Adaptation - Knowledge

1665:. The ability to acclimatize is an adaptation, but the acclimatization itself is not. The reproductive rate declines, but deaths from some tropical diseases also go down. Over a longer period of time, some people are better able to reproduce at high altitudes than others. They contribute more heavily to later generations, and gradually by natural selection the whole population becomes adapted to the new conditions. This has demonstrably occurred, as the observed performance of long-term communities at higher altitude is significantly better than the performance of new arrivals, even when the new arrivals have had time to acclimatize. 1838:. The co-option requires new mutations and through natural selection, the population then adapts genetically to its present circumstances. Genetic changes may result in entirely new or gradual change to visible structures, or they may adjust physiological activity in a way that suits the habitat. The varying shapes of the beaks of Darwin's finches, for example, are driven by adaptive mutations in the ALX1 gene. The coat color of different wild mouse species matches their environments, whether black lava or light sand, owing to adaptive mutations in the 1262: 56: 1740: 8358: 1830:, there would be no genetic changes and no subsequent adaptation through evolution by natural selection. Genetic change occurs in a population when mutation increases or decreases in its initial frequency followed by random genetic drift, migration, recombination or natural selection act on this genetic variation. One example is that the first pathways of enzyme-based metabolism at the very origin of life on Earth may have been co-opted components of the already-existing 2333: 10681: 10326: 9021: 611: 10705: 10336: 9009: 2180: 10745: 598: 1931: 10717: 9041: 1589: 1973: 10693: 9031: 2459:. Many organisms have vestigial organs, which are the remnants of fully functional structures in their ancestors. As a result of changes in lifestyle the organs became redundant, and are either not functional or reduced in functionality. Since any structure represents some kind of cost to the general economy of the body, an advantage may accrue from their elimination once they are not functional. Examples: 2530:, and the availability of resources. The three primary adaptive capacities may have been: (1) replication with moderate fidelity, giving rise to heritability while allowing variation of type, (2) resistance to decay, and (3) acquisition of resources. These adaptive capacities would have been determined by the folded configurations of the RNA replicators resulting from their nucleotide sequences. 2539: 1802:

extinction. In fact, all three things may occur in sequence. Of these three effects only genetic change brings about adaptation. When a habitat changes, the resident population typically moves to more suitable places; this is the typical response of flying insects or oceanic organisms, which have wide (though not unlimited) opportunity for movement. This common response is called

2588:'s thinking, which Aristotle rejected. Modern biologists continue to face the same difficulty. On the one hand, adaptation is purposeful: natural selection chooses what works and eliminates what does not. On the other hand, biologists by and large reject conscious purpose in evolution. The dilemma gave rise to a famous joke by the evolutionary biologist 1946:, where the existence of one species is tightly bound up with the life of another species, new or 'improved' adaptations which occur in one species are often followed by the appearance and spread of corresponding features in the other species. In other words, each species triggers reciprocal natural selection in the other. These 2413:

organic matter. Humans have constructed extensive civilizations with cities in environments as varied as the Arctic and hot deserts. In all three cases, the construction and maintenance of ecological niches helps drive the continued selection of the genes of these animals, in an environment that the animals have modified.

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On the other hand, it may happen that changes in the environment occur suddenly, and then the species becomes less and less well adapted. The only way for it to climb back up that fitness peak is via the introduction of new genetic variation for natural selection to act upon. Seen like this, adaptation is a genetic

1870:, which goes on all the time to some extent, but especially when the population cannot or does not move to another, less hostile area. Given enough genetic change, as well as specific demographic conditions, an adaptation may be enough to bring a population back from the brink of extinction in a process called 2222:) and the size needed for an adult brain (about 1400 cm), means the brain of a newborn child is quite immature. The most vital things in human life (locomotion, speech) just have to wait while the brain grows and matures. That is the result of the birth compromise. Much of the problem comes from our upright 2412:

and humans use some of their adaptations to modify their surroundings, so as to maximize their chances of surviving and reproducing. Beavers create dams and lodges, changing the ecosystems of the valleys around them. Earthworms, as Darwin noted, improve the topsoil in which they live by incorporating

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Habitats and biota do frequently change over time and space. Therefore, it follows that the process of adaptation is never fully complete. Over time, it may happen that the environment changes little, and the species comes to fit its surroundings better and better, resulting in stabilizing selection.

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to behave in a specialized or exploratory manner is inherited—it is an adaptation. Rather different is developmental flexibility: "An animal or plant is developmentally flexible if when it is raised in or transferred to new conditions, it changes in structure so that it is better fitted to survive in

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when RNA chains began to self-replicate, initiating the three mechanisms of Darwinian selection: heritability, variation of type, and competition for resources. The fitness of an RNA replicator (its per capita rate of increase) would likely have been a function of its intrinsic adaptive capacities,

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If a population cannot move or change sufficiently to preserve its long-term viability, then it will become extinct, at least in that locale. The species may or may not survive in other locales. Species extinction occurs when the death rate over the entire species exceeds the birth rate for a long

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brings benefits but at a cost. The neck of a giraffe can be up to 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in length. The benefits are that it can be used for inter-species competition or for foraging on tall trees where shorter herbivores cannot reach. The cost is that a long neck is heavy and adds to the

1408:) can illustrate the distinction: such a parasite may have a very simple bodily structure, but nevertheless the organism is highly adapted to its specific environment. From this we see that adaptation is not just a matter of visible traits: in such parasites critical adaptations take place in the 1801:

of species from other areas. The relative numbers of species in a given habitat are always changing. Change is the rule, though much depends on the speed and degree of the change. When the habitat changes, three main things may happen to a resident population: habitat tracking, genetic change or

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concerning how biologists speak of function and purpose, as this carries implications of evolutionary history – that a feature evolved by natural selection for a specific reason – and potentially of supernatural intervention – that features and organisms exist because of a deity's conscious

2067:; the only flying penguins do is under water. Adaptations serving different functions may be mutually destructive. Compromise and makeshift occur widely, not perfection. Selection pressures pull in different directions, and the adaptation that results is some kind of compromise. 1858:, resulting in target site insensitivity. These same adaptive mutations and similar changes at the same amino acid sites were found to evolve in a parallel manner in distantly related insects that feed on the same plants, and even in a bird that feeds on monarchs through 1623:, or to move to a different habitat. The degree of flexibility is inherited, and varies between individuals. A highly specialized animal or plant lives only in a well-defined habitat, eats a specific type of food, and cannot survive if its needs are not met. Many 2199:'s ornamental train (grown anew in time for each mating season) is a famous adaptation. It must reduce his maneuverability and flight, and is hugely conspicuous; also, its growth costs food resources. Darwin's explanation of its advantage was in terms of 5554: 1660:

If humans move to a higher altitude, respiration and physical exertion become a problem, but after spending time in high altitude conditions they acclimatize to the reduced partial pressure of oxygen, such as by producing more

2203:: "This depends on the advantage which certain individuals have over other individuals of the same sex and species, in exclusive relation to reproduction." The kind of sexual selection represented by the peacock is called ' 1758:

on a fitness landscape. To evolve to another, higher peak, a population would first have to pass through a valley of maladaptive intermediate stages, and might be "trapped" on a peak that is not optimally adapted.

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this is a mutually beneficial co-evolution as each of a group of strongly defended species (such as wasps able to sting) come to advertise their defenses in the same way. Features evolved for one purpose may be

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thought that even in a stable environment, because of antagonistic species interactions and limited resources, a species must constantly had to adapt to maintain its relative standing. This became known as the

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Adaptation is not always a simple matter where the ideal phenotype evolves for a given environment. An organism must be viable at all stages of its development and at all stages of its evolution. This places

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Another possibility is that a trait may have been adaptive at some point in an organism's evolutionary history, but a change in habitats caused what used to be an adaptation to become unnecessary or even

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and phenotypic change during evolution should be relatively small, because developmental systems are so complex and interlinked. However, it is not clear what "relatively small" should mean, for example

6016:(1992). "Evolution of the Auditory System in Synapsida ("Mammal-Like Reptiles" and Primitive Mammals) as Seen in the Fossil Record". In Webster, Douglas B.; Fay, Richard R.; Popper, Arthur N. (eds.). 1711:

1. Relative fitness. The average contribution to the next generation by a genotype or a class of genotypes, relative to the contributions of other genotypes in the population. This is also known as

2447:, features brought about by neighbouring adaptations, on the analogy with the often highly decorated triangular areas between pairs of arches in architecture, which began as functionless features. 5427:

Dimond, C. C.; Cabin, R. J.; Brooks, J. S. (2011). "Feathers, Dinosaurs, and Behavioral Cues: Defining the Visual Display Hypothesis for the Adaptive Function of Feathers in Non-Avian Theropods".

1600:, and learning, all of which are changes during life which are not inherited. Flexibility deals with the relative capacity of an organism to maintain itself in different habitats: its degree of 1687:. Differences in fitness between genotypes predict the rate of evolution by natural selection. Natural selection changes the relative frequencies of alternative phenotypes, insofar as they are 2302:, with their huge populations, also carry a great deal of genetic variability. The first experimental evidence of the pre-adaptive nature of genetic variants in microorganisms was provided by 1420:

which result from the process. Many aspects of an animal or plant can be correctly called adaptations, though there are always some features whose function remains in doubt. By using the term

4870: 5569: 1224:). Some biologists try to avoid terms which imply purpose in adaptation, not least because it suggests a deity's intentions, but others note that adaptation is necessarily purposeful. 10649: 2596:

commented that Haldane's mistress "has become a lawfully wedded wife. Biologists no longer feel obligated to apologize for their use of teleological language; they flaunt it."

5402: 1354:, for putting forward a mechanism whose significance had only been glimpsed previously. A century later, experimental field studies and breeding experiments by people such as 2168:

from being washed out by current. However, elongated body increases risk of desiccation and decreases dispersal ability of the salamanders; it also negatively affects their

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Just as there is co-adaptation, there is also coextinction, the loss of a species due to the extinction of another with which it is coadapted, as with the extinction of a

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enough period for the species to disappear. It was an observation of Van Valen that groups of species tend to have a characteristic and fairly regular rate of extinction.

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Pre-adaptation occurs when a population has characteristics which by chance are suited for a set of conditions not previously experienced. For example, the polyploid

3184: 1747:, a population can evolve by following the arrows to the adaptive peak at point B, and the points A and C are local optima where a population could become trapped. 10639: 10058: 1645:. A generalist, on the other hand, eats a range of food, and can survive in many different conditions. Examples are humans, rats, crabs and many carnivores. The 1459:

on the evolution of development, behaviour, and structure of organisms. The main constraint, over which there has been much debate, is the requirement that each

327: 10644: 2901:, p. 483: "Adaptation... could no longer be considered a static condition, a product of a creative past, and became instead a continuing dynamic process." 10629: 2804:, pp. 86–95: "Whatever the true nature of Lamarck's theory, it was his mechanism of adaptation that caught the attention of later naturalists." (p. 90) 10634: 6201: 3088: 1346:, accepted adaptation, and some also accepted evolution, without voicing their opinions as to the mechanism. This illustrates the real merit of Darwin and 1707:

commented that adaptation was a retrospective concept since it implied something about the history of a trait, whereas fitness predicts a trait's future.

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result rather than an a priori goal-seeking", meaning that the question of whether something is an adaptation can only be determined after the event.

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Some traits do not appear to be adaptive as they have a neutral or deleterious effect on fitness in the current environment. Because genes often have

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and the entire concept of natural selection depends on the presence of genetic variation, regardless of the population size of a species in question.

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Since the phenotype as a whole is the target of selection, it is impossible to improve simultaneously all aspects of the phenotype to the same degree.

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proposed a tendency for organisms to become more complex, moving up a ladder of progress, plus "the influence of circumstances", usually expressed as

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Features that now appear as adaptations sometimes arose by co-option of existing traits, evolved for some other purpose. The classic example is the

5528:. Princeton University Press. 2014. Chapter 1: The Intellectual Challenge of Morphological Evolution: A Case for Variational Structuralism. Page 7 3671: 4340:, pp. 481–483: This sequence tells how Darwin's ideas on adaptation developed as he came to appreciate it as "a continuing dynamic process." 3140:. The niche is the central concept in evolutionary ecology; see especially part II: "The niche: an abstractly inhabited hypervolume." (pp. 26–78) 1604:. Acclimatization describes automatic physiological adjustments during life; learning means alteration in behavioural performance during life. 1579:

is an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism which enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and reproducing.

642: 4830:"Trade-off between camouflage and sexual dimorphism revealed by UV digital imaging: the case of Australian Mallee dragons (Ctenophorus fordi)" 2176:, less perfectly adapted to the mountain brook habitats, is in general more successful, have a higher fecundity and broader geographic range. 1950:

relationships are intrinsically dynamic, and may continue on a trajectory for millions of years, as has occurred in the relationship between

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Adaptation is an observable fact of life accepted by philosophers and natural historians from ancient times, independently of their views on

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Altwegg, Robert E.; Simmons, Res (September 2010). "Necks-for-sex or competing browsers? A critique of ideas on the evolution of giraffe".

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deficiency than other breeds; on a plentiful diet this makes no difference, but on a restricted diet this preadaptation could be decisive.

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presumably depended on the relative gain and loss of reproductive capacity in the population of elks during that time. As another example,

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Michod, R. E. 1999. Darwinian Dynamics: Evolutionary Transitions in Fitness and Individuality. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.

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It is a profound truth that Nature does not know best; that genetical evolution... is a story of waste, makeshift, compromise and blunder.

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Bernstein, H., Byerly, H.C., Hopf, F.A., Michod, R.E., and Vemulapalli, G.K. (1983) The Darwinian dynamic. Q. Rev. Biol. 58(2), 185–207.

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Lamichhaney, Sangeed; Berglund, Jonas (19 February 2015). "Evolution of Darwin's finches and their beaks revealed by genome sequencing".

3355: 3223: 1862:, a hallmark of adaptation. Convergence at the gene-level across distantly related species can arise because of evolutionary constraint. 5248: 10721: 561: 10775: 7574: 6519: 2048: 1097: 5355: 2958:

Any change in the structure or functioning of successive generations of a population that makes it better suited to its environment.

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is better adapted than either of its parent species to their own habitat of saline marsh and mud-flats. Among domestic animals, the

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Existing genetic variation and mutation were the traditional sources of material on which natural selection could act. In addition,

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Before Darwin, adaptation was seen as a fixed relationship between an organism and its habitat. It was not appreciated that as the

369: 6298:(1968). "On Some Fundamental Concepts of Darwinian Biology". In Dobzhansky, Theodosius; Hecht, Max K.; Steere, William C. (eds.). 4474:

de la Cruz, Fernando; Davies, Julian (1 March 2000). "Horizontal gene transfer and the origin of species: lessons from bacteria".

4674: 3868: 1336: 1274: 5124: 2008:. This is the mimicry by a palatable species of an unpalatable or noxious species (the model), gaining a selective advantage as 9117: 4917: 2616: 2592:: "Teleology is like a mistress to a biologist: he cannot live without her but he's unwilling to be seen with her in public.'" 1731:

3. Adaptedness. The extent to which a phenotype fits its local ecological niche. Researchers can sometimes test this through a

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2. Absolute fitness. The absolute contribution to the next generation by a genotype or a class of genotypes. Also known as the

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store in their bodies to protect themselves from predators are driven by adaptive mutations in the target of the poison, the

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Adaptation is one of the two main processes that explain the observed diversity of species, such as the different species of

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Reichstein, T.; von Euw, J.; Parsons, J. A.; Rothschild, Miriam (30 August 1968). "Heart Poisons in the Monarch Butterfly".

10402: 10372: 9431: 8784: 6227: 3307:"Extinction or Survival? Behavioral Flexibility in Response to Environmental Change in the African Striped Mouse Rhabdomys" 503: 4316: 3035:"Out of Tanganyika: Genesis, explosive speciation, key-innovations and phylogeography of the haplochromine cichlid fishes" 10157: 9077: 8366: 3683: 3430: 2314:, a method to show the random fluctuation of pre-existing genetic changes that conferred resistance to bacteriophages in 1572:

is the state of being adapted: the degree to which an organism is able to live and reproduce in a given set of habitats.

9819: 9479: 7954: 6931: 844: 727: 635: 364: 195: 7979: 7344: 1601: 10481: 9886: 4161:"Community-wide convergent evolution in insect adaptation to toxic cardenolides by substitutions in the Na,K-ATPase" 3612: 9891: 9489: 7455: 6895: 6671: 6229:

The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life

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Kornfield, Irv; Smith, Peter F. (November 2000). "African Cichlid Fishes: Model Systems for Evolutionary Biology".

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Hoekstra, Hopi E.; Hirschmann, Rachel J.; Bundey, Richard A.; Insel, Paul A.; Crossland, Janet P. (7 July 2006).

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All adaptations have a downside: horse legs are great for running on grass, but they cannot scratch their backs;

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broke with the tradition by emphasising the flaws and limitations which occurred in the animal and plant worlds.

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Brower, Lincoln P.; Glazier, Susan C. (4 April 1975). "Localization of Heart Poisons in the Monarch Butterfly".

1691:. However, a phenotype with high adaptedness may not have high fitness. Dobzhansky mentioned the example of the 10264: 10131: 9911: 9655: 9453: 9357: 9246: 7451: 6983: 6207: 6103: 1011: 576: 359: 4871:"Interdependences between Populational, Developmental and Morphological Features of the Caucasian salamander, 4781:(June 1974). "The Origin and Function of 'Bizarre' Structures: Antler Size and Skull Size in the 'Irish Elk,' 3428:

Price, Trevor D. (June 2006). "Phenotypic plasticity, sexual selection and the evolution of colour patterns".

1269:'s two factors (the first being a complexifying force) was an adaptive force that causes animals with a given 1255: 10765: 10329: 9916: 9660: 9399: 9044: 7964: 3479: 1366:

was not only the 'engine' behind adaptation, but was a much stronger force than had previously been thought.

1090: 882: 878: 786: 628: 615: 9861: 10770: 10269: 9771: 8992: 5496: 2130: 1486:. Structural adaptations are physical features of an organism, such as shape, body covering, armament, and 546: 10749: 10709: 10697: 10339: 9933: 8982: 7495: 7115: 6667: 6269: 4509:

Hartwell, Leland; Goldberg, Michael; Fischer, Janice; Hood, Lee; Aquardo, Charles; Bejcek, Bruce (2015).

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Pre-adaptation may arise because a natural population carries a huge quantity of genetic variability. In

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have very slender, long bodies, perfectly adapted to life at the banks of fast small rivers and mountain

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is displayed at mating time. Here the risk to life is counterbalanced by the necessity for reproduction.

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for the bodily part or function (the product), one may distinguish the two different senses of the word.

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The significance of an adaptation can only be understood in relation to the total biology of the species.

1302: 731: 602: 20: 4220:"Convergent evolution of cardiac-glycoside resistance in predators and parasites of milkweed herbivores" 10735: 10598: 10035: 9209: 8430: 6542: 6489: 6171: 5598:; Sodhi, Navjot S.; et al. (September 2004). "Species Coextinctions and the Biodiversity Crisis". 3954: 1447:. An example widely used today to study the interplay of adaptation and speciation is the evolution of 1363: 707: 102: 2584:

to describe the adaptedness of organisms, but without accepting the supernatural intention built into

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n at birth, (which cannot be larger than about 400 cm, else it will not get through the mother's

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Historically, adaptation has been described from the time of the ancient Greek philosophers such as

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animal's body mass, requiring additional energy to build the neck and to carry its weight around.

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insect following the loss of its host, or when a flowering plant loses its pollinator, or when a

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Charles Darwin's Notebooks, 1836–1844: Geology, Transmutation of Species, Metaphysical Enquiries

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believed that organisms were perfectly adapted to the lives they led, an argument that shadowed

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Adaptation is primarily a process rather than a physical form or part of a body. An internal

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in humans; the loss of pigment and functional eyes in cave fauna; the loss of structure in

2295: 2153: 1886: 1859: 1692: 1651: 1515: 1221: 433: 205: 90: 47: 9846: 9716: 7486:(1932). "The Roles of Mutation, Inbreeding, Crossbreeding and Selection in Evolution". In 6419:

Time Frames: The Rethinking of Darwinian Evolution and the Theory of Punctuated Equilibria

5754:(1986). "The functions of stotting in Thomson's gazelles: Some tests of the predictions". 4451: 4434: 2996:, p. 5: "Evolutionary adaptation is a phenomenon of pervasive importance in biology." 2044: 1197: 1134:. Secondly, it is a state reached by the population during that process. Thirdly, it is a 8: 10685: 10542: 10358: 10274: 10232: 10182: 10101: 9949: 9941: 9871: 9851: 9797: 9641: 9394: 9337: 9199: 9182: 9160: 8987: 8977: 8814: 8684: 8395: 8385: 8306: 8248: 7340: 7150: 6422: 3560:

de Villemereuil, P.; Gaggiotti, O. E.; Mouterde, M.; Till-Bottraud, I (21 October 2015).

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as they develop adaptations that interlock with those of the other species, such as with

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in plants is a reasonably common large genetic change. The origin of

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avoid the model and therefore also the mimic. Mimicry is thus an

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Elongated body protects their 1919: 1350:, and secondary figures such as 610: 609: 596: 54: 10137:Extended evolutionary synthesis 9326:Gene-centered view of evolution 6739:Evolution: The Modern Synthesis 5996:Journal of the History of Ideas 5531: 5488: 5455: 5287: 5275: 5263: 5166: 5116: 5076: 5064: 5035: 5023: 5012: 4973: 4946: 4935: 4922: 4907: 4862: 4834:Journal of Experimental Biology 4771: 4759: 4748: 4692: 4648:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 4628: 4617: 4606: 4595: 4584: 4559: 4527: 4511:Genetics: From Genes to Genomes 4502: 4467: 4439:Molecular Biology and Evolution 4426: 4367: 4355: 4343: 4331: 4284: 4211: 4152: 4095: 4030: 3979: 3942: 3883: 3816: 3749: 3698: 3653: 3641: 3629: 3617: 3602: 3553: 3541: 3470: 3458: 3421: 3370: 3331: 3250: 3238: 3199: 3158: 3131: 3120: 3108: 3010: 2999: 2987: 2975: 2963: 2915: 2904: 2892: 2880: 2600:stated that "adaptedness... is 2254:Evolution: The Modern Synthesis 1388:Evolution: The Modern Synthesis 1364:evidence that natural selection 1303:the best of all possible worlds 1234:History of evolutionary thought 1209:of dinosaurs were co-opted for 1012:Ordinary differential equations 603:Evolutionary biology portal 10380: 10265:Hologenome theory of evolution 10132:History of molecular evolution 9358:Evolutionarily stable strategy 9247:Last universal common ancestor 7092:. Cambridge University Press. 6104:University of California Press 3173:. Taylor Francis. p. 69. 2818: 2794: 2763: 2748: 2736: 2721: 2709: 2679: 2455:. Such adaptations are termed 883:Partial differential equations 562:Creation–evolution controversy 316:History of evolutionary theory 1: 10059:Renaissance and Enlightenment 7399:Mimicry in Plants and Animals 7365:; Griffiths, Paul E. (1999). 6870:"Cause and Effect in Biology" 6762:; Fester, René, eds. (1991). 6486:Natural Selection in the Wild 6390:. Columbia University Press. 6232:(6th ed.). John Murray. 5768:10.1016/S0003-3472(86)80052-5 4488:10.1016/s0966-842x(00)01703-0 4350:Sterelny & Griffiths 1999 3480:Annual Review of Anthropology 2673: 2501:Origin of adaptive capacities 2233:As another example, the long 2054: 1826:, the ultimate source of all 1615:(genetic type) to change its 1542:balance and other aspects of 1273:to adapt to circumstances by 10270:Missing heritability problem 9897:Gamete differentiation/sexes 7248:; Speed, Michael P. (2004). 7210:Provine, William B. (1986). 7061:Moon, Harold Philip (1976). 6833:Animal Species and Evolution 6030:10.1007/978-1-4612-2784-7_37 5499:. University of St Andrews. 5139:(4): 307–316. Archived from 4064:10.1016/0014-5793(92)81530-y 4008:10.1126/science.161.3844.861 3664:. In Monosson, Emily (ed.). 2111:Consider the antlers of the 1832:purine nucleotide metabolism 1475:is a more dramatic example. 1317:also argued against design. 547:Evolution as fact and theory 7: 10710:Evolutionary biology Portal 7541: 7496:Genetics Society of America 7424:. Animal (Reaktion Books). 6873:. In Lerner, Daniel (ed.). 6668:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 6312:10.1007/978-1-4684-8094-8_1 6270:University of Chicago Press 4640:"The speciation revolution" 4537:; M. Slatkin, eds. (1983). 3912:10.1126/science.188.4183.19 2609: 2471:Extinction and coextinction 2106: 2043:believed that Batesian and 1157:. In 18th and 19th century 732:Particle swarm optimization 21:Adaptation (disambiguation) 10: 10792: 9902:Life cycles/nuclear phases 9454:Trivers–Willard hypothesis 6490:Princeton University Press 6004: 4961:(Supplement S15): 89–124. 4568:The Coevolutionary Process 3955:Princeton University Press 3127:Margulis & Fester 1991 2770:Bowler, Peter J. (1989) . 2560: 2474: 2420: 2349: 1965: 1961: 1923: 1672: 1277:, creating a diversity of 1231: 1227: 879:Reaction–diffusion systems 708:Self-organized criticality 582:Nature-nurture controversy 25: 18: 10675: 10622: 10571: 10514: 10462: 10416: 10388: 10320: 10220: 10145: 10049: 9976: 9932: 9787: 9691: 9508: 9467: 9400:Parent–offspring conflict 9336: 9205:Earliest known life forms 9126: 9093: 9001: 8970: 8530: 8500: 8466:Polymerase chain reaction 8426:Green fluorescent protein 8376: 8365: 8354: 8262: 8194: 8126: 8066: 8003:Earliest known life forms 7988: 7935: 7852: 7759: 7599: 7590: 7549: 7162:. Yale University Press. 7088:Panchen, Alec L. (1992). 7034:(1st American ed.). 7028:Le hasard et la nécessité 6680:10.1007/978-94-010-9940-0 6346:Columbia University Press 5889:The Journal of Philosophy 5849:The Journal of Philosophy 5325:10.1017/S0094837300004310 5227:10.1093/genetics/28.6.491 4888:: 315–325. 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The word 2014:anti-predator adaptation 1934:Pollinating insects are 1898:horizontal gene transfer 1762: 1071:Evolutionary game theory 961:Second-order cybernetics 825:Evolutionary computation 741:Collective consciousness 459:Evolutionary linguistics 454:Evolutionary game theory 429:Evolutionary computation 26:Not to be confused with 10258:Dual inheritance theory 10097:History of paleontology 8518:species discovery curve 7646:Response to environment 7309:Sober, Elliott (1993). 7254:Oxford University Press 7156:Simpson, George Gaylord 6800:The Theory of Evolution 6304:Appleton-Century-Crofts 5620:10.1126/science.1101101 5270:Allin & Hopson 1992 4980:Friedlander, Nancy J.; 4967:10.1002/ajpa.1330350605 4545:. pp. whole book. 4178:10.1073/pnas.1202111109 3849:10.1126/science.1126121 3783:10.1073/pnas.0431157100 3338:Gross, Richard (2012). 2928:Oxford University Press 2924:A Dictionary of Science 2845:Nature Reviews Genetics 2718:, pp. 31–32, fn 18 2555:signalling to predators 2358:ear ossicles of mammals 2230:had a similar problem. 2158:Gold-striped salamander 1840:melanocortin 1 receptor 1669:Adaptedness and fitness 1607:Flexibility stems from 1439:. The other process is 849:Artificial intelligence 763:Social network analysis 728:Ant colony optimization 700:Collective intelligence 572:Objections to evolution 479:Evolutionary psychology 474:Evolutionary physiology 419:Evolutionary aesthetics 398:Fields and applications 380:History of paleontology 10658:Punctuated equilibrium 10614:Character displacement 10434:Reproductive isolation 10403:Laboratory experiments 9946:Punctuated equilibrium 9267:Non-adaptive radiation 9215:Evolutionary arms race 8993:Plant morphology terms 8595:Biological engineering 8277:Biological interaction 7160:Behavior and Evolution 6553:(124) (4th ed.). 6547:Advancement of Science 6386:; et al. (eds.). 6372:Dobzhansky, Theodosius 6338:Dobzhansky, Theodosius 6296:Dobzhansky, Theodosius 6054:Mote Marine Laboratory 5568:: 1–30. Archived from 4873:Mertensiella caucasica 4726:10.1126/science.860134 4476:Trends in Microbiology 4402:10.1126/sciadv.1501548 3397:10.1098/rspb.2003.2372 3258:Dobzhansky, Theodosius 3054:10.1186/1471-2148-5-17 2558: 2521:. By this hypothesis, 2347: 2258: 2190: 2104: 2085: 1993: 1939: 1938:with flowering plants. 1812:punctuated equilibrium 1782: 1748: 1652:evolutionary biologist 1593: 1584:What adaptation is not 1536:temperature regulation 1532:growth and development 1445:reproductive isolation 1416:: those features of a 1393: 1286: 1062:Rational choice theory 887:Dissipative structures 504:Speciation experiments 484:Experimental evolution 439:Evolutionary economics 261:Recent human evolution 119:Processes and outcomes 10539:Ecological speciation 10454:Evidence of evolution 10238:Evolutionary medicine 10112:Mendelian inheritance 9820:Biological complexity 9808:Programmed cell death 9500:Phenotypic plasticity 9220:Evolutionary pressure 9210:Evidence of evolution 9108:Timeline of evolution 8680:Developmental biology 8655:Computational biology 8635:Cellular microbiology 7975:Mendelian inheritance 7887:Energy transformation 7311:Philosophy of Biology 7146:Pittendrigh, Colin S. 6718:Yale University Press 6706:Hutchinson, G. Evelyn 6664:Philosophy of Science 6594:Pearson Prentice Hall 6590:Evolutionary Analysis 6543:"Ecological Genetics" 6516:Fisher, Ronald Aylmer 6456:John Wiley & Sons 4783:Megaloceros giganteus 3963:10.1515/9781400884766 3951:Monarchs and Milkweed 3667:Encyclopedia of Earth 3266:Drosophila persimilis 3247:, pp. 4–6, 79–82 2662:Intragenomic conflict 2652:Evolutionary pressure 2541: 2394:feathers of dinosaurs 2360:, which we know from 2335: 2245: 2182: 2086: 2069: 1975: 1933: 1766: 1742: 1733:reciprocal transplant 1718:selection coefficient 1699:species in danger of 1609:phenotypic plasticity 1591: 1551:Theodosius Dobzhansky 1488:internal organization 1424:for the evolutionary 1373: 1360:Theodosius Dobzhansky 1348:Alfred Russel Wallace 1325:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1267:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1264: 1218:philosophy of biology 1167:Alfred Russel Wallace 990:Theory of computation 853:Evolutionary robotics 720:Agent-based modelling 464:Evolutionary medicine 409:Biosocial criminology 375:History of speciation 288:Evolutionary taxonomy 251:Timeline of evolution 10766:Biological evolution 10750:Evolutionary biology 10212:Teleology in biology 10107:Blending inheritance 9485:Genetic assimilation 9348:Artificial selection 9087:Evolutionary biology 8900:Reproductive biology 8785:Mathematical biology 8710:Evolutionary biology 8660:Conservation biology 8471:Two-hybrid screening 8441:Protein purification 8272:Biogeochemical cycle 8234:Internal environment 7882:Cellular respiration 6894:Mayr, Ernst (1982). 6672:Springer Netherlands 6625:Evolutionary Biology 6541:Ford, E. 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Leonard 4718:1977Sci...196.1161J 4712:(4295): 1161–1166. 4394:2016SciA....2E1548R 4236:2021CBio...31R1465G 4230:(22): R1465–R1466. 4171:(32): 13040–13045. 4055:1992FEBSL.314..477H 4000:1968Sci...161..861R 3904:1975Sci...188...19B 3841:2006Sci...313..101H 3774:2003PNAS..100.5268N 3727:10.1038/nature14181 3719:2015Natur.518..371L 3578:10.1038/hdy.2015.93 3391:(1523): 1433–1440. 2687:Leroi, Armand Marie 2528:nucleotide sequence 2417:Non-adaptive traits 2292:sexual reproduction 2270:Spartina townsendii 2135:last glacial period 2121:antler size has an 2039:Bates, Wallace and 1872:evolutionary rescue 1852:monarch butterflies 1693:Californian redwood 1685:population genetics 1506:. Examples include 1190:pollinating insects 1066:Bounded rationality 1024:Population dynamics 933:Conversation theory 833:Genetic programming 758:Scale-free networks 690:Collective behavior 536:Social implications 524:Universal Darwinism 514:Island biogeography 449:Evolutionary ethics 414:Ecological genetics 360:Molecular evolution 298:Transitional fossil 126:Population genetics 42:Part of a series on 10623:Speciation in taxa 10558:Assortative mating 10248:Cultural evolution 9363:Fisher's principle 9292:Handicap principle 9282:Parallel evolution 9146:Adaptive radiation 9014:Biology portal 8910:Structural biology 8895:Relational biology 8720:Generative biology 8715:Freshwater biology 8513:mark and recapture 8461:Restriction enzyme 8254:Respiratory system 8209:Circulatory system 8136:Epidermis (botany) 7252:. Oxford Biology. 6630:Sinauer Associates 6555:Chapman & Hall 6168:John Maynard Smith 5664:Trifolium pratense 5468:American Zoologist 5299:Vrba, Elizabeth S. 5295:Gould, Stephen Jay 5272:, pp. 587–614 5102:10.1007/BF01487665 5045:Journal of Zoology 4998:10.1007/BF02435519 4932:, pp. 134–139 4847:10.1242/jeb.094045 4779:Gould, Stephen Jay 4543:Sinauer Associates 3465:Maynard Smith 1993 3019:, pp. 562–566 2571:Adaptation raises 2559: 2526:determined by its 2423:Spandrel (biology) 2404:Animals including 2400:Niche construction 2348: 2310:who developed the 2242:Shifts in function 2191: 2022:warning coloration 1994: 1980:; the others show 1940: 1889:, as seen in host- 1848:cardiac glycosides 1785:Changes in habitat 1749: 1721:, and other terms. 1655:John Maynard Smith 1594: 1508:searching for food 1500:neuropsychological 1396:What adaptation is 1370:General principles 1352:Henry Walter Bates 1287: 1256:species were fixed 1178:allele frequencies 1174:biological fitness 1057:Prisoner's dilemma 1002:Nonlinear dynamics 957:Operationalization 953:Information theory 829:Genetic algorithms 567:Theistic evolution 499:Selective breeding 211:Parallel evolution 176:Adaptive radiation 10731: 10730: 10609:Secondary contact 10581:Hybrid speciation 10529:Natural selection 10516:Isolating factors 10348: 10347: 9964:Uniformitarianism 9917:Sex-determination 9422:Sexual dimorphism 9417:Natural selection 9321:Unit of selection 9287:Signalling theory 9053: 9052: 8915:Synthetic biology 8795:Molecular biology 8650:Cognitive biology 8526: 8525: 8352: 8351: 8043:Natural selection 7824:Organic compounds 7721:Scientific method 7711:Emergent property 7652:Hierarchy of life 7622:Energy processing 7467:978-0-691-02615-2 7435:978-1-86189-764-0 7393:Wickler, Wolfgang 7376:978-0-226-77304-9 7324:978-0-8133-0785-5 7293:978-0-262-19232-3 7263:978-0-19-852859-3 7242:Ruxton, Graeme D. 7225:978-0-226-68474-1 7186:978-0-691-08257-8 7129:978-0-8014-8594-7 7099:978-0-521-31578-4 7072:978-0-904671-19-3 7045:978-0-394-46615-6 7032:Austryn Wainhouse 7026:. Translation of 7001:978-1-59385-408-9 6970:, 1959. Methuen. 6964:The Future of Man 6943:978-0-674-89665-9 6911:978-0-674-36445-5 6848:978-0-674-03750-2 6810:978-0-521-45128-4 6777:978-0-262-13269-5 6744:Allen & Unwin 6689:978-90-247-2518-2 6660:Fløistad, Guttorm 6639:978-0-87893-188-0 6603:978-0-13-227584-2 6564:978-0-470-26576-5 6499:978-0-691-08387-2 6465:978-0-471-30301-5 6432:978-0-671-49555-8 6397:978-0-231-05132-3 6355:978-0-231-02837-0 6321:978-1-4684-8096-2 6306:. pp. 1–34. 6279:978-0-226-14346-0 6181:978-0-521-32937-8 6113:978-0-520-23693-6 6075:978-0-521-09975-2 6039:978-0-387-97588-7 6012:Allin, Edgar F.; 5724:978-0-691-02699-2 5522:Wagner, Günter P. 5369:(7646): 501–506. 5186:978-0-19-530761-0 4840:(22): 4290–4298. 4638:(November 2001). 4577:978-0-226-79759-5 4552:978-0-87893-228-3 4520:978-0-07-352531-0 4445:(12): 2226–2238. 4304:978-0-525-53413-6 4114:(7778): 409–412. 3994:(3844): 861–866. 3972:978-1-4008-8476-6 3835:(5783): 101–104. 3713:(7539): 371–375. 3444:10.1242/jeb.02183 3438:(12): 2368–2376. 3351:978-1-4441-6436-7 3324:10.3390/su5010163 3219:978-81-322-2265-1 3180:978-1-4665-7223-2 2937:978-0-19-956146-9 2787:978-0-520-06386-0 2728:Voltaire (1759). 2702:978-1-4088-3622-4 2627:Adaptive mutation 2437:Stephen Jay Gould 2296:genetic dominance 2235:neck of a giraffe 2081:The Future of Man 2045:Müllerian mimicry 1828:genetic variation 1745:fitness landscape 1713:Darwinian fitness 1679:Fitness landscape 1675:Fitness (biology) 1480:ecological niches 1124:natural selection 1108: 1107: 895:Cellular automata 869:Pattern formation 800:Adaptive networks 704:Collective action 673:Self-organization 653: 652: 344:Origin of Species 146:Natural selection 10783: 10748: 10747: 10739: 10719: 10718: 10707: 10695: 10694: 10683: 10682: 10534:Sexual selection 10463:Geographic modes 10375: 10368: 10361: 10352: 10351: 10338: 10328: 10327: 10127:Modern synthesis 9887:Multicellularity 9882:Mosaic evolution 9767:auditory ossicle 9449:Social selection 9432:Flowering plants 9427:Sexual selection 9080: 9073: 9066: 9057: 9056: 9043: 9042: 9033: 9032: 9023: 9022: 9016: 9012: 9011: 8988:Ecological terms 8640:Chemical biology 8501:Field techniques 8374: 8373: 8360: 8219:Digestive system 8214:Endocrine system 7787:Chemical element 7746:Biology journals 7642:Self-replication 7597: 7596: 7536: 7529: 7522: 7513: 7512: 7507: 7488:Jones, Donald F. 7479: 7447: 7416: 7402: 7388: 7358: 7336: 7305: 7275: 7237: 7217: 7206: 7171: 7154:. In Roe, Anne; 7153: 7141: 7116:Patterson, Colin 7111: 7084: 7057: 7013: 6984:Miller, Geoffrey 6979: 6955: 6923: 6890: 6875:Cause and Effect 6872: 6860: 6836: 6822: 6789: 6755: 6729: 6715: 6701: 6651: 6628:(2nd ed.). 6615: 6592:(4th ed.). 6584: 6537: 6511: 6477: 6444: 6409: 6367: 6333: 6291: 6267: 6253: 6251: 6249: 6219: 6193: 6153: 6125: 6101: 6092:Bowler, Peter J. 6087: 6051: 6014:Hopson, James A. 5999: 5989: 5983: 5978: 5972: 5967: 5961: 5955: 5949: 5943: 5937: 5936:, pp. 33–50 5931: 5925: 5923:Pittendrigh 1958 5920: 5914: 5912: 5881: 5875: 5873: 5840: 5834: 5828: 5822: 5821:, pp. 85–86 5816: 5810: 5809: 5807: 5805: 5786: 5780: 5779: 5756:Animal Behaviour 5748: 5742: 5716: 5707: 5681: 5672: 5671:, mice and cats. 5646: 5640: 5639: 5591: 5585: 5584: 5582: 5580: 5574: 5559: 5551:Van Valen, Leigh 5547: 5541: 5535: 5529: 5519: 5513: 5512: 5510: 5508: 5492: 5486: 5485: 5483: 5459: 5453: 5452: 5424: 5418: 5417: 5415: 5413: 5407: 5360: 5351: 5345: 5344: 5291: 5285: 5279: 5273: 5267: 5261: 5260: 5258: 5256: 5238: 5204: 5198: 5197: 5170: 5164: 5159: 5153: 5152: 5150: 5148: 5120: 5114: 5113: 5080: 5074: 5068: 5062: 5061: 5039: 5033: 5027: 5021: 5016: 5010: 5009: 4982:Jordan, David K. 4977: 4971: 4970: 4950: 4944: 4939: 4933: 4926: 4920: 4911: 4905: 4904: 4902: 4900: 4894: 4879: 4866: 4860: 4859: 4849: 4825: 4819: 4818: 4775: 4769: 4763: 4757: 4752: 4746: 4745: 4696: 4690: 4689: 4687: 4685: 4679: 4664: 4644: 4632: 4626: 4621: 4615: 4610: 4604: 4599: 4593: 4588: 4582: 4581: 4563: 4557: 4556: 4531: 4525: 4524: 4506: 4500: 4499: 4471: 4465: 4464: 4454: 4430: 4424: 4423: 4413: 4381:Science Advances 4371: 4365: 4359: 4353: 4347: 4341: 4335: 4329: 4328: 4326: 4324: 4288: 4282: 4281: 4263: 4215: 4209: 4208: 4198: 4180: 4156: 4150: 4149: 4139: 4099: 4093: 4092: 4066: 4034: 4028: 4027: 3983: 3977: 3976: 3946: 3940: 3939: 3887: 3881: 3880: 3878: 3876: 3820: 3814: 3813: 3803: 3785: 3768:(9): 5268–5273. 3753: 3747: 3746: 3702: 3696: 3695: 3693: 3691: 3657: 3651: 3645: 3639: 3633: 3627: 3621: 3615: 3606: 3600: 3599: 3589: 3557: 3551: 3545: 3539: 3533: 3527: 3521: 3515: 3506: 3497: 3496: 3474: 3468: 3462: 3456: 3455: 3425: 3419: 3418: 3408: 3374: 3368: 3367: 3365: 3363: 3335: 3329: 3328: 3326: 3302: 3296: 3295: 3254: 3248: 3242: 3236: 3235: 3233: 3231: 3203: 3197: 3196: 3194: 3192: 3165:Wang, G (2014). 3162: 3156: 3150: 3141: 3135: 3129: 3124: 3118: 3112: 3106: 3105: 3083: 3077: 3076: 3066: 3056: 3026: 3020: 3014: 3008: 3003: 2997: 2991: 2985: 2979: 2973: 2967: 2961: 2960: 2919: 2913: 2908: 2902: 2896: 2890: 2884: 2878: 2877: 2836: 2827: 2822: 2816: 2811: 2805: 2798: 2792: 2791: 2767: 2761: 2752: 2746: 2740: 2734: 2733: 2725: 2719: 2713: 2707: 2706: 2683: 2441:Richard Lewontin 2336:The feathers of 2317:Escherichia coli 2312:Fluctuation Test 2256: 2201:sexual selection 2148:Stream-dwelling 2102: 2083: 2006:Batesian mimicry 1952:flowering plants 1868:tracking process 1804:habitat tracking 1780: 1631:which depend on 1437:Darwin's finches 1391: 1291:natural theology 1186:flowering plants 1159:natural theology 1136:phenotypic trait 1100: 1093: 1086: 977:Systems thinking 903:Self-replication 841:Machine learning 795:Dynamic networks 716:Phase transition 655: 654: 645: 638: 631: 618: 613: 612: 605: 601: 600: 577:Level of support 370:Current research 355:Modern synthesis 350:Before synthesis 303:Extinction event 61:Darwin's finches 58: 39: 38: 10791: 10790: 10786: 10785: 10784: 10782: 10781: 10780: 10756: 10755: 10754: 10742: 10734: 10732: 10727: 10671: 10654:Paleopolyploidy 10618: 10573:Hybrid concepts 10567: 10510: 10458: 10428:Species complex 10412: 10384: 10379: 10349: 10344: 10316: 10243:Group selection 10216: 10141: 10045: 9972: 9934:Tempo and modes 9928: 9783: 9687: 9504: 9463: 9339: 9332: 9309:Species complex 9122: 9113:History of life 9089: 9084: 9054: 9049: 9006: 9005: 8997: 8983:Botanical terms 8966: 8965: 8964: 8925:Systems biology 8890:Quantum biology 8522: 8496: 8378: 8368: 8361: 8348: 8258: 8239:Muscular system 8196: 8190: 8181:Vascular tissue 8128: 8122: 8062: 8023:History of life 7984: 7965:Gene regulation 7960:Gene expression 7931: 7848: 7755: 7586: 7545: 7540: 7510: 7494:. Vol. 1. 7468: 7436: 7377: 7325: 7294: 7264: 7226: 7187: 7130: 7100: 7073: 7046: 7002: 6944: 6912: 6849: 6811: 6778: 6690: 6640: 6604: 6565: 6500: 6482:Endler, John A. 6466: 6433: 6415:Eldredge, Niles 6398: 6356: 6322: 6302:. Vol. 2. 6280: 6258:Desmond, Adrian 6247: 6245: 6224:Darwin, Charles 6198:Darwin, Charles 6182: 6114: 6076: 6040: 6022:Springer-Verlag 6007: 6002: 5990: 5986: 5979: 5975: 5968: 5964: 5956: 5952: 5944: 5940: 5932: 5928: 5921: 5917: 5901:10.2307/2025746 5882: 5878: 5862:10.2307/2025745 5841: 5837: 5833:, pp. 8–10 5829: 5825: 5817: 5813: 5803: 5801: 5796:. 18 May 2003. 5788: 5787: 5783: 5749: 5745: 5717: 5710: 5682: 5675: 5661:), red clover ( 5647: 5643: 5596:Dunn, Robert R. 5594:Koh, Lian Pin; 5592: 5588: 5578: 5576: 5572: 5557: 5548: 5544: 5536: 5532: 5520: 5516: 5506: 5504: 5493: 5489: 5460: 5456: 5425: 5421: 5411: 5409: 5405: 5358: 5352: 5348: 5292: 5288: 5280: 5276: 5268: 5264: 5254: 5252: 5205: 5201: 5187: 5171: 5167: 5162:Dobzhansky 1981 5160: 5156: 5146: 5144: 5128: 5121: 5117: 5081: 5077: 5069: 5065: 5040: 5036: 5028: 5024: 5017: 5013: 4986:Human Evolution 4978: 4974: 4951: 4947: 4940: 4936: 4927: 4923: 4912: 4908: 4898: 4896: 4895:on 4 March 2016 4892: 4877: 4867: 4863: 4826: 4822: 4799:10.2307/2407322 4776: 4772: 4764: 4760: 4753: 4749: 4700:Jacob, François 4697: 4693: 4683: 4681: 4677: 4642: 4633: 4629: 4622: 4618: 4611: 4607: 4600: 4596: 4589: 4585: 4578: 4564: 4560: 4553: 4532: 4528: 4521: 4507: 4503: 4472: 4468: 4431: 4427: 4388:(3): e1501548. 4372: 4368: 4360: 4356: 4348: 4344: 4336: 4332: 4322: 4320: 4305: 4289: 4285: 4224:Current Biology 4216: 4212: 4157: 4153: 4100: 4096: 4035: 4031: 3984: 3980: 3973: 3947: 3943: 3898:(4183): 19–25. 3888: 3884: 3874: 3872: 3821: 3817: 3754: 3750: 3703: 3699: 3689: 3687: 3658: 3654: 3646: 3642: 3634: 3630: 3622: 3618: 3607: 3603: 3558: 3554: 3546: 3542: 3534: 3530: 3522: 3518: 3507: 3500: 3475: 3471: 3463: 3459: 3426: 3422: 3375: 3371: 3361: 3359: 3352: 3336: 3332: 3303: 3299: 3284:10.2307/2406099 3255: 3251: 3245:Dobzhansky 1970 3243: 3239: 3229: 3227: 3220: 3204: 3200: 3190: 3188: 3181: 3163: 3159: 3155:, pp. 1–34 3153:Dobzhansky 1968 3151: 3144: 3138:Hutchinson 1965 3136: 3132: 3125: 3121: 3113: 3109: 3084: 3080: 3027: 3023: 3015: 3011: 3004: 3000: 2992: 2988: 2980: 2976: 2968: 2964: 2938: 2920: 2916: 2909: 2905: 2897: 2893: 2885: 2881: 2858:10.1038/nrg1523 2837: 2830: 2823: 2819: 2812: 2808: 2799: 2795: 2788: 2768: 2764: 2753: 2749: 2741: 2737: 2732:. Cramer et al. 2726: 2722: 2714: 2710: 2703: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2671: 2647:Ecological trap 2642:Body reactivity 2632:Adaptive system 2622:Adaptive memory 2612: 2569: 2561:Main articles: 2536: 2503: 2483: 2475:Main articles: 2473: 2429: 2421:Main articles: 2419: 2402: 2362:paleontological 2354: 2339:Sinosauropteryx 2330: 2281: 2263: 2257: 2252:Julian Huxley, 2251: 2244: 2189:in full display 2188: 2174:fire salamander 2172:. As a result, 2109: 2103: 2092: 2084: 2075: 2057: 1982:Batesian mimics 1970: 1964: 1948:co-adaptational 1928: 1922: 1882:Leigh Van Valen 1820: 1787: 1781: 1772: 1765: 1681: 1673:Main articles: 1671: 1663:red blood cells 1598:acclimatization 1586: 1398: 1392: 1381: 1372: 1236: 1230: 1104: 1075: 1074: 1073: 1068: 1064: 1059: 1054: 1044: 1043: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1009: 1004: 994: 993: 992: 987: 983: 979: 975: 973:Systems science 971: 969:System dynamics 967: 963: 959: 955: 951: 947: 943: 939: 935: 930: 925: 911: 910: 905: 901: 899:Spatial ecology 897: 893: 889: 885: 881: 876: 871: 861: 860: 855: 851: 847: 843: 839: 837:Artificial life 835: 831: 827: 822: 817: 803: 802: 797: 793: 791:Systems biology 789: 785: 781: 777: 773: 769: 765: 760: 755: 745: 744: 743: 738: 736:Swarm behaviour 734: 730: 726: 724:Synchronization 722: 718: 714: 710: 706: 702: 697: 695:Social dynamics 692: 682: 681: 680: 675: 659:Complex systems 649: 608: 595: 594: 587: 586: 537: 529: 528: 399: 391: 390: 389: 317: 309: 308: 307: 256:Human evolution 246:History of life 230: 229:Natural history 222: 221: 220: 120: 112: 67: 35: 32:Acclimatization 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 10789: 10779: 10778: 10773: 10768: 10753: 10752: 10729: 10728: 10726: 10725: 10713: 10701: 10689: 10676: 10673: 10672: 10670: 10669: 10662:Macroevolution 10647: 10642: 10637: 10632: 10626: 10624: 10620: 10619: 10617: 10616: 10611: 10606: 10596: 10577: 10575: 10569: 10568: 10566: 10565: 10563:Haldane's rule 10560: 10555: 10550: 10536: 10531: 10526: 10520: 10518: 10512: 10511: 10509: 10508: 10503: 10489: 10486:Founder effect 10466: 10464: 10460: 10459: 10457: 10456: 10451: 10446: 10441: 10436: 10431: 10420: 10418: 10417:Basic concepts 10414: 10413: 10411: 10410: 10405: 10400: 10395: 10389: 10386: 10385: 10378: 10377: 10370: 10363: 10355: 10346: 10345: 10343: 10342: 10332: 10321: 10318: 10317: 10315: 10314: 10309: 10304: 10299: 10294: 10293: 10292: 10282: 10277: 10272: 10267: 10262: 10261: 10260: 10255: 10250: 10240: 10235: 10230: 10224: 10222: 10218: 10217: 10215: 10214: 10209: 10208: 10207: 10202: 10197: 10196: 10195: 10185: 10180: 10175: 10170: 10165: 10155: 10149: 10147: 10143: 10142: 10140: 10139: 10134: 10129: 10124: 10119: 10114: 10109: 10104: 10099: 10094: 10093: 10092: 10083:Charles Darwin 10080: 10079: 10078: 10066: 10061: 10055: 10053: 10047: 10046: 10044: 10043: 10038: 10033: 10028: 10023: 10021:Non-ecological 10018: 10013: 10008: 10003: 9998: 9993: 9988: 9982: 9980: 9974: 9973: 9971: 9970: 9961: 9952: 9938: 9936: 9930: 9929: 9927: 9926: 9921: 9920: 9919: 9914: 9909: 9904: 9899: 9889: 9884: 9879: 9874: 9869: 9864: 9859: 9854: 9849: 9844: 9839: 9838: 9837: 9827: 9822: 9817: 9812: 9811: 9810: 9805: 9794: 9792: 9785: 9784: 9782: 9781: 9780: 9779: 9774: 9772:nervous system 9769: 9764: 9759: 9751: 9750: 9749: 9744: 9739: 9734: 9729: 9724: 9714: 9709: 9704: 9698: 9696: 9689: 9688: 9686: 9685: 9680: 9675: 9670: 9665: 9664: 9663: 9653: 9652: 9651: 9646: 9645: 9644: 9639: 9629: 9624: 9619: 9614: 9609: 9608: 9607: 9602: 9592: 9582: 9577: 9576: 9575: 9565: 9560: 9555: 9550: 9549: 9548: 9538: 9533: 9532: 9531: 9521: 9515: 9513: 9506: 9505: 9503: 9502: 9497: 9492: 9487: 9482: 9477: 9471: 9469: 9465: 9464: 9462: 9461: 9456: 9451: 9446: 9445: 9444: 9439: 9434: 9424: 9419: 9414: 9409: 9404: 9403: 9402: 9397: 9387: 9382: 9377: 9376: 9375: 9365: 9360: 9355: 9350: 9344: 9342: 9334: 9333: 9331: 9330: 9329: 9328: 9318: 9313: 9312: 9311: 9306: 9296: 9295: 9294: 9284: 9279: 9274: 9272:Origin of life 9269: 9264: 9259: 9257:Microevolution 9254: 9252:Macroevolution 9249: 9244: 9239: 9238: 9237: 9227: 9222: 9217: 9212: 9207: 9202: 9197: 9192: 9190:Common descent 9187: 9186: 9185: 9175: 9170: 9168:Baldwin effect 9165: 9164: 9163: 9158: 9148: 9143: 9138: 9132: 9130: 9124: 9123: 9121: 9120: 9115: 9110: 9105: 9100: 9094: 9091: 9090: 9083: 9082: 9075: 9068: 9060: 9051: 9050: 9048: 9047: 9037: 9027: 9017: 9002: 8999: 8998: 8996: 8995: 8990: 8985: 8980: 8974: 8972: 8968: 8967: 8963: 8962: 8957: 8952: 8947: 8942: 8937: 8932: 8927: 8922: 8917: 8912: 8907: 8902: 8897: 8892: 8887: 8882: 8877: 8872: 8867: 8862: 8857: 8852: 8847: 8842: 8837: 8832: 8827: 8822: 8817: 8812: 8807: 8802: 8797: 8792: 8787: 8782: 8780:Marine biology 8777: 8772: 8767: 8762: 8757: 8752: 8747: 8742: 8737: 8732: 8727: 8722: 8717: 8712: 8707: 8702: 8697: 8692: 8687: 8682: 8677: 8672: 8667: 8662: 8657: 8652: 8647: 8642: 8637: 8632: 8627: 8622: 8617: 8612: 8607: 8602: 8597: 8592: 8590:Bioinformatics 8587: 8582: 8577: 8572: 8567: 8562: 8557: 8552: 8547: 8542: 8536: 8535: 8534: 8532: 8528: 8527: 8524: 8523: 8521: 8520: 8515: 8510: 8504: 8502: 8498: 8497: 8495: 8494: 8487: 8480: 8473: 8468: 8463: 8458: 8453: 8448: 8443: 8438: 8433: 8428: 8423: 8421:DNA microarray 8418: 8416:DNA sequencing 8413: 8408: 8406:Centrifugation 8403: 8401:Chromatography 8398: 8393: 8391:Transformation 8388: 8382: 8380: 8371: 8363: 8362: 8355: 8353: 8350: 8349: 8347: 8346: 8341: 8336: 8331: 8330: 8329: 8319: 8314: 8309: 8304: 8302:Climate change 8299: 8294: 8289: 8284: 8279: 8274: 8268: 8266: 8260: 8259: 8257: 8256: 8251: 8246: 8244:Nervous system 8241: 8236: 8231: 8226: 8221: 8216: 8211: 8206: 8200: 8198: 8192: 8191: 8189: 8188: 8183: 8178: 8176:Vascular plant 8173: 8168: 8163: 8158: 8153: 8148: 8143: 8138: 8132: 8130: 8124: 8123: 8121: 8120: 8115: 8114: 8113: 8108: 8103: 8098: 8093: 8083: 8078: 8072: 8070: 8064: 8063: 8061: 8060: 8055: 8050: 8045: 8040: 8035: 8033:Microevolution 8030: 8028:Macroevolution 8025: 8020: 8015: 8010: 8005: 8000: 7994: 7992: 7986: 7985: 7983: 7982: 7977: 7972: 7967: 7962: 7957: 7952: 7947: 7941: 7939: 7933: 7932: 7930: 7929: 7924: 7922:Photosynthesis 7919: 7914: 7909: 7904: 7899: 7894: 7889: 7884: 7879: 7877:Cell signaling 7874: 7869: 7864: 7858: 7856: 7850: 7849: 7847: 7846: 7841: 7836: 7831: 7826: 7821: 7816: 7811: 7806: 7805: 7804: 7794: 7789: 7784: 7779: 7774: 7769: 7763: 7761: 7760:Chemical basis 7757: 7756: 7754: 7753: 7748: 7743: 7738: 7733: 7728: 7726:Taxonomic rank 7723: 7718: 7713: 7708: 7706:Reductionistic 7703: 7649: 7614: 7609: 7603: 7601: 7594: 7588: 7587: 7585: 7584: 7579: 7578: 7577: 7567: 7562: 7553:Introduction ( 7550: 7547: 7546: 7539: 7538: 7531: 7524: 7516: 7509: 7508: 7484:Wright, Sewall 7480: 7466: 7448: 7434: 7426:Reaktion Books 7417: 7389: 7375: 7359: 7337: 7323: 7315:Westview Press 7306: 7292: 7280:Sober, Elliott 7276: 7262: 7238: 7224: 7207: 7185: 7172: 7142: 7128: 7112: 7098: 7085: 7071: 7058: 7044: 7018:Monod, Jacques 7014: 7000: 6992:Guilford Press 6980: 6968:Reith Lectures 6960:Medawar, Peter 6956: 6942: 6924: 6910: 6891: 6861: 6847: 6823: 6809: 6791: 6776: 6760:Margulis, Lynn 6756: 6734:Huxley, Julian 6730: 6702: 6688: 6656:Hull, David L. 6652: 6638: 6616: 6602: 6585: 6563: 6538: 6512: 6498: 6478: 6464: 6445: 6431: 6411: 6396: 6380:Moore, John A. 6368: 6354: 6334: 6320: 6292: 6278: 6254: 6220: 6194: 6180: 6166:. Foreword by 6154: 6126: 6112: 6088: 6074: 6057: 6038: 6008: 6006: 6003: 6001: 6000: 5998:, 53, 117–135. 5992:Mayr, Ernst W. 5984: 5973: 5962: 5950: 5938: 5926: 5915: 5895:(5): 280–301. 5876: 5856:(5): 261–279. 5835: 5823: 5811: 5781: 5762:(3): 663–684. 5743: 5708: 5689:10.1086/413216 5673: 5658:Viola tricolor 5641: 5586: 5542: 5530: 5514: 5487: 5474:(4): 485–503. 5454: 5419: 5346: 5286: 5274: 5262: 5221:(6): 491–511. 5199: 5185: 5165: 5154: 5126: 5115: 5096:(6): 531–538. 5075: 5063: 5034: 5022: 5011: 4992:(4): 331–342. 4972: 4945: 4934: 4921: 4906: 4861: 4820: 4793:(2): 191–220. 4770: 4758: 4747: 4691: 4655:(6): 887–888. 4627: 4616: 4605: 4594: 4583: 4576: 4558: 4551: 4535:Futuyma, D. J. 4526: 4519: 4501: 4482:(3): 128–133. 4466: 4425: 4366: 4354: 4342: 4330: 4303: 4283: 4210: 4151: 4094: 4049:(3): 477–480. 4029: 3978: 3971: 3941: 3882: 3815: 3748: 3697: 3652: 3640: 3628: 3616: 3601: 3572:(3): 249–254. 3552: 3540: 3528: 3516: 3498: 3469: 3457: 3420: 3369: 3350: 3330: 3317:(1): 163–186. 3311:Sustainability 3297: 3249: 3237: 3218: 3198: 3179: 3157: 3142: 3130: 3119: 3117:, chs. 8 and 9 3107: 3078: 3021: 3009: 2998: 2986: 2982:Patterson 1999 2974: 2962: 2936: 2930:. p. 13. 2914: 2903: 2891: 2879: 2852:(2): 119–127. 2828: 2817: 2806: 2793: 2786: 2762: 2747: 2735: 2720: 2708: 2701: 2677: 2675: 2672: 2670: 2669: 2664: 2659: 2654: 2649: 2644: 2639: 2634: 2629: 2624: 2619: 2613: 2611: 2608: 2535: 2532: 2502: 2499: 2497:is disrupted. 2472: 2469: 2418: 2415: 2401: 2398: 2350:Main article: 2329: 2326: 2304:Salvador Luria 2300:Microorganisms 2279: 2262: 2261:Pre-adaptation 2259: 2249: 2243: 2240: 2185:Indian peacock 2108: 2105: 2090: 2073: 2056: 2053: 1966:Main article: 1963: 1960: 1924:Main article: 1921: 1918: 1914:bacteriophages 1902:gene cassettes 1893:interactions. 1819: 1818:Genetic change 1816: 1786: 1783: 1774:Niles Eldredge 1770: 1764: 1761: 1756:adaptive peaks 1737: 1736: 1729: 1722: 1670: 1667: 1641:which require 1602:specialization 1585: 1582: 1581: 1580: 1577:adaptive trait 1573: 1566: 1430:adaptive trait 1397: 1394: 1379: 1371: 1368: 1329:use and disuse 1319:Charles Darwin 1265:The second of 1232:Main article: 1229: 1226: 1163:Charles Darwin 1140:adaptive trait 1106: 1105: 1103: 1102: 1095: 1088: 1080: 1077: 1076: 1055: 1050: 1049: 1046: 1045: 1032:Multistability 1005: 1000: 999: 996: 995: 965:Self-reference 926: 919:Systems theory 917: 916: 913: 912: 872: 867: 866: 863: 862: 818: 809: 808: 805: 804: 756: 751: 750: 747: 746: 712:Herd mentality 693: 688: 687: 684: 683: 676: 671: 670: 667: 666: 662: 661: 651: 650: 648: 647: 640: 633: 625: 622: 621: 620: 619: 606: 589: 588: 585: 584: 579: 574: 569: 564: 559: 557:Social effects 554: 549: 544: 538: 535: 534: 531: 530: 527: 526: 521: 516: 511: 506: 501: 496: 491: 486: 481: 476: 471: 466: 461: 456: 451: 446: 441: 436: 431: 426: 421: 416: 411: 406: 400: 397: 396: 393: 392: 388: 387: 377: 372: 367: 362: 357: 352: 347: 340: 335: 330: 325: 319: 318: 315: 314: 311: 310: 306: 305: 300: 295: 290: 285: 283:Classification 280: 275: 270: 265: 264: 263: 253: 248: 243: 241:Common descent 238: 236:Origin of life 232: 231: 228: 227: 224: 223: 219: 218: 213: 208: 203: 198: 193: 188: 183: 178: 173: 168: 163: 158: 153: 148: 143: 138: 133: 128: 122: 121: 118: 117: 114: 113: 111: 110: 105: 100: 94: 93: 88: 83: 78: 72: 69: 68: 59: 51: 50: 44: 43: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10788: 10777: 10774: 10772: 10769: 10767: 10764: 10763: 10761: 10751: 10746: 10741: 10740: 10737: 10724: 10723: 10714: 10712: 10711: 10706: 10702: 10700: 10699: 10690: 10688: 10687: 10678: 10677: 10674: 10667: 10666:Chronospecies 10663: 10659: 10655: 10651: 10648: 10646: 10643: 10641: 10638: 10636: 10633: 10631: 10628: 10627: 10625: 10621: 10615: 10612: 10610: 10607: 10604: 10600: 10599:Reinforcement 10597: 10594: 10593:Recombination 10590: 10586: 10582: 10579: 10578: 10576: 10574: 10570: 10564: 10561: 10559: 10556: 10554: 10551: 10548: 10544: 10540: 10537: 10535: 10532: 10530: 10527: 10525: 10522: 10521: 10519: 10517: 10513: 10507: 10504: 10501: 10497: 10493: 10490: 10487: 10483: 10479: 10475: 10471: 10468: 10467: 10465: 10461: 10455: 10452: 10450: 10447: 10445: 10442: 10440: 10437: 10435: 10432: 10429: 10425: 10422: 10421: 10419: 10415: 10409: 10406: 10404: 10401: 10399: 10396: 10394: 10391: 10390: 10387: 10383: 10376: 10371: 10369: 10364: 10362: 10357: 10356: 10353: 10341: 10337: 10333: 10331: 10323: 10322: 10319: 10313: 10310: 10308: 10305: 10303: 10300: 10298: 10295: 10291: 10288: 10287: 10286: 10285:Phylogenetics 10283: 10281: 10278: 10276: 10273: 10271: 10268: 10266: 10263: 10259: 10256: 10254: 10251: 10249: 10246: 10245: 10244: 10241: 10239: 10236: 10234: 10231: 10229: 10226: 10225: 10223: 10219: 10213: 10210: 10206: 10203: 10201: 10198: 10194: 10191: 10190: 10189: 10188:Structuralism 10186: 10184: 10181: 10179: 10176: 10174: 10171: 10169: 10166: 10164: 10163:Catastrophism 10161: 10160: 10159: 10156: 10154: 10151: 10150: 10148: 10144: 10138: 10135: 10133: 10130: 10128: 10125: 10123: 10122:Neo-Darwinism 10120: 10118: 10115: 10113: 10110: 10108: 10105: 10103: 10100: 10098: 10095: 10091: 10090: 10086: 10085: 10084: 10081: 10077: 10076: 10072: 10071: 10070: 10067: 10065: 10062: 10060: 10057: 10056: 10054: 10052: 10048: 10042: 10039: 10037: 10036:Reinforcement 10034: 10032: 10029: 10027: 10024: 10022: 10019: 10017: 10014: 10012: 10009: 10007: 10004: 10002: 9999: 9997: 9994: 9992: 9989: 9987: 9984: 9983: 9981: 9979: 9975: 9969: 9968:Catastrophism 9965: 9962: 9960: 9959:Macromutation 9956: 9955:Micromutation 9953: 9951: 9947: 9943: 9940: 9939: 9937: 9935: 9931: 9925: 9922: 9918: 9915: 9913: 9910: 9908: 9905: 9903: 9900: 9898: 9895: 9894: 9893: 9890: 9888: 9885: 9883: 9880: 9878: 9875: 9873: 9870: 9868: 9865: 9863: 9862:Immune system 9860: 9858: 9855: 9853: 9850: 9848: 9845: 9843: 9840: 9836: 9833: 9832: 9831: 9828: 9826: 9823: 9821: 9818: 9816: 9813: 9809: 9806: 9804: 9801: 9800: 9799: 9796: 9795: 9793: 9791: 9786: 9778: 9775: 9773: 9770: 9768: 9765: 9763: 9760: 9758: 9755: 9754: 9752: 9748: 9745: 9743: 9740: 9738: 9735: 9733: 9730: 9728: 9725: 9723: 9722:symbiogenesis 9720: 9719: 9718: 9715: 9713: 9710: 9708: 9705: 9703: 9700: 9699: 9697: 9695: 9690: 9684: 9681: 9679: 9676: 9674: 9671: 9669: 9666: 9662: 9659: 9658: 9657: 9654: 9650: 9647: 9643: 9640: 9638: 9635: 9634: 9633: 9630: 9628: 9625: 9623: 9620: 9618: 9615: 9613: 9610: 9606: 9603: 9601: 9598: 9597: 9596: 9593: 9591: 9588: 9587: 9586: 9583: 9581: 9578: 9574: 9571: 9570: 9569: 9566: 9564: 9561: 9559: 9556: 9554: 9551: 9547: 9544: 9543: 9542: 9539: 9537: 9534: 9530: 9527: 9526: 9525: 9522: 9520: 9517: 9516: 9514: 9512: 9507: 9501: 9498: 9496: 9493: 9491: 9488: 9486: 9483: 9481: 9478: 9476: 9473: 9472: 9470: 9466: 9460: 9457: 9455: 9452: 9450: 9447: 9443: 9440: 9438: 9435: 9433: 9430: 9429: 9428: 9425: 9423: 9420: 9418: 9415: 9413: 9410: 9408: 9405: 9401: 9398: 9396: 9393: 9392: 9391: 9390:Kin selection 9388: 9386: 9385:Genetic drift 9383: 9381: 9378: 9374: 9371: 9370: 9369: 9366: 9364: 9361: 9359: 9356: 9354: 9351: 9349: 9346: 9345: 9343: 9341: 9335: 9327: 9324: 9323: 9322: 9319: 9317: 9314: 9310: 9307: 9305: 9302: 9301: 9300: 9297: 9293: 9290: 9289: 9288: 9285: 9283: 9280: 9278: 9275: 9273: 9270: 9268: 9265: 9263: 9260: 9258: 9255: 9253: 9250: 9248: 9245: 9243: 9240: 9236: 9233: 9232: 9231: 9228: 9226: 9223: 9221: 9218: 9216: 9213: 9211: 9208: 9206: 9203: 9201: 9198: 9196: 9193: 9191: 9188: 9184: 9181: 9180: 9179: 9176: 9174: 9171: 9169: 9166: 9162: 9159: 9157: 9154: 9153: 9152: 9149: 9147: 9144: 9142: 9139: 9137: 9134: 9133: 9131: 9129: 9125: 9119: 9116: 9114: 9111: 9109: 9106: 9104: 9101: 9099: 9096: 9095: 9092: 9088: 9081: 9076: 9074: 9069: 9067: 9062: 9061: 9058: 9046: 9038: 9036: 9028: 9026: 9018: 9015: 9010: 9004: 9003: 9000: 8994: 8991: 8989: 8986: 8984: 8981: 8979: 8976: 8975: 8973: 8969: 8961: 8958: 8956: 8953: 8951: 8948: 8946: 8943: 8941: 8938: 8936: 8933: 8931: 8928: 8926: 8923: 8921: 8918: 8916: 8913: 8911: 8908: 8906: 8903: 8901: 8898: 8896: 8893: 8891: 8888: 8886: 8883: 8881: 8878: 8876: 8873: 8871: 8868: 8866: 8863: 8861: 8860:Phylogenetics 8858: 8856: 8853: 8851: 8848: 8846: 8843: 8841: 8838: 8836: 8833: 8831: 8828: 8826: 8823: 8821: 8818: 8816: 8813: 8811: 8808: 8806: 8803: 8801: 8798: 8796: 8793: 8791: 8788: 8786: 8783: 8781: 8778: 8776: 8773: 8771: 8768: 8766: 8763: 8761: 8758: 8756: 8755:Human biology 8753: 8751: 8748: 8746: 8743: 8741: 8738: 8736: 8733: 8731: 8728: 8726: 8723: 8721: 8718: 8716: 8713: 8711: 8708: 8706: 8703: 8701: 8698: 8696: 8693: 8691: 8688: 8686: 8683: 8681: 8678: 8676: 8673: 8671: 8668: 8666: 8663: 8661: 8658: 8656: 8653: 8651: 8648: 8646: 8645:Chronobiology 8643: 8641: 8638: 8636: 8633: 8631: 8628: 8626: 8623: 8621: 8620:Biotechnology 8618: 8616: 8615:Biostatistics 8613: 8611: 8608: 8606: 8603: 8601: 8598: 8596: 8593: 8591: 8588: 8586: 8583: 8581: 8578: 8576: 8573: 8571: 8568: 8566: 8563: 8561: 8558: 8556: 8553: 8551: 8548: 8546: 8543: 8541: 8538: 8537: 8533: 8529: 8519: 8516: 8514: 8511: 8509: 8508:Belt transect 8506: 8505: 8503: 8499: 8493: 8492: 8488: 8486: 8485: 8481: 8479: 8478: 8474: 8472: 8469: 8467: 8464: 8462: 8459: 8457: 8456:Southern blot 8454: 8452: 8451:Northern blot 8449: 8447: 8444: 8442: 8439: 8437: 8434: 8432: 8429: 8427: 8424: 8422: 8419: 8417: 8414: 8412: 8409: 8407: 8404: 8402: 8399: 8397: 8394: 8392: 8389: 8387: 8384: 8383: 8381: 8375: 8372: 8370: 8364: 8359: 8345: 8342: 8340: 8337: 8335: 8332: 8328: 8325: 8324: 8323: 8320: 8318: 8315: 8313: 8310: 8308: 8305: 8303: 8300: 8298: 8295: 8293: 8290: 8288: 8285: 8283: 8280: 8278: 8275: 8273: 8270: 8269: 8267: 8265: 8261: 8255: 8252: 8250: 8247: 8245: 8242: 8240: 8237: 8235: 8232: 8230: 8229:Immune system 8227: 8225: 8222: 8220: 8217: 8215: 8212: 8210: 8207: 8205: 8202: 8201: 8199: 8193: 8187: 8184: 8182: 8179: 8177: 8174: 8172: 8169: 8167: 8164: 8162: 8159: 8157: 8154: 8152: 8149: 8147: 8146:Ground tissue 8144: 8142: 8139: 8137: 8134: 8133: 8131: 8125: 8119: 8116: 8112: 8109: 8107: 8104: 8102: 8099: 8097: 8094: 8092: 8089: 8088: 8087: 8084: 8082: 8079: 8077: 8074: 8073: 8071: 8069: 8065: 8059: 8056: 8054: 8051: 8049: 8048:Phylogenetics 8046: 8044: 8041: 8039: 8036: 8034: 8031: 8029: 8026: 8024: 8021: 8019: 8016: 8014: 8013:Genetic drift 8011: 8009: 8006: 8004: 8001: 7999: 7996: 7995: 7993: 7991: 7987: 7981: 7978: 7976: 7973: 7971: 7968: 7966: 7963: 7961: 7958: 7956: 7953: 7951: 7948: 7946: 7943: 7942: 7940: 7938: 7934: 7928: 7925: 7923: 7920: 7918: 7915: 7913: 7910: 7908: 7905: 7903: 7900: 7898: 7895: 7893: 7890: 7888: 7885: 7883: 7880: 7878: 7875: 7873: 7870: 7868: 7865: 7863: 7860: 7859: 7857: 7855: 7851: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7837: 7835: 7832: 7830: 7827: 7825: 7822: 7820: 7819:Nucleic acids 7817: 7815: 7812: 7810: 7807: 7803: 7800: 7799: 7798: 7795: 7793: 7790: 7788: 7785: 7783: 7782:Chemical bond 7780: 7778: 7777:Carbohydrates 7775: 7773: 7770: 7768: 7765: 7764: 7762: 7758: 7752: 7749: 7747: 7744: 7742: 7739: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7717: 7714: 7712: 7709: 7707: 7704: 7701: 7697: 7693: 7689: 7685: 7681: 7677: 7673: 7669: 7665: 7661: 7657: 7653: 7650: 7647: 7643: 7639: 7635: 7631: 7627: 7623: 7619: 7615: 7613: 7610: 7608: 7605: 7604: 7602: 7598: 7595: 7593: 7589: 7583: 7580: 7576: 7573: 7572: 7571: 7568: 7566: 7563: 7560: 7556: 7552: 7551: 7548: 7544: 7537: 7532: 7530: 7525: 7523: 7518: 7517: 7514: 7505: 7501: 7497: 7493: 7489: 7485: 7481: 7477: 7473: 7469: 7463: 7459: 7458: 7453: 7449: 7445: 7441: 7437: 7431: 7427: 7423: 7418: 7414: 7410: 7406: 7401: 7400: 7394: 7390: 7386: 7382: 7378: 7372: 7368: 7364: 7363:Sterelny, Kim 7360: 7356: 7352: 7348: 7347: 7342: 7338: 7334: 7330: 7326: 7320: 7316: 7312: 7307: 7303: 7299: 7295: 7289: 7286:. MIT Press. 7285: 7281: 7277: 7273: 7269: 7265: 7259: 7255: 7251: 7247: 7243: 7239: 7235: 7231: 7227: 7221: 7216: 7215: 7208: 7204: 7200: 7196: 7192: 7188: 7182: 7178: 7173: 7169: 7165: 7161: 7157: 7152: 7147: 7143: 7139: 7135: 7131: 7125: 7121: 7117: 7113: 7109: 7105: 7101: 7095: 7091: 7086: 7082: 7078: 7074: 7068: 7064: 7059: 7055: 7051: 7047: 7041: 7037: 7033: 7029: 7025: 7024: 7019: 7015: 7011: 7007: 7003: 6997: 6993: 6989: 6985: 6981: 6977: 6973: 6969: 6965: 6961: 6957: 6953: 6949: 6945: 6939: 6935: 6934: 6929: 6925: 6921: 6917: 6913: 6907: 6903: 6902:Belknap Press 6899: 6898: 6892: 6888: 6884: 6880: 6876: 6871: 6866: 6862: 6858: 6854: 6850: 6844: 6840: 6835: 6834: 6828: 6824: 6820: 6816: 6812: 6806: 6802: 6801: 6796: 6792: 6787: 6783: 6779: 6773: 6769: 6765: 6761: 6757: 6753: 6749: 6745: 6741: 6740: 6735: 6731: 6727: 6723: 6719: 6714: 6713: 6707: 6703: 6699: 6695: 6691: 6685: 6681: 6677: 6673: 6669: 6665: 6661: 6657: 6653: 6649: 6645: 6641: 6635: 6631: 6627: 6626: 6621: 6617: 6613: 6609: 6605: 6599: 6595: 6591: 6586: 6582: 6578: 6574: 6570: 6566: 6560: 6556: 6552: 6548: 6544: 6539: 6535: 6531: 6527: 6523: 6522: 6517: 6513: 6509: 6505: 6501: 6495: 6491: 6487: 6483: 6479: 6475: 6471: 6467: 6461: 6457: 6453: 6452: 6446: 6442: 6438: 6434: 6428: 6424: 6420: 6416: 6412: 6407: 6403: 6399: 6393: 6389: 6385: 6381: 6377: 6373: 6369: 6365: 6361: 6357: 6351: 6347: 6343: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6323: 6317: 6313: 6309: 6305: 6301: 6297: 6293: 6289: 6285: 6281: 6275: 6271: 6266: 6265: 6259: 6255: 6243: 6239: 6235: 6231: 6230: 6225: 6221: 6217: 6213: 6209: 6205: 6204: 6199: 6195: 6191: 6187: 6183: 6177: 6173: 6169: 6165: 6164: 6159: 6158:Cronin, Helen 6155: 6151: 6147: 6143: 6139: 6135: 6131: 6127: 6123: 6119: 6115: 6109: 6105: 6100: 6099: 6093: 6089: 6085: 6081: 6077: 6071: 6067: 6063: 6058: 6055: 6049: 6045: 6041: 6035: 6031: 6027: 6023: 6019: 6015: 6010: 6009: 5997: 5993: 5988: 5982: 5977: 5971: 5966: 5959: 5958:Williams 1966 5954: 5947: 5942: 5935: 5930: 5924: 5919: 5910: 5906: 5902: 5898: 5894: 5890: 5886: 5885:Nagel, Ernest 5880: 5871: 5867: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5851: 5850: 5845: 5844:Nagel, Ernest 5839: 5832: 5831:Williams 1966 5827: 5820: 5815: 5799: 5795: 5791: 5785: 5777: 5773: 5769: 5765: 5761: 5757: 5753: 5747: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5725: 5721: 5715: 5713: 5706: 5702: 5698: 5694: 5690: 5686: 5680: 5678: 5670: 5666: 5665: 5660: 5659: 5654: 5650: 5645: 5637: 5633: 5629: 5625: 5621: 5617: 5613: 5609: 5605: 5601: 5597: 5590: 5571: 5567: 5563: 5556: 5553:(July 1973). 5552: 5546: 5539: 5534: 5527: 5523: 5518: 5502: 5498: 5491: 5482: 5477: 5473: 5469: 5465: 5458: 5450: 5446: 5442: 5438: 5434: 5430: 5423: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5376: 5372: 5368: 5364: 5357: 5350: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5330: 5326: 5322: 5318: 5314: 5310: 5306: 5305: 5300: 5296: 5290: 5283: 5278: 5271: 5266: 5250: 5246: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5228: 5224: 5220: 5216: 5215: 5210: 5203: 5196: 5194: 5188: 5182: 5178: 5177: 5169: 5163: 5158: 5142: 5138: 5134: 5130: 5119: 5111: 5107: 5103: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5090: 5085: 5079: 5073:, p. 417 5072: 5067: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5047: 5046: 5038: 5031: 5030:Williams 2010 5026: 5020: 5015: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4976: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4949: 4943: 4938: 4931: 4925: 4919: 4915: 4910: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4876: 4874: 4865: 4857: 4853: 4848: 4843: 4839: 4835: 4831: 4824: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4804: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4774: 4768:, p. 589 4767: 4762: 4756: 4751: 4743: 4739: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4706: 4701: 4695: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4663: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4649: 4641: 4637: 4636:Mallet, James 4631: 4625: 4620: 4614: 4609: 4603: 4598: 4592: 4587: 4579: 4573: 4569: 4562: 4554: 4548: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4530: 4522: 4516: 4512: 4505: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4470: 4462: 4458: 4453: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4429: 4421: 4417: 4412: 4407: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4382: 4377: 4370: 4364:, p. 364 4363: 4358: 4352:, p. 217 4351: 4346: 4339: 4334: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4300: 4296: 4295: 4287: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4262: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4245: 4241: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4214: 4206: 4202: 4197: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4179: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4155: 4147: 4143: 4138: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4098: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4065: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4033: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3982: 3974: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3945: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3886: 3870: 3866: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3819: 3811: 3807: 3802: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3784: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3752: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3701: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3668: 3663: 3656: 3649: 3648:Eldredge 1995 3644: 3637: 3636:Eldredge 1985 3632: 3625: 3624:Eldredge 1995 3620: 3614: 3610: 3605: 3597: 3593: 3588: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3556: 3549: 3544: 3538:, p. 552 3537: 3532: 3526:, p. 210 3525: 3520: 3514: 3510: 3505: 3503: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3481: 3473: 3466: 3461: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3432: 3424: 3416: 3412: 3407: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3385: 3380: 3373: 3357: 3353: 3347: 3343: 3342: 3334: 3325: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3301: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3272: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3253: 3246: 3241: 3225: 3221: 3215: 3211: 3210: 3202: 3186: 3182: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3161: 3154: 3149: 3147: 3139: 3134: 3128: 3123: 3116: 3115:Stebbins 1950 3111: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3090: 3082: 3074: 3070: 3065: 3060: 3055: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3041: 3036: 3032: 3025: 3018: 3013: 3007: 3002: 2995: 2994:Williams 1966 2990: 2983: 2978: 2971: 2966: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2918: 2912: 2907: 2900: 2895: 2889:, p. 449 2888: 2883: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2846: 2841: 2840:Orr, H. Allen 2835: 2833: 2826: 2821: 2815: 2810: 2803: 2797: 2789: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2774: 2766: 2760: 2756: 2751: 2744: 2739: 2731: 2724: 2717: 2712: 2704: 2698: 2694: 2693: 2688: 2682: 2678: 2668: 2665: 2663: 2660: 2658: 2655: 2653: 2650: 2648: 2645: 2643: 2640: 2638: 2635: 2633: 2630: 2628: 2625: 2623: 2620: 2618: 2615: 2614: 2607: 2605: 2604: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2574: 2568: 2564: 2563:Adaptationism 2556: 2552: 2548: 2545: 2540: 2531: 2529: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2498: 2496: 2492: 2487: 2482: 2478: 2468: 2466: 2465:endoparasites 2462: 2458: 2454: 2448: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2428: 2424: 2414: 2411: 2407: 2397: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2366:embryological 2363: 2359: 2353: 2345: 2341: 2340: 2334: 2325: 2323: 2319: 2318: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2284: 2282: 2275: 2274:White Leghorn 2271: 2268: 2255: 2248: 2239: 2236: 2231: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2215: 2208: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2197: 2186: 2181: 2177: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2146: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2115: 2101: 2100: 2095: 2089: 2082: 2078: 2077:Peter Medawar 2072: 2068: 2066: 2065:ectoparasites 2062: 2052: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2037: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1974: 1969: 1959: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1937: 1932: 1927: 1926:Co-adaptation 1920:Co-adaptation 1917: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1894: 1892: 1888: 1883: 1879: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1863: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1815: 1813: 1809: 1808:fossil record 1805: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1779: 1775: 1769: 1760: 1757: 1753: 1752:Sewall Wright 1746: 1741: 1734: 1730: 1727: 1723: 1720: 1719: 1714: 1710: 1709: 1708: 1706: 1705:Elliott Sober 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1680: 1676: 1666: 1664: 1658: 1656: 1653: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1635: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1605: 1603: 1599: 1590: 1578: 1574: 1571: 1567: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1555: 1554: 1552: 1547: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1516:vocalizations 1513: 1509: 1505: 1502:capacity for 1501: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1484:physiological 1481: 1476: 1474: 1473:endosymbiosis 1471: 1467: 1462: 1458: 1452: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1433: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1390: 1389: 1384: 1383:Julian Huxley 1378: 1377: 1367: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1340: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1295:William Paley 1292: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1263: 1259: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1235: 1225: 1223: 1219: 1214: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1170: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1147: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1101: 1096: 1094: 1089: 1087: 1082: 1081: 1079: 1078: 1072: 1069: 1067: 1063: 1058: 1053: 1048: 1047: 1042: 1039: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1008: 1003: 998: 997: 991: 988: 986: 982: 978: 974: 970: 966: 962: 958: 954: 950: 946: 945:Goal-oriented 942: 938: 934: 929: 924: 920: 915: 914: 909: 908:Geomorphology 906: 904: 900: 896: 892: 888: 884: 880: 875: 870: 865: 864: 859: 856: 854: 850: 846: 842: 838: 834: 830: 826: 821: 816: 812: 807: 806: 801: 798: 796: 792: 788: 784: 780: 776: 772: 768: 764: 759: 754: 749: 748: 742: 739: 737: 733: 729: 725: 721: 717: 713: 709: 705: 701: 696: 691: 686: 685: 679: 674: 669: 668: 664: 663: 660: 657: 656: 646: 641: 639: 634: 632: 627: 626: 624: 623: 617: 607: 604: 599: 593: 592: 591: 590: 583: 580: 578: 575: 573: 570: 568: 565: 563: 560: 558: 555: 553: 550: 548: 545: 543: 540: 539: 533: 532: 525: 522: 520: 517: 515: 512: 510: 507: 505: 502: 500: 497: 495: 492: 490: 489:Phylogenetics 487: 485: 482: 480: 477: 475: 472: 470: 467: 465: 462: 460: 457: 455: 452: 450: 447: 445: 442: 440: 437: 435: 432: 430: 427: 425: 422: 420: 417: 415: 412: 410: 407: 405: 402: 401: 395: 394: 385: 381: 378: 376: 373: 371: 368: 366: 363: 361: 358: 356: 353: 351: 348: 346: 345: 341: 339: 336: 334: 333:Before Darwin 331: 329: 326: 324: 321: 320: 313: 312: 304: 301: 299: 296: 294: 291: 289: 286: 284: 281: 279: 276: 274: 271: 269: 266: 262: 259: 258: 257: 254: 252: 249: 247: 244: 242: 239: 237: 234: 233: 226: 225: 217: 214: 212: 209: 207: 204: 202: 199: 197: 194: 192: 189: 187: 184: 182: 179: 177: 174: 172: 169: 167: 164: 162: 161:Genetic drift 159: 157: 154: 152: 149: 147: 144: 142: 139: 137: 134: 132: 129: 127: 124: 123: 116: 115: 109: 106: 104: 101: 99: 96: 95: 92: 89: 87: 84: 82: 79: 77: 74: 73: 71: 70: 66: 62: 57: 53: 52: 49: 46: 45: 41: 40: 37: 33: 29: 22: 10720: 10708: 10696: 10684: 10523: 10500:Ring species 10449:Cospeciation 10444:Cladogenesis 10393:Introduction 10297:Polymorphism 10280:Astrobiology 10228:Biogeography 10183:Saltationism 10173:Orthogenesis 10158:Alternatives 10087: 10073: 10006:Cospeciation 10001:Cladogenesis 9950:Saltationism 9907:Mating types 9830:Color vision 9815:Avian flight 9737:mitochondria 9475:Canalisation 9353:Biodiversity 9140: 9098:Introduction 8905:Sociobiology 8885:Protistology 8850:Photobiology 8845:Pharmacology 8835:Parasitology 8830:Paleontology 8810:Neuroscience 8790:Microbiology 8700:Epidemiology 8670:Cytogenetics 8630:Cell biology 8610:Biosemiotics 8600:Biomechanics 8580:Biogeography 8575:Biochemistry 8570:Bacteriology 8565:Astrobiology 8489: 8482: 8475: 8446:Western blot 8436:Enzyme assay 8411:Cell culture 8312:Conservation 8197:and function 8195:Animal form 8129:and function 7997: 7902:Fermentation 7680:Organ system 7638:Reproduction 7617: 7616:Properties ( 7491: 7456: 7421: 7398: 7366: 7345: 7310: 7283: 7249: 7213: 7176: 7159: 7119: 7089: 7062: 7027: 7022: 6987: 6963: 6932: 6896: 6874: 6832: 6799: 6763: 6738: 6711: 6663: 6624: 6589: 6550: 6546: 6520: 6485: 6450: 6418: 6387: 6341: 6299: 6263: 6246:. Retrieved 6228: 6202: 6162: 6137: 6097: 6061: 6017: 5995: 5987: 5976: 5965: 5953: 5941: 5929: 5918: 5892: 5888: 5879: 5853: 5847: 5838: 5826: 5814: 5802:. Retrieved 5793: 5784: 5759: 5755: 5746: 5662: 5656: 5644: 5603: 5599: 5589: 5577:. Retrieved 5570:the original 5565: 5561: 5545: 5533: 5525: 5517: 5505:. Retrieved 5490: 5471: 5467: 5457: 5435:(3): 58–63. 5432: 5428: 5422: 5410:. Retrieved 5366: 5362: 5349: 5308: 5304:Paleobiology 5302: 5289: 5282:Panchen 1992 5277: 5265: 5253:. Retrieved 5218: 5212: 5202: 5193:heterozygous 5190: 5175: 5168: 5157: 5145:. Retrieved 5141:the original 5136: 5132: 5129:in the fowl" 5118: 5093: 5087: 5078: 5066: 5049: 5043: 5037: 5032:, p. 29 5025: 5014: 4989: 4985: 4975: 4958: 4954: 4948: 4937: 4924: 4909: 4897:. Retrieved 4890:the original 4885: 4882:Mertensiella 4881: 4872: 4864: 4837: 4833: 4823: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4773: 4761: 4755:Medawar 1960 4750: 4709: 4703: 4694: 4682:. Retrieved 4652: 4646: 4630: 4619: 4608: 4602:Wickler 1968 4597: 4586: 4567: 4561: 4538: 4529: 4510: 4504: 4479: 4475: 4469: 4442: 4438: 4428: 4385: 4379: 4369: 4357: 4345: 4333: 4321:. Retrieved 4293: 4286: 4227: 4223: 4213: 4168: 4164: 4154: 4111: 4107: 4097: 4046: 4043:FEBS Letters 4042: 4032: 3991: 3987: 3981: 3950: 3944: 3895: 3891: 3885: 3873:. Retrieved 3832: 3828: 3818: 3765: 3761: 3751: 3710: 3706: 3700: 3688:. Retrieved 3665: 3655: 3650:, p. 64 3643: 3631: 3626:, p. 33 3619: 3604: 3569: 3565: 3555: 3550:, p. 25 3543: 3536:Futuyma 1986 3531: 3519: 3484: 3478: 3472: 3467:, p. 33 3460: 3435: 3429: 3423: 3388: 3382: 3372: 3360:. Retrieved 3340: 3333: 3314: 3310: 3300: 3278:(1): 82–92. 3275: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3252: 3240: 3228:. Retrieved 3208: 3201: 3189:. Retrieved 3170: 3160: 3133: 3122: 3110: 3093: 3087: 3081: 3044: 3038: 3024: 3012: 3001: 2989: 2977: 2972:, p. 10 2965: 2957: 2923: 2917: 2906: 2894: 2882: 2849: 2843: 2820: 2814:Provine 1986 2809: 2796: 2772: 2765: 2750: 2738: 2729: 2723: 2716:Desmond 1989 2711: 2691: 2681: 2657:Evolvability 2603:a posteriori 2601: 2576:intentions. 2570: 2523:life started 2504: 2488: 2484: 2481:Coextinction 2461:wisdom teeth 2449: 2430: 2427:Vestigiality 2403: 2385: 2355: 2337: 2322:teleological 2315: 2308:Max Delbrück 2285: 2269: 2264: 2253: 2246: 2234: 2232: 2228:Neanderthals 2211: 2209: 2195: 2192: 2149: 2147: 2112: 2110: 2097: 2087: 2080: 2070: 2058: 2041:Fritz Müller 2038: 2024:of aculeate 1995: 1941: 1895: 1880: 1867: 1864: 1821: 1803: 1788: 1777: 1767: 1755: 1750: 1716: 1712: 1682: 1659: 1646: 1639:giant pandas 1632: 1606: 1595: 1576: 1569: 1565:or habitats. 1558: 1548: 1528:phototropism 1522:, secreting 1477: 1456: 1453: 1434: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1413: 1399: 1386: 1375: 1374: 1341: 1328: 1323: 1311:Dr. Pangloss 1288: 1237: 1215: 1171: 1148: 1139: 1120:evolutionary 1115: 1109: 1060: 1010: 931: 877: 858:Evolvability 823: 814: 779:Graph theory 761: 698: 509:Sociobiology 494:Paleontology 342: 278:Biogeography 273:Biodiversity 191:Coextinction 181:Co-operation 156:Polymorphism 150: 81:Introduction 36: 10722:WikiProject 10482:Centrifugal 10307:Systematics 10178:Mutationism 9996:Catagenesis 9924:Snake venom 9857:Eusociality 9835:in primates 9825:Cooperation 9753:In animals 9573:butterflies 9546:Cephalopods 9536:Brachiopods 9468:Development 9442:Mate choice 9195:Convergence 9178:Coevolution 9136:Abiogenesis 9045:WikiProject 8955:Xenobiology 8950:Virophysics 8920:Systematics 8875:Primatology 8820:Ornithology 8760:Ichthyology 8745:Herpetology 8740:Gerontology 8705:Epigenetics 8665:Cryobiology 8555:Agrostology 8545:Aerobiology 8540:Abiogenesis 8377:Laboratory 8224:Homeostasis 8127:Plant form 7950:Epigenetics 7872:Cell theory 7772:Amino acids 7751:Common name 7741:Peer review 7716:Mechanistic 7405:McGraw-Hill 6928:Mayr, Ernst 6865:Mayr, Ernst 6827:Mayr, Ernst 6208:John Murray 6134:Ford, E. B. 5651:, pp. 5649:Darwin 1872 5412:11 February 5311:(1): 4–15. 5255:19 December 5071:Huxley 1942 5052:(1): 6–12. 5019:Miller 2007 4942:Cronin 1991 4930:Fisher 1930 4914:Darwin 1871 4684:28 December 4539:Coevolution 4323:18 December 4297:. Penguin. 3875:18 December 3611:, pp. 3609:Wright 1932 3548:Fisher 1930 3511:, pp. 3509:Endler 1986 3487:: 285–304. 3096:: 163–196. 3031:Meyer, Axel 2984:, p. 1 2970:Bowler 2003 2887:Huxley 1942 2802:Bowler 2003 2755:Darwin 1872 2580:introduced 2433:pleiotropic 2382:gill arches 2346:for flight. 2205:mate choice 2150:salamanders 2026:Hymenoptera 1998:butterflies 1956:pollinating 1944:coevolution 1910:transposons 1856:sodium pump 1570:Adaptedness 1544:homeostasis 1492:Behavioural 1457:constraints 1406:liver fluke 1404:(such as a 1248:final cause 1211:bird flight 1122:process of 1052:Game theory 1036:Bifurcation 1016:Phase space 981:Sensemaking 949:Homeostasis 928:Autopoiesis 923:cybernetics 891:Percolation 519:Systematics 328:Renaissance 206:Convergence 196:Contingency 186:Coevolution 10760:Categories 10585:Polyploidy 10547:Allochrony 10524:Adaptation 10492:Parapatric 10474:Peripatric 10470:Allopatric 10439:Anagenesis 10382:Speciation 10168:Lamarckism 10146:Philosophy 10069:David Hume 10031:Peripatric 10026:Parapatric 10011:Ecological 9991:Anagenesis 9986:Allopatric 9978:Speciation 9942:Gradualism 9867:Metabolism 9727:chromosome 9717:Eukaryotes 9495:Modularity 9412:Population 9338:Population 9299:Speciation 9277:Panspermia 9230:Extinction 9225:Exaptation 9200:Divergence 9173:Cladistics 9161:Reciprocal 9141:Adaptation 8971:Glossaries 8940:Toxicology 8935:Teratology 8880:Proteomics 8865:Physiology 8805:Neontology 8770:Lipidology 8765:Immunology 8735:Geobiology 8695:Embryology 8675:Dendrology 8605:Biophysics 8585:Biogeology 8379:techniques 8334:Microbiome 8161:Plant stem 8053:Speciation 7998:Adaptation 7927:Prokaryote 7907:Metabolism 7867:Cell cycle 7698:> 7694:> 7690:> 7688:Population 7686:> 7682:> 7678:> 7674:> 7670:> 7666:> 7662:> 7658:> 7634:Regulation 7618:Adaptation 6966:. The BBC 6879:Free Press 5970:Monod 1971 5819:Sober 1993 5669:bumblebees 5507:17 October 5195:... state. 4916:, p. 4313:1024108339 3662:"Mutation" 3524:Sober 1984 3047:(17): 17. 2946:2010287468 2911:Price 1980 2757:, p. 2743:Sober 1993 2674:References 2598:Ernst Mayr 2594:David Hull 2495:food chain 2477:Extinction 2453:maladapted 2406:earthworms 2386:exaptation 2374:hyoid bone 2352:Exaptation 2344:exaptation 2152:, such as 2143:coloration 2139:camouflage 2123:allometric 2094:Ernst Mayr 2055:Trade-offs 1986:hoverflies 1936:co-adapted 1842:and other 1701:extinction 1634:Eucalyptus 1625:herbivores 1559:Adaptation 1498:, or as a 1470:eukaryotic 1466:polyploidy 1441:speciation 1422:adaptation 1410:life cycle 1356:E. B. Ford 1333:Lamarckism 1315:David Hume 1309:'s satire 1244:Empedocles 1151:Empedocles 1126:that fits 1116:adaptation 1020:Attractors 815:adaptation 787:Robustness 771:Centrality 293:Cladistics 216:Extinction 201:Divergence 171:Speciation 151:Adaptation 65:John Gould 10506:Sympatric 10302:Protocell 10153:Darwinism 10041:Sympatric 9790:processes 9678:Tetrapods 9627:Kangaroos 9553:Dinosaurs 9490:Inversion 9459:Variation 9380:Gene flow 9373:Inclusive 9183:Mutualism 9128:Evolution 8855:Phycology 8840:Pathology 8825:Osteology 8815:Nutrition 8775:Mammalogy 8750:Histology 8491:in silico 8367:Research 8344:Resources 8317:Ecosystem 8307:Community 8292:Biosphere 8204:Breathing 8086:Eukaryote 8068:Diversity 8018:Gene flow 7990:Evolution 7897:Eukaryote 7809:Molecules 7700:Biosphere 7696:Ecosystem 7692:Community 7664:Organelle 7559:Evolution 7504:439596433 7444:587198932 7120:Evolution 6857:899044868 6768:MIT Press 6698:502399533 6534:493745635 6288:709606191 6248:17 August 6150:875481859 5981:Hull 1982 5946:Mayr 1988 5934:Mayr 1965 5579:22 August 5399:205254710 5147:20 August 4899:18 August 4787:Evolution 4766:Mayr 1982 4613:Moon 1976 4338:Mayr 1982 4278:244485686 4252:0960-9822 4187:0027-8424 4128:0028-0836 4073:0014-5793 4016:0036-8075 3920:0036-8075 3792:0027-8424 3690:18 August 3271:Evolution 3017:Mayr 1982 3006:Mayr 1963 2954:444383696 2899:Mayr 1982 2825:Ford 1975 2745:, chpt. 2 2582:teleology 2544:springbok 2507:RNA world 2491:parasitic 2457:vestigial 2445:spandrels 2376:of their 2278:vitamin B 2267:cordgrass 2170:fecundity 2127:predators 2114:Irish elk 2047:provided 2010:predators 1958:insects. 1876:ecosystem 1836:RNA world 1814:theory). 1799:invasions 1689:heritable 1617:phenotype 1496:instincts 1362:produced 1271:body plan 1252:Aristotle 1240:evolution 1222:teleology 1182:co-evolve 1155:Aristotle 1128:organisms 811:Evolution 678:Emergence 552:Dysgenics 268:Phylogeny 166:Gene flow 136:Diversity 131:Variation 10686:Category 10603:evidence 10408:Glossary 10330:Category 10205:Vitalism 10200:Theistic 10193:Spandrel 9877:Morality 9872:Monogamy 9747:plastids 9712:Flagella 9668:Reptiles 9649:sea cows 9632:primates 9541:Molluscs 9519:Bacteria 9407:Mutation 9340:genetics 9316:Taxonomy 9262:Mismatch 9242:Homology 9156:Cheating 9151:Altruism 9025:Category 8945:Virology 8930:Taxonomy 8870:Pomology 8800:Mycology 8730:Genomics 8725:Genetics 8550:Agronomy 8531:Branches 8484:in vitro 8081:Bacteria 8058:Taxonomy 8038:Mutation 8008:Function 7937:Genetics 7839:Proteins 7684:Organism 7660:Molecule 7644:), 7600:Overview 7575:Timeline 7555:Genetics 7476:35230452 7454:(1966). 7395:(1968). 7385:40193587 7343:(1950). 7333:26974492 7302:11114517 7282:(1984). 7272:56644492 7234:12808844 7158:(eds.). 7148:(1958). 7138:39724234 7118:(1999). 7108:24247430 7020:(1971). 7010:71005838 6962:(1960). 6952:17108004 6930:(1988). 6867:(1965). 6829:(1963). 6819:27676642 6797:(1993). 6786:22597587 6736:(1942). 6708:(1965). 6648:13822044 6622:(1986). 6612:73502978 6518:(1930). 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