Canadian English - Knowledge

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short time. This would allow researchers to have a more robust statistical analysis and reliable or accurate conclusions about regional or social patterns. Despite its advantages, there are still disadvantages using surveys for a research study particularly in capturing natural speech patterns due to the observer's paradox. Through its unique format, surveys containing direct questions about language may not provide sufficient enough information on how often or in what social or linguistic contexts people use distinct language features. Therefore, by relying on systematic observations, local participants may adhere to perceived norms or expectations. While written surveys can provide valuable information about sociolinguistic variables in Canadian English, data gathered from surveys or questionnaires should not be perceived as equivalent to data gathered from the usage of actual speech. William Labov, a linguist, suggests that in order to solve this problem is to change the style of approach of surveys. Therefore, he suggests that researchers design sociolinguistic interviews that manipulate attention to speech. By comparing the speech among research participants when they are being directly questioned about language with their speech when talking about their personal experience, Labov could observe how the usage of language within different contexts or environments. This newly suggested approach allowed Labov to capture the "vernacular" which is the casual style of speech that people use within a day-to-day basis when they are not being observed.

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linguistic traits inherited from the French, Aboriginal and Celtic forebears. The linguistic features brought by Ukrainian, German, and Mennonite populations in the Saskatchewan Valley of Saskatchewan and Red River Valley of Manitoba have also influenced the lexis of the Prairies. Some terms are derived from these groups and some are formed within the region by locals throughout time. An example of the former is the high-profile variable bunnyhug, a term for a hooded sweatshirt in Saskatchewan. As discussed in The Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles, bunnyhug is purposely and commonly used by young Saskatchewan speakers to indicate a sense of provincial identity, and is referred to as a Saskatchewanism. It should be further noted that it is assumed based on circumstantial evidence that teenagers played a crucial and special role in the spread and adoption of the term bunnyhug for hooded sweatshirts. Across Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Manitoba there are other terms consistent in or throughout the 3 provinces. Biffed is a term for falling, such as "John biffed it over there". Pickerel is Manitoba's official fish, also known as Walleye. Play structure is used to describe a playground for children consisting of monkey bars, slides, etc.

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emergence of a homogeneous Canadian English dialect. Distinctive to Ontario are Canadianisms such as concession roads, which refer to roads that transect a township, dew-worm, which refers to an earthworm, and fire-reel, which refers to a fire truck. Walter S. Avis identified several linguistic features characteristic of Ontarians, including their preference for the word vacation, rather than holiday—which is considered more British English—and sack over paper bag. While there may be numerous such lexical differences in the speech of provincial and national borderers, Avis asserts that these are relatively minor compared to the linguistic features held in common. Furthermore, Avis suggests that the difference between American English and Ontario English is relatively small near the border due to their close proximity. The historical settlement patterns of southern Ontario, coupled with linguistic research, indicate the existence of distinctively Ontarian lexical items. However, Ontario maintains greater similarities with other Canadian regions than it does with the neighbouring American English and its regional variations.

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Boberg's North American Regional Vocabulary Survey (NARVS), a questionnaire employed by Boberg from 1999-2007 that sought out lexical items that vary regionally within Canada. Six regions were identified in the NARVS data collection: The West, which includes British Columbia and the Prairies; Ontario; Quebec, which represents data from Montreal mostly; New Brunswick and Nova Scotia; Prince Edward Island; and Newfoundland. Many regional differences in the lexis are item-specific. For example, one of these items has to do with the nationally enjoyed meal of pizza, and more specifically, the term used to refer to a pizza that features all available toppings. While Atlantic Canada refers to this order as ‘the works,’ the majority term used from eastern Ontario to the West Coast is deluxe, and terms such as 'all-dressed' and 'everything-on-it' are used in Quebec and Toronto, respectively. Other examples include the regionally varied usage of running shoes/runners/sneakers to describe athletic shoes, and notebook/scribbler/cahier to describe any type of plain

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part of Atlantic Canada. The historical immigrants from Europe have shaped cultures and lexical catalogs across the regions of Atlantic Canada that reflect British, Scottish, Gaelic, and French customs. The vernacular variations of English spoken in the Atlantic region of Canada. Newfoundland and Labrador English (NLE) possesses unique vocabulary compared to standard Canadian English. The Dictionary of Newfoundland English covers the vocabulary common to Newfoundlanders, such as Newfoundland "screech rum", a Newfoundland-specific brand of rum; mummering, referring to a Christmas tradition; and gut-foundered, meaning starving or fastened. Nova Scotia also is home to its own vocabulary. The term "Sobeys bag", used to refer to a plastic grocery bag, originates from the Nova Scotian grocery store chain

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store-fronts. Also, the provincial government must officially be referred to as the "Gouvernement du Québec", regardless of the language being by the speaker. While the lexical catalog of Quebec English contains items influenced or borrowed by French, the influence of the dominant French language on Quebec English is marginal. The francophone dominance in Quebec makes the province a linguistic anomaly within Canada, where English maintains a negligible role in government and public domains. The French influence on Quebec English operates through five distinct processes, as identified by Charles Boberg: elective direct lexical transfer of non-English words (e.g., garderie for daycare), imposed direct lexical transfer of non-English words. for example, SAQ for

3115:) has some currency in Canada. Moreover, some Canadian public-school systems have adolescents start high-school in 'Grade 10' or, the sophomore year, although, this can depend on the province and even vary within a school-district. The American usages "sophomore", "junior" and "senior" are not used in Canadian university terminology, or in speech. The specific high-school grades and university years are therefore stated and individualized; for example, 'Sarah is starting Grade 10 this year', which Americans would state as 'Sarah is going to be a sophomore this year'. Similarly in the post-secondary education context, 'Francois is in second year of university' rather than the Americanism 'Francois is a sophomore in university'. 5415:

speaker. Elicitation requires more effort, but is a widespread technique used to gather linguistic structures by asking informants how they say certain things in their language. Observation is considered the "gold standard" by many linguists because it involves collecting utterances after the fact and systematically analyzing them. This can be done through corpora, which are collections of spoken or written text, but most corpus material today consists of written texts since they are more easily accessible. Variationist sociolinguistics aim to elicit data that is as natural and informal as possible, using techniques such as sociolinguistic interviews to gather different speech styles.

1868:, a dialect region in formation where a homogeneous English dialect has not yet formed. Labov's research focused on urban areas, and did not survey the country, but they found similarities among the English spoken in Ottawa, Toronto, Calgary, Edmonton and Vancouver. Labov identifies an "Inland Canada" region that concentrates all of the defining features of the dialect centred on the Prairies (a region in Western Canada that mainly includes Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba and is known for its grasslands and plains), with more variable patterns including the metropolitan areas of Vancouver and Toronto. This dialect forms a dialect continuum with 2868:, loan translation/calques such as 'all-dressed' for the French equivalent 'toute garnie'. Semantic shifts of existing English words, like 'magasin' for 'store', in addition to syntactic influences; e.g, "we're living here three years" instead of the English "we've been living here for three years". Although Quebec English differs from other Canadian regional lexes due to its special contact with French, it still shares some similarities with the lexis of other Canadian regions. For instance, the use of lexical items such as all-dressed has been successfully transferred to most other Canadian regional lexes. 2163:

vowel. These similarities can be attributed to geographic proximity, the fact that about one-quarter of the Cape Breton population descends from Irish immigrants - many of whom arrived via Newfoundland - and the Scottish and Irish influences on both provinces. The speech of Cape Breton can almost be seen as a continuum between the two extremes of the Halifax variant and the Newfoundland variant. In addition, there is heavy influence of standard varieties of Canadian English on Cape Breton English, especially in the diphthongization of the goat and goose vowels and the frequent use of Canadian raising.

2746: 5608: 5489: 10207: 12062: 1818: 2553:(vs French /klɔs/). In the city of Montreal, especially in some of the western suburbs like Côte-St-Luc and Hampstead, there is a strong Jewish influence in the English spoken in those areas. A large wave of Jewish immigration from Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union before and after World War II is also evident today. Their English has a strong Yiddish influence, and there are some similarities to English spoken in New York. Words used mainly in Quebec and especially in Montreal are: 3786:, following British parliamentary nomenclature, are termed "Members of Parliament", and are referred to as "Jennifer Jones, MP" during their term of office only. Senators and members of the Privy Council are styled "The Honourable" for life, and the Prime Minister of Canada is styled "The Right Honourable" for life, as is the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and the Governor General. This honorific may also be bestowed by Parliament, as it was to retiring deputy prime minister 10119: 5419:

dialectology and variation studies. In the early 1950s, McDavid noted the value of using a lexical WQ for the Linguistic Atlas of Scotland, but later, Chambers and Trudgill stated that WQs were no longer the primary method of data-gathering. However, within the past 15 years, WQs have experienced renewed interest in social dialectology and variation studies. WQs can provide linguistic information about behavior and can be used for self-reporting or community reporting.

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consider CanE a part of their Canadian identity, and 74.1% think CanE should be taught in schools. Due to the unavailability of free and easy-to-access CanE dictionaries, many Canadian opt for other non-Canadian English dictionaries today. Historically, American, British, and Irish texts are used in Canadian schools for the most part; even though Canadian reference work was written and became available in the 1960s, they were never preferred as teaching material.

1697:(DCHP) was published and completed the first edition of Gage's Dictionary of Canadian English Series. The DCHP documents the historical development of Canadian English words that can be classified as "Canadianisms". It therefore includes words such as mukluk, Canuck, and bluff, but does not list common core words such as desk, table or car. Many secondary schools in Canada use the graded dictionaries. The dictionaries have regularly been updated since: the 3922: – two distinct professions in Quebec civil law – are used to refer to that province's approximate equivalents of barrister and solicitor, respectively. It is not uncommon for English-speaking advocates in Quebec to refer to themselves in English as "barrister(s) and solicitor(s)", as most advocates chiefly perform what would traditionally be known as "solicitor's work", while only a minority of advocates actually appear in court. In Canada's 5503: 2029: 5270: 2159:/ɒ/. Meanwhile, in Halifax, the vowel is raised and rounded. For example, body; popped; and gone. In the homophones, caught-cot and stalk-stock, the rounding in the merged vowel is also much more pronounced here than in other Canadian varieties. The Canadian Shift is also not as evident in the traditional dialect. Instead, the front vowels are raised. For example, the vowel in had is raised to ; and camera is raised to . 2192:, and preservation of archaic adverbial-intensifiers. The dialect varies markedly from community to community, as well as from region to region. Its distinctiveness partly results from a European settlement history that dates back centuries, which explains Newfoundland's most notable linguistic regions: an Irish-settled area in the southeast (the southern Avalon Peninsula) and an English-settled area in the southwest. 1918:, while being the best source for US regional variation, is not a good source for Canadian regional variation, as its analysis is based on only 33 Canadian speakers. Boberg's (2005, 2008) studies offer the best data for the delimitation of dialect zones. The results for vocabulary and phonetics overlap to a great extent, which has allowed the proposal of dialect zones. Dollinger and Clarke distinguish between: 2953:. Similarly, Prince Edward Island has its own vocabulary and dictionary. For example, angishore refers to a fisherman who is too lazy to fish and likely is a lexical item originating from Irish Gaelic settlers in Newfoundland. Sarah Sawler, a writer from Halifax, highlights terms that are common to Maritimes, such as dooryard for front yard, owly for when someone is angry or irritable, and biff for throw. 2825:, British Columbia. The Canadian public appears to take interest in unique "Canadianisms": words that are distinctively characteristic of Canadian English—though perhaps not exclusive to Canada; there is some disagreement about the extent to which "Canadianism" means a term actually unique to Canada, with such an understanding possibly overstated by the popular media. As a member of the 2304:, referred to as the "Queen's Bush" in the 19th century, did not experience communication with the dialects of the southern part of Southwestern Ontario and Central Ontario until the early 20th century. Thus, a strong accent similar to Central Ontarian is heard, yet many different phrasings exist. It is typical in the area to drop phonetic sounds to make shorter contractions, such as: 1905:

adapted from Chambers 1998). It is the variety spoken, in Chambers' (1998: 252) definition, by Anglophone or multilingual residents, who are second generation or later (i.e. born in Canada) and who live in urban settings. Applying this definition, c. 36% of the Canadian population speak Standard Canadian English in the 2006 population, with 38% in the 2011 census.

2246:. The introduction of Canadian raising to Canada can be attributed to the Scottish and Irish immigrants who arrived in the 18th and 19th centuries. The origins of Canadian raising to Scotland and revealed that the Scottish dialects spoken by these immigrants had a probable impact on its development. This feature impacts the pronunciation of the 5406:"boy", referring to a person, example: "How's it goin, b'y?". Another slang that is commonly used is "doohickey" which means an object, example: "Pass me that doohickey over there". When an individual uses the word "biffed", they mean that they threw something. Example: "I got frustrated so I biffed it across the room". 3850:" because any lawyer licensed in any of the common law provinces and territories must pass bar exams for, and is permitted to engage in, both types of legal practice in contrast to other common-law jurisdictions such as England, Wales and Ireland where the two are traditionally separated (i.e., Canada has a 5426:

Written surveys are commonly used in dialectology as regional differences are less socially sensitive. However, they can still be used in sociolinguistics if handled properly. A survey's advantage is its quantitative approach since it is capable of collecting large amounts of data within a relatively

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Canada's Atlantic provinces were the first part of North America to be explored by Europeans. The Atlantic provinces, historically and collectively called the Maritimes, consist of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island. Newfoundland and Labrador, which is not part of the Maritimes, is also

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pioneered the historical corpus linguistic approach for English in Canada with CONTE (Corpus of Early Ontario English, 1776–1849) and offers a developmental scenario for 18th- and 19th-century Ontario. In 2015, Reuter confirmed the scenario laid out in Dollinger (2008), using a 19th-century newspaper

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The growth of Canadian media, including television, film, and literature, has also played a role in shaping Canadian English. Chambers (1998) notes that Canadian media has helped to create new words and expressions that reflect Canadian culture and values. Canadian institutions, such as the CBC and

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In 2011, just under 21.5 million Canadians, representing 65% of the population, spoke English most of the time at home, while 58% declared it their mother language. English is the major language everywhere in Canada except Quebec, and most Canadians (85%) can speak English. While English is not

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Scholars have used five types of questionnaires in sociolinguistics. Dollinger suggests a three-tiered WQ question typology. The first tier covers questions about regional language variation and social language variation. The second tier covers language perception and attitudes, while the third tier

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The use of written questionnaires (WQs) in dialectology were once popular for surveying language use, but fell out of favor before being re-examined in recent years. While they were once considered less effective than other survey methods, scholars have started to recognize their potential in social

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Southern Ontario was initially settled by white Protestants, with the late 19th century witnessing the migration of white Protestant settlers from Ontario to western Canada following the suppression of the Métis opposition. This migration facilitated the transplantation of the Ontario accent and the

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Certain First Nations English have also shown to have phonological standard Canadian English, thus resulting in a more distinct dialect formation. Plains Cree, for instance, is a language that has less phonological contrasts compared to standard Canadian English. Plains Cree has no voicing contrast.

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is socially defined. Standard Canadian English is spoken by those who live in urban Canada, in a middle-class job (or one of their parents holds such employment), who are second generation or later (born and raised in Canada) and speak English as (one of their) dominant language(s) (Dollinger 2019a,

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One of the earliest influences on Canadian English was the French language, which was brought to Canada by the French colonists in the 17th century. French words and expressions were adopted into Canadian English, especially in the areas of cuisine, politics, and social life. For example, words like

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Canadian English dialectology examines Canadian English through the use of written surveys due to the vastness of the country and the difficulties of conducting face-to-face interviews on a nationwide level. The historical overview of written surveys in Canadian-English dialectology includes Avis's

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In language studies, there are three basic types of data collection: introspection, elicitation, and observation. Introspection relies on the idea that native speakers are the best judges of sentence structure and can provide valuable data, but it can be limiting because it only requires one native

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a document in Canadian, in parliamentary usage, is to introduce or present it (as in Britain), whereas in the US it means to postpone consideration until a later date, often indefinitely. While the introduction meaning is the most common sense in non-parliamentary usage, the presentation meaning is

2811:(American), though, in Canadian speech, the latter can more narrowly mean a trip elsewhere and the former can mean general time off work. In addition, the vocabulary of Canadian English also features some words that are seldom (if ever) found elsewhere. A good resource for these and other words is 2732:

something". For example, "I am done my homework" and "The dog is done dinner" are genuine sentences in this dialect, respectively meaning "I have finished my homework" and "The dog has finished dinner". Another example, "Let's start after you're done all the coffee", means "Let's start after you've

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than General American. Outside of major communities, dialects can vary markedly from community to community, as well as from province to province, reflecting ethnic origin as well as a past in which there were few roads and many communities, with some isolated villages. Into the 1980s, residents of

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Overall, First Nations Canada English dialects rest between language loss and language revitalization. British Columbia has the greatest linguistic diversity, as it is home to about half of the Indigenous languages spoken in Canada. Most of the languages spoken in the province are endangered due to

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Studies on earlier forms of English in Canada are rare. Yet connections with other work to historical linguistics can be forged. An overview of diachronic work on Canadian English, or diachronically relevant work, is Dollinger (2012, updated to 2017). Until the 2000s, basically all commentators on

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A study conducted in 2002 inquired Canadians from Ontario and Alberta about the "pleasantness" and "correctness" of different varieties of Canadian English based on province. Albertans and Ontarians all seem to rate their English and BC English in the top three. However, both hold a low opinion of

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Cape Bretoners and Newfies (from Newfoundland and Labrador) often have similar slang. "Barmp" is often used as the sound a car horn makes, example: "He cut me off so I barmped the horn at him". When saying "B'y", while sounds like the traditional farewell, it is a syncopated shortening of the word

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Where Canadian English shares vocabulary with other English dialects, it tends to share most with American English, but also has many non-American terms distinctively shared instead with Britain. British and American terms also can coexist in Canadian English to various extents, sometimes with new

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As with many other distinct dialects, vowels are a marker of Halifax English as a distinctive variant of Canadian English. Typically, Canadian dialects have a merger of the low back vowels in palm, lot, thought and cloth. The merged vowel in question is usually /ɑ/ or sometimes the rounded variant

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The literature has for a long time conflated the notions of Standard Canadian English (StCE) and regional variation. While some regional dialects are close to Standard Canadian English, they are not identical to it. To the untrained ear, for instance, a BC middle-class speaker from a rural setting

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Within the public school system the chief administrator of a school is generally "the principal", as in the United States, but the term is not used preceding their name, i.e., "Principal Smith". The assistant to the principal is not titled as "assistant principal", but rather as "vice-principal",

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Quebec recognizes French as its primary language. As a result, English has no official status in Québec and is not used often in the public sphere. Although, in more metropolitan area such as Montréal or Québec City, it is not uncommon to see English media in public, such as in advertisements and

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While Canadian English has vocabulary that distinguishes it from other varieties of English across the world, there is significant regional variation in its lexis within Canada as well. A balanced cross-continental sample of 1800 Canadians and 360 Americans the Canada and the USA is the result of

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Although it has not been studied extensively, the speech of Cape Breton specifically seems to bear many similarities with the nearby island of Newfoundland, which is often why Westerners can have a hard time differentiating the two accents. For instance, they both use the fronting of the low back

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by lexicographer Fraser Sutherland and others. According to Stefan Dollinger, Lilles' paper "is not a paper based on any data or other new information but more of a pamphlet – so much so that it should not have been published without a public critique". He continues, "The paper is insightful for

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the preferred language in Quebec, 36.1% of the Québécois can speak English. Nationally, Francophones are five times more likely to speak English than Anglophones are to speak French – 44% and 9% respectively. Only 3.2% of Canada's English-speaking population resides in Quebec—mostly in Montreal.

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This attitude sees a change years later. A survey about attitudes towards CE was conducted with a diverse sample group in Vancouver, BC, in 2009. Among 429 Vancouverites, 81.1% believe there is a Canadian way of speaking English, 72.9% can tell CanE speakers from American English speakers, 69.1%

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study of speech differences among the Ontario-United States borders through the use of questionnaires. Another example is the Survey of Canadian English directed by Scargill. A more recent example would be Nylvek's survey of Saskatchewan English and Chambers' trans-Canada dialect questionnaires.

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American English also had a significant impact on Canadian English's origins as well as again in the 20th century and since then as a result of increased cultural and economic ties between the two countries. American English terms like gasoline, truck, and apartment are commonly used in Canadian

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An attitude study in the late 1970s revealed a positive attitude toward Canadian linguistic features. Features include front vowel merger before/r/, low-back vowel merger, Canadian Raising, and Canadian lexical items. Still, the sample group in British Columbia showed a preference for UK and US

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state their weight and height in pounds and feet/inches, respectively. This is also the case for many Quebec Francophones. Distances while playing golf are always marked and discussed in yards, though official scorecards may also show metres. Temperatures for cooking or pools are often given in

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English in Saskatchewan has its pool of phonetic features shared with other provinces used by certain demographics. For instance, it has the consonant variables /ntV/ and /VtV/, the latter being a common feature of North American English and is defined as the intervoicing of /t/ between vowels.

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raising (found words such as bag, lag and rag), a prominent feature in Northwestern American speakers, is also found in Vancouver speakers, causing "beg" to sound like the first syllable of "bagel" and "bag" to be similar. In the past, the ANAE reported that Vancouverites' participation in the

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Overall, the history of Canadian English is a reflection of the country's diverse linguistic and cultural heritage. While Canadian English has borrowed many words and expressions from other languages, it has also developed its own unique vocabulary and pronunciation that reflects the country's

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The Prairies, consisting of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta, have their own lexical features. The linguistic legacy from the settlement patterns in these regions, along with the Indigenous communities, specifically the large Métis population in Saskatchewan and Manitoba also carry certain

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The Canadian Oxford Dictionary lists words such as "no" and "way" as having a long monophthong vowel sound, whereas American dictionaries usually have these words ending in an upglide. There may be areas of the U.S. near the border where you hear the monophthong, eg. Fargo or Minnesota. The

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Canadian spelling of the English language combines British and American conventions, the two dominant varieties, and adds some domestic idiosyncrasies. For many words, American and British spelling are both acceptable. Spelling in Canadian English co-varies with regional and social variables,

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An important influence on Canadian English was British English, which was brought to Canada by British settlers in the 18th and 19th centuries. Canadian English borrowed many words and expressions from British English, including words like lorry, flat, and lift. However, Canadian English also

5022:(especially in Saskatchewan, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia; more often a "Saskatchewan mickey" in western Canada): a 3 L (101 US fl oz; 106 imp fl oz) bottle of hard liquor. (Despite the name, Texas mickeys are generally unavailable outside of Canada.) 880:

1967). Geikie, a Scottish-born Canadian, reflected the Anglocentric attitude that would be prevalent in Canada for the next hundred years when he referred to the language as "a corrupt dialect", in comparison with what he considered the proper English spoken by immigrants from Britain.

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Because both of these meanings are in use in Canada, confusion may arise if the verb table is used outside of a strictly parliamentary context, where the first sense should be understood. It is better to use a different verb altogether, such as present or postpone, as the context

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In parts of the US, the four years of high school are termed the freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior years (terms also used for college years); in Canada, the specific levels are used instead, such as "grade nine" in lieu of freshman. As for higher education, only the term

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for an ABM/ATM. It is also common for Anglophones, particularly those of Greek or Italian descent, to use translated French words instead of common English equivalents such as "open" and "close" for "on" and "off" or "Open the lights, please" for "Turn on the lights, please".

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Meanwhile, /ntV/ "frequently occurs in words such as "centre" and "twenty" where /t/ follows the alveolar nasal /n/ and precedes an unstressed vowel". According to Nylvek (1992), both variables of /t/ are generally more often used by younger male over older female speakers.

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Judges of Canada's superior courts, which exist at the provincial and territorial levels, are traditionally addressed as "My Lord" or "My Lady". This varies by jurisdiction, and some superior court judges prefer the titles "Mister Justice" or "Madam Justice" to "Lordship".

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can refer either to the buttocks (as in Britain), or to a homeless person (as in the US). The "buttocks" sense does not have the indecent character it retains in British use, as it and "butt" are commonly used as a polite or childish euphemism for ruder words such as

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from Northern Canada speak a version of Canadian English influenced by the phonology of their first languages. Non-indigenous Canadians in these regions are relatively recent arrivals, and have not produced a dialect that is distinct from southern Canadian English.

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different reasons: it is a powerful testimony of personal anecdote and opinion . As an opinion piece, it offers a good debating case." As a linguistic account, however, it "essentializes a prior state, before Canada was an independent political entity."

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Quebec English. Unlike the assumption that Toronto or Ontario English would be the most prestigious considering these regions are the most economically robust, BC had the best public opinion regarding pleasantness and correctness among the participants.

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A preference change can be seen at the end of higher education in Canada. At the University of Toronto's Graduate English department, "Canadian English" and a "consistent spelling" are officially "the standard for all Ph.D. dissertations," with the

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Canadian English is the product of five waves of immigration and settlement over a period of more than two centuries. The first large wave of permanent English-speaking settlement in Canada, and linguistically the most important, was the influx of

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deals with acceptability judgments of grammaticality. The questions can be classified by subject area, type of reporting, and the type of information sought. This classification can help scholars better utilize WQs and understand their potential.

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as well as some uniquely Canadian characteristics. The precise influence of American English, British English, and other sources on Canadian English varieties has been the ongoing focus of systematic studies since the 1950s. Standard Canadian and

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form, and, as a term used even by Canadians themselves, it is not considered derogatory. (In the 19th century and early 20th century it tended to refer to French-Canadians.) The only Canadian-built version of the popular World War I-era American

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Canadians measure floor areas, both residential and commercial, in square feet or square metres. Land area is in square feet, square metres, acres or hectares. Fuel efficiency is more often discussed in the metric L/100 km than miles per

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that there is no variety of "Canadian English." According to Lilles, Canadian English is simply not a "useful fiction". He goes on to argue that too often supposedly unique features of Canadian speakers, such as certain lexical terms such as

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Date and time notation in Canadian English is a mixture of British and American practices. The date can be written in the form of either "July 1, 2017" or "1 July 2017"; the latter is common in more formal writing and bilingual contexts. The

3103:, where it is called "grade primary". In addition, children younger than the public school start age may attend 'pre-primary', although this is a newer addition to the Nova Scotian public-school system, and is not used frequently elsewhere. 7875: 5340:, typically refers to an uncouth, beer-swilling male and is a euphemism for "loser" coming from the earlier days of hockey played on an outdoor rink and the losing team would have to hose down the ice after the game so it froze smooth. 1014:

offered real-time historical data through its quotations. Starting in the 2000s, historical linguists have started to study earlier Canadian English with historical linguistic data. DCHP-1 is now available in open access. Most notably,

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Canadian spelling conventions can be partly explained by Canada's trade history. For instance, Canada's automobile industry has been dominated by American firms from its inception, explaining why Canadians use the American spelling of

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Marmen, Louise and Corbeil, Jean-Pierre, "New Canadian Perspectives, Languages in Canada 2001 Census," Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication, Statistics Canada Cat. No. Ch3-2/8-2004, (Canadian Heritage, 2004), pg.

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means only a regional jurisdiction of the courts and justice system and is not otherwise connected to governance as with counties in other provinces and in the United States. The rough equivalent to "county" as used elsewhere is a

5243:(used in the Prairie Provinces, especially in northern and central Saskatchewan; probably originally a Cree loanword). Older Canadians may see "bum" as more polite than "butt", which before the 1980s was often considered rude. 953:, who were worried about American dominance and influence among its citizens. Further waves of immigration from around the globe peaking in 1910, 1960, and at the present time had a lesser influence, but they did make Canada a 2362:, notably among those who were born in the surrounding communities, the cutting down of syllables and consonants often heard, e.g. "probably" is reduced to "prolly" or "probly" when used as a response. In Greater Toronto, the 9248: 7186: 2665:

etc. is pronounced as a close-mid back rounded vowel, , but not as rounded as in the Prairies where there are strong Scandinavian, Slavic and German influences, which can lend to a more stereotypical "Canadian" accent.

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was set manually. Canadian newspapers also received much of their international content from American press agencies, so it was much easier for editorial staff to leave the spellings from the wire services as provided.

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When a majority of the elected members of the House of Commons or a provincial legislature are not members of the same party as the government, the situation is referred to as a minority government rather than a hung

2281:(roughly in the line south from Sarnia to St. Catharines), despite the existence of many characteristics of West/Central Canadian English, many speakers, especially those under 30, speak a dialect influenced by the 1914:

may seemingly be speaking Standard Canadian English, but, given Chambers' definition, such a person, because of the rural provenance, would not be included in the accepted definition (see the previous section). The

4776:

in the eastern United States, though these forms are generally closer-fitting, and may lack a brim as well as a pompom. There seems to be no exact equivalent outside Canada, since the tuque is of French Canadian

2854:

Despite the regional variation of vocabulary items within Canada, the lexis of Canadian English still maintains greater commonality between its own regions than it does with American English or British English.

6328: 2312:(going), and "Wuts goin' on tonight? D'ya wanna do sumthin'?" It is particularly strong in the County of Bruce, so much that it is commonly referred to as being the Bruce Cownian (Bruce Countian) accent. Also, 2014:, on the other hand, has more phonological contrasts, resulting in the use of features not seen in the standard form. The language has 39 phonemic consonants and a higher proportion of glottalized consonants. 924:

In addition to these influences, Canadian English has also been minorly shaped by Indigenous languages. Indigenous words such as moose, toboggan, and moccasin have become part of the Canadian English lexicon.

7626: 6385:

Reuter, David. 2015.Newspaper, politics, and Canadian English: a corpus-based analysis of selected linguistic variables in early nineteenth-century Ontario newspapers. PhD thesis. University of Kiel, Germany.

7661: 7551: 3551:

Depending on the region, large trucks used to transport and deliver goods are referred to as 'transport trucks' (e.g., used in Ontario and Alberta) or 'transfer trucks' (e.g., used in Prince Edward Island)

6324:. In: English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. Vol. II. (HSK 34.2), ed. by Alexander Bergs & Laurel Brinton, 1858–1880. Mouton de Gruyter. UPDATED version, for 2017, is found here: 3165:

are also used, albeit rarely—although many Canadians and Americans mistakenly conflate the measurement systems despite their slight differences from each other (e.g. US, Canadian, and metric cups are 237

7683: 8094: 2010:

are mostly voiceless and unaspirated, though they may vary in other phonetic environments from voiceless to voiced. Plains Cree also does not have the liquids or fricatives found in the standard form.

3963:" even though "John Smith" may well himself be the barrister who argues the case in court. In a letter introducing him/herself to an opposing lawyer, a Canadian lawyer normally writes something like " 2065:

villages in northern Nova Scotia could identify themselves by dialects and accents distinctive to their village. The dialects of Prince Edward Island are often considered the most distinct grouping.

7115:

Ball, Jessica, Bernhardt, B. May (2011). "First Nations English Dialects in Canada: Implications for speech-language pathology." International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, pp. 570-588 DOI:

5297:

training biplane aircraft, the JN-4C, 1,260 of which were built, got the "Canuck" nickname; so did another aircraft, the Fleet Model 80, built from the mid-1940s until the late 1950s. The nickname

3591:

is sometimes seen in reference to a provincial leader when a Francophone is speaking or writing English. Also, until the 1970s the leader of the Ontario provincial government was officially styled

1982:

the small number of speakers. To some extent, the dialects reflect the historical contexts where English has been a major colonizing language. The dialects are also a result of the late stages of

10028: 5152:, is for "ascertaining the comprehension, continued interest, agreement, etc., of the person or persons addressed" as in, "It's four kilometres away, eh, so I have to go by bike." In that case, 2254:

sound in "lout". Canadian Raising indicates a scenario where the start of the diphthong is nearer to the destination of the glide before voiceless consonants than before voiced consonants. The

2888:

and English words are used interchangeably. A number of phrases and expressions may also be found in Northern Ontario that are not present in the rest of the province, such as the use of

10043: 2965:, which refers to post-secondary education in general in the US, refers in Canada to either a post-secondary technical or vocational institution, or to one of the colleges that exist as 6136:. On p. 422: "It is now generally agreed that Canadian English originated as a variant of northern American English (the speech of New England, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania)." 10035:

Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. The book's examples are exclusive taken from Canadian English and represent one of the more extensive collections of variables for Canadian English.

2775:. Nonetheless, the traditional DD/MM/YY and MM/DD/YY systems remain in everyday use, which can be interpreted in multiple ways: 01/07/17 can mean either 1 July 2017 or 7 January 2017. 8230: 4523:: a dressing gown and housecoat can be of silk or cotton, usually an attractive outer layer, while a bathrobe is made of absorbent fabric like a towel; in the United States, called a 1802:. U.S. southern dialects have long had goose-fronting, but this goose-fronting among young Canadians and Californians is more recent. Some young Californians also show signs of the 8149: 7761: 6821: 12042: 6343:

Bloomfield, Morton W. 1948. Bloomfield, Morton W. 1948. Canadian English and its relation to eighteenth century American speech. Journal of English and Germanic Philology 47: 59-66

9252: 6157:. On p. 97: "Because Canadian English and American English are so alike, some scholars have argued that in linguistic terms Canadian English is no more or less than a variety of ( 2177:

Compared to the commonly spoken English dominating neighbouring provinces, Newfoundland English is famously distinct in its dialects and accents. Newfoundland English differs in

889:

developed its own unique vocabulary, including words like tuque, chesterfield, and double-double. In the early 20th century, western Canada was largely populated by farmers from

9479: 3769:, and was particularly common in British Columbia. It was not used for Social Credit members from Quebec, nor generally used for the federal caucus of that party; in both cases 1717:(DCHP-2), was published. DCHP-2 incorporates the c. 10 000 lexemes from DCHP-1 and adds c. 1 300 novel meanings or 1 002 lexemes to the documented lexicon of Canadian English. 5452:

as the official guideline. However, there is no mention of which grammar guide was to be followed because there was never a solid standard developed for spelling and grammar.

945:. Canadian English has been developing features of its own since the early 19th century. The second wave from Britain and Ireland was encouraged to settle in Canada after the 7934: 1735:, was published in 2004. Just as the older dictionaries it includes uniquely Canadian words and words borrowed from other languages, and surveyed spellings, such as whether 6317: 9420: 5846: 4178:

in the West. It is also used, to a lesser extent, in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, as well as in parts of New England. It generally refers to vacation houses in rural areas.

3794:

are styled "The Honourable" for life, and are entitled to the use of the post-nominal letters "ECNS". The Cabinet of Ontario serves concurrently (and not for life) as the

1853:) of English around the world, Canadian English aligns most closely to American English. Some dialectologists group Canadian and American English together under a common 7030: 2779:

have repeatedly attempted to clarify the situation. In business communication and filing systems the YYMMDD is used to assist in automatic ordering of electronic files.

8528: 6325: 7618: 2420:, heavily influenced by original Scottish, Irish, and German settlers, and existing along the Ontario-Quebec boundary, which has its own distinct accent known as the 1605:. Some of the most substantial historical spelling data can be found in Dollinger (2010) and Grue (2013). The use of such spellings was the long-standing practice of 7809: 7649: 7539: 4479:: originally British and internationally used (as in classic furnishing terminology) to refer to a sofa whose arms are the same height as the back, it is a term for 5972: 7172: 6503: 3569:

are interchangeable terms for the head of an elected parliamentary government, Canadian English today generally follows a usage convention of reserving the title

2285:

dialect (in part due to proximity to cities like Detroit and Buffalo, New York) though there are minor differences such as Canadian raising (e.g. "ice" vs "my").

12135: 408: 8816: 1001:

the history of CanE have argued from the "language-external" history, i.e. social and political history. An exception has been in the area of lexis, where Avis

9457: 8786: 8756: 6402: 3391:, the term 'grid road' is used to refer to minor highways or rural roads, usually gravel, referring to the 'grid' upon which they were originally designed. In 2199:. The mid lax /ɛ/ here is raised to the high lax stressed /ɪ/, particularly before oral stops and nasals, so consequently "pen" is pronounced more like "pin". 5472:

are artificially exaggerated to distinguish Canadian speech primarily from that found in the United States. Lilles was heavily critiqued in the next issue of

12035: 5575:

18,858,908 Canadians identify their mother tongue as English. 599,230 Québécois identify their mother tongue as English and of that 309,885 live in Montreal.

5526: 2813: 2370:

is pronounced as ). The Greater Toronto Area is linguistically diverse, with 43 percent of its people having a mother tongue other than English. As a result

1714: 1694: 10153: 5783: 11234: 2485:, which are homophones to most other speakers of Canadian English. Quebec Anglophones generally pronounce French street names in Montreal as French words. 3790:

in 1996. Members of provincial legislatures do not have a pre-nominal style, except in certain provinces, such as Nova Scotia where members of the King's

11174: 9703: 5036:

in Western Canada (referencing that cans of beer are often sold in packages of six, with four packages to a flat box for shipping and stacking purposes).

3870:

refers to any personal representative. Canadian lawyers generally do not refer to themselves as "attorneys", a term that is common in the United States.

1010: 10025: 8550: 7278: 9743: 9064: 8883:

J.K. Chambers, "The Canada-U.S. border as a vanishing isogloss: the evidence of chesterfield." Journal of English Linguistics 23 (1995): 156–166.

8068: 6251: 730: 5180:

meaning "please repeat or say again" – are also found in parts of the British Isles and Australia. It is common in Northern/Central Ontario, the

4139:: bachelor apartment, an apartment all in a single room, with a small bathroom attached ("They have a bachelor for rent"). The usual American term is 9087: 9039: 5531: 2737:

something", since "She is done the computer" can only mean "She is done with the computer" in one sense: "She has finished (building) the computer".

2669:

Finally, there is also the /t/ sound which according to Gregg (2016), "with many speakers intrusive between /l/ or /n/ and /s/ in words like sense

9981: 9136: 8498: 4547:: "The tails tapering down that way, serve to carry off the water, d'ye see. Same with cocked hats; the cocks form gable-end eave-troughs [ 12130: 12028: 9367: 2829:, Canada shares many items of institutional terminology and professional designations with the countries of the former British Empire—for example, 704: 9974: 9283: 9170: 6213: 1709:. Its fifth edition was printed beginning in 1997. Gage was acquired by Thomson Nelson around 2003. The latest editions were published in 2009 by 9729: 6043: 8038: 7418:

Nylvek, Judith A. Canadian English in Saskatchewan: A Sociolinguistic Survey of Four Selected Regions, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1992.

10040: 6978: 2402: 2390: 1877: 1016: 3231:

Building materials are used in soft conversions of imperial sizes, but often purchased in relation to the imperial sizes. For example, 8-inch

1036:. Treated as a marker of upper-class prestige in the 19th and early 20th centuries, Canadian dainty was marked by the use of some features of 11382: 8687: 4593:, used primarily in New Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba and British Columbia. Most of the power in these provinces is generated through 2786:, which is widely used in contexts such as transportation schedules, parking meters, and data transmission. Many speakers of English use the 2386: 1994:

due to the contact between English and Indigenous populations, and eventually, the various dialects began to converge with standard English.

10104:

Beyond the Monolingual Core and out into the Wild: A Variationist Study of Early Bilingualism and Sound Change in Toronto Heritage Cantonese

9721:

Boberg, Charles (2005). "The North American Regional Vocabulary Survey: Renewing the study of lexical variation in North American English."

8226: 7968: 5000:: a 750 mL (25 US fl oz; 26 imp fl oz) bottle of hard liquor (called a quart in the Maritimes). The word 12323: 12180: 8145: 7722:

Boberg, Charles (2005). "The North American Regional Vocabulary Survey: new variables and methods in the study of North American English".

6858:

Boberg, Charles (2005). "The North American Regional Vocabulary Survey: New variables and methods in the study of North American English".

2398: 9226: 5784:"Population by mother tongue and age groups, percentage distribution (2006), for Canada, provinces and territories – 20% sample data" 5378:

is someone with a thick, usually southern Nova Scotia accent or as a general term for a Nova Scotian (including Cape Bretoners), while an

9672: 7599: 6117: 3826: 3334:

refers to any provincially funded road regardless of its access control. Often such roads will be numbered. Similar to the US, the terms

1864:

Western Canada (British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba) shows the largest dialect diversity. Northern Canada is, according to

11269: 10242: 9930: 9898: 9850: 9818: 9640: 5004:

is less common. Similarly, a 1.14 L (39 US fl oz; 40 imp fl oz) bottle of hard liquor is known as a

2346:, pronouncing the name variously as or . This is not unique to Toronto; Atlanta is often pronounced "Atlanna" by residents. Sometimes 10165: 8302: 5939: 852:

Canadians and Americans themselves often have trouble differentiating their own two accents, particularly since Standard Canadian and

9119: 7061: 3810: 9487: 8647: 7926: 7127:

Kiefte, Michael, Bird, Elizabeth Kay-Raining (2010). "The Lesser-Known Varieties of English." An Introduction, pp. 59–71 DOI:

6326:

https://www.academia.edu/35010966/Varieties_of_English_Canadian_English_in_real-time_perspective_2017_updated_version_of_2012_paper_

2628:

British Columbia English shares dialect features with both Standard Canadian English and the American Pacific Northwest English. In

8417: 5629: 4597:, and suppliers' company names incorporate the term "Hydro". Usage: "I didn't pay my hydro bill so they shut off my lights." Hence 3818: 3673: 8717: 8324: 7374:

Language Ideologies, Border Effects, and Dialectal Variation: Evidence from /æ/, /aʊ/, and /aɪ/ in Seattle, WA and Vancouver, B.C.

6539:"New data for an English usage puzzle: the long history of spelling variation in Canadian English and its linguistic implications" 6314: 4453:: Dumpster, after a prominent Canadian waste management company, BFI Canada (which was eventually bought out and merged to become 10173: 7849: 372: 9424: 8175: 6577: 6505:

New data for an English usage puzzle: the long history of spelling variation in Canadian English and its linguistic implications

6473: 5842: 1727:

In 1998, Oxford University Press produced a Canadian English dictionary, after five years of lexicographical research, entitled

1645:

adopted this new spelling policy in September 1997 after that publication's ombudsman discounted the issue earlier in 1997. The

12109: 8974: 8876: 8840: 7993: 4076:

refers to a non-aboriginal person or group visibly not one of the majority race in a given population. The term comes from the

1635:

changing its spelling policy in October 1990. Other Canadian newspapers adopted similar changes later that decade, such as the

1349:

when adding suffixes to words even when the final syllable (before the suffix) is not stressed. Compare Canadian (and British)

723: 9949: 8276: 7573: 7494: 6952: 1990:, which resulted in linguistic markers of Indigenous identity and solidarity. These dialects are observed to have developed a 12158: 12009: 11319: 11104: 10142: 10092: 9958: 9892: 9844: 9812: 9794: 9715: 9666: 9634: 9540: 9403: 8958: 8536: 7593: 6454: 6291: 6133: 6086: 5521: 3330:) are often used to describe various high-speed roads with varying levels of access control. Generally, but not exclusively, 2790:

in everyday speech, even when reading from a 24-hour display, similar to the use of the 24-hour clock in the United Kingdom.

5871: 5311:

comic book character of the 1940s. Throughout the 1970s, Canada's winning World Cup men's downhill ski team was called the "

3529:. Non-native Anglophones of Quebec will also use the designated proper title "Metro" to describe the Montreal subway system. 11339: 10412: 10297: 5273:

A Canadian-built Curtiss JN-4C "Canuck" training biplane of 1918, with a differing vertical tail to the original US version

3711:

in Canada to denote an object of quality or a truthful person. The term was assumed as a nickname by Liberals by the 1850s.

3514:, depending on which part of the crossing is referred to (the two are used more or less interchangeably); the British term 2690:

There are a handful of syntactical practices unique to Canadian English. When writing, Canadians may start a sentence with

2103:

to alveolar tap between vowels, as well as pronouncing it as a glottal stop , is less common in the Maritimes. Therefore,

1743:

was the more popular choice in common use. Paperback and concise versions (2005, 2006), with minor updates, are available.

1065:

somewhat more so, perhaps, than in the two dominant varieties of English, yet general trends have emerged since the 1970s.

12452: 7789: 7758:"(PDF) on the Autonomy and Homogeneity of Canadian English (With Sandra Clarke) | Stefan Dollinger and Sandra Clarke" 4887:; this use is more popular in older generations. Legally only bars made of solid chocolate may be labelled chocolate bars. 3228:

mL (12 Imperial oz), and draft beer is sold in various units; US or Imperial oz, US or Imperial pint, or occasionally mL.

2393:

and Eastern Ottawa, French accents are often mixed with English ones due to the high Franco-Ontarian population there. In

635: 12849: 10820: 10198: 8856: 7356:

Swan, Julia (2016). "Canadian English in the Pacific Northwest: A phonetic comparison of Vancouver, BC and Seattle, WA".

5969: 1678: 242: 10159: 7707:

Avis, Walter S.; Crate, Charles; Drysdale, Patrick; Leechman, Douglas; Scargill, Matthew H.; Lovell, Charles J. (1991).

6275:

Social Lives in Language – Sociolinguistics and multilingual speech communities: Celebrating the work of Gillian Sankoff

10925: 9204: 6512: 3802: 3753: 3482:), but this term is not common anymore. In everyday speech, when a particular roadway is not being specified, the term 1795:

before voiceless segments. There are areas in the eastern U.S. where some words are pronounced with Canadian raising.

9162: 4675:

describe coinage specifically. (for example, "I have a dollar in pennies" versus "I have three loonies in my pocket").

3974:

is also used by lawyers to refer to a fellow lawyer who specializes in lawsuits even though the more traditional word

825:. Accent differences can also be heard between those who live in urban centres versus those living in rural settings. 12005: 11375: 10076: 10003: 9921: 9874: 9763: 9696: 8808: 8478: 8453: 8262: 7004: 6747: 6154: 5913: 5677: 5651: 5516: 3947:

is used in the United States to refer to any American lawyer in general). Despite the conceptual distinction between

3607:

also used in Canada. The Canadian Oxford Dictionary simply recommends avoiding the term in non-parliamentary context.

2521: 716: 8778: 8752: 8204: 6543:

19th International Conference on the History of the English Language, Pécs, Hungary, Paper Presented on 26 Aug. 2010

6399: 4174:

in the rest of Ontario; often more specifically to a vacation home not directly adjacent to a body of water, and a

12303: 10724: 9449: 5250:

can refer either to being drunk (as in Britain), or being angry (as in the US), though anger is more often said as

3791: 2761: 2424:(or brogue). Phonetically, the Ottawa Valley twang is characterized by the lack of Canadian raising as well as the 2282: 868:

The term "Canadian English" is first attested in a speech by the Reverend A. Constable Geikie in an address to the

12854: 12099: 11460: 10972: 10768: 7515: 5787: 3766: 3470:

was used for first tolled limited-access highways (for example, the Deas Island Throughway, now Highway 99, from

433: 232: 10016:

Clarke, Sandra, Ford Elms, and Amani Youssef (1995). "The third dialect of English: Some Canadian evidence", in

885:

beavertail, and toque are uniquely Canadian French terms that have become part of the Canadian English lexicon.

12728: 11940: 11289: 10729: 10235: 8123: 6699: 6546: 6174:

Dollinger, Stefan. (2008)."New-Dialect Formation in Canada." Amsterdam: Benjamins, 978 90 272 31068 6. p. 279."

5761: 4537:. Also used, especially in the past, in the Northern and Western United States; the first recorded usage is in 4094:. The qualifier "visible" is used to distinguish such minorities from the "invisible" minorities determined by 2818: 2332: 2230:. TH-stopping is more common for /ð/, especially in unstressed function words (e.g. that, those, their, etc.). 1928:

Quebec (concerning the c. 500 000 Anglophone speakers in the province, not the Francophone speakers of English)

1806:. The cot-caught merger is perhaps not general in the U.S., but younger speakers seem more likely to have it. 930: 11508: 5192:

is used quite frequently in the North Central dialect, so a Canadian accent is often perceived in people from

897:

who were not anglophones. At the time, most anglophones there were re-settlers from Ontario or Quebec who had

12051: 11329: 11022: 10984: 8558: 7267: 5399: 3347: 3158: 2355: 1950: 1790: 1464:

In other cases, Canadian and American usage differs from British spelling, such as in the case of nouns like

968:

started to influence European languages used in Canada even before widespread settlement took place, and the

309: 9740: 9061: 8060: 7142: 3688:

to mean a Loyalist in the time of the American Revolution is an American usage. The Canadian term is simply

2442:

English is a minority language in Quebec (with French the majority), but has many speakers in Montreal, the

12844: 12347: 11864: 11844: 11368: 11324: 10977: 10797: 10614: 10435: 6243: 4406:, where the material of which the utensil is made is not of consequence to the context in which it is used. 4114: 4083: 4027: 3795: 3669: 3235:

can be referred to as an 8-inch CMU or 190 CMU. The actual material used in the US and Canada is the same.

1944: 965: 465: 413: 288: 9084: 9036: 4392:

referring to a can which is wider than it is tall as in "a tin of sardines" as opposed to a "can of soup".

3765:

The term "Socred" is no longer common due to its namesake party's decline, but referred to members of the

3150:

during the mid-to-late 1970s that was eventually stalled; this has spawned some colloquial usages such as

2670: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2645: 2641: 2633: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2347: 2338: 2334: 2317: 2313: 2263: 2251: 2247: 2115: 2111: 2100: 2096: 2089: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1776: 1772: 11986: 11750: 10700: 10690: 10288: 10255: 10251: 9140: 8506: 5551: 4454: 4252:, especially when the meaning is clear from context; another slang variant of this term is the shortened 3628: 2602:, in particular is a sub-zone on the lexical level. Phonetically, Western Canadian English has much more 1484:

in the sense of "make or become weary" is universal.) Some other differences like Canadian and American

687: 530: 10057: 6369: 3009:, unless the speaker or context clarifies the specific level of post-secondary education that is meant. 1429:

are all common). In American English, this consonant is only doubled when stressed; thus, for instance,

12358: 12162:

Countries and territories where English is the national language or the native language of the majority

11284: 10999: 10857: 10268: 9994: 9275: 6221: 4978:

in the Maritimes and the United States). In Newfoundland, this is almost exclusively referred to as a "

4789:: underwear (usually men's or boys' underwear, more specifically briefs; whereas women's underwear are 4369:

Terms common in Canada, Britain and Ireland but less frequent or nonexistent in the United States are:

4232:

in the 20th century. Generally used only as a technical or commercial term outside of Canada. The word

4078: 3783: 3343: 3197:

are sometimes given using miles, because the country roads generally follow the mile-based grid of the

2203: 1617:

in such words was also considered a labour-saving technique during the early days of printing in which

1597:

Throughout part of the 20th century, some Canadian newspapers adopted American spellings, for example,

1579: 1548: 393: 10220: 9726: 9521:"A Perceptual Dialectology of Anglophone Canada from the Perspective of Young Albertans and Ontarians" 9480:"Dynamique des langues en quelques chiffres : Tableaux – Secrétariat à la politique linguistique" 8581: 5351:

is someone from Newfoundland and Labrador; sometimes considered derogatory. In Newfoundland, the term

5109:: a fancy cookie, pastry, or square served at a social event (usually plural). Used in western Canada. 5103:: A frozen flavoured sugar water snack common worldwide, but known by this name exclusively in Canada. 4288:

mean different things. The territory of the particular band nation is usually referred to on a map as

3684:

is less commonly used, and refers to more strict fiscal (rather than social) conservatism. The use of

12839: 11410: 11264: 10790: 10748: 10719: 10651: 10619: 10228: 8016: 4815:

Most Canadians as well as Americans in the Northwest, North Central, Prairie and Inland North prefer

3822: 3782:

are referred to by the title "Senator" preceding their name, as in the United States. Members of the

3257: 3099:

and so on. The year of school before grade 1 is usually called "Kindergarten", with the exception of

2776: 2623: 2428:, two common elements of mainstream Canadian English. This accent is quite rare in the region today. 2023: 1901: 1896: 1838: 1822: 1788: 1780: 942: 814: 798: 316: 279: 268: 12456:

Countries and territories where English is an official language, but not the majority first language

5607: 3645:, but is now falling into disuse. The title is still used for the leader of a rural municipality in 921:

the Canadian Oxford Dictionary, have also played a role in promoting and defining Canadian English.

12744: 12335: 10989: 10943: 10842: 10815: 10780: 10675: 10546: 5556: 4444: 3839: 3375: 3261: 2983:

might denote someone obtaining a diploma in business management, an equivalent of this would be an

2185: 1869: 1651: 1540: 853: 842: 535: 10123: 8679: 7986:"The past, present, and future of Canadian English: What our accent tells us about being Canadian" 4015: 3798:, while serving members are styled "The Honourable", but are not entitled to post-nominal letters. 12620: 11824: 11760: 11201: 11034: 10852: 10827: 7957: 6925:

Dollinger, Stefan; Clarke, Sandra (2012). "On the autonomy and homogeneity of Canadian English".

6446: 5122: 5008:

and a 1.75 L (59 US fl oz; 62 imp fl oz) bottle is known as a

4953:: a cup of coffee with two measures of cream and two of sugar, most commonly associated with the 4007: 3902: 3696: 2826: 2771:

only recommends writing all-numeric dates in the form of YYYY-MM-DD (e.g. 2017-07-01), following

2288:

The north and northwestern parts of Southwestern Ontario, the area consisting of the Counties of

2219: 1970: 1840: 1799: 178: 88: 78: 68: 11518: 6798:

Dollinger, Stefan (2012). "Varieties of English: Canadian English in real-time perspective." In

6511:. 16th International Conference on English Historical Linguistics, Pécs, Hungary. Archived from 5823:

Dollinger, Stefan (2012). "Varieties of English: Canadian English in real-time perspective." In

3040:

them (standard British usage). Those who supervise students during an exam are sometimes called

1767:(words such as "like" and "about" pronounced with a higher first vowel in the diphthong) and no 12234: 12094: 11992: 11971: 11707: 11116: 11094: 10898: 10595: 10564: 10442: 9781: 9368:"University of Toronto Press - Authorization of Textbooks for the Schools of Ontario 1846–1950" 9218: 8950: 8944: 7585: 6720:

Charles Boberg. 2021. Accent in North American Film and Television. Cambridge University Press.

5337: 5320: 4107: 4051: 3216:

of 8.5 inches × 11 inches is used instead of the international and metric equivalent

2394: 1854: 906: 833: 660: 645: 367: 103: 11012: 10147: 9656: 6692:"Creating Canadian English: the Professor, the Mountaineer, and a National Variety of English" 6114: 4447:(which is also used, but much more widely than ABM by financial organizations in the country). 957:

country, ready to accept linguistic change from around the world during the current period of

12672: 12293: 11314: 11099: 10994: 10707: 10641: 10395: 10385: 10380: 5356: 5126: 5093:

or "KD": for any packaged dry macaroni and cheese mix, even when it is not produced by Kraft.

5084: 5068: 4483:

couch or sofa in Canada (and, to some extent, Northern California). Once a hallmark of CanE,

4103: 3362: 3346:, that is, divided highways with access only at grade-separated interchanges (for example, a 3323: 3232: 3147: 2425: 2301: 2293: 2289: 1881: 1811: 1803: 1760: 913:

and linguistic homogenization through education and exposure to Canadian and American media.

857: 759: 655: 540: 302: 20: 11573: 11307: 9925: 9882: 9834: 9802: 9624: 9605:

Creating Canadian English: the Professor, the Mountaineer, and a National Variety of English

8146:"Can you speak Prairies? Here is your guide to deciphering the dialect | Globalnews.ca" 3619: 3036:

exams (in the US, students generally "take" exams while teachers "write" them); they rarely

1857:

sound system. The mainstream Canadian accent ("Standard Canadian") is often compared to the

12402: 11976: 11788: 11677: 11500: 11465: 11427: 10736: 10629: 10569: 10447: 10420: 10337: 10136: 9116: 8298: 6273: 5947: 5383: 5125:

refer to small tart powdered disc sold in rolls; in Canada these tart candies are sold as "

4971: 4711: 4664: 3743: 3715: 3624: 3396: 3307: 3198: 2994: 2768: 2359: 2328: 2297: 2278: 2172: 2053: 1756: 1636: 1563: 818: 771: 334: 148: 11533: 10203: 7057: 6890:

Boberg, Charles (2008). "Regional phonetic differentiation in Standard Canadian English".

5156:

is used to confirm the attention of the listener and to invite a supportive noise such as

4605:, a line of electricity transmission towers, usually in groups cutting across a city, and 4495:, is now largely in decline among younger generations in the western and central regions. 4317:

or pithouse. Groups of them are called "quiggly hole towns". Used in the BC Interior only.

2745: 2454:

region. A person whose mother tongue is English and who still speaks English is called an

1539:

Canada's political history has also had an influence on Canadian spelling. Canada's first

809:), plus in many other provinces among urban middle- or upper-class speakers from natively 8: 12801: 12373: 12329: 12206: 12171: 11981: 11945: 11621: 11490: 11391: 11334: 11164: 11156: 11054: 11017: 10903: 10888: 10763: 10753: 10680: 10519: 10150:– comparisons of Canadian English, American English, British English, French, and Spanish 8639: 8409: 4983: 4610: 4327:(gas station) with a central island, having pumps under a fixed metal or concrete awning. 4095: 3733: 3358: 3315: 3210: 3013:

although the former is not unknown. This usage is identical to that in Northern Ireland.

2582:

Western Canadian English describes the English spoken in the four most western provinces—

2421: 1053: 1041: 950: 938: 934: 615: 510: 485: 480: 475: 398: 5621: 5233:(commonly used in Atlantic Canada and among older people in Ontario and to the west) or 4725:

The following are common in Canada, but not in the United States or the United Kingdom.

4155:

refers to a second floor in a condo unit or bungalow usually with second floor bedrooms

909:

ancestry, or some mixture of these. Throughout the 20th century, the prairies underwent

11955: 11890: 11732: 11669: 11654: 11523: 11445: 11440: 11224: 11191: 11126: 11109: 10964: 10785: 10332: 10322: 9582: 9349: 8857:"Bartleby.com: Great Books Online -- Quotes, Poems, Novels, Classics and hundreds more" 8709: 8332: 8268: 7895: 7603: 7578: 7473: 7249: 7214: 6907: 6641: 5722: 5371: 4931:

is the term used for the date when a perishable product will go bad (similar to the UK

4737: 4344: 4228:

in Britain. In the United States (where it originated) the word was mostly replaced by

4099: 4034: 3985: 3637:

was at one time common for the equivalent of a mayor in some smaller municipalities in

3475: 3366: 2943: 2202:

Another phonetic feature more unique to Newfoundland English is TH-stopping. Here, the

1922:

West (B.C., Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba; with B.C. a sub-zone on the lexical level)

1631: 1625:

In the 1990s, Canadian newspapers began to adopt the British spelling variants such as

1606: 869: 680: 665: 630: 470: 377: 83: 73: 10170: 10041:

New-Dialect Formation in Canada: Evidence from the English Modal Auxiliaries 1776–1849

4947:

also sees common use, where although not spoiled, the product may not taste "as good".

1056:

are examples of men raised in Canada, but who spoke with a British-influenced accent.

210: 12604: 11935: 11885: 11740: 11722: 11717: 11697: 11692: 11644: 11578: 11229: 11214: 11186: 11146: 10938: 10875: 10624: 10400: 10364: 10088: 10072: 9999: 9954: 9888: 9870: 9840: 9808: 9790: 9759: 9711: 9692: 9662: 9630: 9586: 9536: 9399: 9353: 9341: 9200: 8954: 8474: 8449: 8258: 8171: 8090: 7899: 7805: 7589: 7477: 7465: 7253: 7218: 7206: 7158: 6938: 6911: 6743: 6569: 6470: 6450: 6287: 6150: 6129: 6082: 5998: 5909: 5730: 5726: 5316: 5185: 4919: 4590: 4583:: milk containing 3.25% milk fat, typically called "whole milk" in the United States. 4458: 4119: 4091: 3943:

is often used to refer to any Canadian lawyer in general (much like the way the word

3875: 3573:

for the federal first minister and referring to provincial or territorial leaders as

3194: 3181: 2749: 2733:

finished all the coffee". This is not exactly the same as the standard construction "

2443: 2267: 2069: 1834: 1782: 1752: 1702: 1544: 898: 650: 625: 590: 520: 495: 460: 455: 429: 327: 218: 10920: 8981: 8873: 8837: 7985: 6602:

MacPherson, William (31 March 1990). "Practical concerns spelled the end for -our".

5670: 5644: 5168:. This usage is also common in Queensland, Australia and New Zealand. Other uses of 4055:(R.S.C. 1985, c. C-46) or by today's Canadian legal system. As noted throughout the 3879:, meaning the barrister representing the state in criminal proceedings, is called a 3410:

is often used to describe a freeway, expressway or major urban street (for example,

1048:, when it became stigmatized as pretentious, and is now rare. The governor general 238: 12755: 12723: 12613: 12428: 12258: 11930: 11920: 11905: 11900: 11895: 11819: 11814: 11804: 11770: 11712: 11659: 11606: 11568: 11513: 11475: 11435: 11349: 11302: 11254: 11181: 11089: 11079: 11074: 11064: 10910: 10883: 10741: 10661: 10504: 10486: 10473: 10310: 10305: 9574: 9528: 9333: 9219:"Why Do Canadians Say 'Eh'?: The story behind Canada's most distinctive verbal tic" 8680:""washroom" in Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles, Second Edition" 8272: 8252: 8028: 7887: 7841: 7801: 7731: 7491: 7457: 7241: 7198: 7154: 7096: 6934: 6899: 6867: 6735: 6279: 6126:

The Cambridge history of the English language. Volume VI: English in North America.

5813:. Vol. Language in Canada. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 252. 5391: 5387: 5355:

refers to any Canadian (sometimes American, occasionally Labradorian) not from the

4594: 4570: 4072: 4002:

Judges of provincial or inferior courts are traditionally referred to in person as

3918: 3851: 3779: 3638: 3435: 3427: 3269: 2984: 2966: 2753: 2599: 2583: 2492: 2382: 2324: 2196: 2146: 2057: 1858: 1764: 1552: 1345:

Canadian spelling sometimes retains the British practice of doubling the consonant

954: 829: 810: 806: 763: 640: 620: 610: 585: 580: 570: 555: 550: 490: 450: 353: 173: 98: 93: 7419: 12765: 11925: 11915: 11910: 11869: 11778: 11745: 11702: 11649: 11639: 11634: 11629: 11588: 11563: 11558: 11553: 11548: 11528: 11480: 11470: 11219: 11121: 11059: 11029: 10837: 10712: 10533: 10509: 10481: 10452: 10425: 10390: 10277: 10177: 10061: 10047: 10032: 9934: 9785: 9747: 9733: 9123: 9091: 9068: 9048: 9043: 8880: 8844: 8643: 7690: 7526: 7498: 6477: 6406: 6400:"Some Canadians used to speak with a quasi-British accent called Canadian Dainty" 6373: 6365:

Dollinger, Stefan (ed.-in-chief), Laurel J. Brinton and Margery Fee (eds). 2013.

6332: 6321: 6121: 6076: 5976: 5875: 5868: 5541: 5508: 4660: 4538: 4324: 4195: 4038: 3578: 3419: 3068: 3048:

as in the US; usage may depend on the region or even the individual institution.

2900: 2885: 2881: 2406: 2378: 2271: 1954: 1768: 1086: 1037: 902: 837: 801:, spoken in all the western and central provinces of Canada (varying little from 779: 670: 600: 565: 545: 525: 500: 60: 11538: 7358:

Proceedings of the 2016 Annual Conference of the Canadian Linguistic Association

7101: 7084: 5138:

One of the most distinctive Canadian phrases is the spoken interrogation or tag

3829:(MHAs). Each abbreviation is used as a post-nominal during terms of office only. 3206: 3146:

units within a majority of industries is standard in Canada, as a result of the

2880:

Northern Ontario English has several distinct qualities stemming from its large

778:

of 19.4 million Canadians or 58.1% of the total population; the remainder spoke

12695: 12421: 12392: 12309: 12246: 12104: 11859: 11809: 11783: 11682: 11543: 11485: 11294: 11209: 11169: 11069: 10893: 10646: 10551: 10541: 10457: 10259: 9393: 9193:

Double Double: How Tim Hortons Became a Canadian Way of Life, One Cup at a Time

8529:"Visible Minority Population and Population Group Reference Guide, 2006 Census" 8227:"'Sobeys bag' and 'scribbler' are uniquely Maritime terms, says new dictionary" 7128: 7031:"14.12 Elimination of Racial and Ethnic Stereotyping, Identification of Groups" 6658: 6604: 6469:

The Grammarist, "Aluminium vs. aluminum". Retrieved 2 June 2018. available at:

4967: 4908: 4733: 4240: 4209: 4205: 4090:

in race or non-white in colour." The term is used as a demographic category by

4087: 3881: 3633: 3562: 3499: 3492: 3479: 3431: 3411: 3380: 3162: 2437: 2350:

is elided altogether, resulting in "Do you want this one er'iss one?" The word

2255: 1987: 1830: 1558:

A contemporary reference for formal Canadian spelling is the spelling used for

1049: 894: 890: 822: 802: 775: 575: 560: 505: 403: 295: 162: 143: 9578: 9337: 8860: 8200:

The rough food mystique: The evolution of Newfoundland food culture, 1945-1975

8033: 7891: 7245: 7202: 4049:, which are still used in the United States, are not used in Canada's current 2529:(compare French /pi.nœf/). On the other hand, Anglophones pronounce the final 1817: 1373:(more often than not in Canadian while always doubled in British) to American 12833: 12341: 12287: 12191: 11849: 11455: 11450: 11344: 11259: 10915: 10832: 10773: 10685: 10636: 10514: 10496: 9779:

Organizing Our Marvellous Neighbours: How to Feel Good About Canadian English

9345: 9196: 8091:"the Written Questionnaire in Social Dialectology: History, Theory, Practice" 7735: 7469: 7401:"Notes on The Pronunciation of Canadian English as Spoken in Vancouver, B.C." 7210: 6903: 6871: 6002: 5706: 5494: 5312: 5307: 5215:

in the US and Canada is slang for a condom. In Canada, it sometimes means an

4871: 4862: 4783:: a hooded sweatshirt, with or without a zipper. Used mainly in Saskatchewan. 4741: 3931: 3708: 3526: 3415: 2908: 2787: 2783: 2713:); Canadian English differs from American English in tending to eschew plain 2417: 2371: 2243: 2181: 2061: 2049: 1991: 1865: 1710: 1587:, and, where necessary (depending on context), one or more other references. 1509: 969: 958: 941:—as such, Canadian English is believed by some scholars to have derived from 910: 791: 675: 10156:, and compare side by side with other English accents from around the world. 10026:

The Written Questionnaire in Social Dialectology: History, Theory, Practice.

9398:. Varieties of English Around the World. John Benjamins Publishing Company. 8416:. Government of Canada, Transport Canada, Safety and Security, Rail Safety. 7619:"Tory MP's bill seeks to clarify how dates are written in legal proceedings" 7116: 6818:"Academic and public attitudes to the notion of 'standard' Canadian English" 6278:. IMPACT: Studies in Language and Society. Vol. 24. 26 September 2008. 5827:(HSK 34.2), Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton (ed.), 1858-1880. Berlin: 3680:

is also used to denote the more socially liberal wings of the Tory parties.

3617:

Several political terms are more in use in Canada than elsewhere, including

3126:(more common in the US) to refer to their results. Usage is mixed, although 2266:

was found to be more advanced for women in Ontario than for people from the

2028: 849:

inventories, though their exact phonetic realizations may sometimes differ.

12701: 12546: 12536: 12316: 11950: 11854: 11611: 10847: 10695: 10574: 9741:

Sounding Canadian from Coast to Coast: Regional accents in Canadian English

6675: 6624: 6367:

DCHP-1 Online: A Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles Online

5714: 5536: 5302: 5298: 5291: 5193: 5090: 5080: 4880: 4827:

is understood to mean the same thing, in contrast to British English where

4801:

are primarily used in Saskatchewan and Manitoba while the variants with an

4699:

as a term for a poorhouse. Not used for welfare, in which case the term is

4691:: term referring to unemployment insurance, which is now officially called 4614: 4303: 4185: 4046: 3646: 3388: 2903:, Arabic and Somali were incorporated into the local variety of English by 2591: 2037: 1873: 1665: 1641: 1618: 1610: 1045: 985: 973: 595: 169: 11755: 9520: 7461: 6739: 5595: 3217: 2892:

for a summer home where Southern Ontario speakers would idiomatically use

2640:, and this retraction may become a regional marker of West Coast English. 1693:(1967) were milestones in Canadian English lexicography. In November 1967 1609:

perhaps since that news agency's inception, but visibly the norm prior to

1512:") and American terminology for automobiles and their parts (for example, 12643: 12593: 12551: 12415: 12379: 12298: 12211: 12114: 12020: 11596: 9532: 8198: 5118: 4954: 4927: 4634: 4534: 4420: 4147:

apartment; some Canadians, especially in Prince Edward Island, call it a

3537: 3370: 3100: 2259: 2083: 2045: 2011: 1810:

monophthong does sound stereotypically "Canadian" (listen to for example

1040:

pronunciation, resulting in an accent similar, but not identical, to the

946: 138: 10183: 10118: 9658:

The English Language in Canada: Status, History and Comparative Analysis

6376:. Based on Walter S. Avis et al. (1967). University of British Columbia. 5908:

Dollinger, Stefan (2008). "New-Dialect Formation in Canada". Benjamins,

4357:, a side-stream channel that rejoins a larger river, creating an island. 4333:: an after-hours establishment where alcohol is served, often illegally. 2997:, typically at a post-secondary university institution. Hence, the term 2195:

A well-known phonetic feature many Newfoundland speakers possess is the

1112:

are usually or more commonly spelled as in American English rather than

12541: 12486: 12280: 11687: 10758: 10250: 10194:

Second Edition of A Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles

10009:

Chambers, J.K. (1998). "Canadian English: 250 Years in the Making," in

9769:

Chambers, J.K. (1998). "Canadian English: 250 Years in the Making," in

7175:". Newfoundland and Labrador English. Edinburgh UP, 2010. 19-66. Print. 6803: 6425:

Canadian spelling. An empirical and historical survey of selected words

5828: 5600: 4852: 3923: 3213: 3186: 1655:

in their defence. Controversy around this issue was frequent. When the

787: 11360: 8366: 7845: 7450:

The Canadian Journal of Linguistics / Revue canadienne de linguistique

6802:(HSK 34.2), Alexander Bergs & Laurel J. Brinton (eds), 1858–1880. 6283: 5266:

is sometimes also used in the US, especially in the northern states).

3614:, whereas in the US committees are appointed, formed, or created, etc. 1677:

The first series of dictionaries of Canadian English was published by

1044:

known in the United States. This accent faded in prominence following

263: 12665: 12648: 12627: 12516: 12410: 11601: 10315: 10132: 5718: 5546: 5324: 5205: 5201: 5181: 4979: 4543: 4295: 3939: 3906: 3847: 3843: 3787: 3681: 3471: 3450: 2822: 2694:, in the sense of "in addition"; this construction is a Canadianism. 2629: 2363: 1850: 1029: 203: 191: 10055:

DCHP-1 Online: A Dictionary of Canadiansims on Historical Principles

7372: 6691: 6538: 5753: 4559:: toilet, used primarily by older speakers throughout the Maritimes. 3801:

Members of provincial/territorial legislative assemblies are called

2944:

Atlantic Canada (New Brunswick & Nova Scotia, PEI, Newfoundland)

12718: 12638: 12576: 12561: 12481: 12476: 12471: 12367: 12252: 12216: 12200: 10342: 9166: 7835: 7757: 6817: 6410: 6128:, Algeo, John, ed., pp. 422–440. Cambridge University Press, 1992. 5970:

Why It's Difficult to Tell a Canadian Accent from a Californian One

5527:

Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles, Second Edition

5502: 5315:" for their fearlessness on the slopes. It is also the name of the 5269: 5235: 5229: 5197: 5113: 5075: 4622: 4470: 4216: 4135: 3677: 3654: 3444: 3439: 3327: 2851: 2772: 2595: 2466: 2447: 1925:

Ontario (with Northwestern Ontario a transition zone with the West)

1876:

US English of the central and eastern Great Lakes region where the

250: 9326: