Science - Knowledge

3389: 3214: 1138: 2870:. Each paradigm has its own distinct questions, aims, and interpretations. The choice between paradigms involves setting two or more "portraits" against the world and deciding which likeness is most promising. A paradigm shift occurs when a significant number of observational anomalies arise in the old paradigm and a new paradigm makes sense of them. That is, the choice of a new paradigm is based on observations, even though those observations are made against the background of the old paradigm. For Kuhn, acceptance or rejection of a paradigm is a social process as much as a logical process. Kuhn's position, however, is not one of 2655: 1476: 3000: 1316: 2102: 1935: 2767: 2291: 3191:, often in pursuance of other national policy goals such as technological innovation to promote commercial product development, weapons development, health care, and environmental monitoring. Science policy sometimes refers to the act of applying scientific knowledge and consensus to the development of public policies. In accordance with public policy being concerned about the well-being of its citizens, science policy's goal is to consider how science and technology can best serve the public. Public policy can directly affect the funding of 2521: 993: 15089: 3119: 2612:, self-consistent model or framework for describing the behaviour of certain natural events. A theory typically describes the behaviour of much broader sets of observations than a hypothesis; commonly, a large number of hypotheses can be logically bound together by a single theory. Thus, a theory is a hypothesis explaining various other hypotheses. In that vein, theories are formulated according to most of the same scientific principles as hypotheses. Scientists may generate a 2918: 15072: 1765: 14976: 13786: 442: 14933: 1609: 14908: 4328:

expression had overtaken the traditional label "natural philosophy". The persistence of "natural philosophy" in the twentieth century is owing largely to historical references to a past practice (see figure 11). As should now be apparent, this was not simply the substitution of one term by another, but involved the jettisoning of a range of personal qualities relating to the conduct of philosophy and the living of the philosophical life.

15055: 15038: 15021: 2825:. Popper rejected the way that empiricism describes the connection between theory and observation. He claimed that theories are not generated by observation, but that observation is made in the light of theories, and that the only way theory A can be affected by observation is after theory A were to conflict with observation, but theory B were to survive the observation. Popper proposed replacing verifiability with 15004: 13774: 457: 2748:" for cases in which researchers believe, and at a glance, look like they are doing science but lack the honesty to allow their results to be rigorously evaluated. Various types of commercial advertising, ranging from hype to fraud, may fall into these categories. Science has been described as "the most important tool" for separating valid claims from invalid ones. 2379:. The formal sciences share similarities with the other two branches by relying on objective, careful, and systematic study of an area of knowledge. They are, however, different from the empirical sciences as they rely exclusively on deductive reasoning, without the need for empirical evidence, to verify their abstract concepts. The formal sciences are therefore 1781:"scientist"; an increased professionalisation of those studying nature; scientists gaining cultural authority over many dimensions of society; the industrialisation of numerous countries; the thriving of popular science writings; and the emergence of science journals. During the late 19th century, psychology emerged as a separate discipline from philosophy when 2844:, emphasises the utility of theories as instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena. It views scientific theories as black boxes, with only their input (initial conditions) and output (predictions) being relevant. Consequences, theoretical entities, and logical structure are claimed to be things that should be ignored. Close to instrumentalism is 1052:. Although the words and concepts of "science" and "nature" were not part of the conceptual landscape at the time, the ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians made contributions that would later find a place in Greek and medieval science: mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. From the 3rd millennium BCE, the ancient Egyptians developed a 3579:...modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regularly enough to be described by laws and even by mathematics; and required invention to devise the techniques, abstractions, apparatus, and organization for exhibiting the regularities and securing their law-like descriptions. 1166:, the same words tend to be used to describe the natural "way" in which a plant grows, and the "way" in which, for example, one tribe worships a particular god. For this reason, it is claimed that these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and the first to clearly distinguish "nature" and "convention". 3379:

Anti-science attitudes often seem to be caused by fear of rejection in social groups. For instance, climate change is perceived as a threat by only 22% of Americans on the right side of the political spectrum, but by 85% on the left. That is, if someone on the left would not consider climate change

3089:

are usually given to individuals or organisations that have made significant contributions to a discipline. They are often given by prestigious institutions; thus, it is considered a great honour for a scientist receiving them. Since the early Renaissance, scientists have often been awarded medals,

1240:

method of hypothesis elimination: better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions. The Socratic method searches for general commonly-held truths that shape beliefs and scrutinises them for consistency. Socrates criticised the older type of study

8526:

Abbott, B.P.; Abbott, R.; Abbott, T.D.; Acernese, F.; Ackley, K.; Adams, C.; Adams, T.; Addesso, P.; Adhikari, R.X.; Adya, V.B.; Affeldt, C.; Afrough, M.; Agarwal, B.; Agathos, M.; Agatsuma, K.; Aggarwal, N.; Aguiar, O.D.; Aiello, L.; Ain, A.; Ajith, P.; Allen, B.; Allen, G.; Allocca, A.; Altin,

6471:

See p. 464: "Schramm sums up achievement in the development of scientific method.", p. 465: "Schramm has demonstrated .. beyond any dispute that Ibn al-Haytham is a major figure in the Islamic scientific tradition, particularly in the creation of experimental techniques." p. 465: "only when the

2627:

process of the experimental results and conclusions. After the results of an experiment are announced or published, it is normal practice for independent researchers to double-check how the research was performed, and to follow up by performing similar experiments to determine how dependable the

4327:

The changing character of those engaged in scientific endeavors was matched by a new nomenclature for their endeavors. The most conspicuous marker of this change was the replacement of "natural philosophy" by "natural science". In 1800 few had spoken of the "natural sciences" but by 1880 this

2428:

and knowledge to attain practical goals and includes a broad range of disciplines such as engineering and medicine. Engineering is the use of scientific principles to invent, design and build machines, structures and technologies. Science may contribute to the development of new technologies.

2986:

faced considerable discrimination in science, much as they did in other areas of male-dominated societies. For example, women were frequently passed over for job opportunities and denied credit for their work. The achievements of women in science have been attributed to the defiance of their

2751:

There can also be an element of political or ideological bias on all sides of scientific debates. Sometimes, research may be characterised as "bad science", research that may be well-intended but is incorrect, obsolete, incomplete, or over-simplified expositions of scientific ideas. The term

1780:

During the nineteenth century many distinguishing characteristics of contemporary modern science began to take shape. These included the transformation of the life and physical sciences; the frequent use of precision instruments; the emergence of terms such as "biologist", "physicist", and

5522: 5141:

The Nile occupied an important position in Egyptian culture; it influenced the development of mathematics, geography, and the calendar; Egyptian geometry advanced due to the practice of land measurement "because the overflow of the Nile caused the boundary of each person's land to

1452:

in western Europe flourished, with experiments done by observing, describing, and classifying subjects in nature. In the 13th century, medical teachers and students at Bologna began opening human bodies, leading to the first anatomy textbook based on human dissection by

2960:

Scientists exhibit a strong curiosity about reality and a desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of health, nations, the environment, or industries. Other motivations include recognition by their peers and prestige. In modern times, many scientists have

1152:, there is no real ancient analogue of a modern scientist. Instead, well-educated, usually upper-class, and almost universally male individuals performed various investigations into nature whenever they could afford the time. Before the invention or discovery of the 1589:

published philosophical arguments in favour of a new type of non-Aristotelian science. Bacon emphasised the importance of experiment over contemplation, questioned the Aristotelian concepts of formal and final cause, promoted the idea that science should study the

2511:

is the search for solutions to practical problems using this knowledge. Most understanding comes from basic research, though sometimes applied research targets specific practical problems. This leads to technological advances that were not previously imaginable.

1561:

and others challenged the notion that the only function of the eye is perception, and shifted the main focus in optics from the eye to the propagation of light. Kepler is best known, however, for improving Copernicus' heliocentric model through the discovery of

3136:

through a competitive process in which potential research projects are evaluated and only the most promising receive funding. Such processes, which are run by government, corporations, or foundations, allocate scarce funds. Total research funding in most

12073: 12480: 1652:

way. This implied a shift in the view of objects: objects were now considered as having no innate goals. Leibniz assumed that different types of things all work according to the same general laws of nature, with no special formal or final causes.

727:

New knowledge in science is advanced by research from scientists who are motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems. Contemporary scientific research is highly collaborative and is usually done by teams in academic and

3149:

in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20% and 10%, respectively, by universities and government. The government funding proportion in certain fields is higher, and it dominates research in social science and the

6976:

Although it was just one of the many factors in the Enlightenment, the success of Newtonian physics in providing a mathematical description of an ordered world clearly played a big part in the flowering of this movement in the eighteenth

4074:

The great era of all that is deemed classical in Indian literature, art and science was now dawning. It was this crescendo of creativity and scholarship, as much as ... political achievements of the Guptas, which would make their age so

3278:

The mass media face pressures that can prevent them from accurately depicting competing scientific claims in terms of their credibility within the scientific community as a whole. Determining how much weight to give different sides in a

2475:

and various forms of prediction. However, machines alone rarely advance knowledge as they require human guidance and capacity to reason; and they can introduce bias against certain social groups or sometimes underperform against humans.

3411:, perceived threats to religious beliefs, and fear for business interests. Politicization of science is usually accomplished when scientific information is presented in a way that emphasises the uncertainty associated with the 1012:

Science has no single origin. Rather, systematic methods emerged gradually over the course of tens of thousands of years, taking different forms around the world, and few details are known about the very earliest developments.

2889:. Naturalists maintain that a difference should be made between natural and supernatural, and science should be restricted to natural explanations. Methodological naturalism maintains that science requires strict adherence to 3311:

cater to the needs of a much wider readership and provide a non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable discoveries and advances in certain fields of research. The science fiction genre, primarily

1679:, which had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were the backbones of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important development was the 12312: 8847:

A "formal science" is an area of study that uses formal systems to generate knowledge such as in Mathematics and Computer Science. Formal sciences are important subjects because all of quantitative science depends on

6472:

influence of Ibn al-Haytham and others on the mainstream of later medieval physical writings has been seriously investigated can Schramm's claim that Ibn al-Haytham was the true founder of modern physics be evaluated."

4435: 2936:

Scientists are individuals who conduct scientific research to advance knowledge in an area of interest. In modern times, many professional scientists are trained in an academic setting and, upon completion, attain an

5388:

The word φύσις, while first used in connection with a plant in Homer, occurs early in Greek philosophy, and in several senses. Generally, these senses match rather well the current senses in which the English word

3019:, or group of related disciplines. Membership may either be open to all, require possession of scientific credentials, or conferred by election. Most scientific societies are nonprofit organisations, and many are 4616: 3014:

for the communication and promotion of scientific thought and experimentation have existed since the Renaissance. Many scientists belong to a learned society that promotes their respective scientific discipline,

12057: 2686:, began publication in 1665. Since that time the total number of active periodicals has steadily increased. In 1981, one estimate for the number of scientific and technical journals in publication was 11,500. 12472: 3338:

While the scientific method is broadly accepted in the scientific community, some fractions of society reject certain scientific positions or are sceptical about science. Examples are the common notion that

2282:, which emerged in the 16th century by describing and classifying plants, animals, minerals, and other biotic beings. Today, "natural history" suggests observational descriptions aimed at popular audiences. 11888: 3611: 3316:, can transmit the ideas and methods of science to the general public. Recent efforts to intensify or develop links between science and non-scientific disciplines, such as literature or poetry, include the 1218: 948:

In the past, science was a synonym for "knowledge" or "study", in keeping with its Latin origin. A person who conducted scientific research was called a "natural philosopher" or "man of science". In 1834,

3481:

Book I, . pages 372 and 408 disputed Claudius Ptolemy's extramission theory of vision; "Hence, the extramission of rays is superfluous and useless". —A.Mark Smith's translation of the Latin version of

3275:, the curriculum becomes more in depth. Traditional subjects usually included in the curriculum are natural and formal sciences, although recent movements include social and applied science as well. 3181:

in Spain. In commercial research and development, all but the most research-orientated corporations focus more heavily on near-term commercialisation possibilities than research driven by curiosity.

2590:

predictions, which are typically posted before being tested by experimentation. Disproof of a prediction is evidence of progress. Experimentation is especially important in science to help establish

1668:", and he discouraged scientists from pursuing intangible philosophical or spiritual ideas, which he believed contributed little to human happiness beyond "the fume of subtle, sublime or pleasing ". 2332:

in sociology. Due to the limitations of conducting controlled experiments involving large groups of individuals or complex situations, social scientists may adopt other research methods such as the

12511: 11595: 7992: 8609: 2721:. The crisis has long-standing roots; the phrase was coined in the early 2010s as part of a growing awareness of the problem. The replication crisis represents an important body of research in 9081: 2672:

communicate and document the results of research carried out in universities and various other research institutions, serving as an archival record of science. The first scientific journals,

12644: 7123: 3380:

as a threat, this person may face contempt and be rejected in that social group. In fact, people may rather deny a scientifically accepted fact than lose or jeopardise their social status.

1263:

of the universe, with the Sun at the centre and all the planets orbiting it. Aristarchus's model was widely rejected because it was believed to violate the laws of physics, while Ptolemy's

1213:

would develop a full natural cosmology based on atomism, and would adopt a "canon" (ruler, standard) which established physical criteria or standards of scientific truth. The Greek doctor

4499: 12422: 12002: 11160:

But he's not a scientist, he's never done scientific research. My definition of a scientist is that you can complete the following sentence: 'he or she has shown that...'," Wilson says.

2616:, an attempt to describe or depict an observation in terms of a logical, physical or mathematical representation, and to generate new hypotheses that can be tested by experimentation. 2798:, a position that explains how general theories can be made from the finite amount of empirical evidence available. Many versions of empiricism exist, with the predominant ones being 11961: 1574:

had made significant contributions to astronomy, physics and engineering. However, he became persecuted after Pope Urban VIII sentenced him for writing about the heliocentric model.

3090:

money, and titles. The Nobel Prize, a widely regarded prestigious award, is awarded annually to those who have achieved scientific advances in the fields of medicine, physics, and

12722: 5774: 5748: 2619:

While performing experiments to test hypotheses, scientists may have a preference for one outcome over another. Eliminating the bias can be achieved through transparency, careful

7152: 5435: 3419:

have been used to gain more attention for views that have been undermined by scientific evidence. Examples of issues that have involved the politicisation of science include the

3347:

is not a major threat to the US (also held by 40% of Americans, in late 2019 and early 2020). Psychologists have pointed to four factors driving rejection of scientific results:

13822: 8635: 5477: 2385:

disciplines and because of this, there is disagreement on whether they constitute a science. Nevertheless, the formal sciences play an important role in the empirical sciences.

12304: 4396: 2693:. Science has become so pervasive in modern societies that it is considered necessary to communicate the achievements, news, and ambitions of scientists to a wider population. 1025:" to label activities in the past that resemble modern science in some but not all features; however, this label has also been criticised as denigrating, or too suggestive of 12899: 4419: 4707:

Carruthers, Peter (2 May 2002). Carruthers, Peter; Stich, Stephen; Siegal, Michael (eds.). "The roots of scientific reasoning: infancy, modularity and the art of tracking".

6025: 2756:" refers to situations such as where researchers have intentionally misrepresented their published data or have purposely given credit for a discovery to the wrong person. 5689: 3166: 11783: 11144: 7624: 8504: 5600: 2728:

An area of study or speculation that masquerades as science in an attempt to claim legitimacy that it would not otherwise be able to achieve is sometimes referred to as

5845: 5561: 4357: 9299: 12103: 12034: 7905: 5128: 11189:

A scientist is someone who systematically gathers and uses research and evidence, making a hypothesis and testing it, to gain and share understanding and knowledge.

9023:

Mujumdar, Anshu Gupta; Singh, Tejinder (2016). "Cognitive science and the connection between physics and mathematics". In Aguirre, Anthony; Foster, Brendan (eds.).

4162: 2909:, through discussion and debate within journals and conferences, scientists maintain the quality of research methodology and objectivity when interpreting results. 2344:. Moreover, if quantitative information is available, social scientists may rely on statistical approaches to better understand social relationships and processes. 14135: 12285: 3595: 11864: 9821:

The amazing point is that for the first time since the discovery of mathematics, a method has been introduced, the results of which have an intersubjective value!

8130: 5986: 7931: 5209: 8288: 1594:

and the improvement of all human life. Descartes emphasised individual thought and argued that mathematics rather than geometry should be used to study nature.

10096: 6103: 6064: 6235: 2833:

as the empirical method. Popper further claimed that there is actually only one universal method, not specific to science: the negative method of criticism,

1228:' example of applying philosophy to the study of human matters, including human nature, the nature of political communities, and human knowledge itself. The 12824: 9198:

Abraham, Reem Rachel (2004). "Clinically oriented physiology teaching: strategy for developing critical-thinking skills in undergraduate medical students".

14941: 13980: 13975: 8213: 6728: 12503: 11814: 11587: 11561: 4807:

Budd, Paul; Taylor, Timothy (1995). "The Faerie Smith Meets the Bronze Industry: Magic Versus Science in the Interpretation of Prehistoric Metal-Making".

2794:, which holds that knowledge is created by a process involving observation; scientific theories generalise observations. Empiricism generally encompasses 1714:

as a discipline. Ideas on human nature, society, and economics evolved during the Enlightenment. Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed

13815: 3231:(for example, YouTube and Khan Academy), museums, and science magazines and blogs. Scientific literacy is chiefly concerned with an understanding of the 2905:

is a network of interacting scientists who conduct scientific research. The community consists of smaller groups working in scientific fields. By having

2689:

Most scientific journals cover a single scientific field and publish the research within that field; the research is normally expressed in the form of a

2628:

results might be. Taken in its entirety, the scientific method allows for highly creative problem solving while minimising the effects of subjective and

11757: 8008: 13937: 11112: 4559: 3162: 2779: 2601:

When a hypothesis proves unsatisfactory it is modified or discarded. If the hypothesis survives testing, it may become adopted into the framework of a

8613: 11176: 9097: 2316:, psychology, and sociology. In the social sciences, there are many competing theoretical perspectives, many of which are extended through competing 1736:, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of 14951: 14946: 12636: 7094: 11671:"The French Academy of Sciences, 1666–91: A reassessment of the French Académie royale des sciences under Colbert (1666–83) and Louvois (1683–91)" 10556: 6997: 1444:

emerged as the first university in Europe. As such, demand for Latin translation of ancient and scientific texts grew, a major contributor to the

12947: 11647: 5236: 2682: 12740: 4483: 4225:

Grant, Edward (2007). "Transformation of medieval natural philosophy from the early period modern period to the end of the nineteenth century".

13808: 12414: 11985: 10953: 10063: 3388: 3170: 1123:. They seem to have studied scientific subjects which had practical or religious applications and had little interest in satisfying curiosity. 1636: 1614: 13967: 10645: 9245: 6204: 2226:. These two branches may be further divided into more specialised disciplines. For example, physical science can be subdivided into physics, 673:) scholarship flourished again. Some Greek manuscripts lost in Western Europe were preserved and expanded upon in the Middle East during the 12259: 3763: 14128: 11953: 10671: 3287:

who are knowledgeable about certain scientific issues may be ignorant about other scientific issues that they are suddenly asked to cover.

1297:

for representing numbers likely emerged between the 3rd and 5th centuries CE along Indian trade routes. This numeral system made efficient

8804: 6397:

Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's

2848:, according to which the main criterion for the success of a scientific theory is whether what it says about observable entities is true. 911: 11701: 7036: 5770: 5744: 5372: 1683:

of science among an increasingly literate population. Enlightenment philosophers turned to a few of their scientific predecessors –

1656:

During this time the declared purpose and value of science became producing wealth and inventions that would improve human lives, in the

12714: 8976: 8870: 8753: 6651: 6612: 1355:. His criticism served as an inspiration to medieval scholars and Galileo Galilei, who extensively cited his works ten centuries later. 610:

spans the majority of the historical record, with the earliest written records of identifiable predecessors to modern science dating to

579:

and rules, are sometimes described as being sciences as well; however, they are often regarded as a separate field because they rely on

9458: 9146: 7145: 2649: 2586: – fitting with other accepted facts related to an observation or scientific question. This tentative explanation is used to make 1437:, a medical encyclopaedia, is considered to be one of the most important publications in medicine and was used until the 18th century. 8834: 8643: 7185: 5947: 5892: 5797: 5461: 1800:

in 1858, which explained how different plants and animals originated and evolved. Their theory was set out in detail in Darwin's book

14268: 13566: 10220: 4380: 2035:

The century saw fundamental changes within science disciplines. Evolution became a unified theory in the early 20th-century when the

1336: 963: 11513: 2455:

real-world situations, enabling a better understanding of scientific problems than formal mathematics alone can achieve. The use of

13003: 11670: 2150: 1390:, these Arabic translations were later improved and developed by Arabic scientists. By the 6th and 7th centuries, the neighbouring 10611: 2547:

way. Scientists usually take for granted a set of basic assumptions that are needed to justify the scientific method: there is an

2079:. The need for mass systematisation of long, intertwined causal chains and large amounts of data led to the rise of the fields of 14936: 14121: 13232: 11535: 9181: 8022:

Furner, Jonathan (1 June 2003). "Little Book, Big Book: Before and After Little Science, Big Science: A Review Article, Part I".

7612: 6009: 5306:

Lehoux, Daryn (2011). "2. Natural Knowledge in the Classical World". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.).

3392: 1555:

of the planets are longer as their orbs are farther from the centre of motion, which he found not to agree with Ptolemy's model.

12473:"Majority in U.S. Says Public Health Benefits of COVID-19 Restrictions Worth the Costs, Even as Large Shares Also See Downsides" 12445: 9682: 5673: 5162: 4533: 14072: 11779: 11137: 4418:

de Ridder, Jeroen (2020). "How many scientists does it take to have knowledge?". In McCain, Kevin; Kampourakis, Kostas (eds.).

3195:

and intellectual infrastructure for industrial research by providing tax incentives to those organisations that fund research.

3086: 2571:. Statistics is used to summarise and analyse data, which allows scientists to assess the reliability of experimental results. 2304:

is the study of human behaviour and the functioning of societies. It has many disciplines that include, but are not limited to

8496: 5584: 5112: 3403:

have been known to use legal and economic pressure to influence scientific researchers. Many factors can act as facets of the

13995: 13990: 13403: 12677: 12201: 12096:"En espera de una "revolucionaria" noticia sobre Sagitario A*, el agujero negro supermasivo en el corazón de nuestra galaxia" 11836: 11492: 11035: 10990: 10913: 10865: 10832: 10796: 10763: 10730: 10594: 10334: 10263: 10195: 10162: 10127: 10046: 10021: 9955: 9919: 9850: 9814: 9744: 9333: 9091: 9032: 9007: 8970: 8784: 8747: 8710: 8674: 8352: 8319: 8255: 8161: 8116: 7805: 7729: 7526: 7501: 7476: 7030: 6969: 6925: 6796: 6645: 6538: 6494: 6421: 6335: 6303: 6278: 6169: 6097: 6058: 6019: 5980: 5941: 5886: 5839: 5829: 5683: 5594: 5555: 5537: 5516: 5471: 5315: 5203: 5122: 5063: 4992: 4859: 4724: 4575: 4567: 4493: 4466: 4429: 4390: 4351: 4320: 4292: 4267: 4242: 4209: 4184: 4146: 4121: 4096: 4067: 4014: 3928: 3797: 3757: 3669: 3605: 3572: 3541: 2941:, with the highest degree being a doctorate such as a Doctor of Philosophy or PhD. Many scientists pursue careers in various 2016:

greatly increased the number of women scientists, but large gender disparities remained in some fields. The discovery of the

697: 10366: 6175: 5722: 5650: 4341: 4032: 3038:

The professionalisation of science, begun in the 19th century, was partly enabled by the creation of national distinguished

11051:

Brugger, E. Christian (2004). "Casebeer, William D. Natural Ethical Facts: Evolution, Connectionism, and Moral Cognition".

9268: 5803: 4459: