: 5401: 5399: 5395: 5372: 5364:Darwin, Francis 5360: 5356: 5347: 5343: 5334: 5330: 5323: 5309: 5305: 5298: 5281: 5277: 5266: 5250: 5246: 5239: 5231:. p. 815. 5227:. Vol. 3. 5219: 5215: 5200:, ed. (1911). " 5185: 5183: 5182: 5178: 5168: 5166: 5159: 5143: 5139: 5128: 5112: 5108: 5101: 5079: 5078: 5074: 5067: 5045: 5038: 5031: 5017: 5010: 4947: 4940: 4924: 4923: 4916: 4914: 4901: 4897: 4858: 4854: 4847: 4833: 4829: 4816: 4814: 4810: 4757: 4753: 4700: 4696: 4689: 4675: 4662: 4655: 4641: 4628: 4621: 4607: 4588: 4583: 4578: 4569:Science tourism 4503: 4442: 4436: 4375: 4369: 4271: 4265: 4217:Population size 4189: 4183: 4144:nutrient cycles 4112: 4106: 4094: 4088: 3999: 3993: 3852:common ancestor 3787: 3781: 3637:. Despite this 3623:, Bacteria and 3585:bacterial phyla 3543:, ranging from 3504: 3498: 3493: 3268: 3266:History of life 3262: 3260:History of life 3178: 3146: 3144: 3138: 3113: 3107: 3091:characteristics 3070: 3064: 3059: 3020:gene expression 2984:differentiation 2969: 2963: 2939:inducible genes 2881: 2875: 2873:Gene regulation 2843: 2841:Gene expression 2825: 2823:Gene expression 2773:DNA replication 2721: 2711: 2625: 2619: 2614: 2586:complementation 2558: 2491:internal organs 2409: 2387: 2269: 2263: 2219:carbon fixation 2195:chemical energy 2181: 2177: 2168: 2162: 2119:phosphorylating 2104: 2092: 2036:chemical energy 2029:eukaryotic cell 2021: 2015: 1935: 1929: 1873:Golgi apparatus 1818:cell signalling 1743: 1680: 1674: 1607: 1601: 1574:phosphate group 1531:carbon monoxide 1524: 1488: 1482: 1434:Surface tension 1423: 1379: 1365: 1289: 1283: 1278: 1248:was cracked by 970: 964: 845:are made up of 839:natural science 824: 783: 770: 769: 762: 761: 737: 729: 728: 695: 687: 686: 685: 684: 645:Systems biology 610:Quantum biology 253: 245: 244: 209: 194: 156: 145: 121: 113: 78: 76:Science of life 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 14530: 14520: 14519: 14502: 14501: 14489: 14477: 14465: 14463:Earth sciences 14453: 14430: 14429: 14427: 14426: 14415: 14412: 14411: 14408: 14407: 14405: 14404: 14397: 14396: 14395: 14390: 14380: 14379: 14378: 14373: 14368: 14367: 14366: 14356: 14355: 14354: 14339: 14334: 14328: 14325: 14324: 14322: 14321: 14311: 14306: 14301: 14296: 14287: 14281: 14275: 14274: 14272: 14271: 14266: 14261: 14256: 14251: 14246: 14240: 14238: 14232: 14231: 14229: 14228: 14227: 14226: 14221: 14211: 14206: 14201: 14196: 14191: 14186: 14181: 14176: 14168: 14162: 14160: 14154: 14153: 14151: 14150: 14145: 14140: 14135: 14130: 14125: 14120: 14110: 14104: 14102: 14096: 14095: 14093: 14092: 14087: 14086: 14085: 14080: 14070: 14065: 14060: 14054: 14052: 14046: 14045: 14037: 14036: 14029: 14022: 14014: 14005: 14004: 14002: 14001: 13991: 13989:Science Portal 13981: 13970: 13967: 13966: 13964: 13963: 13958: 13953: 13948: 13942: 13939: 13938: 13936: 13935: 13929: 13926: 13925: 13918: 13917: 13910: 13903: 13895: 13886: 13885: 13883: 13882: 13877: 13872: 13866: 13864: 13860: 13859: 13857: 13856: 13851: 13846: 13841: 13836: 13831: 13826: 13821: 13816: 13811: 13806: 13801: 13796: 13791: 13786: 13781: 13776: 13771: 13766: 13761: 13756: 13751: 13746: 13741: 13736: 13731: 13726: 13721: 13716: 13711: 13706: 13701: 13696: 13691: 13686: 13681: 13676: 13674:Marine biology 13671: 13666: 13661: 13656: 13651: 13646: 13641: 13636: 13631: 13626: 13621: 13616: 13611: 13606: 13601: 13596: 13591: 13586: 13581: 13576: 13571: 13566: 13561: 13556: 13551: 13546: 13541: 13536: 13531: 13526: 13521: 13516: 13511: 13506: 13501: 13496: 13491: 13486: 13484:Bioinformatics 13481: 13476: 13471: 13466: 13461: 13456: 13451: 13446: 13441: 13436: 13430: 13427: 13426: 13419: 13418: 13411: 13404: 13396: 13387: 13386: 13384: 13383: 13373: 13367: 13365: 13361: 13360: 13358: 13357: 13352: 13347: 13342: 13337: 13326: 13324: 13320: 13319: 13317: 13316: 13309: 13302: 13295: 13288: 13280: 13278: 13274: 13273: 13271: 13270: 13265: 13259: 13257: 13253: 13252: 13250: 13249: 13244: 13239: 13234: 13229: 13224: 13218: 13216: 13212: 13211: 13209: 13208: 13202: 13199: 13198: 13191: 13190: 13183: 13176: 13168: 13159: 13158: 13156: 13155: 13144: 13141: 13140: 13138: 13137: 13132: 13127: 13122: 13117: 13112: 13107: 13102: 13097: 13092: 13087: 13086: 13085: 13075: 13069: 13067: 13063: 13062: 13060: 13059: 13054: 13049: 13044: 13039: 13034: 13029: 13024: 13019: 13014: 13009: 13003: 13001: 12995: 12994: 12992: 12991: 12986: 12981: 12976: 12971: 12966: 12961: 12956: 12951: 12946: 12941: 12936: 12931: 12926: 12921: 12916: 12911: 12906: 12901: 12896: 12890: 12888: 12882: 12881: 12869: 12868: 12861: 12854: 12846: 12837: 12836: 12834: 12833: 12823: 12813: 12803: 12788: 12785: 12784: 12782: 12781: 12776: 12771: 12766: 12760: 12758: 12754: 12753: 12749: 12748: 12743: 12738: 12733: 12728: 12723: 12718: 12713: 12708: 12703: 12698: 12693: 12688: 12683: 12678: 12673: 12668: 12663: 12658: 12653: 12648: 12643: 12638: 12633: 12628: 12623: 12618: 12613: 12608: 12603: 12598: 12593: 12588: 12583: 12578: 12573: 12568: 12566:Marine biology 12563: 12558: 12553: 12548: 12543: 12538: 12533: 12528: 12523: 12518: 12513: 12508: 12503: 12498: 12493: 12488: 12483: 12478: 12473: 12468: 12463: 12458: 12453: 12448: 12443: 12438: 12433: 12428: 12423: 12418: 12413: 12408: 12403: 12398: 12393: 12388: 12383: 12378: 12376:Bioinformatics 12373: 12368: 12363: 12358: 12353: 12348: 12343: 12338: 12333: 12328: 12322: 12321: 12320: 12318: 12314: 12313: 12310: 12309: 12307: 12306: 12301: 12296: 12290: 12288: 12284: 12283: 12281: 12280: 12273: 12266: 12259: 12254: 12249: 12244: 12239: 12234: 12229: 12224: 12219: 12214: 12209: 12207:DNA microarray 12204: 12202:DNA sequencing 12199: 12194: 12192:Centrifugation 12189: 12187:Chromatography 12184: 12179: 12177:Transformation 12174: 12168: 12166: 12157: 12149: 12148: 12141: 12139: 12136: 12135: 12133: 12132: 12127: 12122: 12117: 12116: 12115: 12105: 12100: 12095: 12090: 12088:Climate change 12085: 12080: 12075: 12070: 12065: 12060: 12054: 12052: 12046: 12045: 12043: 12042: 12037: 12032: 12030:Nervous system 12027: 12022: 12017: 12012: 12007: 12002: 11997: 11992: 11986: 11984: 11978: 11977: 11975: 11974: 11969: 11964: 11962:Vascular plant 11959: 11954: 11949: 11944: 11939: 11934: 11929: 11924: 11918: 11916: 11910: 11909: 11907: 11906: 11901: 11900: 11899: 11894: 11889: 11884: 11879: 11869: 11864: 11858: 11856: 11850: 11849: 11847: 11846: 11841: 11836: 11831: 11826: 11821: 11819:Microevolution 11816: 11814:Macroevolution 11811: 11806: 11801: 11796: 11791: 11786: 11780: 11778: 11772: 11771: 11769: 11768: 11763: 11758: 11753: 11748: 11743: 11738: 11733: 11727: 11725: 11719: 11718: 11716: 11715: 11710: 11708:Photosynthesis 11705: 11700: 11695: 11690: 11685: 11680: 11675: 11670: 11665: 11663:Cell signaling 11660: 11655: 11650: 11644: 11642: 11636: 11635: 11633: 11632: 11627: 11622: 11617: 11612: 11607: 11602: 11597: 11592: 11591: 11590: 11580: 11575: 11570: 11565: 11560: 11555: 11549: 11547: 11546:Chemical basis 11543: 11542: 11540: 11539: 11534: 11529: 11524: 11519: 11514: 11512:Taxonomic rank 11509: 11504: 11499: 11494: 11492:Reductionistic 11489: 11435: 11400: 11395: 11389: 11387: 11380: 11374: 11373: 11371: 11370: 11365: 11364: 11363: 11353: 11348: 11339:Introduction ( 11336: 11333: 11332: 11325: 11324: 11317: 11310: 11302: 11296: 11295: 11280: 11272: 11260: 11241: 11229: 11220: 11209: 11208: 11203: 11198: 11193: 11188: 11183: 11155: 11154:External links 11152: 11150: 11149: 11143: 11130: 11116: 11098: 11084: 11071: 11057: 11044: 11027: 11012: 10998: 10980: 10966: 10954:Campbell, Neil 10950: 10936: 10921: 10907: 10889: 10881: 10878: 10875: 10874: 10867: 10849: 10790: 10768: 10717: 10668: 10643:978-1402068904 10642: 10599: 10592: 10571: 10564: 10541: 10485: 10478: 10460: 10411: 10405:978-1464175121 10404: 10386: 10355: 10349:978-1464175121 10348: 10330: 10315: 10305: 10287: 10281:978-1464175121 10280: 10257: 10220: 10199:(4): 555–568. 10179: 10176:on 2011-08-20. 10168: 10148: 10107: 10100: 10094:. p. 45. 10078: 10045: 10019: 10013:978-0134093413 10012: 9994: 9988:978-1464175121 9987: 9966: 9959: 9941: 9934: 9912: 9906:978-1464175121 9905: 9887: 9866: 9848: 9829: 9822: 9804: 9755: 9736: 9701: 9658: 9607: 9577: 9541: 9504:Biology Direct 9490: 9479:on 28 May 2020 9457: 9451:978-1464175121 9450: 9432: 9426:978-1464175121 9425: 9404: 9398:978-1464175121 9397: 9372: 9331: 9270: 9264:978-1464175121 9263: 9236: 9201: 9160: 9146:. March 2018. 9135: 9086: 9029: 8955: 8918:(7): 4230–41. 8898: 8842: 8840: 8839: 8759: 8709: 8694: 8667: 8605: 8571: 8537: 8467: 8407: 8364: 8323: 8266: 8234: 8175: 8121: 8084:Fowler, C.M.R. 8074: 8037: 7992: 7977: 7957: 7946: 7914: 7908:978-1464175121 7907: 7884: 7877: 7851: 7800: 7741: 7726: 7706: 7676: 7670:978-1464175121 7669: 7640: 7634:978-1464175121 7633: 7610: 7604:978-1464175121 7603: 7585: 7570: 7568:, John Murray. 7552: 7490: 7484:978-0134093413 7483: 7458: 7436: 7418: 7398: 7361: 7332:(6): 411–417. 7312: 7294: 7274: 7247:(5): 369–378. 7231: 7222: 7216:978-1464175121 7215: 7194: 7167:Molecular Cell 7153: 7147:978-1464175121 7146: 7115: 7094:(6): 791–792. 7088:Molecular Cell 7074: 7023: 6969: 6939: 6914: 6865: 6858: 6836: 6830:978-1464175121 6829: 6798: 6764: 6740:"Test crosses" 6730: 6723: 6703: 6696: 6674: 6668:978-1464109485 6667: 6649: 6640: 6628: 6619: 6609: 6558: 6552:978-0321976499 6551: 6533: 6504: 6490:978-1429229432 6489: 6471: 6457:978-0199204625 6456: 6438: 6432:978-1464175121 6431: 6410: 6377: 6346: 6336: 6308: 6268: 6235: 6202: 6171: 6165:978-0716776017 6164: 6135: 6116: 6110:978-1464175121 6109: 6082: 6032: 5993: 5982: 5962: 5956:978-0134093413 5955: 5937: 5920:978-0132508827 5919: 5899: 5856: 5850:978-0321976499 5849: 5831: 5825:978-0321976499 5824: 5806: 5800:978-0321976499 5799: 5781: 5775:978-0134093413 5774: 5751: 5745:978-0321976499 5744: 5721: 5715:978-1464175121 5714: 5696: 5690:978-0134093413 5689: 5668: 5662:978-0321976499 5661: 5606: 5600:978-0134093413 5599: 5578: 5548: 5533: 5496: 5487:Henig (2000). 5479: 5468: 5446: 5433: 5409: 5366:, ed. (1909). 5354: 5341: 5328: 5321: 5303: 5296: 5275: 5264: 5244: 5237: 5213: 5198:Chisholm, Hugh 5176: 5157: 5137: 5126: 5106: 5099: 5072: 5065: 5036: 5029: 5008: 4963:(3): 343–364. 4938: 4895: 4852: 4845: 4839:. OUP Oxford. 4827: 4824:on 2004-06-08. 4808: 4751: 4714:(4): 259–266. 4694: 4688:978-0321976499 4687: 4660: 4654:978-1319017644 4653: 4626: 4620:978-0134093413 4619: 4585: 4584: 4582: 4579: 4577: 4576: 4571: 4566: 4560: 4555: 4550: 4545: 4540: 4535: 4530: 4525: 4520: 4515: 4510: 4504: 4502: 4499: 4469:, population, 4438:Main article: 4435: 4432: 4371:Main article: 4368: 4365: 4328:trophic levels 4267:Main article: 4264: 4261: 4257:Thomas Malthus 4185:Main article: 4182: 4179: 4163:organic matter 4148:photosynthesis 4108:Main article: 4105: 4102: 4090:Main article: 4087: 4084: 4037:microorganisms 4014:submicroscopic 4006:Bacteriophages 3995:Main article: 3992: 3989: 3941:breathe oxygen 3891:cyanobacterium 3879:photosynthetic 3783:Main article: 3780: 3777: 3711:binary fission 3667:cell membranes 3569:deep biosphere 3533:microorganisms 3497: 3494: 3492: 3489: 3447:period, while 3441:Ediacara biota 3423:microorganisms 3396:Microbial mats 3380:common descent 3264:Main article: 3261: 3258: 3140:Main article: 3137: 3134: 3109:Main article: 3106: 3103: 3066:Main article: 3063: 3060: 3058: 3055: 3004:types of cells 2965:Main article: 2962: 2959: 2877:Main article: 2874: 2871: 2839:Main article: 2824: 2821: 2737:polynucleotide 2710: 2707: 2695:Thomas Morgans 2687:Punnett square 2632:Punnett square 2621:Main article: 2618: 2615: 2613: 2610: 2557: 2554: 2521:binary fission 2483:fertilized egg 2405:Main article: 2386: 2383: 2355:protein kinase 2349:can alter the 2340:of animals or 2330:synaptic cleft 2267:Cell signaling 2265:Main article: 2262: 2261:Cell signaling 2259: 2208:oxygen content 2179: 2178:, and fixes CO 2175: 2166:Photosynthesis 2164:Main article: 2161: 2160:Photosynthesis 2158: 2137:waste products 2102: 2090: 2017:Main article: 2014: 2011: 1953:is the set of 1928: 1925: 1905:microfilaments 1742: 1741:Cell structure 1739: 1678:Cell (biology) 1676:Main article: 1673: 1670: 1622:Macromolecules 1603:Main article: 1600: 1599:Macromolecules 1597: 1570:hydroxyl group 1566:carbonyl group 1562:carboxyl group 1522: 1519:carbon dioxide 1507:covalent bonds 1481: 1478: 1421: 1418:polar molecule 1364: 1361: 1282: 1279: 1277: 1276:Chemical basis 1274: 1206:Alfred Hershey 1163:Charles Darwin 1142:Charles Darwin 1131:common descent 1104:Rudolf Virchow 1067:Jan Swammerdam 980:'s innovative 966:Main article: 963: 960: 826: 825: 823: 822: 815: 808: 800: 797: 796: 795: 794: 781: 764: 763: 760: 759: 754: 749: 744: 738: 735: 734: 731: 730: 727: 726: 721: 716: 711: 706: 696: 693: 692: 689: 688: 683: 682: 677: 672: 667: 662: 657: 652: 647: 642: 637: 632: 627: 622: 617: 612: 607: 602: 597: 592: 587: 582: 577: 572: 567: 562: 557: 552: 547: 542: 537: 532: 527: 522: 517: 512: 507: 502: 500:Marine biology 497: 492: 487: 482: 477: 472: 467: 462: 457: 452: 447: 442: 437: 432: 427: 422: 417: 412: 407: 402: 397: 392: 387: 382: 377: 372: 367: 362: 357: 352: 347: 342: 337: 332: 327: 322: 317: 312: 310:Bioinformatics 307: 302: 297: 292: 287: 282: 277: 272: 267: 262: 256: 255: 254: 251: 250: 247: 246: 243: 242: 220: 215: 208: 207: 193: 192: 187: 182: 177: 172: 167: 162: 155: 154: 149:Properties of 144: 143: 138: 133: 128: 122: 120:Key components 119: 118: 115: 114: 112: 111: 100: 99: 94: 89: 83: 80: 79: 74: 66: 65: 59: 58: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 14529: 14518: 14515: 14514: 14512: 14505: 14500: 14495: 14490: 14488: 14483: 14478: 14476: 14466: 14464: 14454: 14452: 14447: 14442: 14441: 14438: 14425: 14417: 14416: 14413: 14403: 14402: 14398: 14394: 14391: 14389: 14386: 14385: 14384: 14381: 14377: 14374: 14372: 14369: 14365: 14362: 14361: 14360: 14357: 14353: 14350: 14349: 14348: 14345: 14344: 14343: 14340: 14338: 14335: 14333: 14330: 14329: 14326: 14319: 14315: 14312: 14310: 14307: 14305: 14302: 14300: 14297: 14295: 14293:(abiogenesis) 14289: 14288: 14285: 14282: 14280: 14276: 14270: 14267: 14265: 14262: 14260: 14257: 14255: 14252: 14250: 14247: 14245: 14242: 14241: 14239: 14237: 14233: 14225: 14222: 14220: 14217: 14216: 14215: 14212: 14210: 14207: 14205: 14202: 14200: 14197: 14195: 14192: 14190: 14187: 14185: 14182: 14180: 14177: 14175: 14169: 14167: 14164: 14163: 14161: 14159: 14155: 14149: 14146: 14144: 14141: 14139: 14136: 14134: 14131: 14129: 14126: 14124: 14121: 14118: 14114: 14111: 14109: 14108:Earth science 14106: 14105: 14103: 14101: 14097: 14091: 14088: 14084: 14081: 14079: 14076: 14075: 14074: 14071: 14069: 14066: 14064: 14061: 14059: 14056: 14055: 14053: 14051: 14047: 14043: 14035: 14030: 14028: 14023: 14021: 14016: 14015: 14012: 14000: 13992: 13990: 13986: 13982: 13980: 13972: 13971: 13968: 13962: 13961:Space science 13959: 13957: 13954: 13952: 13951:Life sciences 13949: 13947: 13946:Earth science 13944: 13943: 13940: 13934: 13931: 13930: 13927: 13923: 13916: 13911: 13909: 13904: 13902: 13897: 13896: 13893: 13881: 13878: 13876: 13873: 13871: 13868: 13867: 13865: 13861: 13855: 13852: 13850: 13847: 13845: 13842: 13840: 13837: 13835: 13832: 13830: 13827: 13825: 13822: 13820: 13817: 13815: 13812: 13810: 13807: 13805: 13802: 13800: 13797: 13795: 13792: 13790: 13787: 13785: 13782: 13780: 13777: 13775: 13772: 13770: 13767: 13765: 13762: 13760: 13757: 13755: 13754:Phylogenetics 13752: 13750: 13747: 13745: 13742: 13740: 13737: 13735: 13732: 13730: 13727: 13725: 13722: 13720: 13717: 13715: 13712: 13710: 13707: 13705: 13702: 13700: 13697: 13695: 13692: 13690: 13687: 13685: 13682: 13680: 13677: 13675: 13672: 13670: 13667: 13665: 13662: 13660: 13657: 13655: 13652: 13650: 13649:Human biology 13647: 13645: 13642: 13640: 13637: 13635: 13632: 13630: 13627: 13625: 13622: 13620: 13617: 13615: 13612: 13610: 13607: 13605: 13602: 13600: 13597: 13595: 13592: 13590: 13587: 13585: 13582: 13580: 13577: 13575: 13572: 13570: 13567: 13565: 13562: 13560: 13557: 13555: 13552: 13550: 13547: 13545: 13542: 13540: 13539:Chronobiology 13537: 13535: 13532: 13530: 13527: 13525: 13522: 13520: 13517: 13515: 13514:Biotechnology 13512: 13510: 13509:Biostatistics 13507: 13505: 13502: 13500: 13497: 13495: 13492: 13490: 13487: 13485: 13482: 13480: 13477: 13475: 13472: 13470: 13467: 13465: 13462: 13460: 13457: 13455: 13452: 13450: 13447: 13445: 13442: 13440: 13437: 13435: 13432: 13431: 13428: 13424: 13417: 13412: 13410: 13405: 13403: 13398: 13397: 13394: 13381: 13377: 13374: 13372: 13369: 13368: 13366: 13362: 13356: 13355:Biotechnology 13353: 13351: 13350:Life Sciences 13348: 13346: 13343: 13341: 13338: 13335: 13331: 13328: 13327: 13325: 13321: 13315: 13314: 13310: 13308: 13307: 13303: 13301: 13300: 13296: 13294: 13293: 13289: 13287: 13286: 13282: 13281: 13279: 13275: 13269: 13266: 13264: 13261: 13260: 13258: 13254: 13248: 13245: 13243: 13240: 13238: 13235: 13233: 13230: 13228: 13225: 13223: 13220: 13219: 13217: 13213: 13207: 13204: 13203: 13200: 13196: 13189: 13184: 13182: 13177: 13175: 13170: 13169: 13166: 13154: 13146: 13145: 13142: 13136: 13133: 13131: 13128: 13126: 13123: 13121: 13118: 13116: 13113: 13111: 13108: 13106: 13103: 13101: 13098: 13096: 13093: 13091: 13088: 13084: 13081: 13080: 13079: 13076: 13074: 13071: 13070: 13068: 13064: 13058: 13055: 13053: 13050: 13048: 13045: 13043: 13040: 13038: 13035: 13033: 13030: 13028: 13025: 13023: 13020: 13018: 13015: 13013: 13010: 13008: 13005: 13004: 13002: 12996: 12990: 12987: 12985: 12982: 12980: 12977: 12975: 12972: 12970: 12967: 12965: 12962: 12960: 12957: 12955: 12952: 12950: 12947: 12945: 12942: 12940: 12937: 12935: 12932: 12930: 12927: 12925: 12922: 12920: 12917: 12915: 12912: 12910: 12909:Biotechnology 12907: 12905: 12902: 12900: 12897: 12895: 12892: 12891: 12889: 12883: 12878: 12874: 12867: 12862: 12860: 12855: 12853: 12848: 12847: 12844: 12832: 12824: 12822: 12814: 12812: 12804: 12801: 12796: 12790: 12789: 12786: 12780: 12777: 12775: 12772: 12770: 12767: 12765: 12762: 12761: 12759: 12755: 12747: 12744: 12742: 12739: 12737: 12734: 12732: 12729: 12727: 12724: 12722: 12719: 12717: 12714: 12712: 12709: 12707: 12704: 12702: 12699: 12697: 12694: 12692: 12689: 12687: 12684: 12682: 12679: 12677: 12674: 12672: 12669: 12667: 12664: 12662: 12659: 12657: 12654: 12652: 12649: 12647: 12646:Phylogenetics 12644: 12642: 12639: 12637: 12634: 12632: 12629: 12627: 12624: 12622: 12619: 12617: 12614: 12612: 12609: 12607: 12604: 12602: 12599: 12597: 12594: 12592: 12589: 12587: 12584: 12582: 12579: 12577: 12574: 12572: 12569: 12567: 12564: 12562: 12559: 12557: 12554: 12552: 12549: 12547: 12544: 12542: 12541:Human biology 12539: 12537: 12534: 12532: 12529: 12527: 12524: 12522: 12519: 12517: 12514: 12512: 12509: 12507: 12504: 12502: 12499: 12497: 12494: 12492: 12489: 12487: 12484: 12482: 12479: 12477: 12474: 12472: 12469: 12467: 12464: 12462: 12459: 12457: 12454: 12452: 12449: 12447: 12444: 12442: 12439: 12437: 12434: 12432: 12431:Chronobiology 12429: 12427: 12424: 12422: 12419: 12417: 12414: 12412: 12409: 12407: 12406:Biotechnology 12404: 12402: 12401:Biostatistics 12399: 12397: 12394: 12392: 12389: 12387: 12384: 12382: 12379: 12377: 12374: 12372: 12369: 12367: 12364: 12362: 12359: 12357: 12354: 12352: 12349: 12347: 12344: 12342: 12339: 12337: 12334: 12332: 12329: 12327: 12324: 12323: 12319: 12315: 12305: 12302: 12300: 12297: 12295: 12294:Belt transect 12292: 12291: 12289: 12285: 12279: 12278: 12274: 12272: 12271: 12267: 12265: 12264: 12260: 12258: 12255: 12253: 12250: 12248: 12245: 12243: 12242:Southern blot 12240: 12238: 12237:Northern blot 12235: 12233: 12230: 12228: 12225: 12223: 12220: 12218: 12215: 12213: 12210: 12208: 12205: 12203: 12200: 12198: 12195: 12193: 12190: 12188: 12185: 12183: 12180: 12178: 12175: 12173: 12170: 12169: 12167: 12161: 12158: 12156: 12150: 12145: 12131: 12128: 12126: 12123: 12121: 12118: 12114: 12111: 12110: 12109: 12106: 12104: 12101: 12099: 12096: 12094: 12091: 12089: 12086: 12084: 12081: 12079: 12076: 12074: 12071: 12069: 12066: 12064: 12061: 12059: 12056: 12055: 12053: 12051: 12047: 12041: 12038: 12036: 12033: 12031: 12028: 12026: 12023: 12021: 12018: 12016: 12015:Immune system 12013: 12011: 12008: 12006: 12003: 12001: 11998: 11996: 11993: 11991: 11988: 11987: 11985: 11979: 11973: 11970: 11968: 11965: 11963: 11960: 11958: 11955: 11953: 11950: 11948: 11945: 11943: 11940: 11938: 11935: 11933: 11932:Ground tissue 11930: 11928: 11925: 11923: 11920: 11919: 11917: 11911: 11905: 11902: 11898: 11895: 11893: 11890: 11888: 11885: 11883: 11880: 11878: 11875: 11874: 11873: 11870: 11868: 11865: 11863: 11860: 11859: 11857: 11855: 11851: 11845: 11842: 11840: 11837: 11835: 11834:Phylogenetics 11832: 11830: 11827: 11825: 11822: 11820: 11817: 11815: 11812: 11810: 11807: 11805: 11802: 11800: 11799:Genetic drift 11797: 11795: 11792: 11790: 11787: 11785: 11782: 11781: 11779: 11777: 11773: 11767: 11764: 11762: 11759: 11757: 11754: 11752: 11749: 11747: 11744: 11742: 11739: 11737: 11734: 11732: 11729: 11728: 11726: 11724: 11720: 11714: 11711: 11709: 11706: 11704: 11701: 11699: 11696: 11694: 11691: 11689: 11686: 11684: 11681: 11679: 11676: 11674: 11671: 11669: 11666: 11664: 11661: 11659: 11656: 11654: 11651: 11649: 11646: 11645: 11643: 11641: 11637: 11631: 11628: 11626: 11623: 11621: 11618: 11616: 11613: 11611: 11608: 11606: 11605:Nucleic acids 11603: 11601: 11598: 11596: 11593: 11589: 11586: 11585: 11584: 11581: 11579: 11576: 11574: 11571: 11569: 11568:Chemical bond 11566: 11564: 11563:Carbohydrates 11561: 11559: 11556: 11554: 11551: 11550: 11548: 11544: 11538: 11535: 11533: 11530: 11528: 11525: 11523: 11520: 11518: 11515: 11513: 11510: 11508: 11505: 11503: 11500: 11498: 11495: 11493: 11490: 11487: 11483: 11479: 11475: 11471: 11467: 11463: 11459: 11455: 11451: 11447: 11443: 11439: 11436: 11433: 11429: 11425: 11421: 11417: 11413: 11409: 11405: 11401: 11399: 11396: 11394: 11391: 11390: 11388: 11384: 11381: 11379: 11375: 11369: 11366: 11362: 11359: 11358: 11357: 11354: 11352: 11349: 11346: 11342: 11338: 11337: 11334: 11330: 11323: 11318: 11316: 11311: 11309: 11304: 11303: 11300: 11293: 11290: 11286: 11285: 11281: 11278: 11277: 11273: 11270: 11266: 11265: 11261: 11258: 11257:peer-reviewed 11254: 11253:Royal Society 11251: 11247: 11246: 11242: 11239: 11235: 11234: 11230: 11228: 11224: 11221: 11219: 11216: 11215: 11214: 11213: 11212:Journal links 11207: 11204: 11202: 11199: 11197: 11194: 11192: 11189: 11187: 11184: 11182: 11178: 11173: 11169: 11168: 11163: 11158: 11157: 11146: 11140: 11136: 11131: 11127: 11123: 11119: 11113: 11109: 11108: 11103: 11099: 11095: 11091: 11087: 11081: 11077: 11072: 11068: 11064: 11060: 11054: 11050: 11045: 11034: 11030: 11024: 11020: 11019: 11013: 11009: 11005: 11001: 10995: 10991: 10990: 10985: 10981: 10977: 10973: 10969: 10963: 10959: 10955: 10951: 10947: 10943: 10939: 10933: 10929: 10928: 10922: 10918: 10914: 10910: 10904: 10899: 10898: 10891: 10890: 10887: 10870: 10864: 10860: 10853: 10845: 10841: 10836: 10831: 10826: 10821: 10817: 10813: 10809: 10805: 10801: 10794: 10788: 10784: 10781: 10778: 10772: 10764: 10760: 10756: 10752: 10748: 10744: 10740: 10736: 10732: 10728: 10721: 10713: 10709: 10704: 10699: 10695: 10691: 10687: 10683: 10679: 10672: 10657: 10653: 10649: 10645: 10639: 10635: 10631: 10627: 10623: 10619: 10615: 10614: 10606: 10604: 10595: 10589: 10585: 10578: 10576: 10567: 10561: 10557: 10556: 10548: 10546: 10531:on 2019-04-12 10527: 10523: 10519: 10515: 10511: 10507: 10503: 10496: 10489: 10481: 10475: 10471: 10464: 10456: 10452: 10447: 10442: 10438: 10434: 10430: 10426: 10422: 10415: 10407: 10401: 10397: 10390: 10374: 10370: 10366: 10359: 10351: 10345: 10341: 10334: 10326: 10319: 10312: 10308: 10302: 10298: 10291: 10283: 10277: 10273: 10266: 10264: 10262: 10253: 10249: 10245: 10241: 10237: 10233: 10232: 10224: 10216: 10212: 10207: 10202: 10198: 10194: 10190: 10183: 10175: 10171: 10165: 10161: 10160: 10152: 10143: 10138: 10134: 10130: 10126: 10122: 10118: 10111: 10103: 10097: 10093: 10089: 10082: 10075: 10063: 10059: 10055: 10049: 10033: 10029: 10023: 10015: 10009: 10005: 9998: 9990: 9984: 9980: 9973: 9971: 9962: 9956: 9952: 9945: 9937: 9931: 9926: 9925: 9916: 9908: 9902: 9898: 9891: 9884: 9880: 9876: 9870: 9855: 9851: 9845: 9841: 9840: 9833: 9825: 9819: 9815: 9808: 9800: 9796: 9791: 9786: 9782: 9778: 9774: 9770: 9766: 9759: 9751: 9747: 9740: 9732: 9728: 9724: 9720: 9717:(4): 417–24. 9716: 9712: 9705: 9697: 9693: 9689: 9685: 9681: 9677: 9674:(6): 504–10. 9673: 9669: 9662: 9654: 9650: 9645: 9640: 9635: 9630: 9626: 9622: 9618: 9611: 9595: 9591: 9587: 9581: 9566:on 2021-12-28 9564: 9559: 9555: 9551: 9545: 9537: 9533: 9528: 9523: 9518: 9513: 9509: 9505: 9501: 9494: 9478: 9474: 9473: 9468: 9461: 9453: 9447: 9443: 9436: 9428: 9422: 9418: 9411: 9409: 9400: 9394: 9390: 9383: 9381: 9379: 9377: 9368: 9364: 9359: 9354: 9350: 9346: 9342: 9335: 9327: 9323: 9319: 9315: 9310: 9305: 9301: 9297: 9293: 9289: 9285: 9281: 9274: 9266: 9260: 9256: 9249: 9247: 9245: 9243: 9241: 9232: 9228: 9224: 9220: 9216: 9212: 9205: 9197: 9193: 9188: 9183: 9180:(5): 631–48. 9179: 9175: 9171: 9164: 9149: 9145: 9139: 9131: 9127: 9122: 9117: 9113: 9109: 9106:(1): 352–60. 9105: 9101: 9097: 9090: 9082: 9078: 9074: 9070: 9065: 9060: 9056: 9052: 9049:(7091): 289. 9048: 9044: 9040: 9033: 9015: 9011: 9007: 9003: 8999: 8994: 8989: 8985: 8981: 8977: 8973: 8966: 8959: 8951: 8947: 8942: 8937: 8933: 8929: 8925: 8921: 8917: 8913: 8909: 8902: 8886: 8882: 8878: 8874: 8870: 8866: 8862: 8861: 8856: 8852: 8846: 8836: 8832: 8828: 8824: 8820: 8816: 8812: 8808: 8804: 8800: 8799: 8793: 8792: 8783:on 2008-05-11 8782: 8778: 8774: 8770: 8763: 8745: 8741: 8737: 8733: 8729: 8728: 8720: 8713: 8705: 8701: 8697: 8691: 8687: 8683: 8682: 8677: 8671: 8657:on 2007-10-25 8653: 8649: 8645: 8641: 8637: 8633: 8629: 8628: 8620: 8616: 8609: 8594: 8590: 8586: 8582: 8575: 8561:on 2009-05-20 8560: 8556: 8552: 8548: 8541: 8527:on 2009-02-26 8523: 8519: 8515: 8511: 8510:10.1038/46965 8507: 8503: 8499: 8495: 8491: 8490: 8482: 8478: 8471: 8463: 8459: 8454: 8449: 8444: 8439: 8435: 8431: 8427: 8424: 8423: 8418: 8411: 8402: 8397: 8393: 8389: 8385: 8381: 8380: 8375: 8368: 8359: 8354: 8350: 8346: 8342: 8338: 8334: 8327: 8319: 8315: 8311: 8307: 8303: 8299: 8295: 8291: 8287: 8283: 8282: 8277: 8270: 8262: 8258: 8254: 8250: 8249: 8244: 8238: 8224:on 2009-02-26 8220: 8216: 8212: 8208: 8204: 8200: 8196: 8189: 8185: 8179: 8171: 8167: 8162: 8157: 8153: 8149: 8145: 8141: 8140: 8135: 8131: 8125: 8116: 8111: 8107: 8103: 8099: 8095: 8094: 8089: 8085: 8078: 8070: 8066: 8062: 8058: 8054: 8050: 8049: 8041: 8033: 8029: 8025: 8021: 8017: 8013: 8009: 8005: 8004: 7996: 7988: 7984: 7980: 7974: 7970: 7969: 7961: 7955: 7950: 7931: 7924: 7918: 7910: 7904: 7900: 7893: 7891: 7889: 7880: 7874: 7870: 7865: 7864: 7855: 7847: 7843: 7839: 7835: 7831: 7827: 7823: 7819: 7815: 7811: 7804: 7796: 7792: 7787: 7782: 7777: 7772: 7768: 7764: 7760: 7756: 7752: 7745: 7737: 7730: 7713: 7709: 7707:9780123847201 7703: 7699: 7695: 7691: 7687: 7680: 7672: 7666: 7662: 7655: 7653: 7651: 7649: 7647: 7645: 7636: 7630: 7626: 7619: 7617: 7615: 7606: 7600: 7596: 7589: 7581: 7574: 7567: 7566: 7561: 7556: 7545: 7541: 7537: 7533: 7529: 7525: 7521: 7517: 7513: 7512: 7504: 7500: 7494: 7486: 7480: 7476: 7469: 7467: 7465: 7463: 7454: 7450: 7446: 7440: 7425: 7421: 7415: 7411: 7410: 7402: 7395: 7382: 7378: 7374: 7371: 7365: 7357: 7353: 7348: 7343: 7339: 7335: 7331: 7327: 7323: 7316: 7301: 7297: 7291: 7287: 7286: 7278: 7270: 7266: 7262: 7258: 7254: 7250: 7246: 7242: 7235: 7226: 7218: 7212: 7208: 7201: 7199: 7190: 7186: 7181: 7176: 7172: 7168: 7164: 7157: 7149: 7143: 7139: 7132: 7130: 7128: 7126: 7124: 7122: 7120: 7111: 7107: 7102: 7097: 7093: 7089: 7085: 7078: 7070: 7066: 7062: 7058: 7054: 7050: 7046: 7042: 7038: 7034: 7027: 7019: 7015: 7011: 7007: 7003: 6999: 6995: 6991: 6987: 6983: 6979: 6973: 6965: 6961: 6957: 6953: 6949: 6943: 6928: 6924: 6918: 6910: 6906: 6902: 6898: 6893: 6888: 6885:(3): 506–21. 6884: 6880: 6876: 6869: 6861: 6859:0-8053-4553-1 6855: 6850: 6849: 6840: 6832: 6826: 6822: 6815: 6813: 6811: 6809: 6807: 6805: 6803: 6787: 6783: 6779: 6775: 6768: 6753: 6749: 6745: 6741: 6734: 6726: 6720: 6716: 6715: 6707: 6699: 6693: 6689: 6685: 6678: 6670: 6664: 6660: 6653: 6644: 6635: 6633: 6623: 6613: 6605: 6601: 6596: 6591: 6586: 6581: 6577: 6573: 6569: 6562: 6554: 6548: 6544: 6537: 6522: 6518: 6514: 6508: 6500: 6496: 6492: 6486: 6482: 6475: 6467: 6463: 6459: 6453: 6449: 6442: 6434: 6428: 6424: 6417: 6415: 6398: 6394: 6390: 6384: 6382: 6365: 6361: 6357: 6350: 6343: 6339: 6333: 6329: 6325: 6321: 6320: 6312: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6292: 6288: 6284: 6283: 6275: 6273: 6266: 6262: 6261: 6256: 6255:Scott, Robert 6252: 6248: 6239: 6233: 6229: 6228: 6223: 6222:Scott, Robert 6219: 6215: 6206: 6191: 6187: 6186: 6181: 6175: 6167: 6161: 6157: 6150: 6148: 6146: 6144: 6142: 6140: 6131: 6127: 6120: 6112: 6106: 6102: 6095: 6093: 6091: 6089: 6087: 6079: 6075: 6072: 6068: 6064: 6051: 6047: 6043: 6036: 6020: 6016: 6012: 6008: 6004: 5997: 5989: 5985: 5979: 5975: 5974: 5966: 5958: 5952: 5948: 5941: 5926: 5922: 5916: 5912: 5911: 5903: 5895: 5891: 5887: 5883: 5879: 5875: 5872:(1): E13–15. 5871: 5867: 5860: 5852: 5846: 5842: 5835: 5827: 5821: 5817: 5810: 5802: 5796: 5792: 5785: 5777: 5771: 5767: 5760: 5758: 5756: 5747: 5741: 5737: 5730: 5728: 5726: 5717: 5711: 5707: 5700: 5692: 5686: 5682: 5675: 5673: 5664: 5658: 5654: 5647: 5645: 5643: 5641: 5639: 5637: 5635: 5633: 5631: 5629: 5627: 5625: 5623: 5621: 5619: 5617: 5615: 5613: 5611: 5602: 5596: 5592: 5585: 5583: 5567: 5563: 5559: 5552: 5544: 5537: 5522: 5518: 5514: 5510: 5503: 5501: 5492: 5491: 5483: 5475: 5471: 5465: 5461: 5457: 5450: 5443: 5440:Mayr, Ernst. 5437: 5430: 5429:0-674-00613-5 5426: 5422: 5418: 5413: 5394: 5390: 5386: 5382: 5378: 5371: 5370: 5365: 5358: 5351: 5348:Mayr, Ernst. 5345: 5338: 5335:Mayr, Ernst. 5332: 5324: 5318: 5314: 5307: 5299: 5293: 5289: 5286:(2003). "7". 5285: 5279: 5271: 5267: 5261: 5257: 5256: 5248: 5240: 5234: 5230: 5226: 5225: 5217: 5209: 5208: 5203: 5199: 5194: 5193:public domain 5180: 5164: 5160: 5154: 5150: 5149: 5141: 5133: 5129: 5123: 5120:. CRC Press. 5119: 5118: 5110: 5102: 5096: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5083: 5076: 5068: 5062: 5058: 5053: 5052: 5043: 5041: 5032: 5026: 5022: 5015: 5013: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4988: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4971: 4966: 4962: 4958: 4957: 4952: 4945: 4943: 4934: 4928: 4912: 4911: 4906: 4899: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4856: 4848: 4842: 4838: 4831: 4823: 4819: 4812: 4804: 4800: 4795: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4755: 4747: 4743: 4738: 4733: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4698: 4690: 4684: 4680: 4673: 4671: 4669: 4667: 4665: 4656: 4650: 4646: 4639: 4637: 4635: 4633: 4631: 4622: 4616: 4612: 4605: 4603: 4601: 4599: 4597: 4595: 4593: 4591: 4586: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4567: 4565: 4561: 4559: 4556: 4554: 4551: 4549: 4546: 4544: 4541: 4539: 4536: 4534: 4531: 4529: 4526: 4524: 4521: 4519: 4516: 4514: 4511: 4509: 4506: 4505: 4498: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4468: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4447: 4441: 4431: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4388: 4383: 4379: 4374: 4364: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4349: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4288: 4284: 4275: 4270: 4260: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4193: 4188: 4178: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4111: 4101: 4099: 4093: 4083: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4052: 4050: 4046: 4045:virus species 4042: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4015: 4007: 4003: 3998: 3988: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3933: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3871: 3869: 3865: 3864:invertebrates 3861: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3828:stramenopiles 3825: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3808:symbiogenesis 3805: 3804:endosymbioses 3797: 3796: 3791: 3786: 3776: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3753: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3730:extremophiles 3726: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3715:fragmentation 3712: 3708: 3704: 3703:cyanobacteria 3700: 3696: 3693:archaea (the 3692: 3691:Salt-tolerant 3688: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3655:transcription 3652: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3639:morphological 3636: 3635: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3573:Earth's crust 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3515: 3514: 3508: 3503: 3488: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3419: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3364: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3337:Carboniferous 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3267: 3257: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3246:three domains 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3208:features (or 3207: 3202: 3198: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3143: 3142:Phylogenetics 3133: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3112: 3102: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3089: 3085: 3078: 3074: 3069: 3054: 3052: 3048: 3046: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2988:morphogenesis 2985: 2981: 2980:Determination 2977: 2973: 2968: 2958: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2915: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2889:transcription 2886: 2880: 2870: 2868: 2864: 2863:transcription 2860: 2859:Francis Crick 2856: 2852: 2848: 2842: 2834: 2831:The extended 2829: 2820: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2781:spontaneously 2778: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2725: 2720: 2716: 2709:Genes and DNA 2706: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2667:Heterozygotic 2664: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2633: 2629: 2624: 2609: 2607: 2603: 2598: 2593: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2553: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2510: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2479: 2475: 2474:cell membrane 2471: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2425:cell division 2422: 2418: 2414: 2408: 2400: 2396: 2391: 2382: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2293:cell membrane 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2268: 2258: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2239: 2237: 2236:photosystem I 2232: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2211: 2209: 2205: 2204:cyanobacteria 2201: 2196: 2192: 2189: 2172: 2167: 2157: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2138: 2134: 2129: 2127: 2123: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2100: 2096: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2055: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2030: 2025: 2020: 2010: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1944: 1939: 1934: 1933:Bioenergetics 1924: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1849:nucleic acids 1846: 1837: 1833: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1810:cell adhesion 1807: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1786:semipermeable 1783: 1779: 1775: 1774:lipid bilayer 1771: 1767: 1763: 1762:cell membrane 1756: 1752: 1747: 1738: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1691:cell division 1688: 1684: 1679: 1669: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1638:phospholipids 1635: 1631: 1630:Carbohydrates 1627: 1623: 1616: 1611: 1606: 1605:Macromolecule 1596: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1583:In 1953, the 1581: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1546: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1497: 1492: 1487: 1477: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1388: 1383: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1360: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1288: 1273: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1234:Francis Crick 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1190:Gregor Mendel 1186: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1161: 1157: 1149: 1148: 1143: 1138: 1134: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1115:Carl Linnaeus 1111: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1047: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1008:Ancient Greek 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 992:ancient Egypt 985: 984: 979: 974: 969: 959: 957: 953: 949: 945: 941: 937: 933: 929: 925: 920: 918: 914: 910: 906: 902: 898: 894: 890: 886: 882: 878: 874: 872: 868: 864: 860: 856: 852: 848: 844: 840: 836: 832: 821: 816: 814: 809: 807: 802: 801: 799: 798: 792: 782: 779: 774: 768: 767: 766: 765: 758: 755: 753: 750: 748: 745: 743: 740: 739: 733: 732: 725: 722: 720: 717: 715: 712: 710: 707: 705: 701: 698: 697: 691: 690: 681: 678: 676: 673: 671: 668: 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12386:Biomechanics 12366:Biogeography 12361:Biochemistry 12356:Bacteriology 12351:Astrobiology 12275: 12268: 12261: 12232:Western blot 12222:Enzyme assay 12197:Cell culture 12098:Conservation 11983:and function 11981:Animal form 11915:and function 11688:Fermentation 11466:Organ system 11424:Reproduction 11402:Properties ( 11377: 11328: 11282: 11274: 11262: 11243: 11232: 11223:PLOS Biology 11211: 11210: 11165: 11134: 11106: 11075: 11048: 11037:. Retrieved 11017: 10988: 10957: 10926: 10896: 10858: 10852: 10807: 10803: 10793: 10776: 10771: 10730: 10726: 10720: 10688:(4): 544–7. 10685: 10681: 10671: 10660:. Retrieved 10612: 10583: 10554: 10533:. Retrieved 10526:the original 10505: 10501: 10488: 10469: 10463: 10428: 10424: 10414: 10395: 10389: 10377:. Retrieved 10368: 10358: 10339: 10333: 10324: 10318: 10310: 10296: 10290: 10271: 10235: 10229: 10223: 10196: 10192: 10182: 10174:the original 10158: 10151: 10124: 10120: 10110: 10087: 10081: 10073: 10066:. Retrieved 10062:the original 10057: 10048: 10036:. Retrieved 10028:"Population" 10022: 10003: 9997: 9978: 9950: 9944: 9923: 9915: 9896: 9890: 9882: 9878: 9874: 9869: 9858:. Retrieved 9838: 9832: 9813: 9807: 9772: 9768: 9758: 9749: 9745: 9739: 9714: 9710: 9704: 9671: 9667: 9661: 9624: 9620: 9610: 9598:. Retrieved 9589: 9580: 9568:. Retrieved 9563:the original 9557: 9544: 9507: 9503: 9493: 9481:. 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Retrieved 5909: 5902: 5878:10.1038/8964 5869: 5865: 5859: 5840: 5834: 5815: 5809: 5790: 5784: 5765: 5735: 5705: 5699: 5680: 5652: 5590: 5570:. Retrieved 5561: 5551: 5542: 5536: 5525:. Retrieved 5516: 5512: 5489: 5482: 5459: 5449: 5441: 5436: 5420: 5412: 5400:. Retrieved 5368: 5357: 5349: 5344: 5336: 5331: 5312: 5306: 5287: 5278: 5254: 5247: 5223: 5216: 5205: 5202:Theophrastus 5179: 5167:. Retrieved 5151:. Springer. 5147: 5140: 5116: 5109: 5081: 5075: 5050: 5020: 4960: 4956:Astrobiology 4954: 4915:. Retrieved 4908: 4898: 4865: 4862:Nonlinearity 4861: 4855: 4836: 4830: 4822:the original 4811: 4768: 4764: 4754: 4711: 4707: 4697: 4678: 4644: 4610: 4475:Biodiversity 4446:biodiversity 4443: 4434:Conservation 4392: 4340:heterotrophs 4280: 4251:such as the 4249:technologies 4239:, and other 4203:of the same 4198: 4113: 4095: 4053: 4012:Viruses are 4011: 3945:able to move 3934: 3920: 3908:chlorophytes 3896:glaucophytes 3872: 3801: 3793: 3757:Earth's life 3754: 3727: 3687:hydrogen gas 3669:, including 3663:ether lipids 3653:involved in 3645:and several 3632: 3607: 3519: 3511: 3502:Microbiology 3439: 3420: 3376:genetic code 3365: 3269: 3216:followed by 3210:synapomorphy 3194: 3114: 3082: 3044: 2970: 2912: 2893:RNA splicing 2882: 2844: 2793:nitrous acid 2761:cell nucleus 2741:double helix 2730: 2679:Test crosses 2637: 2596: 2594: 2584:and genetic 2559: 2511: 2410: 2351:excitability 2270: 2255:Calvin cycle 2240: 2212: 2191:light energy 2185: 2133:fermentation 2130: 2115:ATP synthase 2107:chemiosmosis 2056: 2033: 1948: 1897:microtubules 1889:chloroplasts 1885:animal cells 1861:mitochondria 1857:cell nucleus 1842: 1830:cytoskeleton 1796:, including 1778:cholesterols 1776:, including 1759: 1685:states that 1681: 1620: 1582: 1547: 1501: 1391: 1341:Biochemistry 1290: 1246:genetic code 1244:domain. The 1230:James Watson 1210:Martha Chase 1187: 1153: 1145: 1112: 1100:Robert Remak 1061:, bacteria, 1048: 1016:Theophrastus 989: 983:Micrographia 981: 978:Robert Hooke 940:biodiversity 921: 913:observations 875: 865:, grow, and 830: 829: 736:Applications 625:Sociobiology 605:Protistology 570:Photobiology 565:Pharmacology 555:Parasitology 550:Paleontology 530:Neuroscience 510:Microbiology 420:Epidemiology 390:Cytogenetics 350:Cell biology 330:Biosemiotics 320:Biomechanics 300:Biogeography 295:Biochemistry 290:Bacteriology 285:Astrobiology 197: 185:Reproduction 148: 75: 62: 43: 14487:Environment 14383:Prokaryotes 14171:Atmosphere 14166:Meteorology 13849:Xenobiology 13844:Virophysics 13814:Systematics 13769:Primatology 13714:Ornithology 13654:Ichthyology 13639:Herpetology 13634:Gerontology 13599:Epigenetics 13559:Cryobiology 13449:Agrostology 13439:Aerobiology 13434:Abiogenesis 13090:Ethnobotany 12979:RNA biology 12887:disciplines 12831:WikiProject 12741:Xenobiology 12736:Virophysics 12706:Systematics 12661:Primatology 12606:Ornithology 12546:Ichthyology 12531:Herpetology 12526:Gerontology 12491:Epigenetics 12451:Cryobiology 12341:Agrostology 12331:Aerobiology 12326:Abiogenesis 12163:Laboratory 12010:Homeostasis 11913:Plant form 11736:Epigenetics 11658:Cell theory 11558:Amino acids 11537:Common name 11527:Peer review 11502:Mechanistic 11250:high-impact 11160:‹ The 10634:11059/14777 9775:: 125–134. 9570:28 February 8867:: 463–493. 8734:(3): 4–10. 8343:(1): 1–17. 8201:(1): 9–41. 6572:Antibiotics 6326:. pp. 6067:amino acids 5402:27 November 5352:, chapter 7 5339:, chapter 4 4917:14 February 4868:(8): T131. 4771:(1): 1–10. 4765:Bio Systems 4518:Idiobiology 4487:extinctions 4416:hydrosphere 4408:lithosphere 4356:decomposers 4320:food chains 4312:competition 4292:pollination 4263:Communities 4225:environment 4181:Populations 4167:decomposers 4118:of living ( 4098:environment 4023:inside the 3930:decomposers 3904:green algae 3836:amoebozoans 3812:Precambrian 3734:hot springs 3695:Haloarchaea 3659:translation 3621:two domains 3603:Haloarchaea 3537:micrometers 3530:prokaryotic 3510:Bacteria – 3449:vertebrates 3301:Precambrian 3297:Phanerozoic 3293:Proterozoic 3095:generations 3024:epigenetics 3008:proliferate 2972:Development 2953:changes to 2935:allolactose 2897:translation 2885:development 2867:translation 2797:benzopyrene 2753:prokaryotes 2745:chromosomes 2703:sex linkage 2699:fruit flies 2617:Inheritance 2606:outcrossing 2578:outcrossing 2513:Prokaryotes 2489:, and some 2487:blood cells 2462:cytokinesis 2449:chromosomes 2334:muscle cell 2223:chlorophyll 2182:into sugar. 2142:lactic acid 1881:Plant cells 1731:single cell 1715:prokaryotic 1695:micrometers 1683:Cell theory 1666:nucleotides 1652:molecules, 1593:abiogenesis 1589:early Earth 1558:amino group 1550:hydrocarbon 1529:such as in 1517:such as in 1462:water vapor 1218:chromosomes 1212:pointed to 1108:cell theory 1098:. However, 1085:. In 1838, 1059:spermatozoa 1028:Al-Dīnawarī 1026:(781–869), 996:Mesopotamia 924:prokaryotic 883:, from the 675:Xenobiology 670:Virophysics 640:Systematics 595:Primatology 540:Ornithology 480:Ichthyology 465:Herpetology 460:Gerontology 425:Epigenetics 385:Cryobiology 275:Agrostology 265:Aerobiology 260:Abiogenesis 126:Cell theory 14264:Wilderness 14117:geological 13834:Toxicology 13829:Teratology 13774:Proteomics 13759:Physiology 13699:Neontology 13664:Lipidology 13659:Immunology 13629:Geobiology 13589:Embryology 13569:Dendrology 13499:Biophysics 13479:Biogeology 13032:Lamarckism 12939:Immunology 12757:Glossaries 12726:Toxicology 12721:Teratology 12666:Proteomics 12651:Physiology 12591:Neontology 12556:Lipidology 12551:Immunology 12521:Geobiology 12481:Embryology 12461:Dendrology 12391:Biophysics 12371:Biogeology 12165:techniques 12120:Microbiome 11947:Plant stem 11839:Speciation 11784:Adaptation 11713:Prokaryote 11693:Metabolism 11653:Cell cycle 11484:> 11480:> 11476:> 11474:Population 11472:> 11468:> 11464:> 11460:> 11456:> 11452:> 11448:> 11444:> 11420:Regulation 11404:Adaptation 11039:2015-06-27 10662:2021-05-15 10535:2021-05-15 10502:BioScience 10238:: 419–44. 10127:: e00365. 10068:5 December 10038:5 December 9860:2020-08-24 9550:Zimmer, C. 9154:2021-05-14 9023:2021-05-14 8787:2020-02-21 8753:2015-01-23 8661:2007-10-22 8599:2015-01-22 8565:2015-01-22 8531:2015-01-22 8228:2008-09-02 7430:2021-05-27 7394:mysteries. 7306:2021-05-28 6958:: 138–63. 6933:2013-10-02 6792:2021-05-28 6784:(1): 143. 6758:2021-05-28 6750:(1): 136. 6527:2020-11-24 6196:2013-05-23 6056:2021-05-13 6007:StatPearls 5931:2021-05-13 5572:2006-07-22 5527:2021-05-13 5519:(1): 134. 4970:1808.09460 4581:References 4485:, species 4462:extinction 4458:ecosystems 4412:atmosphere 4352:Omnivorous 4348:carnivores 4344:herbivores 4332:autotrophs 4132:atmosphere 4104:Ecosystems 4033:life forms 3971:have been 3916:stoneworts 3868:protozoans 3848:eukaryotic 3832:rhizarians 3830:, plants, 3820:alveolates 3779:Eukaryotes 3773:syntrophic 3761:microbiota 3746:marshlands 3738:salt lakes 3723:endospores 3699:fix carbon 3683:metal ions 3613:classified 3567:, and the 3473:archosaurs 3431:Ordovician 3408:metabolism 3404:eukaryotes 3392:eukaryotes 3361:Quaternary 3353:Cretaceous 3325:Ordovician 3206:homologous 3190:eukaryotes 3111:Speciation 3105:Speciation 2992:stem cells 2951:epigenetic 2749:eukaryotes 2675:sex-linked 2582:DNA damage 2507:meiosis II 2495:interphase 2470:organelles 2454:interphase 2429:eukaryotes 2421:organelles 2407:Cell cycle 2385:Cell cycle 2377:is called 2309:juxtacrine 2079:acetyl-CoA 2059:glycolysis 2007:regulation 1951:Metabolism 1943:exothermic 1927:Metabolism 1853:organelles 1826:glycocalyx 1755:organelles 1707:eukaryotic 1662:amino acid 1654:antibodies 1615:hemoglobin 1470:pure water 1450:insulating 1367:See also: 1317:phosphorus 1160:naturalist 1075:dissection 1071:entomology 1055:microscope 1040:physiology 932:eukaryotic 917:hypotheses 893:physiology 877:Biologists 837:. It is a 660:Toxicology 655:Teratology 600:Proteomics 585:Physiology 525:Neontology 490:Lipidology 485:Immunology 455:Geobiology 415:Embryology 395:Dendrology 325:Biophysics 305:Biogeology 180:Regulation 160:Adaptation 18:Biological 14342:Eukaryota 14309:Hierarchy 14304:Biosphere 14269:Wildfires 14259:Radiation 14249:Ecosystem 14189:Moonlight 14123:Structure 14078:particles 13749:Phycology 13734:Pathology 13719:Osteology 13709:Nutrition 13669:Mammalogy 13644:Histology 13380:Precocial 13376:Altricial 13334:Physician 13313:In silico 13222:Biologist 13100:Dysgenics 13083:Teleology 13047:RNA world 13042:Protocell 13017:Darwinism 12998:Theories, 12969:Phycology 12641:Phycology 12626:Pathology 12611:Osteology 12601:Nutrition 12561:Mammalogy 12536:Histology 12277:in silico 12153:Research 12130:Resources 12103:Ecosystem 12093:Community 12078:Biosphere 11990:Breathing 11872:Eukaryote 11854:Diversity 11804:Gene flow 11776:Evolution 11683:Eukaryote 11595:Molecules 11486:Biosphere 11482:Ecosystem 11478:Community 11450:Organelle 11345:Evolution 11292:scholarly 11067:223090105 10917:145080076 10652:232001738 10215:1936-6434 9752:: 182–86. 9510:(1): 29. 8727:GSA Today 7968:Evolution 7736:Evolution 7718:29 August 7580:Evolution 7387:9 October 6848:iGenetics 6578:(2): 69. 6499:698085201 6466:176818780 5543:Evolution 5431:. p. 187. 5284:Sapp, Jan 5229:Routledge 4890:119808230 4728:1043-4046 4404:biosphere 4373:Biosphere 4367:Biosphere 4324:food webs 4308:mutualism 4304:symbiosis 4300:evolution 4296:predation 4287:organisms 4241:resources 4213:reproduce 4201:organisms 4156:microbial 4140:ecosystem 4116:community 4110:Ecosystem 4049:ecosystem 4029:organisms 4021:replicate 3985:food webs 3973:described 3959:, during 3875:organisms 3824:excavates 3785:Eukaryote 3671:archaeols 3665:in their 3625:Eukaryota 3581:parasitic 3577:symbiotic 3491:Diversity 3461:synapsids 3445:Ediacaran 3372:evolution 3305:Paleozoic 3136:Phylogeny 3088:heritable 3084:Evolution 3057:Evolution 3051:vertebrae 2955:chromatin 2923:repressor 2919:activator 2851:phenotype 2805:gamma ray 2663:phenotype 2659:recessive 2590:mutations 2546:ribosomes 2503:meiosis I 2466:cytoplasm 2458:telophase 2305:paracrine 2301:autocrine 2285:receptors 2075:pyruvates 2040:nutrients 1999:reactants 1991:catalysts 1975:synthesis 1963:catabolic 1917:β-tubulin 1913:α-tubulin 1877:lysosomes 1822:cell wall 1768:from the 1766:cytoplasm 1650:signaling 1357:molecular 1349:organisms 1337:compounds 1333:magnesium 1287:Chemistry 1242:molecular 1175:Malthus's 1140:In 1842, 1087:Schleiden 1063:infusoria 1012:Aristotle 952:nutrients 944:ecosystem 867:reproduce 855:evolution 843:organisms 700:Biologist 575:Phycology 560:Pathology 545:Osteology 535:Nutrition 495:Mammalogy 470:Histology 141:Phylogeny 136:Evolution 131:Ecosystem 14511:Category 14424:Category 14393:bacteria 14376:protista 14337:Organism 14204:Sunlight 14050:Universe 13979:Category 13863:See also 13839:Virology 13824:Taxonomy 13764:Pomology 13694:Mycology 13624:Genomics 13619:Genetics 13444:Agronomy 13330:Medicine 13306:In utero 13299:In vitro 13153:Category 13095:Eugenics 13000:concepts 12944:Medicine 12929:Genetics 12877:timeline 12811:Category 12731:Virology 12716:Taxonomy 12656:Pomology 12586:Mycology 12516:Genomics 12511:Genetics 12336:Agronomy 12317:Branches 12270:in vitro 11867:Bacteria 11844:Taxonomy 11824:Mutation 11794:Function 11723:Genetics 11625:Proteins 11470:Organism 11446:Molecule 11430:), 11386:Overview 11361:Timeline 11341:Genetics 11218:PLOS ONE 11162:template 11126:36306648 11104:(2005). 11094:55138571 11033:Archived 11008:10081738 10986:(1979). 10976:71890442 10956:(2004). 10946:57639896 10844:18695220 10783:Archived 10763:30713492 10755:15361627 10712:20106856 10656:Archived 10455:18198148 10373:Archived 10371:. 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Such 3465:mammals 3400:Archean 3388:archaea 3368:species 3341:Permian 3317:periods 3289:Archean 3254:eukarya 3250:Archaea 3242:species 3218:kingdom 3201:lineage 3186:archaea 2933:(e.g., 2789:mutagen 2785:induced 2647:alleles 2562:meiosis 2529:meiosis 2525:mitosis 2517:archaea 2515:(i.e., 2445:meiosis 2441:mitosis 2437:protist 2399:gametes 2363:insulin 2322:neurons 2291:in the 2281:ligands 2234:called 2231:quinone 2188:convert 2081:by the 1911:(e.g., 1909:tubulin 1711:nucleus 1642:enzymes 1617:protein 1543:glucose 1511:methane 1496:glucose 1458:ethanol 1403:aqueous 1395:solvent 1313:calcium 1226:viruses 1091:Schwann 1036:anatomy 962:History 948:cycling 928:archaea 889:anatomy 831:Biology 680:Zoology 410:Ecology 280:Anatomy 227:Animals 223:Eukarya 213:Archaea 205:of life 199:Domains 104:History 92:Outline 63:Biology 14352:plants 14184:Clouds 14148:Future 14138:Oceans 14090:Change 14073:Matter 14068:Energy 14042:nature 13519:Botany 12914:Botany 12411:Botany 12217:vector 12073:Biomes 11942:Phloem 11927:Flower 11887:Fungus 11882:Animal 11678:Enzyme 11583:Matter 11578:Lipids 11517:Theory 11458:Tissue 11412:Growth 11181:Curlie 11167:Curlie 11141: 11124: 11114: 11092: 11082: 11065: 11055: 11025: 11006: 10996: 10974: 10964: 10944: 10934: 10915: 10905: 10865: 10842: 10832: 10761: 10753: 10710: 10700: 10650: 10640: 10590: 10562: 10520: 10476: 10453: 10443: 10402: 10346: 10303: 10278: 10250: 10213: 10166: 10098: 10010: 9985: 9957: 9932: 9903: 9883:et al. 9879:et al. 9875:et al. 9846: 9820: 9797: 9787: 9729: 9694: 9686: 9651: 9641: 9534: 9524: 9483:18 May 9448: 9423: 9395: 9365: 9324: 9316: 9261: 9229: 9194: 9128: 9121:216199 9118: 9079: 9071: 9043:Nature 9008: 9000: 8948: 8941:444790 8938: 8833: 8825: 8798:Nature 8702: 8692: 8516: 8489:Nature 8460: 8450: 8398: 8316: 8308: 8281:Nature 8213: 8168: 8158: 8112: 8030: 7985: 7975: 7905: 7875: 7840: 7832: 7793: 7783: 7704: 7667: 7631: 7601: 7538: 7530: 7481: 7416: 7354: 7344: 7292: 7267: 7259: 7213: 7187: 7144: 7108: 7067: 7059: 7033:Nature 7016: 7008: 6982:Nature 6962: 6907: 6899: 6856: 6827: 6721: 6694: 6665: 6602: 6592: 6549: 6497: 6487: 6464: 6454: 6429: 6403:29 May 6370:29 May 6334: 6301: 6162: 6107: 6013: 5980: 5953: 5917: 5892: 5884: 5847: 5822: 5797: 5772: 5742: 5712: 5687: 5659: 5597: 5466: 5427: 5387: 5379: 5319: 5294: 5262: 5235: 5189: 5155: 5124: 5097: 5063: 5027: 5001: 4993: 4888: 4843: 4801: 4791: 4744: 4734: 4726: 4685: 4651: 4617: 4456:, and 4426:, and 4424:carbon 4414:, and 4247:, new 4223:of an 4171:carbon 4152:matter 4120:biotic 3965:living 3955:, the 3947:, can 3943:, are 3914:, and 3816:clades 3526:domain 3390:, and 3359:, and 3311:, and 3295:, and 3285:Hadean 3240:, and 3234:family 3222:phylum 3214:domain 3188:, and 3032:genome 2909:operon 2899:, and 2757:genome 2566:genome 2548:, and 2542:septum 2435:, and 2433:fungal 2365:) and 2311:, and 2202:, and 2069:, and 1969:); or 1903:, and 1828:, and 1816:, and 1804:, and 1713:, and 1656:, and 1576:, and 1539:octane 1513:, two 1446:liquid 1442:denser 1375:, and 1331:, and 1325:sodium 1321:sulfur 1307:, and 1301:carbon 1297:oxygen 1270:genome 1264:. 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