Old English - Knowledge

1629:– show the most marked Danish influence; the best evidence of Scandinavian influence appears in the extensive word borrowings because, as Jespersen indicates, no texts exist in either Scandinavia or Northern England from this time to give certain evidence of an influence on syntax. The effect of Old Norse on Old English was substantive, pervasive, and of a democratic character. Old Norse and Old English resembled each other closely like cousins, and with some words in common, speakers roughly understood each other; in time the inflections melted away and the analytic pattern emerged. It is most important to recognize that in many words the English and Scandinavian language differed chiefly in their inflectional elements. The body of the word was so nearly the same in the two languages that only the endings would put obstacles in the way of mutual understanding. In the mixed population which existed in the Danelaw, these endings must have led to much confusion, tending gradually to become obscured and finally lost. This blending of peoples and languages resulted in "simplifying English grammar". 878: 1409: 1103: 4890: 6258: 1269: 886: 2885: 4953:, a Christian religious poem. There are also a number of extant prose works, such as sermons and saints' lives, biblical translations, and translated Latin works of the early Church Fathers, legal documents, such as laws and wills, and practical works on grammar, medicine, and geography. Still, poetry is considered the heart of Old English literature. Nearly all Anglo-Saxon authors are anonymous, with a few exceptions, such as 53: 373: 1384:

translations produced under Alfred's programme, many of which were produced by Mercian scholars. Other dialects certainly continued to be spoken, as is evidenced by the continued variation between their successors in Middle and Modern English. In fact, what would become the standard forms of Middle English and of Modern English are descended from Mercian rather than West Saxon, while

2726:. As in Modern English, and peculiar to the Germanic languages, the verbs formed two great classes: weak (regular), and strong (irregular). Like today, Old English had fewer strong verbs, and many of these have over time decayed into weak forms. Then, as now, dental suffixes indicated the past tense of the weak verbs, as in 5878:Þa cydde man me, þæt us mara hearm to fundode, þonne us ƿel licode: and þa for ic me sylf mid-þam mannum þe me mid-foron into Denmearcon, þe eoƿ mæst hearm of com: and þæt hæbbe mid-godes fultume forene forfangen, þæt eoƿ næfre heonon forð þanon nan unfrið to ne cymð, þa hƿile þe ge me rihtlice healdað and min lif byð. 4915:

The corpus of Old English literature is small but still significant, with some 400 surviving manuscripts. The pagan and Christian streams mingle in Old English, one of the richest and most significant bodies of literature preserved among the early Germanic peoples. In his supplementary article to the

5980:

At that time, I was told that we had been harmed more than we liked; and I departed with the men who accompanied me into Denmark, from where the most harm has come to you; and I have already prevented it with God's help, so that from now on, strife will never come to you from there, while you regard

1592:

No less far-reaching was the influence of Scandinavian upon the inflexional endings of English in hastening that wearing away and leveling of grammatical forms which gradually spread from north to south. It was, after all, a salutary influence. The gain was greater than the loss. There was a gain in

1459:

introduced into the language is very small, although dialect and toponymic terms are more often retained in western language contact zones (Cumbria, Devon, Welsh Marches and Borders and so on) than in the east. However, various suggestions have been made concerning possible influence that Celtic may

6520:

We do not know what languages the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons spoke, nor even whether they were sufficiently similar to make them mutually intelligible, but it is reasonable to assume that by the end of the sixth century there must have been a language that could be understood by all and this we call

4985:

was found as a baby, washed ashore, and adopted by a noble family. The translation is literal and represents the original poetic word order. As such, it is not typical of Old English prose. The modern cognates of original words have been used whenever practical to give a close approximation of the

4924:

In such historical conditions, an incalculable amount of the writings of the Anglo-Saxon period perished. What they contained, how important they were for an understanding of literature before the Conquest, we have no means of knowing: the scant catalogues of monastic libraries do not help us, and

1568:

texts, which are more often based on eastern dialects, a strong Norse influence becomes apparent. Modern English contains many, often everyday, words that were borrowed from Old Norse, and the grammatical simplification that occurred after the Old English period is also often attributed to Norse

1383:

Due to the centralisation of power and the destruction wrought by Viking invasions, there is relatively little written record of the non-West Saxon dialects after Alfred's unification. Some Mercian texts continued to be written, however, and the influence of Mercian is apparent in some of the

1286:

is not monolithic, Old English varied according to place. Despite the diversity of language of the Germanic-speaking migrants who established Old English in England and southeastern Scotland, it is possible to reconstruct proto-Old English as a fairly unitary language. For the most part, the

6329:

came to refer to all things of the early English period, including language, culture, and people. While it remains the normal term for the latter two aspects, the language began to be called Old English towards the end of the 19th century, as a result of the increasingly strong anti-German

5961:

The following is a natural Modern English translation, with the overall structure of the Old English passage preserved. Even though "earl" is used to translate its Old English cognate "eorl", "eorl" in Old English does not correspond exactly to "earl" of the later medieval period:

5438:

After destitution was first experienced (by him), he met with consolation for that; he grew under the clouds of the sky and flourished in adulation, until all of the neighbouring people had to obey him over the whale-road (i.e. the sea), and pay tribute to the man. That was a good

6099:. Toronto: Published for the Dictionary of Old English Project, Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Toronto by the Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies. Initially issued on microfiche and subsequently as a CD-ROM, the dictionary is now primarily published online at 1162:

standard", or more commonly as Late West Saxon. It is considered to represent the "classical" form of Old English. It retained its position of prestige until the time of the Norman Conquest, after which English ceased for a time to be of importance as a literary language.

1322:

and south of the Humber River; West Saxon lay south and southwest of the Thames; and the smallest, Kentish region lay southeast of the Thames, a small corner of England. The Kentish region, settled by the Jutes from Jutland, has the scantest literary remains. The term

1358:. From that time on, the West Saxon dialect (then in the form now known as Early West Saxon) became standardised as the language of government, and as the basis for the many works of literature and religious materials produced or translated from Latin in that period. 1499:

of Western Europe. It is sometimes possible to give approximate dates for the borrowing of individual Latin words based on which patterns of sound change they have undergone. Some Latin words had already been borrowed into the Germanic languages before the ancestral

4925:

there are no references in extant works to other compositions....How incomplete our materials are can be illustrated by the well-known fact that, with few and relatively unimportant exceptions, all extant Anglo-Saxon poetry is preserved in four manuscripts.

5966:

King Cnut kindly greets his archbishops and his provincial bishops and Earl Thorkell, and all his earls, and all his people, both those with a weregild of 1,200 shillings and those with a weregild of 200 shillings, both ordained and layman, in England.

5452: 5453: 1287:

differences between the attested regional dialects of Old English developed within England and southeastern Scotland, rather than on the Mainland of Europe. Although from the tenth century Old English writing from all regions tended to conform to a

5973:

I recalled the writings and words which the archbishop Lyfing brought to me from the Pope of Rome, that I must promote the worship of God everywhere, and suppress unrighteousness, and promote perfect peace with the power which God would give me.

6214:

Like other historical languages, Old English has been used by scholars and enthusiasts of later periods to create texts either imitating Old English literature or deliberately transferring it to a different cultural context. Examples include

8172:. Toronto: Published for the Dictionary of Old English Project, Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Toronto by the Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 1983/1994. (Issued on microfiche and subsequently as a CD-ROM and on the 1559:

in eastern and northern England are of Scandinavian origin. Norse borrowings are relatively rare in Old English literature, being mostly terms relating to government and administration. The literary standard, however, was based on the

687:) as the language of the upper classes. This is regarded as marking the end of the Old English era, since during the subsequent period the English language was heavily influenced by Anglo-Norman, developing into what is now known as 858:

which could refer to curve or hook shapes including fishing hooks. Concerning the second option, it has been hypothesised that the Angles acquired their name either because they lived on a curved promontory of land shaped like a

4660:'s time. From then onward, thorn was used increasingly often at the start of words, while eth was normal in the middle and at the end of words, although usage varied in both cases. Some modern editions use only thorn. See also 5774:

Ic nam me to gemynde þa geƿritu and þa ƿord, þe se arcebiscop Lyfing me fram þam papan brohte of Rome, þæt ic scolde æghƿær godes lof upp aræran and unriht alecgan and full frið ƿyrcean be ðære mihte, þe me god syllan

5449: 6153:. 4th rev. edn by Herbet D. Meritt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Occasionally more accurate than Bosworth-Toller, and widely used as a reading dictionary. Various digitisations are available, including 2911:, extended by five more runes used to represent Anglo-Saxon vowel sounds and sometimes by several more additional characters. From around the 8th century, the runic system came to be supplanted by a (minuscule) 1388:

developed from the Northumbrian dialect. It was once claimed that, owing to its position at the heart of the Kingdom of Wessex, the relics of Anglo-Saxon accent, idiom and vocabulary were best preserved in the

5450: 1185:). This language, or closely related group of dialects, spoken by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, and pre-dating documented Old English or Anglo-Saxon, has also been called Primitive Old English. 4989:

The words in brackets are implied in the Old English by noun case and the bold words in brackets are explanations of words that have slightly different meanings in a modern context. Notice how

6301: 5665:

and the English people written in AD 1019. Unlike the previous two examples, this text is prose rather than poetry. For ease of reading, the passage has been divided into sentences while the

793:. Like other old Germanic languages, it is very different from Modern English and Modern Scots, and largely incomprehensible for Modern English or Modern Scots speakers without study. Within 5686:

Cnut cyning gret his arcebiscopas and his leod-biscopas and Þurcyl eorl and ealle his eorlas and ealne his þeodscype, tƿelfhynde and tƿyhynde, gehadode and læƿede, on Englalande freondlice.

5428:

Here is a natural enough Modern English translation, although the phrasing of the Old English passage has often been stylistically preserved, even though it is not usual in Modern English:

1147:, appear to have been translated by Alfred himself. In Old English, typical of the development of literature, poetry arose before prose, but Alfred chiefly inspired the growth of prose. 7468:(West Germanic: from its Emergence in the 3rd up until its Dissolution in the 7th century CE: Analyses and Reconstruction). 244 p., in German with English summary, London/Berlin 2013, 836:

who settled in many parts of Britain in the 5th century. By the 9th century, all speakers of Old English, including those who claimed Saxon or Jutish ancestry, could be referred to as

6246:. However, one investigation found that many Neo-Old English texts published online bear little resemblance to the historical language and have many basic grammatical mistakes. 5008:

English poetry is based on stress and alliteration. In alliteration, the first consonant in a word alliterates with the same consonant at the beginning of another word, as with

2695:, but the latter applied only to "strong" masculine nouns in the nominative and accusative cases; different plural endings were used in other instances. Old English nouns had 1588:

in the Danelaw to communicate with their Anglo-Saxon neighbours produced a friction that led to the erosion of the complicated inflectional word endings. Simeon Potter notes:

1486:

do not become widespread until the late Middle English and Early Modern English periods, in addition to the fact that similar forms exist in other modern Germanic languages.

3968:, it is always palatal . Otherwise, a knowledge of the history of the word in question is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty, although it is most commonly 5451: 1327:

actually is represented by two different dialects: Early West Saxon and Late West Saxon. Hogg has suggested that these two dialects would be more appropriately named

1117:. The 9th-century English King proposed that primary education be taught in English, with those wishing to advance to holy orders to continue their studies in Latin. 1365:, above), although centred in the same region of the country, appears not to have been directly descended from Alfred's Early West Saxon. For example, the former 7321:

Christina Neuland and Florian Schleburg. (2014). "A New Old English? The Chances of an Anglo-Saxon Revival on the Internet". In: S. Buschfeld et al. (Eds.),

3098:. Macrons are used to indicate long vowels, where usually no distinction was made between long and short vowels in the originals. (In some older editions an 2489:: singular, and plural; and are strong or weak. The instrumental is vestigial and only used with the masculine and neuter singular and often replaced by the 983:. While indicating that the establishment of dates is an arbitrary process, Albert Baugh dates Old English from 450 to 1150, a period of full inflections, a 6728: 6031:

Glossaries. Over time, these word-lists were consolidated and alphabeticised to create extensive Latin-Old English glossaries with some of the character of

1291:

based on Late West Saxon, in speech Old English continued to exhibit much local and regional variation, which remained in Middle English and to some extent

9128: 6306: 4547:. But due to changes over time, a knowledge of the history of the word in question is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty (for details, see 2699:, while modern English has only natural gender. Pronoun usage could reflect either natural or grammatical gender when those conflicted, as in the case of 6062:

Old English lexicography was revived in the early modern period, drawing heavily on Anglo-Saxons' own glossaries. The major publication at this time was

6044: 8473: 8435: 8422: 8414: 7274:

Patrizia Lendinara, 'Anglo-Saxon Glosses and Glossaries: An Introduction', in Anglo-Saxon Glosses and Glossaries (Aldershot: Variorum, 1999), pp. 1–26.

852:, which referred to narrowness, constriction or anxiety, perhaps referring to shallow waters near the coast, or else it may derive from a related word 2218:

was an allophone of short /ɑ/ which occurred in stressed syllables before nasal consonants (/m/ and /n/). It was variously spelled either ⟨a⟩ or ⟨o⟩.

8430: 6227:

uses several Old English words, such as syndrigast (singular, peculiar), ymbryne (period, cycle), etc., dubbed as "Old Peculiar" ones. Advocates of

854: 10541: 8450: 5977:

I never hesitated from my peace payments (e.g. to the Vikings) while you had strife at hand. But with God's help and my payments, that went away.

3886: 3817: 3066:

Modern editions of Old English manuscripts generally introduce some additional conventions. The modern forms of Latin letters are used, including

1564:, away from the main area of Scandinavian influence; the impact of Norse may have been greater in the eastern and northern dialects. Certainly in 8173: 848: 6330:

nationalism in English society of the 1890s and early 1900s. However, many authors still also use the term Anglo-Saxon to refer to the language.

10546: 3206:). The following table lists the Old English letters and digraphs together with the phonemes they represent, using the same notation as in the 766:. It was West Saxon that formed the basis for the literary standard of the later Old English period, although the dominant forms of Middle and 3055:

over vowels were originally used not to mark long vowels (as in modern editions), but to indicate stress, or as abbreviations for a following

9503: 8581: 8290: 603: 770:

would develop mainly from Mercian, and Scots from Northumbrian. The speech of eastern and northern parts of England was subject to strong

9301: 7524: 4656:. Eth was first attested (in definitely dated materials) in the 7th century, and thorn in the 8th. Eth was more common than thorn before 3964:

in modern editions. Word-initially before another consonant letter, the pronunciation is always the velar fricative . Word-finally after

4548: 3981: 3492: 2428:

For more details of these processes, see the main article, linked above. For sound changes before and after the Old English period, see

8465: 8440: 2583:

for case, gender, and number. Adjectives have both strong and weak sets of endings, weak ones being used when a definite or possessive

7053:Øystein Heggelund (2007) Old English subordinate clauses and the shift to verb-medial order in English, English Studies, 88:3, 351–361 6646: 8201: 3571:. The two geminates were not distinguished in Old English orthography; in modern editions, the palatal geminate is sometimes written 8211: 2328: 1397: 8246: 6196: 5828:

Nu ne ƿandode ic na minum sceattum, þa hƿile þe eoƿ unfrið on handa stod: nu ic mid-godes fultume þæt totƿæmde mid-minum scattum.

1074: 8399: 1929: 8538: 8519: 8499: 7473: 6824: 4661: 2927:, a cursive and pointed version of the half-uncial script. This was used until the end of the 12th century when continental 1597:

The strength of the Viking influence on Old English appears from the fact that the indispensable elements of the language –

9118: 8407: 8100:

A Critical Bibliography of Old English Syntax to the end of 1984, including addenda and corrigenda to "Old English Syntax"

7466:

Das Westgermanische : von der Herausbildung im 3. bis zur Aufgliederung im 7. Jahrhundert; Analyse und Rekonstruktion

6231:

often look to older forms of English, including Old English, as a means of either reviving old words or coining new ones.

1338:

Each of these four dialects was associated with an independent kingdom on the islands. Of these, Northumbria south of the

8256: 2340: 1956: 1935: 1002:(also known as North Sea Germanic) dialects from the 5th century. It came to be spoken over most of the territory of the 461: 351: 10030: 5435:

Often Shield the son/descendant of Sheaf ripped away the mead-benches from many tribes' enemy bands – he terrified men!

1221:

to 1150), the final stage of the language leading up to the Norman conquest of England and the subsequent transition to

1087:, which was composed between 658 and 680 but not written down until the early 8th century. There is a limited corpus of 7628: 7489: 3629:

may have been a means of showing that the word was pronounced with a stop rather than a fricative; spellings with just

723: 6402: 5432:

What! We spear-Danes in ancient days inquired about the glory of the nation-kings, how the princes performed bravery.

8109:, PhD dissertation, Mémoires de la Société Néophilologique de Helsinki, vol. LXXX, Helsinki: Société Néophilologique. 7882: 7742: 7665: 7600: 7581: 7545: 7451: 7408: 7235: 7080: 6596: 6544: 6342: 5785: 1442: 976: 668: 6103:. This generally supersedes previous dictionaries where available. As of September 2018, the dictionary covered A-I. 1134: 8574: 8283: 3102:

mark was used for consistency with Old Norse conventions.) Additionally, modern editions often distinguish between

1880: 1811: 1482:. These ideas have generally not received widespread support from linguists, particularly as many of the theorized 1452: 596: 4741:

and derived from the rune of the same name. In earlier texts by continental scribes, and also later in the north,

2650:

of an adposition is marked in the dative case, an adposition may conceivably be located anywhere in the sentence.

987:. Perhaps around 85% of Old English words are no longer in use, but those that survived are the basic elements of 8387: 7649: 6751: 6202: 5477: 5056: 3222: 2429: 1838: 1390: 504: 341: 7922:

Philological Essays: studies in Old and Middle English language and literature in honour of Herbert Dean Merritt

7185:

Flom, George T. (1915). Flom, George T. (ed.). "On the Earliest History of the Latin Script in Eastern Norway".

7286:, ed. by Bogislav von Lindheim, Beiträge zur englischen Philologie, 35 (Bochum-Langendreer: Poppinghaus, 1941). 2804:

Sentences with subordinate clauses of the type "when X, Y" (e.g. "When I got home, I ate dinner") do not use a

2064:

or when doubled. At some point before the Middle English period, also became the pronunciation word-initially.

7776:

Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries: Vol 1: Linguistic Theory and Historical Linguistics

10397: 8241: 7864: 7299:, English Linguistics 1500–1800 (A Collection of Facsimile Reprints), 247 (Menston: The Scholar Press, 1970). 6286: 4028:

may have been realized as devoiced versions of the second consonants instead of as sequences starting with .

1817: 403: 221: 6945:"121028 Charlene Lohmeier "Evolution of the English Language" – 23:40 – 25:00; 30:20 – 30:45; 45:00 – 46:00" 1318:. In terms of geography the Northumbrian region lay north of the Humber River; the Mercian lay north of the 877: 10427: 9597: 9559: 9544: 8310: 7431: 6580: 6296: 6271: 6228: 6216: 2643: 2403:

Diphthongisation of certain vowels before certain consonants when preceding a back vowel ("back mutation").

2386: 2361:("Anglo-Frisian brightening"), partly reversed in certain positions by later "a-restoration" or retraction. 1866: 1844: 284: 20: 8871: 8424: 8416: 5741:

And ic cyðe eoƿ, þæt ic ƿylle beon hold hlaford and unsƿicende to godes gerihtum and to rihtre ƿoroldlage.

4832: 4826: 4815: 4811: 4801: 4789: 4774: 4742: 4730: 4724: 4710: 4706: 4696: 4679: 4675: 4626: 4611: 4605: 4593: 4582: 4577: 4565: 4561: 4544: 4535: 4526: 4522: 4518: 4510: 4506: 4497: 4493: 4483: 4474: 4468: 4456: 4440: 4417: 4411: 4392: 4386: 4374: 4364: 4353: 4349: 4339: 4325: 4321: 4311: 4294: 4277: 4265: 4244: 4227: 4216: 4212: 4202: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4165: 4151: 4147: 4137: 4125: 4111: 4107: 4097: 4070: 4058: 4050: 4039: 4006: 3992: 3977: 3969: 3943: 3922: 3911: 3907: 3897: 3874: 3868: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3828: 3805: 3799: 3785: 3781: 3771: 3759: 3725: 3692: 3674: 3668: 3657: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3542: 3538: 3527: 3511: 3488: 3480: 3472: 3464: 3444: 3438: 3409: 3399: 3368: 3364: 3350: 3346: 3336: 3325: 3321: 3300: 3286: 3282: 3272: 3261: 3257: 3239: 3203: 3187: 2750:. Some differences are consequences of the greater level of nominal and verbal inflection, allowing freer 2407: 2379: 2375: 2321: 2317: 2308: 2303: 2293: 2288: 2278: 2273: 2237: 2233: 2225: 2205: 2199: 2192: 2180: 2171: 2159: 2152: 2147: 2092: 2088: 2072: 2061: 2057: 2050: 2035: 2028: 2017: 2013: 1377: 1373: 1369: 10551: 10531: 10407: 10267: 9617: 9576: 9566: 8567: 8276: 7702: 2400:

Loss of certain weak vowels in word-final and medial positions; reduction of remaining unstressed vowels.

1909: 1888: 1512:

and Latin-speaking priests became influential. It was also through Irish Christian missionaries that the

1509: 1434: 589: 69:", translated as "over the whale's road (sea)". It is an example of an Old English stylistic device, the 6612: 6154: 5970:

And I declare to you, that I will be a kind lord, and faithful to God's laws and to proper secular law.

8783: 7560: 7537: 6263: 6052: 4961:. Cædmon, the earliest English poet known by name, served as a lay brother in the monastery at Whitby. 2879: 2709: 1944: 1852: 1766: 1752: 1447:

The language of the Anglo-Saxon settlers appears not to have been significantly affected by the native

1438: 1347: 1096: 810: 445: 262: 8139:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. (Based on Bosworth's 1838 dictionary, his papers & additions by Toller) 6781:

Robert McColl Millar, "English in the 'transition period': the sources of contact-induced change", in

2552: 2539: 1151: 10526: 10124: 8168: 8135: 8114:

A History of English Syntax: a transformational approach to the history of English sentence structure

7657: 7573: 6190: 6184: 6168:, Costerus New Series, 131–32, 2nd rev. impression, 2 vols (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2000), also available 6115: 6095: 5482: 2654: 2535: 1896: 1872: 743: 6020: 4178:

in every dialect but Northumbrian, where it was preserved until Middle English. In Early West Saxon

1584:

most likely made a greater impact on the English language than any other language. The eagerness of

1091:

from the 5th to 7th centuries, but the oldest coherent runic texts (notably the inscriptions on the

10402: 10356: 10351: 10275: 9885: 9869: 9748: 9607: 9498: 9493: 8345: 6692: 6090: 3534: 2920: 2316:

Other dialects had different systems of diphthongs. For example, the Northumbrian dialect retained

1977: 1717: 1483: 1448: 1303: 1129:

in the later 9th century, the language of government and literature became standardised around the

1059: 759: 541: 512: 413: 231: 6127:. Due to errors and omissions in the 1898 publication, this needs to be read in conjunction with: 6119:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. The main research dictionary for Old English, unless superseded by the 3637:

are also found. To disambiguate, the cluster ending in the palatal affricate is sometimes written

2410:

between vowels or between a voiced consonant and a vowel, with lengthening of the preceding vowel.

1408: 1150:

A later literary standard, dating from the late 10th century, arose under the influence of Bishop

1031: 10341: 10285: 10280: 10200: 9873: 9823: 9123: 8941: 8697: 8625: 8613: 8325: 8320: 8315: 8107:

Non-finite Constructions in Old English, with Special Reference to Syntactic Borrowing from Latin

6710: 6588: 3024: 2813: 2780: 2591: 2556: 2222: 2215: 1858: 1782: 1771: 1757: 782: 526: 165: 155: 145: 10463: 10183: 9581: 3545:) was rare in Old English, and its etymological origin in the words in which it occurs (such as 3479:

of the word is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty, although it is most commonly

2080: 1137:

alongside Latin, and had many works translated into the English language; some of them, such as

10346: 9828: 9794: 9412: 9228: 9088: 8928: 8823: 7380: 6239: 4910: 4473:

Between vowels in the middle of a word, the pronunciation can be either a palatalized geminate

3476: 1901: 1677: 1520:, replacing the earlier runic system. Nonetheless, the largest transfer of Latin-based (mainly 1335:

respectively, so that the naive reader would not assume that they are chronologically related.

1178: 1102: 1078: 1015: 995: 672: 474: 7920:

Kuhn, Sherman M. (1970). "On the consonantal phonemes of Old English". In: J. L. Rosier (ed.)

7072: 6242:

offer reference material and forums promoting the active use of Old English. There is also an

4905:"Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..." 2857:

is used, often preceded by (or replaced by) the appropriate form of the article/demonstrative

2607: 10504: 10468: 9736: 9729: 9681: 9451: 9422: 9391: 9354: 9279: 9036: 8949: 8810: 8772: 8357: 8036:

Altenglische Grammatik (nach der angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers neubearbeitet)

7797:

Altenglische Grammatik (nach der angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers neubearbeitet)

7215: 6814: 4941: 3306: 3013: 2928: 1983: 1918: 1723: 1707: 1638: 1622: 680: 486: 456: 9969: 8844: 6047:. In some cases, the material in these glossaries continued to be circulated and updated in 10536: 10473: 10453: 10422: 10295: 10155: 9901: 9719: 9311: 9138: 9100: 9095: 8969: 8916: 8674: 8506: 8367: 7400: 6783:

Contact: The Interaction of Closely-Related Linguistic Varieties and the History of English

6653: 6174: 6056: 6036: 4889: 4421: 3316:

became more common during the 8th century, and was standard after 800. Modern editions use

3031: 2713: 2519:

Adjectives agree with nouns in case, gender, and number, and can be either strong or weak.

1788: 1626: 1606: 1539:, which came into contact with Old English via the Scandinavian rulers and settlers in the 1234: 1222: 636: 565: 381: 83: 19:

This article is about the early medieval language of the Anglo-Saxons. For other uses, see

10129: 7021: 2618:; and are strong (exhibiting ablaut) or weak (exhibiting a dental suffix). Verbs have two 2087:) have generally been lost, while the voiced affricate and fricatives (now also including 1508:

left continental Europe for Britain. More entered the language when the Anglo-Saxons were

1417:('Here the Word is revealed to thee'). Old English inscription over the arch of the south 1155: 8: 10412: 9648: 9602: 9536: 9289: 8936: 8849: 8647: 8335: 6110: 6000: 3415:

Used in this way in early texts (before 800). For example, the word "sheaves" is spelled

3157: 2837: 2441: 1832: 1799: 1602: 1350:

during the 9th century. The portion of Mercia that was successfully defended, and all of

1307: 1010:. This included most of present-day England, as well as part of what is now southeastern 794: 751: 451: 201: 9959: 9804: 9051: 7823:; E. L. Deuschle (transl.). (Oudgermaansche Handboeken; No. 4). Haarlem: Tjeenk Willink. 6633: 6243: 4950: 2626:: present and past. The subjunctive has past and present forms. Finite verbs agree with 1426: 1083: 684: 491: 10458: 10382: 10310: 10300: 10255: 10017: 9944: 9841: 9686: 9661: 9656: 9549: 9377: 9262: 9083: 8861: 8856: 8835: 8796: 8600: 8590: 8455: 8350: 8299: 7984: 7955: 7939: 7909: 7851: 7194: 6871:"[BBC World News] BBC Documentary English Birth of a Language – 35:00 to 37:20" 6796: 6743: 6391:. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 60–83, 110–130 (Scandinavian influence). 6004: 5457:

A recording of how the Lord's Prayer probably sounded in Old English, pronounced slowly

3052: 2767: 2763: 2717: 2696: 2672: 2639: 2595: 2528: 2486: 2482: 2257: 1735: 1672: 1573: 1561: 1465: 1311: 1130: 1023: 1007: 999: 984: 872: 763: 418: 236: 160: 150: 9612: 2364:

Monophthongisation of the diphthong , and modification of remaining diphthongs to the

331: 10432: 10231: 10147: 10140: 10095: 10039: 9799: 9789: 9772: 9767: 9671: 9433: 9233: 9194: 9174: 9012: 8904: 8886: 8738: 8445: 8156: 8003: 7988: 7878: 7809: 7738: 7661: 7624: 7596: 7577: 7541: 7485: 7469: 7447: 7404: 7372: 7231: 7076: 7065: 6820: 6592: 6540: 6338: 6146: 6016: 5662: 3107: 3035: 2904: 2875: 2783: 2627: 2599: 2498: 2478: 1694: 1684: 1648: 1610: 1577: 1469: 1288: 1182: 1088: 806: 657: 441: 254: 7931:. (Cambridge studies in linguistics; No. 14). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 7767:

Chapter 3, pp. 50–52. Edited by Terttu Nevalainen and Elizabeth Closs Traugott.

6770:

Nominal vs. Verbal -ing Constructions and the Development of the English Progressive

6747: 347: 10387: 10178: 10112: 10068: 10063: 10023: 10012: 10004: 9809: 9777: 9724: 9713: 9626: 9335: 9274: 9064: 9046: 8881: 8642: 8634: 8511: 7976: 7901: 7870: 7843: 7223: 6220: 5462: 4854: 4657: 3541:). Consequently, the voiced velar geminate (which can be phonemically analyzed as 3537:, resulting in the voiced palatal geminate (which can be phonemically analyzed as 3161: 2848: 2798: 2647: 2611: 2603: 2531: 2458: 2043: 1667: 1662: 1644: 1355: 1292: 1126: 1106: 1043: 1027: 1019: 731: 645: 170: 10224: 2371:

Diphthongisation of long and short front vowels in certain positions ("breaking").

975:

Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of 700 years, from the

10417: 10377: 10210: 10117: 10100: 10085: 10080: 10073: 9782: 9691: 9676: 9631: 9483: 9446: 9438: 9417: 9404: 9384: 9370: 9133: 9110: 9041: 9031: 9023: 8803: 8340: 8262: 8250: 8215: 8205: 7749: 6534: 6235: 6106: 6071: 6040: 6028: 6024: 4648:

was used for this phoneme, but these were later replaced in this function by eth

3103: 2747: 2615: 2466: 2462: 2365: 2358: 1966: 1701: 1689: 1525: 1351: 1299: 980: 951: 755: 735: 707: 676: 408: 226: 137: 10498: 10392: 10372: 10324: 10216: 10090: 9760: 9527: 9466: 9245: 9202: 9159: 9076: 9071: 8960: 8910: 8761: 8712: 8667: 8660: 8491: 8372: 8362: 7512: 6172:. A thesaurus based on the definitions in Bosworth-Toller and the structure of 6063: 6048: 6008: 5655: 5486: 4633: 4429: 3709: 2999: 2924: 2916: 2900: 2893: 2889: 2684: 2560: 2506: 2000:

The sounds enclosed in parentheses in the chart above are not considered to be

1746: 1565: 1529: 1513: 1501: 1385: 1283: 1238: 1230: 1138: 1051: 988: 962: 907: 896: 844: 833: 829: 767: 711: 688: 575: 570: 560: 247: 206: 123: 7980: 7500:

The Cambridge History of the English Language: (Vol 1): the Beginnings to 1066

7227: 6944: 6870: 6169: 1195:

to 900), the period of the oldest manuscript traditions, with authors such as

10520: 10448: 10290: 10046: 9997: 9814: 9753: 9666: 9571: 9509: 9456: 9340: 9267: 7461: 6403:"Why is the English spelling system so weird and inconsistent? | Aeon Essays" 6161: 4946: 4425: 4254: 3169: 3017: 2908: 2833: 2666: 2635: 2564: 2502: 2501:

forms. There is also sparse early Northumbrian evidence of a sixth case: the

2470: 2068: 1495: 1143: 1092: 967: 727: 699: 664: 3375:

is used as a modern editorial substitution for the modified Kentish form of

3086:, and others which may differ considerably from the insular script, notably 2349:

occurring in the pre-history and history of Old English were the following:

10317: 9741: 9705: 9638: 9461: 9284: 9257: 9240: 9184: 9143: 8725: 8704: 7616: 6516:

An Outline of English Literature; Anglo-Saxon and Middle English Literature

6224: 5996: 3705: 3099: 2995: 2631: 2346: 1319: 1257: 1246: 258: 112: 9964: 8221: 7874: 6711:"The Rise and Fall of Constructions and the History of English Do-Support" 4080: 2053:

occurring at the beginning of a word or after a front vowel, respectively.

301: 10134: 10107: 9925: 9833: 9515: 9476: 9059: 8754: 8718: 8531: 8526: 8002:

Moulton, WG (1972). "The Proto-Germanic non-syllabics (consonants)". In:

7967:

McCully, CB; Hogg, Richard M (1990). "An account of Old English stress".

6276: 4929:

Some of the most important surviving works of Old English literature are

3973: 3484: 3012:, which are borrowings from the futhorc. A few letter pairs were used as 2912: 2787: 2759: 2708:

In Old English's verbal compound constructions are the beginnings of the

2490: 2474: 2354: 2142: 2124: 2106: 1473: 1242: 1121:

With the unification of several of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms (outside the

939: 918: 786: 692: 660: 127: 9979: 8233: 7621:

The Development of Old English: A Linguistic History of English, vol. II

7199: 4529:) at the time of palatalization, as illustrated by the contrast between 4074: 889:

The approximate extent of Germanic languages in the early 10th century:

805:

is much freer. The oldest Old English inscriptions were written using a

9974: 9954: 9319: 8989: 8690: 8483: 7959: 6291: 6032: 6012: 3744:

as a form of normalization and means of imposing consistency. Also see

2797:

Multiple negatives can stack up in a sentence intensifying each other (

2773: 2751: 2623: 2619: 2584: 2580: 2548: 2524: 2454: 2187: 2111: 2084: 2021: 1521: 1477: 1339: 1268: 1159: 1110: 802: 798: 703: 8236:

by Jonathan Slocum and Winfred P. Lehmann, free online lessons at the

7913: 7855: 7792:. North-Holland linguistics series (No. 33). Amsterdam: North-Holland. 7778:(pp. 753–762). Edited by Dieter Kastovsky and Aleksander Szwedek. 6532: 6302:

List of generic forms in place names in the United Kingdom and Ireland

3551:'frog') is unclear. Alternative spellings of either geminate included 722:. As the Germanic settlers became dominant in England, their language 10160: 9908: 9554: 9471: 9252: 9207: 9179: 9005: 8559: 8268: 8237: 7187:

Publications of the Society for the Advancement of Scandinavian Study

6611:

Hogg (1992), p. 117; but for a different interpretation of this, see

6281: 4936: 3950: 3448: 3380: 3253: 3079: 3071: 2653:

Remnants of the Old English case system in Modern English are in the

2166: 2009: 1581: 1536: 1366: 1114: 1063: 1003: 947: 943: 790: 771: 747: 536: 324: 310: 294: 276: 9984: 7834:

Hockett, Charles F (1959). "The stressed syllabics of Old English".

7482:

An introductory grammar of Old English with an anthology of readings

6533:

Fuster-Márquez, Miguel; Calvo García de Leonardo, Juan José (2011).

4958: 1196: 885: 9949: 9297: 8478: 7905: 7892:

Kuhn, Sherman M (1961). "On the Syllabic Phonemes of Old English".

7847: 7719: 6932:. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books Ltd. p. 33. 5712: 5709: 4978: 4971:

The first example is taken from the opening lines of the folk epic

4637: 3736:

in the middle or at the end of a word. Some modern editors replace

2229: 1456: 1418: 1204: 1035: 1011: 860: 653: 359: 98: 97:(except Cornwall and the extreme north-west), southern and eastern 7676:

An Introduction to Old Frisian. History, Grammar, Reader, Glossary

7519:. 7 vols. Heidelberg: C. Winter & Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard 6086:

In modern scholarship, the following dictionaries remain current:

6019:

glosses, but soon came to be gathered into word-lists such as the

2884: 52: 9990: 9586: 9488: 6693:"Function and Grammar in the History of English: Periphrastic Do" 5666: 5387: 5059: 4973: 4931: 4894: 3165: 2966:. The remaining 20 Latin letters were supplemented by four more: 2520: 2494: 2001: 1598: 1585: 1556: 1540: 1208: 1122: 1067: 1047: 979:

in the 5th century to the late 11th century, some time after the

881:(Pre-)Old English and other West Germanic languages around 580 CE 775: 746:. Old English had four main dialects, associated with particular 649: 481: 372: 355: 94: 70: 59: 6971: 6969: 6967: 6123:. Various digitisations are available open-access, including at 5876: 5826: 5772: 5739: 5684: 5631: 5612: 5593: 5574: 5555: 5536: 5517: 5498: 5400: 5368: 5335: 5299: 5266: 5226: 5193: 5162: 5128: 5095: 5069: 5036: 5027: 5018: 5009: 4899: 4842: 4836: 4555: 4539: 4530: 4501: 4487: 4478: 4463: 3699: 3546: 3422: 3416: 3173: 3042: 2989: 2975: 2858: 2852: 2823: 2817: 2721: 2700: 2574: 2568: 2542: 1572:

The influence of Old Norse certainly helped move English from a

1412: 1181:

as no literary witnesses survive (with the exception of limited

626: 620: 64: 42: 36: 9293: 8071:

Syntactic Case and Morphological Case in the History of English

7733:; with supplement prepared by Neil Ker originally published in 6729:"On the progression of the progressive in early Modern English" 6456:. Second edition of Barber (1993). Cambridge: University Press. 5595:

And forġief ūs ūre gyltas, swā swā wē forġiefaþ ūrum gyltendum.

4462:

At the start of a word, the usual pronunciation is palatalized

4250: 3728:, voiceless or voiced , but some texts show a tendency to use 3164:, with a mostly predictable correspondence between letters and 3083: 2743: 2598:: first, second, and third; two numbers: singular, plural; two 1505: 1461: 1396:

For details of the sound differences between the dialects, see

1343: 1158:("the Grammarian"). This form of the language is known as the " 715: 8193: 7336: 6124: 6100: 6003:

period itself, when English-speaking scholars created English

4901:

Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon...

2679:, which derives from the masculine and neuter genitive ending 9211: 8093:

Vol.2: Subordination, independent elements, and element order

6964: 6634:

The Somersetshire dialect: its pronunciation, 2 papers (1861)

5044:. In the text below, the letters that alliterate are bolded. 4982: 2779:

in questions and negatives. Questions were usually formed by

2039: 1490: 1055: 1039: 739: 719: 531: 102: 7812:(1983). "The Development of */k/ and */sk/ in Old English". 6949:

121028 Charlene Lohmeier "Evolution of the English Language"

2716:, which form the past tense by altering the root vowel, and 7828:

English Stress: its form, its growth, and its role in verse

7697:

L'orthographie de l'anglais: Histoire et situation actuelle

5695:-bishops and Thorkell, earl, and all his earls and all his 5659: 5624:

And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil.

5621:

And not lead thou us in temptations, but allay us of evil.

5465:

is presented in the standardised Early West Saxon dialect.

4954: 4738: 3957: 3048: 3006: 2646:

are mostly before but are often after their object. If the

2527:

agree in case, gender, and number. First-person and second-

2451: 1548: 1200: 8151:

An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Enlarged addenda and corrigenda

8050:

Generative grammatical studies in the Old English language

8022:

Generative Grammatical Studies in the Old English language

6139:

An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Enlarged addenda and corrigenda

5005:, both an expression of surprise and a call to attention. 3386: 2969: 1951: 1361:

The later literary standard known as Late West Saxon (see

1062:); except in the areas of Scandinavian settlements, where 358:

characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see

8087:(Vols. 1–2). Oxford: Clarendon Press (no more published) 5602:

And forgive us our guilts, as we forgiveth our guilters.

4977:, a poem of some 3,000 lines. This passage describes how 3982:

Phonological history of Old English § Palatalization

3949:

In Old English manuscripts, this letter usually took its

3493:

Phonological history of Old English § Palatalization

2892:

used to write Old English before the introduction of the

1489:

Old English contained a certain number of loanwords from

7323:

The Evolution of Englishes. The Dynamic Model and Beyond

6899:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 32. 5839:(financial contribution, cf. Norse cognate in scot-free) 5788:

me from the Pope brought of Rome, that I should ayewhere

4729:

Old English manuscripts typically represented the sound

4085:, whereas Mercian and Northumbrian texts generally used 3463:. Before a consonant letter the pronunciation is always 3363:

part was used; it is not clear whether this represented

2938:

The Latin alphabet of the time still lacked the letters

2236:. In West Saxon and Kentish, it had already merged with 809:, but from about the 8th century this was replaced by a 7284:

Das Durhamer Pflanzenglossar: lateinisch und altenglish

6679:

Kulturelle Integration und Personnenamen in Mittelalter

6452:

Barber, Charles, Joan C. Beal and Philip A. Shaw 2009.

6443:. 4th edition. (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich). 4283:

The allophone occurred before a velar plosive ( or ).

2413:

Collapse of two consecutive vowels into a single vowel.

1314:. Mercian and Northumbrian are together referred to as 679:

of 1066, English was replaced for several centuries by

101:, and some localities in the eastern fringes of modern 8064:

Die englische Sprache: ihre geschichtliche Entwicklung

6636:

Thomas Spencer Baynes, first published 1855 & 1856

5614:

And ne ġelǣd þū ūs on costnunge, ac ālīes ūs of yfele.

1077:

in the late 7th century. The oldest surviving work of

7426:

The Cambridge History of the English Language: Vol. 2

6797:"Verbal movement in Dutch present-participle clauses" 6518:. London: Forum House Publishing Company. p. 7. 5605:

And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors.

8090:

Vol.1: Concord, the parts of speech and the sentence

7946:

Maling, J (1971). "Sentence stress in Old English".

7557:

The Cambridge Introduction to Anglo-Saxon Literature

6307:

List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English

6253: 3533:

Proto-Germanic *g was palatalized when it underwent

2954:; moreover native Old English spellings did not use 1464:

in the post–Old English period, such as the regular

7310:

The Tomb of Beowulf and Other Essays on Old English

6206:all also include material relevant to Old English. 4496:'to wish'), or an unpalatalized consonant sequence 4232:Rarely used; this sound is normally represented by 3421:in an early text, but later (and more commonly) as 2907:—a rune set derived from the Germanic 24-character 1398:

Phonological history of Old English § Dialects

1166:The history of Old English can be subdivided into: 1154:, and was followed by such writers as the prolific 7505:Hogg, Richard; & Denison, David (eds.) (2006) 7308:Robinson, Fred C. 'The Afterlife of Old English'. 7064: 6897:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language 6858:. Leipzig, Germany: B. G. Teubner. pp. 58–82. 6536:A Practical Introduction to the History of English 6335:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language 6070:. The next substantial Old English dictionary was 5691:¶ Cnut, king, greets his archbishops and his lede' 5557:Ġeweorðe þīn willa, on eorðan swā swā on heofonum. 5026:. Vowels alliterate with any other vowel, as with 4344:Only occurs in some dialects. Modern editions use 3960:). The and pronunciations are sometimes written 1298:The four main dialectal forms of Old English were 1177:to 650); for this period, Old English is mostly a 8163:(4th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 8133:Bosworth, J; & Toller, T. Northcote. (1898). 7790:Phonological structure and the history of English 7731:A Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon 7724:A Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon 7517:A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles 7337:"Bosworth-Toller's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary online" 7043:. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 109–112. 6816:The history of English: a linguistic introduction 6495:. 4th edition. (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall). 5564:Let there be thine will, on earth as in heavens. 3016:, representing a single sound. Also used was the 2794:before the finite verb, regardless of which verb. 863:, or else because they were fishermen (anglers). 10518: 7788:Anderson, John M; & Jones, Charles. (1977). 7590: 7038: 6428:A history of English. A sociolinguistic approach 5947:that to you never henceforth thence none unfrith 5246:(induce loathing in, terrify; related to "ugly") 4053:from the earliest Old English texts, the letter 2998:or edh), which were modified Latin letters, and 2416:"Palatal umlaut", which has given forms such as 797:nouns, adjectives, pronouns and verbs have many 7826:Halle, Morris; & Keyser, Samuel J. (1971). 7262:Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon 6478:Hogg, Richard M. and David Denison (ed.) 2006. 6454:The English language. A historical introduction 6441:Origins and development of the English language 3995:, including its allophone , which occurs after 3252:("land") suggest the short vowel had a rounded 1403: 7770:Wełna, Jerzy (1986). "The Old English Digraph 7765:The Oxford Handbook of the History of English, 7534:Old English: A historical linguistic companion 7417:Baugh, Albert C; & Cable, Thomas. (1993). 6868: 3355:In 9th-century Kentish manuscripts, a form of 2705:, a neuter noun referring to a female person. 2329:Phonological history of Old English (dialects) 1014:, which for several centuries belonged to the 8575: 8284: 7927:Lass, Roger; & Anderson, John M. (1975). 7866:A grammar of Old English. Volume 1, Phonology 7678:. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 4949:, an inscribed early whalebone artefact; and 4554:In word-final position, the pronunciation of 3023:(a character similar to the digit 7) for the 2510: 1472:, as well as the eventual development of the 1058:and possibly also on the English side of the 1018:. Other parts of the island continued to use 778:and settlement beginning in the 9th century. 663:. It developed from the languages brought to 597: 8121:An Historical Syntax of the English Language 7936:Historische Grammatik der englischen Sprache 7763:Shaw, Philip A (2012). "Coins As Evidence". 7216:"On the Consonantal Phonemes of Old English" 7024:Continuum Encyclopedia of British Literature 7016: 7014: 6856:Growth and Structure of the English Language 6677:John Insley, "Britons and Anglo-Saxons", in 5001:would be expected. This usage is similar to 3605:were occasionally used instead of the usual 16:Earliest historical form of English language 8010:(pp. 141–173). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. 7966: 7714:Angelsächsische Paleographie, I: Einleitung 7525:The Shape of English: structure and history 5784:me to mind the writs and the word that the 4061:. West Saxon scribes came to prefer to use 2091:) have become independent phonemes, as has 938: Continental West Germanic languages ( 8582: 8568: 8291: 8277: 8247:The Electronic Introduction to Old English 7760:. Manchester: Manchester University Press. 7709:. Manchester: Manchester University Press. 7699:. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. 7591:Mitchell, Bruce; Robinson, Fred C (2001). 7039:Mitchell, Bruce; Robinson, Fred C (2002). 6917:. London: Faber and Faber. pp. 70–71. 5925:, into Denmark that you most harm came of 4753:. In modern editions, wynn is replaced by 3673:In the earliest texts it also represented 3447:pronunciation is sometimes written with a 604: 590: 51: 8116:. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. 7814:Journal of English and Germanic Philology 7609:Quirk, Randolph; & Wrenn, CL (1957). 7371: 7325:(pp. 486–504). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 7198: 7056: 7011: 6853: 6767: 6539:. : Universitat de València. p. 21. 6166:A Thesaurus of Old English in Two Volumes 5951:ne come the while that ye me rightly hold 5678:Representation with constructed cognates 4945:, a record of early English history; the 1493:, which was the scholarly and diplomatic 1354:, were then integrated into Wessex under 675:date from the mid-7th century. After the 8386: 7648: 7567: 7554: 7509:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 7502:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 7428:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6942: 6806: 6579: 6570:(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959), §§5–22. 5567:Thy will be done on earth as in heaven. 5507:Father Ours, thou which art in heavens, 5447: 5359:(those "sitting" or dwelling roundabout) 5181:Oft did Scyld Scefing of scather threats 4888: 4170:By the time of the first written prose, 4057:is also found as a minority spelling of 3264:when it occurred in stressed syllables. 2883: 1593:directness, in clarity, and in strength. 1551:and other Danish kings in the early 11th 1524:) words into English occurred after the 1407: 1267: 1101: 1046:perhaps to the 12th century in parts of 884: 876: 644:, was the earliest recorded form of the 10542:Languages attested from the 5th century 8202:Old English – Modern English dictionary 7833: 7062: 7002: 6894: 6726: 6491:Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable 1993 6332: 6197:Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue 5420:(heed/obedience; related to "gormless") 3716:with the addition of a cross-bar. Both 3359:that was missing the upper hook of the 2505:. The evidence comes from Northumbrian 2485:: masculine, feminine, neuter; and two 2327:For more on dialectal differences, see 2079:The above system is largely similar to 1099:was introduced around the 8th century. 843:This name probably either derives from 352:question marks, boxes, or other symbols 10519: 8589: 8298: 7945: 7444:A Book for the Beginner in Anglo-Saxon 7334: 7071:. Cambridge University Press. p. 7067:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language 6943:Lohmeier, Charlene (28 October 2012). 6927: 6912: 6513: 4993:is used by the poet where a word like 3160:, Old English spelling was reasonably 2497:and strong adjectives retain separate 2228:, spelled ⟨œ⟩, which had emerged from 2046:when the preceding sound was stressed. 1229:The Old English period is followed by 671:in the mid-5th century, and the first 635: 82: 10547:Languages extinct in the 13th century 10253: 9867: 8611: 8563: 8385: 8272: 8144:An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Supplement 7654:Old English and Its Closest Relatives 7446:. Bristol, PA: Evolution Publishing. 7441: 7394: 7297:Dictionarium Saxonico-Latino-Anglicum 6908: 6906: 6849: 6847: 6845: 6843: 6812: 6708: 6386: 6382: 6380: 6378: 6376: 6374: 6182:Though focused on later periods, the 6132:An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Supplement 6068:Dictionarium Saxonico-Latino-Anglicum 5576:Ūrne dæġhwamlīcan hlāf sele ūs tōdæġ, 3395: 1095:) date to the early 8th century. The 1073:Old English literacy developed after 828:is derived, means 'pertaining to the 8166:Cameron, Angus, et al. (ed.) (1983) 7924:(pp. 16–49). The Hague: Mouton. 7891: 7862: 7531: 7479: 7458:(Reissue of one of 4 eds. 1877–1902) 7379:. Vol. I: c. 500–1042. London: 7213: 7184: 6794: 6372: 6370: 6368: 6366: 6364: 6362: 6360: 6358: 6356: 6354: 5995:The earliest history of Old English 5443: 4916:1935 posthumous edition of Bright's 4568:when the preceding vowel was short. 3724:could represent either allophone of 3117:by placing dots above the palatals: 2382:in certain front-vowel environments. 1532:rather than the Old English period. 1460:have had on developments in English 1372:tended to become monophthongised to 698:Old English developed from a set of 9144:Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German 8112:Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. (1972). 7737:; 5, 1957. Oxford: Clarendon Press 7685:(3rd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. 7595:(6th ed.). Oxford: Blackwell. 7570:A Biography of the English Language 7312:. Oxford: Blackwell, 1993. 275–303. 7259: 7097:A Biography of the English Language 6869:BBC World News (27 December 2014). 6785:, Edinburgh University Press (2016) 6439:Pyles, Thomas and John Algeo 1993. 4517:had been followed by a back vowel ( 3145:are normally retained (except when 2923:missionaries. This was replaced by 2341:Phonological history of Old English 1516:was introduced and adapted for the 13: 10503:Languages between parentheses are 9868: 8066:(Vol. II). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. 8038:(3rd ed.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. 8008:Toward a Grammar of Proto-Germanic 7997:A Historical Phonology of English. 7799:(3rd ed.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. 6903: 6840: 5649: 5586:Give us this day our daily bread, 4420:is not known; it may have been an 4190:, but by Late West Saxon only the 4049:is used for the palatal consonant 2221:The Anglian dialects also had the 57:A detail of the first page of the 14: 10563: 8182: 8123:(Vols. 1–3). Leiden: E. J. Brill. 7869:. Malden, MA: Oxford: Blackwell. 7507:A History of the English Language 7419:A History of the English Language 7112:, Anglo-Saxon Books 1997, p. 138. 6493:A history of the English language 6480:A history of the English language 6389:A History of the English Language 6351: 6011:texts. At first these were often 5671: 5669:represent the original division. 5654:This is a proclamation from King 5500:Fæder ūre þū þe eart on heofonum, 5467: 5046: 3451:by modern editors: most commonly 3041:, which was used for the pronoun 2899:Old English was first written in 2851:. Instead, the indeclinable word 2822:, otherwise meaning "then" (e.g. 2710:compound tenses of Modern English 2579:("that over there"). These words 2389:(which for example led to modern 1982: 1976: 1955: 1943: 1934: 1928: 1908: 1900: 1895: 1887: 1879: 1871: 1865: 1857: 1851: 1843: 1837: 1816: 1810: 1787: 1781: 1770: 1765: 1756: 1751: 1734: 1722: 1716: 1706: 1443:Scandinavian influence in English 1427:St Mary's parish church, Breamore 977:Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain 8253: (archived 7 September 2015) 8218: (archived 22 February 2012) 8196:An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary Online 8161:A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary 7750:An Introduction to English Runes 7498:Hogg, Richard M. (ed.). (1992). 7005:An Introduction to English Runes 6975:Ringe & Taylor (2014), p. 4. 6690: 6256: 6244:Old English version of Knowledge 6234:A number of websites devoted to 6209: 6151:A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary 5990: 5981:me rightly and my life persists. 4416:The exact nature of Old English 4089:in the spelling of these words. 3593:was realized as . The spellings 3475:. Otherwise, a knowledge of the 2334: 2240:before the first written prose. 2038:respectively, occurring between 1547:century, and during the rule of 1535:Another source of loanwords was 1517: 1414:Her sƿutelað seo gecƿydrædnes ðe 785:, and its closest relatives are 436: 371: 8159:; & Merritt, H. D. (1969). 7528:. London: J. M. Dent & Sons 7484:. Tempe, Arizona: ACMRS Press. 7358: 7328: 7315: 7302: 7289: 7277: 7268: 7253: 7244: 7207: 7178: 7169: 7160: 7151: 7142: 7133: 7124: 7115: 7102: 7099:, Cengage Learning 2011, p. 96. 7089: 7047: 7032: 6996: 6987: 6978: 6955: 6936: 6921: 6888: 6862: 6813:Scott, Shay (30 January 2008). 6788: 6775: 6761: 6720: 6702: 6684: 6671: 6639: 6627: 6618: 6605: 6573: 6560: 6526: 6507: 6498: 6465:Mugglestone, Lynda (ed.) 2006. 6203:Historical Thesaurus of English 5985: 5510:Our Father, who art in heaven, 5213:(clans; cf. Irish cognate Mac-) 4841:("best") is occasionally spelt 4395:, which was usually written as 4253:(as in Modern English) when in 2808:type conjunction, but rather a 2622:forms: bare and bound; and two 2430:Phonological history of English 853: 847: 63:manuscript, showing the words " 10507:of the language on their left. 8142:Toller, T. Northcote. (1921). 8078:Old English Syntax: a handbook 7335:Tichy, Ondrej; Rocek, Martin. 6485: 6482:. Cambridge: University Press. 6472: 6467:The Oxford History of English. 6459: 6446: 6433: 6420: 6395: 6337:. Cambridge University Press. 6319: 5812:by the might that me God would 5583:Our daily loaf sell us today, 4509:('to ask'). The pronunciation 4424:as in most modern English, an 3207: 2867: 2828:in place of "when X, Y"). The 2071:occur after in the sequences 1576:along the continuum to a more 1241:(after 1650), and in Scotland 1135:advocated education in English 832:'. The Angles were one of the 706:dialects originally spoken by 1: 10398:Germanic substrate hypothesis 10254: 8242:University of Texas at Austin 8076:MacLaughlin, John C. (1983). 7830:. New York: Harper & Row. 7758:A History of English Spelling 7716:. Berlin: Mayer & Müller. 7634:Strang, Barbara M. H. (1970) 7421:(4th ed.). London: Routledge. 6325:By the 16th century the term 6312: 6287:History of the Scots language 6130:T. Northcote Toller. (1921). 4884: 4662:Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩ 4073:sequence found in verbs like 3980:elsewhere. (For details, see 3575:to distinguish it from velar 3491:elsewhere. (For details, see 3168:. There were not usually any 2720:, which use a suffix such as 2691:derives from the Old English 2446: 2353:Fronting of to except when 1273: 1250: 1215: 1189: 1171: 811:version of the Latin alphabet 10428:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law 9119:Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch 8119:Visser, F. Th. (1963–1973). 8048:Wagner, Karl Heinz. (1969). 7674:Bremmer Jr, Rolf H. (2009). 7377:English Historical Documents 6819:. Wardja Press. p. 86. 6297:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law 6229:linguistic purism in English 5422:yield. That was good king! 4920:, Dr. James Hulbert writes: 4757:, to prevent confusion with 4009:, including its allophones 2712:. Old English verbs include 1632: 1404:Influence of other languages 1362: 1272:The dialects of Old English 816: 742:, brought to Britain by the 21:Old English (disambiguation) 7: 10408:High German consonant shift 8238:Linguistics Research Center 8208: (archived 2 July 2005) 8069:Kemenade, Ans van. (1982). 8052:. Heidelberg: Julius Groos. 8024:. Heidelberg: Julius Groos. 8020:Wagner, Karl Heinz (1969). 7999:Edinburgh University Press. 7695:Bourcier, Georges. (1978). 7397:Introduction to Old English 7095:C.M. Millward, Mary Hayes, 6768:Alexiadou, Artemis (2008), 6624:Magennis (2011), pp. 56–60. 6249: 6125:http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/ 6101:https://www.doe.utoronto.ca 5545:To be come thine kingdom, 5357:him each of those umsitters 4986:feel of the original poem. 4897:manuscript with its opening 4881:are always voiceless , , . 4629:, including its allophone 4614:in the earliest texts (see 4280:, including its allophone 3946:, including its allophone 3925:, including its allophone 3704:in Old English; now called 3695:, including its allophone 3219:Variants in modern editions 2790:, and negatives by placing 2642:are formed with compounds. 2602:: present, and past; three 1435:Celtic influence in English 1263: 1237:(1500 to 1650) and finally 1133:(Early West Saxon). Alfred 710:traditionally known as the 10: 10568: 8946:Westlauwers–Terschellings 8599:According to contemporary 8265: (archived 3 May 2009) 8153:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 8146:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 8045:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 7934:Luick, Karl. (1914–1940). 7806:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 7726:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 7712:Keller, Wolfgang. (1906). 7613:(2nd ed.) London: Methuen. 7561:Cambridge University Press 7538:Cambridge University Press 7438:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 7264:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 7157:Wełna (1986), pp. 754–755. 7110:First Steps in Old English 6264:Anglo-Saxon England portal 6141:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 6137:Alistair Campbell (1972). 6134:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 6053:Durham Plant-Name Glossary 4964: 4908: 4857:; the geminate fricatives 4443:, including its allophone 4194:spelling remained common. 3732:at the start of words and 3158:Modern English orthography 2880:Old English Latin alphabet 2873: 2630:in person and number. The 2439: 2435: 2338: 1636: 1439:Latin influence in English 1432: 1097:Old English Latin alphabet 870: 866: 781:Old English is one of the 673:Old English literary works 513:Development of Old English 18: 10490: 10441: 10365: 10334: 10266: 10262: 10249: 10198: 10171: 10125:Southern Schleswig Danish 10056: 9937: 9893: 9884: 9880: 9863: 9704: 9647: 9535: 9526: 9431: 9403: 9362: 9353: 9328: 9310: 9221: 9193: 9167: 9158: 9109: 9022: 8997: 8988: 8927: 8822: 8771: 8746: 8737: 8633: 8624: 8620: 8607: 8597: 8464: 8398: 8394: 8381: 8306: 8222:Dictionary of Old English 8169:Dictionary of Old English 8136:An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary 8083:Mitchell, Bruce. (1985). 8080:. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. 7981:10.1017/S0022226700014699 7863:Hogg, Richard M. (2011). 7819:Girvan, Ritchie. (1931). 7756:Scragg, Donald G (1974). 7658:Stanford University Press 7228:10.1515/9783110820263-004 7214:Kuhn, Sherman M. (1970). 6469:Oxford: University Press. 6191:Middle English Dictionary 6185:Oxford English Dictionary 6121:Dictionary of Old English 6116:An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary 6096:Dictionary of Old English 6081: 5750:you, that I will be hold 5677: 5674: 5483:Word-for-word translation 4822: 4782: 4770: 4728: 4723: 4720: 4668: 4638:the rune of the same name 4622: 4601: 4589: 4461: 4449: 4436: 4407: 4382: 4370: 4343: 4332: 4287: 4273: 4261: 4240: 4223: 4158: 4118: 4032: 4002: 3948: 3936: 3918: 3861: 3792: 3752: 3708:or edh. Derived from the 3664: 3532: 3517: 3495:.) See also the digraphs 3442: 3431: 3304: 3293: 3244:Spelling variations like 3232: 3129:is usually replaced with 2737: 2534:occasionally distinguish 2374:Palatalisation of velars 2110: 2105: 2103: 2083:, except that (and for 2034:are voiced allophones of 1528:of 1066, and thus in the 1510:converted to Christianity 1170:Prehistoric Old English ( 1038:and in adjacent parts of 652:and southern and eastern 338: 322: 308: 292: 274: 269: 244: 215: 194: 134: 118: 108: 90: 78: 50: 35: 30: 10403:West Germanic gemination 10357:Ancient Belgian language 10352:Germanic parent language 10296:Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic) 9418:Austrian Standard German 8612: 8423:Changes before historic 8415:Changes before historic 8105:Timofeeva, Olga. (2010) 8098:Mitchell, Bruce. (1990) 8013:Sievers, Eduard (1893). 8006:& HL Kufner (Eds.), 7690:Orthography/Palaeography 7619:and Taylor, Ann (2014). 7568:Millward, Celia (1996). 6854:Jespersen, Otto (1919). 6727:Elsness, Johann (1997). 6093:, et al. (ed.) (1983–). 6051:glossaries, such as the 5869:(financial contribution) 5841:the while that you stood 5728:(ordained to priesthood) 5526:Be thine name hallowed. 5288:found, he of this frover 5149:(fortitude/courage/zeal) 4640:. In the earliest texts 4538:('fish') and its plural 3887:palatal diphthongization 3818:palatal diphthongization 3535:West Germanic gemination 3524:(between vowels; rare), 3178:, for example, both the 2935:) replaced the insular. 2320:, which had merged with 1449:British Celtic languages 8326:Anglo-Frisian languages 8062:Brunner, Karl. (1962). 8034:Brunner, Karl. (1965). 7995:Minkova, Donka (2014). 7795:Brunner, Karl. (1965). 7555:Magennis, Hugh (2011). 7395:Baker, Peter S (2003). 7381:Eyre & Spottiswoode 7063:Crystal, David (1987). 6928:Potter, Simeon (1950). 6913:McCrum, Robert (1987). 6895:Crystal, David (1995). 6589:Oxford University Press 6426:Fennell, Barbara 1998. 6333:Crystal, David (2003). 5877: 5827: 5773: 5740: 5734:, in England friendly. 5724:(200 shilling weregild) 5685: 5632: 5613: 5594: 5575: 5556: 5537: 5518: 5499: 5401: 5369: 5336: 5300: 5267: 5227: 5215:, of mead-settees atee 5194: 5163: 5129: 5119:(learn about by asking) 5096: 5070: 5037: 5028: 5019: 5010: 4900: 4853:Doubled consonants are 4843: 4837: 4556: 4540: 4531: 4502: 4488: 4479: 4464: 3845:. Sometimes stands for 3700: 3623:⟨cyningc⟩ 3619:⟨cynincg⟩ 3547: 3423: 3417: 3174: 3043: 2990: 2976: 2859: 2853: 2847:forms were not used as 2832:words are used only as 2824: 2818: 2814:correlative conjunction 2722: 2701: 2655:forms of a few pronouns 2575: 2569: 2557:demonstrative adjective 2543: 2223:mid front rounded vowel 2216:open back rounded vowel 2031:occurring before and . 1455:. The number of Celtic 1413: 1293:Modern English dialects 1152:Æthelwold of Winchester 1030:– in most of Scotland, 998:, and developed out of 801:endings and forms, and 783:West Germanic languages 627: 621: 65: 43: 37: 10464:Preterite-present verb 10347:Proto-Germanic grammar 10301:North Sea (Ingvaeonic) 9413:German Standard German 9089:East Frisian Low Saxon 8017:. Halle: Max Niemeyer. 7969:Journal of Linguistics 7821:Angelsaksisch Handboek 7729:Ker, NR (1957: 1990). 7707:Runes: An introduction 7611:An Old English Grammar 7593:A Guide to Old English 7424:Blake, Norman (1992). 7166:Fulk (2014), pp. 68–69 7121:Minkova (2014), p. 79. 7041:A Guide to Old English 6984:Kuhn (1970), p. 42-44. 6961:Campbell (1959), p.21. 6613:Old English diphthongs 6521:Primitive Old English. 6387:Baugh, Albert (1951). 6240:historical reenactment 6076:Anglo-Saxon Dictionary 5983: 5529:Hallowed be thy name. 5519:Sīe þīn nama ġehālgod. 5458: 5441: 5084:What! We of Gare-Danes 4981:'s legendary ancestor 4927: 4911:Old English literature 4906: 4893:The first page of the 4045:Although the spelling 3635:⟨cyninc⟩ 3627:⟨cyning⟩ 3228:Description and notes 2896: 2758:Default word order is 2748:that of modern English 2345:Some of the principal 2099:Vowels – monophthongs 2081:that of Modern English 1595: 1518:writing of Old English 1430: 1348:overrun by the Vikings 1279: 1179:reconstructed language 1118: 1079:Old English literature 1016:kingdom of Northumbria 996:West Germanic language 972: 882: 824:, from which the word 340:This article contains 122:Mostly developed into 10469:Grammatischer Wechsel 9452:Namibian Black German 9423:Swiss Standard German 9392:Early New High German 8950:Mainland West Frisian 8811:Harlingerland Frisian 8358:Anglo-Norman language 8258:Old English Made Easy 8194:Bosworth and Toller, 8149:Campbell, A. (1972). 8041:Campbell, A. (1959). 8015:Altgermanische Metrik 7929:Old English Phonology 7875:10.1002/9781444341355 7802:Campbell, A. (1959). 7130:Wełna (1986), p. 755. 6514:Stumpf, John (1970). 6164:, with Lynne Grundy, 5964: 5929:: and that have , mid 5891:me that us more harm 5889:(made known/couth to) 5861:(separated/dispelled) 5748:(make known/couth to) 5456: 5430: 4942:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 4922: 4892: 4403:in modern editions). 3873:Sometimes stands for 3804:Sometimes stands for 3645:) by modern editors. 3617:in spellings such as 3589:was realized as and 3467:; word-finally after 2929:Carolingian minuscule 2887: 2561:demonstrative pronoun 2385:The process known as 1639:Old English phonology 1590: 1433:Further information: 1411: 1271: 1105: 888: 880: 871:Further information: 487:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 10474:Indo-European ablaut 10454:Germanic strong verb 10423:Germanic spirant law 9560:Southeast Limburgish 9056:Gelders-Overijssels 8685:Irish Middle English 8675:Early Modern English 8388:Phonological history 8368:Early Modern English 8212:Old English Glossary 7681:Stenton, FM (1971). 7636:A History of English 7532:Lass, Roger (1994). 7480:Fulk, R. D. (2014). 7442:Earle, John (2005). 7401:Blackwell Publishing 7108:Stephen Pollington, 6915:The Story of English 6709:Culicover, Peter W. 6430:. Oxford: Blackwell. 6057:Laud Herbal Glossary 6037:Cleopatra Glossaries 5804:lies, and full frith 5055:Representation with 4831:A rare spelling for 4810:to distinguish long 4806:Modern editions use 4705:to distinguish long 4701:Modern editions use 4422:alveolar approximant 4348:to distinguish long 4320:to distinguish long 4316:Modern editions use 4211:to distinguish long 4207:Modern editions use 4146:to distinguish long 4142:Modern editions use 4106:to distinguish long 4102:Modern editions use 3906:to distinguish long 3902:Modern editions use 3837:to distinguish long 3833:Modern editions use 3780:to distinguish long 3776:Modern editions use 3603:⟨ncgg⟩ 3320:to distinguish long 3281:to distinguish long 3277:Modern editions use 3250:⟨lond⟩ 3246:⟨land⟩ 3032:scribal abbreviation 2766:, and verb-final in 1235:Early Modern English 1223:Early Middle English 1004:Anglo-Saxon kingdoms 748:Anglo-Saxon kingdoms 669:Anglo-Saxon settlers 566:Early Modern English 462:Phonological history 263:Old English alphabet 10442:Synchronic features 10413:Germanic a-mutation 10366:Diachronic features 9716:in the broad sense 9649:East Central German 9603:Lorraine Franconian 9577:Transylvanian Saxon 9537:West Central German 9312:East Low Franconian 9222:West Low Franconian 8321:Proto-West-Germanic 8311:Proto-Indo-European 8102:. Oxford: Blackwell 8073:. Dordrecht: Foris. 8043:Old English grammar 7804:Old English Grammar 7735:Anglo-Saxon England 7683:Anglo-Saxon England 7522:Lass, Roger (1987) 7436:Old English Grammar 7260:Ker, N. R. (1957). 7250:Hogg (1992), p. 257 7220:Philological Essays 7148:Hogg (1992), p. 91. 6993:Hogg (1992), p. 39. 6681:, De Gruyter (2018) 6585:Old English Grammar 6568:Old English Grammar 6504:Hogg (1992), p. 83. 6111:T. Northcote Toller 5955:and my life beeth. 5849:on-hand: now I, mid 5250:(since, as of when) 5143:how those athelings 4745:was represented by 4391:A rare spelling of 3643:⟨nġċ⟩ 3639:⟨nċġ⟩ 3599:⟨ngc⟩ 3595:⟨ncg⟩ 3569:⟨gcg⟩ 3565:⟨ccg⟩ 3561:⟨cgg⟩ 3036:thorn with a stroke 2946:, and there was no 2838:indefinite pronouns 2768:subordinate clauses 2442:Old English grammar 2245: 2100: 2069:voiceless sonorants 2056:is an allophone of 2027:is an allophone of 1656: 1578:analytic word order 1470:analytic word order 1391:dialect of Somerset 1333:Æthelwoldian Saxon, 1188:Early Old English ( 1183:epigraphic evidence 1026:– and perhaps some 795:Old English grammar 202:Proto-Indo-European 130:by the 12th century 10552:North Sea Germanic 10532:Medieval languages 10459:Germanic weak verb 10268:Language subgroups 9618:Pennsylvania Dutch 9567:Moselle Franconian 9545:Central Franconian 9378:Middle High German 9129:Central Pomeranian 9084:Northern Low Saxon 8797:Wangerooge Frisian 8591:Germanic languages 8456:Trisyllabic laxing 8436:Close front vowels 8300:History of English 8234:Old English Online 8085:Old English Syntax 7948:Linguistic Inquiry 7940:Bernhard Tauchnitz 7816:, 82 (3): 313–323. 7810:Cercignani, Fausto 7772:⟨cg⟩ 7753:. London: Methuen. 7650:Robinson, Orrin W. 7638:. London: Methuen. 7373:Whitelock, Dorothy 7341:bosworthtoller.com 7175:Fulk (2014), p. 69 7139:Shaw (2012), p. 51 6951:. Dutch Lichliter. 6647:"Rotary-munich.de" 6581:Campbell, Alistair 6160:Roberts, Jane and 5917:those men that mid 5901:than us well liked 5835:(withdrew/changed) 5754:lord and unswiking 5548:Thy kingdom come, 5538:Tōbecume þīn rīċe, 5459: 5327:(throve/prospered) 5319:(firmament/clouds) 5317:waxed under welkin 5086:(lit. Spear-Danes) 4918:Anglo-Saxon Reader 4907: 4879:⟨þð⟩ 4875:⟨ðþ⟩ 4871:⟨þþ⟩ 4867:⟨ðð⟩ 4863:⟨ss⟩ 4859:⟨ff⟩ 4751:⟨uu⟩ 4646:⟨th⟩ 4515:⟨sc⟩ 4486:('fisherman') and 4401:⟨cw⟩ 4397:⟨cƿ⟩ 4346:⟨ōe⟩ 4209:⟨īo⟩ 4192:⟨eo⟩ 4188:⟨eo⟩ 4184:⟨io⟩ 4182:was often written 4144:⟨īe⟩ 4087:⟨rg⟩ 4067:⟨rg⟩ 4063:⟨ri⟩ 4026:⟨hw⟩ 4022:⟨hn⟩ 4018:⟨hr⟩ 4014:⟨hl⟩ 3976:(other than ) and 3904:⟨ēo⟩ 3835:⟨ēa⟩ 3654:(between vowels), 3631:⟨nc⟩ 3609:. The addition of 3607:⟨ng⟩ 3577:⟨cg⟩ 3573:⟨ċġ⟩ 3557:⟨gc⟩ 3553:⟨gg⟩ 3501:⟨sc⟩ 3497:⟨cg⟩ 3487:(other than ) and 3310:⟨ae⟩ 3196:⟨gh⟩ 3125:. The letter wynn 2897: 2697:grammatical gender 2243: 2098: 2049:are allophones of 1654: 1611:pronominal adverbs 1574:synthetic language 1562:West Saxon dialect 1431: 1280: 1214:Late Old English ( 1131:West Saxon dialect 1119: 1089:runic inscriptions 1060:Anglo-Welsh border 1008:Kingdom of England 985:synthetic language 973: 883: 873:History of English 161:North Sea Germanic 10514: 10513: 10499:extinct languages 10486: 10485: 10482: 10481: 10433:Great Vowel Shift 10245: 10244: 10241: 10240: 10194: 10193: 10040:Greenlandic Norse 9859: 9858: 9855: 9854: 9851: 9850: 9790:Southern Bavarian 9773:Northern Bavarian 9749:Highest Alemannic 9700: 9699: 9434:standard variants 9349: 9348: 9195:Standard variants 9154: 9153: 9013:Middle Low German 8984: 8983: 8980: 8979: 8784:Saterland Frisian 8557: 8556: 8553: 8552: 8549: 8548: 8446:Great Vowel Shift 8431:Close back vowels 8157:Clark Hall, J. R. 7747:Page, RI (1973). 7703:Elliott, Ralph WV 7474:978-3-9812110-7-8 6826:978-0-615-16817-3 6757:on 6 August 2020. 6691:Koch, Anthony S. 6217:Alistair Campbell 6175:Roget's Thesaurus 6147:Clark Hall, J. R. 6045:Brussels Glossary 5959: 5958: 5949:(breach of peace) 5786:Archbishop Lyfing 5663:Thorkell the Tall 5647: 5646: 5461:This text of the 5454: 5444:The Lord's Prayer 5426: 5425: 5206:eodosetla oftēah, 5113:-kings, did thrum 4851: 4850: 4808:⟨ȳ⟩ 4759:⟨p⟩ 4755:⟨w⟩ 4747:⟨u⟩ 4735:⟨ƿ⟩ 4703:⟨ū⟩ 4684:⟨ƿ⟩ 4678:, also sometimes 4654:⟨þ⟩ 4650:⟨ð⟩ 4642:⟨d⟩ 4636:and derived from 4616:⟨þ⟩ 4580:(between vowels), 4318:⟨ō⟩ 4301:⟨a⟩ 4234:⟨c⟩ 4104:⟨ī⟩ 4055:⟨i⟩ 4047:⟨g⟩ 4012:The combinations 3997:⟨n⟩ 3972:before and after 3966:⟨i⟩ 3962:⟨ġ⟩ 3954:⟨ᵹ⟩ 3930:⟨b⟩ 3883:⟨ġ⟩ 3879:⟨ċ⟩ 3855:⟨ġ⟩ 3851:⟨ċ⟩ 3814:⟨ġ⟩ 3810:⟨ċ⟩ 3778:⟨ē⟩ 3746:⟨þ⟩ 3742:⟨þ⟩ 3738:⟨ð⟩ 3734:⟨ð⟩ 3730:⟨þ⟩ 3722:⟨ð⟩ 3718:⟨þ⟩ 3714:⟨d⟩ 3679:⟨þ⟩ 3615:⟨g⟩ 3611:⟨c⟩ 3469:⟨i⟩ 3461:⟨ç⟩ 3457:⟨č⟩ 3453:⟨ċ⟩ 3408:(an allophone of 3377:⟨æ⟩ 3373:⟨ę⟩ 3361:⟨a⟩ 3357:⟨æ⟩ 3318:⟨ǣ⟩ 3314:⟨æ⟩ 3279:⟨ā⟩ 3192:⟨k⟩ 3186:were pronounced ( 3184:⟨h⟩ 3180:⟨c⟩ 3156:In contrast with 3151:⟨þ⟩ 3147:⟨ð⟩ 3143:⟨þ⟩ 3139:⟨ð⟩ 3135:⟨æ⟩ 3131:⟨w⟩ 3127:⟨ƿ⟩ 3123:⟨ġ⟩ 3119:⟨ċ⟩ 3115:⟨g⟩ 3111:⟨c⟩ 3096:⟨r⟩ 3092:⟨f⟩ 3088:⟨e⟩ 3076:⟨s⟩ 3068:⟨g⟩ 3061:⟨n⟩ 3057:⟨m⟩ 3039:⟨ꝥ⟩ 3021:⟨⁊⟩ 3010:⟨ƿ⟩ 3003:⟨þ⟩ 2986:⟨ð⟩ 2964:⟨z⟩ 2960:⟨q⟩ 2956:⟨k⟩ 2952:⟨u⟩ 2950:as distinct from 2948:⟨v⟩ 2944:⟨w⟩ 2940:⟨j⟩ 2876:Anglo-Saxon runes 2849:relative pronouns 2587:is also present. 2532:personal pronouns 2516:"on the Cross"). 2393:as the plural of 2357:or followed by a 2314: 2313: 2212: 2211: 2137: 2132: 2127: 2120: 2044:voiced consonants 1998: 1997: 1643:The inventory of 1543:from the late 9th 1468:construction and 1453:largely displaced 1156:Ælfric of Eynsham 1006:which became the 994:Old English is a 776:Scandinavian rule 774:influence due to 726:the languages of 637:[ˈeŋɡliʃ] 614: 613: 366: 365: 348:rendering support 344:phonetic symbols. 84:[ˈeŋɡliʃ] 10559: 10527:Anglic languages 10291:Elbe (Irminonic) 10264: 10263: 10251: 10250: 10179:Mainland Gutnish 10069:Swedish dialects 10031:Middle Icelandic 10005:Middle Norwegian 9894:Historical forms 9891: 9890: 9882: 9881: 9865: 9864: 9824:South Franconian 9810:Hutterite German 9778:Central Bavarian 9598:Rhine Franconian 9533: 9532: 9363:Historical forms 9360: 9359: 9275:Surinamese Dutch 9168:Historical forms 9165: 9164: 8998:Historical forms 8995: 8994: 8747:Historical forms 8744: 8743: 8631: 8630: 8622: 8621: 8609: 8608: 8584: 8577: 8570: 8561: 8560: 8451:Open back vowels 8426: 8418: 8396: 8395: 8383: 8382: 8293: 8286: 8279: 8270: 8269: 7992: 7963: 7917: 7888: 7859: 7773: 7671: 7643:External history 7606: 7587: 7564: 7551: 7495: 7457: 7414: 7384: 7352: 7351: 7349: 7347: 7332: 7326: 7319: 7313: 7306: 7300: 7295:William Somner, 7293: 7287: 7281: 7275: 7272: 7266: 7265: 7257: 7251: 7248: 7242: 7241: 7211: 7205: 7204: 7202: 7182: 7176: 7173: 7167: 7164: 7158: 7155: 7149: 7146: 7140: 7137: 7131: 7128: 7122: 7119: 7113: 7106: 7100: 7093: 7087: 7086: 7070: 7060: 7054: 7051: 7045: 7044: 7036: 7030: 7029: 7018: 7009: 7008: 7003:Boydell (1999). 7000: 6994: 6991: 6985: 6982: 6976: 6973: 6962: 6959: 6953: 6952: 6940: 6934: 6933: 6925: 6919: 6918: 6910: 6901: 6900: 6892: 6886: 6885: 6883: 6881: 6866: 6860: 6859: 6851: 6838: 6837: 6835: 6833: 6810: 6804: 6803: 6801: 6795:Hoeksema, Jack. 6792: 6786: 6779: 6773: 6772: 6765: 6759: 6758: 6756: 6750:. Archived from 6733: 6724: 6718: 6717: 6715: 6706: 6700: 6699: 6697: 6688: 6682: 6675: 6669: 6668: 6666: 6664: 6659:on 27 March 2009 6658: 6652:. Archived from 6651: 6643: 6637: 6631: 6625: 6622: 6616: 6609: 6603: 6602: 6577: 6571: 6564: 6558: 6557: 6555: 6553: 6530: 6524: 6523: 6511: 6505: 6502: 6496: 6489: 6483: 6476: 6470: 6463: 6457: 6450: 6444: 6437: 6431: 6424: 6418: 6417: 6415: 6413: 6399: 6393: 6392: 6384: 6349: 6348: 6323: 6266: 6261: 6260: 6259: 6221:J. R. R. Tolkien 6107:Bosworth, Joseph 5953:(behold as king) 5880: 5859:, that totwemed 5830: 5777: 5743: 5688: 5672: 5635: 5616: 5597: 5578: 5559: 5540: 5521: 5502: 5468: 5455: 5415: 5380: 5350: 5323:(honour/worship) 5314: 5281: 5241: 5208: 5178: 5140: 5106: 5081: 5047: 5043: 5034: 5025: 5016: 4903: 4880: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4860: 4846: 4840: 4834: 4828: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4803: 4791: 4776: 4760: 4756: 4752: 4748: 4744: 4736: 4733:with the letter 4732: 4726: 4712: 4708: 4704: 4698: 4685: 4681: 4677: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4628: 4617: 4613: 4607: 4595: 4584: 4579: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4546: 4543: 4537: 4534: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4505: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4485: 4482: 4476: 4470: 4467: 4458: 4442: 4419: 4413: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4388: 4376: 4366: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4341: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4313: 4302: 4296: 4279: 4267: 4246: 4235: 4229: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4204: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4174:had merged with 4173: 4167: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4139: 4127: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4099: 4088: 4072: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4041: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4008: 3998: 3994: 3979: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3955: 3945: 3931: 3924: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3899: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3870: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3830: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3801: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3773: 3761: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3703: 3694: 3680: 3676: 3670: 3659: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3544: 3540: 3529: 3513: 3502: 3498: 3490: 3482: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3446: 3440: 3426: 3420: 3411: 3401: 3390: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3352: 3348: 3338: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3302: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3274: 3263: 3259: 3251: 3247: 3241: 3213: 3212: 3205: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3077: 3069: 3062: 3058: 3046: 3040: 3022: 3011: 3004: 2993: 2987: 2979: 2973: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2862: 2856: 2827: 2821: 2799:negative concord 2725: 2704: 2578: 2572: 2553:definite article 2546: 2540:definite article 2512: 2420:(compare German 2409: 2381: 2377: 2323: 2319: 2310: 2305: 2295: 2290: 2280: 2275: 2246: 2242: 2239: 2235: 2227: 2207: 2201: 2194: 2182: 2173: 2161: 2154: 2149: 2135: 2130: 2123: 2118: 2101: 2097: 2094: 2090: 2074: 2063: 2060:occurring after 2059: 2052: 2037: 2030: 2019: 2016:occurring after 2015: 1986: 1980: 1959: 1947: 1938: 1932: 1912: 1904: 1899: 1891: 1883: 1875: 1869: 1861: 1855: 1847: 1841: 1820: 1814: 1791: 1785: 1774: 1769: 1760: 1755: 1738: 1726: 1720: 1710: 1657: 1653: 1645:Early West Saxon 1554: 1546: 1424: 1416: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1356:Alfred the Great 1289:written standard 1278: 1275: 1255: 1252: 1233:(1150 to 1500), 1220: 1217: 1194: 1191: 1176: 1173: 1127:Alfred the Great 1107:Alfred the Great 1075:Christianisation 1032:Medieval Cornish 1020:Celtic languages 959: 937: 926: 915: 904: 893: 732:Common Brittonic 646:English language 639: 634: 630: 624: 606: 599: 592: 375: 368: 367: 334: 318: 313: 304: 297: 288: 287: 279: 250: 140: 86: 68: 55: 46: 40: 28: 27: 10567: 10566: 10562: 10561: 10560: 10558: 10557: 10556: 10517: 10516: 10515: 10510: 10478: 10437: 10418:Germanic umlaut 10383:Holtzmann's law 10361: 10330: 10258: 10237: 10190: 10167: 10101:South Jutlandic 10086:Danish dialects 10052: 9933: 9876: 9847: 9829:East Franconian 9783:Viennese German 9696: 9677:Silesian German 9643: 9632:Central Hessian 9522: 9447:Namibian German 9436: 9427: 9405:Standard German 9399: 9385:New High German 9371:Old High German 9345: 9324: 9306: 9217: 9189: 9150: 9134:East Pomeranian 9124:Brandenburgisch 9111:East Low German 9105: 9032:Dutch Low Saxon 9024:West Low German 9018: 8976: 8942:Schiermonnikoog 8923: 8818: 8804:Wursten Frisian 8767: 8733: 8616: 8603: 8593: 8588: 8558: 8545: 8515:-glottalization 8460: 8390: 8377: 8302: 8297: 8263:Wayback Machine 8251:Wayback Machine 8216:Wayback Machine 8206:Wayback Machine 8185: 8180: 8179: 7885: 7771: 7668: 7617:Ringe, Donald R 7603: 7584: 7548: 7513:Jespersen, Otto 7492: 7454: 7411: 7361: 7356: 7355: 7345: 7343: 7333: 7329: 7320: 7316: 7307: 7303: 7294: 7290: 7282: 7278: 7273: 7269: 7258: 7254: 7249: 7245: 7238: 7212: 7208: 7183: 7179: 7174: 7170: 7165: 7161: 7156: 7152: 7147: 7143: 7138: 7134: 7129: 7125: 7120: 7116: 7107: 7103: 7094: 7090: 7083: 7061: 7057: 7052: 7048: 7037: 7033: 7020: 7019: 7012: 7001: 6997: 6992: 6988: 6983: 6979: 6974: 6965: 6960: 6956: 6941: 6937: 6926: 6922: 6911: 6904: 6893: 6889: 6879: 6877: 6867: 6863: 6852: 6841: 6831: 6829: 6827: 6811: 6807: 6799: 6793: 6789: 6780: 6776: 6766: 6762: 6754: 6731: 6725: 6721: 6713: 6707: 6703: 6695: 6689: 6685: 6676: 6672: 6662: 6660: 6656: 6649: 6645: 6644: 6640: 6632: 6628: 6623: 6619: 6610: 6606: 6599: 6578: 6574: 6565: 6561: 6551: 6549: 6547: 6531: 6527: 6512: 6508: 6503: 6499: 6490: 6486: 6477: 6473: 6464: 6460: 6451: 6447: 6438: 6434: 6425: 6421: 6411: 6409: 6401: 6400: 6396: 6385: 6352: 6345: 6331: 6324: 6320: 6315: 6262: 6257: 6255: 6252: 6236:Modern Paganism 6212: 6084: 6072:Joseph Bosworth 6041:Harley Glossary 5993: 5988: 5758:to God's rights 5708:(having a 1200 5652: 5650:Charter of Cnut 5448: 5446: 5409:yldan. Þæt ƿæs 5383:over whale-road 5312:eorðmyndum þāh, 5211:of many maegths 5176:eaþena þrēatum, 5111:(nation/people) 4969: 4913: 4904: 4898: 4887: 4878: 4874: 4870: 4866: 4862: 4858: 4807: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4734: 4702: 4683: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4615: 4581: 4514: 4400: 4396: 4345: 4317: 4300: 4233: 4208: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4143: 4103: 4086: 4066: 4062: 4054: 4046: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4013: 3996: 3965: 3961: 3953: 3929: 3903: 3882: 3878: 3854: 3850: 3834: 3813: 3809: 3777: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3678: 3655: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3525: 3500: 3496: 3468: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3384: 3376: 3372: 3360: 3356: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3278: 3249: 3245: 3210:section above. 3195: 3191: 3183: 3179: 3150: 3149:is replaced by 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3075: 3067: 3060: 3056: 3038: 3020: 3009: 3002: 2985: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2931:(also known as 2921:Irish Christian 2882: 2874:Main articles: 2870: 2740: 2449: 2444: 2438: 2366:height-harmonic 2359:nasal consonant 2343: 2337: 2324:in West Saxon. 2264: 2255: 2250: 1679: 1651:is as follows. 1641: 1635: 1552: 1544: 1526:Norman Conquest 1476:auxiliary verb 1445: 1422: 1406: 1376:in EWS, but to 1329:Alfredian Saxon 1276: 1266: 1253: 1245:(before 1450), 1218: 1192: 1174: 1066:was spoken and 981:Norman invasion 971: 957: 955: 952:Old High German 935: 933: 924: 922: 913: 911: 902: 900: 891: 875: 869: 834:Germanic tribes 819: 736:Celtic language 708:Germanic tribes 691:in England and 677:Norman Conquest 632: 610: 581: 580: 556: 548: 547: 546: 507: 497: 496: 477: 467: 466: 439: 432: 424: 423: 399: 346:Without proper 330: 316: 309: 300: 293: 283: 282: 275: 251: 246: 211: 197: 190: 141: 138:Language family 136: 74: 41: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 10565: 10555: 10554: 10549: 10544: 10539: 10534: 10529: 10512: 10511: 10509: 10508: 10501: 10491: 10488: 10487: 10484: 10483: 10480: 10479: 10477: 10476: 10471: 10466: 10461: 10456: 10451: 10445: 10443: 10439: 10438: 10436: 10435: 10430: 10425: 10420: 10415: 10410: 10405: 10400: 10395: 10390: 10385: 10380: 10375: 10369: 10367: 10363: 10362: 10360: 10359: 10354: 10349: 10344: 10342:Proto-Germanic 10338: 10336: 10332: 10331: 10329: 10328: 10321: 10314: 10306: 10305: 10304: 10303: 10298: 10293: 10283: 10278: 10272: 10270: 10260: 10259: 10247: 10246: 10243: 10242: 10239: 10238: 10236: 10235: 10228: 10221: 10217:Crimean Gothic 10206: 10204: 10196: 10195: 10192: 10191: 10189: 10188: 10187: 10186: 10181: 10172: 10169: 10168: 10166: 10165: 10164: 10163: 10153: 10152: 10151: 10144: 10137: 10132: 10127: 10122: 10121: 10120: 10115: 10105: 10104: 10103: 10093: 10091:Insular Danish 10088: 10078: 10077: 10076: 10074:Rinkebysvenska 10071: 10060: 10058: 10054: 10053: 10051: 10050: 10043: 10036: 10035: 10034: 10027: 10015: 10010: 10009: 10008: 10001: 9994: 9988: 9982: 9977: 9972: 9967: 9962: 9957: 9952: 9941: 9939: 9935: 9934: 9932: 9931: 9930: 9929: 9922: 9920:Old East Norse 9917: 9915:Old West Norse 9905: 9897: 9895: 9888: 9878: 9877: 9861: 9860: 9857: 9856: 9853: 9852: 9849: 9848: 9846: 9845: 9838: 9837: 9836: 9826: 9821: 9820: 9819: 9818: 9817: 9812: 9807: 9802: 9797: 9795:South Tyrolean 9787: 9786: 9785: 9775: 9765: 9764: 9763: 9758: 9757: 9756: 9746: 9745: 9744: 9737:High Alemannic 9734: 9733: 9732: 9727: 9710: 9708: 9702: 9701: 9698: 9697: 9695: 9694: 9689: 9684: 9679: 9674: 9669: 9664: 9659: 9653: 9651: 9645: 9644: 9642: 9641: 9636: 9635: 9634: 9624: 9623: 9622: 9621: 9620: 9615: 9605: 9595: 9594: 9593: 9592: 9591: 9590: 9589: 9579: 9574: 9564: 9563: 9562: 9557: 9541: 9539: 9530: 9528:Central German 9524: 9523: 9521: 9520: 9519: 9518: 9513: 9506: 9501: 9496: 9486: 9481: 9480: 9479: 9469: 9467:Barossa German 9464: 9459: 9454: 9449: 9443: 9441: 9429: 9428: 9426: 9425: 9420: 9415: 9409: 9407: 9401: 9400: 9398: 9397: 9396: 9395: 9381: 9374: 9366: 9364: 9357: 9351: 9350: 9347: 9346: 9344: 9343: 9338: 9332: 9330: 9326: 9325: 9323: 9322: 9316: 9314: 9308: 9307: 9305: 9304: 9287: 9282: 9277: 9271: 9270: 9265: 9260: 9255: 9250: 9249: 9248: 9246:French Flemish 9238: 9237: 9236: 9225: 9223: 9219: 9218: 9216: 9215: 9205: 9199: 9197: 9191: 9190: 9188: 9187: 9182: 9177: 9171: 9169: 9162: 9160:Low Franconian 9156: 9155: 9152: 9151: 9149: 9148: 9147: 9146: 9136: 9131: 9126: 9121: 9115: 9113: 9107: 9106: 9104: 9103: 9098: 9093: 9092: 9091: 9081: 9080: 9079: 9074: 9069: 9068: 9067: 9062: 9054: 9049: 9044: 9039: 9028: 9026: 9020: 9019: 9017: 9016: 9009: 9001: 8999: 8992: 8986: 8985: 8982: 8981: 8978: 8977: 8975: 8974: 8973: 8972: 8967: 8966: 8965: 8964: 8963: 8961:Westereendersk 8955: 8944: 8939: 8933: 8931: 8925: 8924: 8922: 8921: 8920: 8919: 8914: 8907: 8902: 8901: 8900: 8895: 8892: 8884: 8879: 8878: 8877: 8866: 8865: 8864: 8859: 8854: 8853: 8852: 8847: 8839: 8828: 8826: 8820: 8819: 8817: 8816: 8815: 8814: 8807: 8800: 8788: 8787: 8786: 8777: 8775: 8769: 8768: 8766: 8765: 8762:Middle Frisian 8758: 8750: 8748: 8741: 8735: 8734: 8732: 8731: 8730: 8729: 8722: 8710: 8709: 8708: 8701: 8694: 8682: 8681: 8680: 8679: 8678: 8668:Modern English 8664: 8661:Middle English 8657: 8650: 8639: 8637: 8628: 8618: 8617: 8605: 8604: 8598: 8595: 8594: 8587: 8586: 8579: 8572: 8564: 8555: 8554: 8551: 8550: 8547: 8546: 8544: 8543: 8536: 8535: 8534: 8529: 8517: 8509: 8504: 8497: 8489: 8481: 8476: 8470: 8468: 8462: 8461: 8459: 8458: 8453: 8448: 8443: 8438: 8433: 8428: 8420: 8412: 8404: 8402: 8392: 8391: 8379: 8378: 8376: 8375: 8373:Modern English 8370: 8365: 8363:Middle English 8360: 8355: 8354: 8353: 8348: 8343: 8338: 8328: 8323: 8318: 8316:Proto-Germanic 8313: 8307: 8304: 8303: 8296: 8295: 8288: 8281: 8273: 8267: 8266: 8254: 8244: 8230: 8229: 8225: 8224: 8219: 8209: 8199: 8190: 8189: 8184: 8183:External links 8181: 8178: 8177: 8174:World Wide Web 8164: 8154: 8147: 8140: 8130: 8129: 8125: 8124: 8117: 8110: 8103: 8096: 8095: 8094: 8091: 8081: 8074: 8067: 8059: 8058: 8054: 8053: 8046: 8039: 8031: 8030: 8026: 8025: 8018: 8011: 8000: 7993: 7975:(2): 315–339. 7964: 7954:(3): 379–400. 7943: 7932: 7925: 7918: 7906:10.2307/411354 7900:(4): 522–538. 7889: 7883: 7860: 7848:10.2307/410597 7842:(4): 575–597. 7831: 7824: 7817: 7807: 7800: 7793: 7785: 7784: 7780: 7779: 7768: 7761: 7754: 7745: 7727: 7717: 7710: 7700: 7692: 7691: 7687: 7686: 7679: 7672: 7666: 7645: 7644: 7640: 7639: 7632: 7629:978-0199207848 7614: 7607: 7601: 7588: 7582: 7574:Harcourt Brace 7565: 7552: 7546: 7529: 7520: 7510: 7503: 7496: 7491:978-0866985147 7490: 7477: 7462:Euler, Wolfram 7459: 7452: 7439: 7429: 7422: 7415: 7409: 7391: 7390: 7386: 7385: 7375:, ed. (1955). 7368: 7367: 7363: 7362: 7360: 7357: 7354: 7353: 7327: 7314: 7301: 7288: 7276: 7267: 7252: 7243: 7236: 7222:. p. 45. 7206: 7177: 7168: 7159: 7150: 7141: 7132: 7123: 7114: 7101: 7088: 7081: 7055: 7046: 7031: 7010: 7007:. p. 230. 6995: 6986: 6977: 6963: 6954: 6935: 6920: 6902: 6887: 6861: 6839: 6825: 6805: 6787: 6774: 6760: 6719: 6701: 6683: 6670: 6638: 6626: 6617: 6604: 6597: 6572: 6559: 6545: 6525: 6506: 6497: 6484: 6471: 6458: 6445: 6432: 6419: 6394: 6350: 6343: 6317: 6316: 6314: 6311: 6310: 6309: 6304: 6299: 6294: 6289: 6284: 6279: 6274: 6268: 6267: 6251: 6248: 6211: 6208: 6180: 6179: 6158: 6144: 6143: 6142: 6135: 6104: 6091:Cameron, Angus 6083: 6080: 6064:William Somner 6049:Middle English 6035:, such as the 5992: 5989: 5987: 5984: 5957: 5956: 5913:I, meself, mid 5881: 5873: 5872: 5833:¶ Now, ne went 5831: 5822: 5821: 5778: 5768: 5767: 5762:and to rights 5744: 5736: 5735: 5689: 5680: 5679: 5676: 5656:Cnut the Great 5651: 5648: 5645: 5644: 5641: 5638: 5636: 5629: 5626: 5625: 5622: 5619: 5617: 5610: 5607: 5606: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5591: 5588: 5587: 5584: 5581: 5579: 5572: 5569: 5568: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5553: 5550: 5549: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5534: 5531: 5530: 5527: 5524: 5522: 5515: 5512: 5511: 5508: 5505: 5503: 5496: 5493: 5492: 5489: 5487:Modern English 5480: 5475: 5472: 5445: 5442: 5424: 5423: 5416: 5398: 5395: 5394: 5381: 5366: 5362: 5361: 5351: 5333: 5330: 5329: 5315: 5297: 5294: 5293: 5282: 5275:unden, hē þæs 5264: 5261: 5260: 5242: 5224: 5221: 5220: 5209: 5191: 5187: 5186: 5179: 5160: 5157: 5156: 5141: 5138:llen fremedon. 5126: 5123: 5122: 5107: 5093: 5090: 5089: 5088:in yore-days, 5082: 5067: 5063: 5062: 5053: 5050: 4968: 4963: 4909:Main article: 4886: 4883: 4849: 4848: 4829: 4824: 4820: 4819: 4804: 4799: 4795: 4794: 4792: 4787: 4784: 4780: 4779: 4777: 4772: 4768: 4767: 4763: 4762: 4727: 4722: 4719: 4715: 4714: 4699: 4694: 4690: 4689: 4687: 4673: 4670: 4666: 4665: 4630: 4624: 4620: 4619: 4608: 4603: 4599: 4598: 4596: 4591: 4587: 4586: 4575: 4571: 4570: 4549:palatalization 4460: 4454: 4451: 4447: 4446: 4444: 4438: 4434: 4433: 4430:alveolar trill 4414: 4409: 4405: 4404: 4389: 4384: 4380: 4379: 4377: 4372: 4368: 4367: 4362: 4358: 4357: 4342: 4337: 4334: 4330: 4329: 4314: 4309: 4305: 4304: 4297: 4292: 4289: 4285: 4284: 4281: 4275: 4271: 4270: 4268: 4263: 4259: 4258: 4247: 4242: 4238: 4237: 4230: 4225: 4221: 4220: 4205: 4200: 4196: 4195: 4168: 4163: 4160: 4156: 4155: 4140: 4135: 4131: 4130: 4128: 4123: 4120: 4116: 4115: 4100: 4095: 4091: 4090: 4043: 4037: 4034: 4030: 4029: 4010: 4004: 4000: 3999: 3990: 3986: 3985: 3947: 3941: 3938: 3934: 3933: 3926: 3920: 3916: 3915: 3900: 3895: 3891: 3890: 3871: 3866: 3863: 3859: 3858: 3831: 3826: 3822: 3821: 3802: 3797: 3794: 3790: 3789: 3774: 3769: 3765: 3764: 3762: 3757: 3754: 3750: 3749: 3696: 3690: 3687: 3683: 3682: 3671: 3666: 3662: 3661: 3652: 3648: 3647: 3531: 3522: 3519: 3515: 3514: 3509: 3505: 3504: 3441: 3436: 3433: 3429: 3428: 3413: 3405: 3404: 3402: 3397: 3393: 3392: 3353: 3344: 3340: 3339: 3334: 3330: 3329: 3303: 3298: 3295: 3291: 3290: 3275: 3270: 3266: 3265: 3242: 3237: 3234: 3230: 3229: 3226: 3220: 3217: 3198:in the modern 3170:silent letters 2925:Insular script 2919:introduced by 2917:Latin alphabet 2915:script of the 2894:Latin alphabet 2890:runic alphabet 2869: 2866: 2865: 2864: 2841: 2834:interrogatives 2802: 2795: 2770: 2746:is similar to 2739: 2736: 2685:English plural 2668:who/whom/whose 2573:("this"), and 2565:demonstratives 2559:("that"), and 2523:and sometimes 2448: 2445: 2440:Main article: 2437: 2434: 2426: 2425: 2414: 2411: 2404: 2401: 2398: 2383: 2372: 2369: 2362: 2339:Main article: 2336: 2333: 2312: 2311: 2306: 2301: 2297: 2296: 2291: 2286: 2282: 2281: 2276: 2271: 2267: 2266: 2261: 2252: 2210: 2209: 2202: 2197: 2195: 2190: 2184: 2183: 2178: 2176: 2174: 2169: 2163: 2162: 2157: 2155: 2150: 2145: 2139: 2138: 2133: 2128: 2121: 2115: 2114: 2109: 2104: 2077: 2076: 2065: 2054: 2047: 2032: 2025: 1996: 1995: 1993: 1991: 1989: 1987: 1973: 1971: 1969: 1963: 1962: 1960: 1948: 1941: 1939: 1925: 1923: 1921: 1915: 1914: 1905: 1893: 1884: 1877: 1863: 1849: 1835: 1829: 1828: 1826: 1824: 1822: 1808: 1806: 1804: 1802: 1796: 1795: 1793: 1779: 1777: 1775: 1763: 1761: 1749: 1743: 1742: 1740: 1731: 1729: 1727: 1713: 1711: 1704: 1698: 1697: 1692: 1687: 1682: 1675: 1670: 1665: 1660: 1637:Main article: 1634: 1631: 1566:Middle English 1555:century. Many 1530:Middle English 1514:Latin alphabet 1405: 1402: 1342:, and most of 1284:Modern English 1265: 1262: 1260:(after 1700). 1239:Modern English 1231:Middle English 1227: 1226: 1212: 1186: 1139:Pope Gregory I 989:Modern English 963:Crimean Gothic 956: 934: 923: 912: 908:Old East Norse 901: 897:Old West Norse 890: 868: 865: 845:Proto-Germanic 818: 815: 768:Modern English 744:Roman conquest 689:Middle English 685:type of French 612: 611: 609: 608: 601: 594: 586: 583: 582: 579: 578: 573: 571:Modern English 568: 563: 561:Middle English 557: 554: 553: 550: 549: 545: 544: 539: 534: 529: 527:Proto-Germanic 523: 522: 516: 515: 509: 508: 503: 502: 499: 498: 495: 494: 489: 484: 478: 473: 472: 469: 468: 465: 464: 459: 454: 449: 446:Latin alphabet 442:Runic alphabet 433: 430: 429: 426: 425: 422: 421: 416: 411: 406: 400: 397: 396: 393: 392: 386: 385: 377: 376: 364: 363: 350:, you may see 336: 335: 328: 320: 319: 314: 306: 305: 298: 290: 289: 280: 272: 271: 270:Language codes 267: 266: 252: 248:Writing system 245: 242: 241: 240: 239: 234: 229: 224: 217: 213: 212: 210: 209: 207:Proto-Germanic 200: 198: 195: 192: 191: 189: 188: 187: 186: 185: 184: 183: 182: 181: 180: 179: 178: 144: 142: 135: 132: 131: 124:Middle English 120: 116: 115: 110: 106: 105: 92: 88: 87: 80: 76: 75: 66:ofer hron rade 56: 48: 47: 33: 32: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10564: 10553: 10550: 10548: 10545: 10543: 10540: 10538: 10535: 10533: 10530: 10528: 10525: 10524: 10522: 10506: 10502: 10500: 10496: 10493: 10492: 10489: 10475: 10472: 10470: 10467: 10465: 10462: 10460: 10457: 10455: 10452: 10450: 10449:Germanic verb 10447: 10446: 10444: 10440: 10434: 10431: 10429: 10426: 10424: 10421: 10419: 10416: 10414: 10411: 10409: 10406: 10404: 10401: 10399: 10396: 10394: 10391: 10389: 10388:Sievers's law 10386: 10384: 10381: 10379: 10376: 10374: 10371: 10370: 10368: 10364: 10358: 10355: 10353: 10350: 10348: 10345: 10343: 10340: 10339: 10337: 10335:Reconstructed 10333: 10327: 10326: 10322: 10320: 10319: 10315: 10313: 10312: 10308: 10307: 10302: 10299: 10297: 10294: 10292: 10289: 10288: 10287: 10284: 10282: 10279: 10277: 10274: 10273: 10271: 10269: 10265: 10261: 10257: 10252: 10248: 10234: 10233: 10229: 10227: 10226: 10222: 10219: 10218: 10213: 10212: 10208: 10207: 10205: 10203: 10202: 10197: 10185: 10182: 10180: 10177: 10176: 10174: 10173: 10170: 10162: 10159: 10158: 10157: 10154: 10150: 10149: 10148:Middle Danish 10145: 10143: 10142: 10138: 10136: 10133: 10131: 10128: 10126: 10123: 10119: 10116: 10114: 10111: 10110: 10109: 10106: 10102: 10099: 10098: 10097: 10094: 10092: 10089: 10087: 10084: 10083: 10082: 10079: 10075: 10072: 10070: 10067: 10066: 10065: 10062: 10061: 10059: 10055: 10049: 10048: 10044: 10042: 10041: 10037: 10033: 10032: 10028: 10026: 10025: 10024:Old Icelandic 10021: 10020: 10019: 10016: 10014: 10011: 10007: 10006: 10002: 10000: 9999: 9998:Old Norwegian 9995: 9992: 9989: 9986: 9983: 9981: 9978: 9976: 9973: 9971: 9968: 9966: 9963: 9961: 9958: 9956: 9953: 9951: 9948: 9947: 9946: 9943: 9942: 9940: 9936: 9928: 9927: 9923: 9921: 9918: 9916: 9913: 9912: 9911: 9910: 9906: 9904: 9903: 9899: 9898: 9896: 9892: 9889: 9887: 9883: 9879: 9875: 9871: 9866: 9862: 9844: 9843: 9839: 9835: 9832: 9831: 9830: 9827: 9825: 9822: 9816: 9815:Gottscheerish 9813: 9811: 9808: 9806: 9803: 9801: 9798: 9796: 9793: 9792: 9791: 9788: 9784: 9781: 9780: 9779: 9776: 9774: 9771: 9770: 9769: 9766: 9762: 9759: 9755: 9754:Walser German 9752: 9751: 9750: 9747: 9743: 9740: 9739: 9738: 9735: 9731: 9728: 9726: 9723: 9722: 9721: 9720:Low Alemannic 9718: 9717: 9715: 9712: 9711: 9709: 9707: 9703: 9693: 9690: 9688: 9685: 9683: 9682:High Prussian 9680: 9678: 9675: 9673: 9670: 9668: 9667:Erzgebirgisch 9665: 9663: 9660: 9658: 9655: 9654: 9652: 9650: 9646: 9640: 9637: 9633: 9630: 9629: 9628: 9625: 9619: 9616: 9614: 9611: 9610: 9609: 9606: 9604: 9601: 9600: 9599: 9596: 9588: 9585: 9584: 9583: 9580: 9578: 9575: 9573: 9572:Luxembourgish 9570: 9569: 9568: 9565: 9561: 9558: 9556: 9553: 9552: 9551: 9548: 9547: 9546: 9543: 9542: 9540: 9538: 9534: 9531: 9529: 9525: 9517: 9514: 9512: 9511: 9510:Klezmer-loshn 9507: 9505: 9504:Scots Yiddish 9502: 9500: 9497: 9495: 9492: 9491: 9490: 9487: 9485: 9482: 9478: 9475: 9474: 9473: 9470: 9468: 9465: 9463: 9460: 9458: 9455: 9453: 9450: 9448: 9445: 9444: 9442: 9440: 9435: 9430: 9424: 9421: 9419: 9416: 9414: 9411: 9410: 9408: 9406: 9402: 9394: 9393: 9389: 9388: 9387: 9386: 9382: 9380: 9379: 9375: 9373: 9372: 9368: 9367: 9365: 9361: 9358: 9356: 9352: 9342: 9341:Meuse-Rhenish 9339: 9337: 9334: 9333: 9331: 9327: 9321: 9318: 9317: 9315: 9313: 9309: 9303: 9299: 9295: 9291: 9288: 9286: 9283: 9281: 9278: 9276: 9273: 9272: 9269: 9268:Kleverlandish 9266: 9264: 9261: 9259: 9256: 9254: 9251: 9247: 9244: 9243: 9242: 9239: 9235: 9232: 9231: 9230: 9229:Central Dutch 9227: 9226: 9224: 9220: 9213: 9209: 9206: 9204: 9201: 9200: 9198: 9196: 9192: 9186: 9183: 9181: 9178: 9176: 9173: 9172: 9170: 9166: 9163: 9161: 9157: 9145: 9142: 9141: 9140: 9137: 9135: 9132: 9130: 9127: 9125: 9122: 9120: 9117: 9116: 9114: 9112: 9108: 9102: 9099: 9097: 9094: 9090: 9087: 9086: 9085: 9082: 9078: 9075: 9073: 9070: 9066: 9063: 9061: 9058: 9057: 9055: 9053: 9050: 9048: 9045: 9043: 9040: 9038: 9037:Stellingwarfs 9035: 9034: 9033: 9030: 9029: 9027: 9025: 9021: 9015: 9014: 9010: 9008: 9007: 9003: 9002: 9000: 8996: 8993: 8991: 8987: 8971: 8968: 8962: 8959: 8958: 8957:Wood Frisian 8956: 8953: 8952: 8951: 8948: 8947: 8945: 8943: 8940: 8938: 8935: 8934: 8932: 8930: 8926: 8918: 8915: 8913: 8912: 8908: 8906: 8903: 8899: 8896: 8893: 8890: 8889: 8888: 8885: 8883: 8880: 8875: 8874: 8873: 8870: 8869: 8867: 8863: 8860: 8858: 8855: 8851: 8848: 8846: 8843: 8842: 8840: 8838: 8837: 8833: 8832: 8830: 8829: 8827: 8825: 8824:North Frisian 8821: 8813: 8812: 8808: 8806: 8805: 8801: 8799: 8798: 8794: 8793: 8792: 8789: 8785: 8782: 8781: 8779: 8778: 8776: 8774: 8770: 8764: 8763: 8759: 8757: 8756: 8752: 8751: 8749: 8745: 8742: 8740: 8736: 8728: 8727: 8723: 8721: 8720: 8716: 8715: 8714: 8711: 8707: 8706: 8702: 8700: 8699: 8695: 8693: 8692: 8688: 8687: 8686: 8683: 8677: 8676: 8672: 8671: 8670: 8669: 8665: 8663: 8662: 8658: 8656: 8655: 8651: 8649: 8646: 8645: 8644: 8641: 8640: 8638: 8636: 8632: 8629: 8627: 8626:Anglo-Frisian 8623: 8619: 8615: 8610: 8606: 8602: 8596: 8592: 8585: 8580: 8578: 8573: 8571: 8566: 8565: 8562: 8542: 8541: 8537: 8533: 8530: 8528: 8525: 8524: 8523: 8522: 8518: 8516: 8514: 8510: 8508: 8505: 8503: 8502: 8498: 8496: 8495:-vocalization 8494: 8490: 8488: 8486: 8482: 8480: 8477: 8475: 8472: 8471: 8469: 8467: 8463: 8457: 8454: 8452: 8449: 8447: 8444: 8442: 8439: 8437: 8434: 8432: 8429: 8427: 8421: 8419: 8413: 8411: 8410: 8406: 8405: 8403: 8401: 8397: 8393: 8389: 8384: 8380: 8374: 8371: 8369: 8366: 8364: 8361: 8359: 8356: 8352: 8349: 8347: 8344: 8342: 8339: 8337: 8334: 8333: 8332: 8329: 8327: 8324: 8322: 8319: 8317: 8314: 8312: 8309: 8308: 8305: 8301: 8294: 8289: 8287: 8282: 8280: 8275: 8274: 8271: 8264: 8260: 8259: 8255: 8252: 8248: 8245: 8243: 8239: 8235: 8232: 8231: 8227: 8226: 8223: 8220: 8217: 8213: 8210: 8207: 8203: 8200: 8198: 8197: 8192: 8191: 8187: 8186: 8175: 8171: 8170: 8165: 8162: 8158: 8155: 8152: 8148: 8145: 8141: 8138: 8137: 8132: 8131: 8127: 8126: 8122: 8118: 8115: 8111: 8108: 8104: 8101: 8097: 8092: 8089: 8088: 8086: 8082: 8079: 8075: 8072: 8068: 8065: 8061: 8060: 8056: 8055: 8051: 8047: 8044: 8040: 8037: 8033: 8032: 8028: 8027: 8023: 8019: 8016: 8012: 8009: 8005: 8004:F van Coetsem 8001: 7998: 7994: 7990: 7986: 7982: 7978: 7974: 7970: 7965: 7961: 7957: 7953: 7949: 7944: 7941: 7938:. Stuttgart: 7937: 7933: 7930: 7926: 7923: 7919: 7915: 7911: 7907: 7903: 7899: 7895: 7890: 7886: 7884:9781444339338 7880: 7876: 7872: 7868: 7867: 7861: 7857: 7853: 7849: 7845: 7841: 7837: 7832: 7829: 7825: 7822: 7818: 7815: 7811: 7808: 7805: 7801: 7798: 7794: 7791: 7787: 7786: 7782: 7781: 7777: 7769: 7766: 7762: 7759: 7755: 7752: 7751: 7746: 7744: 7743:0-19-811251-3 7740: 7736: 7732: 7728: 7725: 7721: 7718: 7715: 7711: 7708: 7704: 7701: 7698: 7694: 7693: 7689: 7688: 7684: 7680: 7677: 7673: 7669: 7667:0-8047-2221-8 7663: 7659: 7655: 7651: 7647: 7646: 7642: 7641: 7637: 7633: 7630: 7626: 7622: 7618: 7615: 7612: 7608: 7604: 7602:0-631-22636-2 7598: 7594: 7589: 7585: 7583:0-15-501645-8 7579: 7575: 7571: 7566: 7562: 7558: 7553: 7549: 7547:0-521-43087-9 7543: 7539: 7536:. Cambridge: 7535: 7530: 7527: 7526: 7521: 7518: 7514: 7511: 7508: 7504: 7501: 7497: 7493: 7487: 7483: 7478: 7475: 7471: 7467: 7463: 7460: 7455: 7453:1-889758-69-8 7449: 7445: 7440: 7437: 7433: 7430: 7427: 7423: 7420: 7416: 7412: 7410:0-631-23454-3 7406: 7402: 7398: 7393: 7392: 7388: 7387: 7382: 7378: 7374: 7370: 7369: 7365: 7364: 7342: 7338: 7331: 7324: 7318: 7311: 7305: 7298: 7292: 7285: 7280: 7271: 7263: 7256: 7247: 7239: 7237:9783110820263 7233: 7229: 7225: 7221: 7217: 7210: 7201: 7196: 7192: 7188: 7181: 7172: 7163: 7154: 7145: 7136: 7127: 7118: 7111: 7105: 7098: 7092: 7084: 7082:0-521-26438-3 7078: 7074: 7069: 7068: 7059: 7050: 7042: 7035: 7027: 7025: 7017: 7015: 7006: 6999: 6990: 6981: 6972: 6970: 6968: 6958: 6950: 6946: 6939: 6931: 6924: 6916: 6909: 6907: 6898: 6891: 6876: 6872: 6865: 6857: 6850: 6848: 6846: 6844: 6828: 6822: 6818: 6817: 6809: 6798: 6791: 6784: 6778: 6771: 6764: 6753: 6749: 6745: 6741: 6737: 6736:ICAME Journal 6730: 6723: 6712: 6705: 6694: 6687: 6680: 6674: 6655: 6648: 6642: 6635: 6630: 6621: 6614: 6608: 6600: 6598:0-19-811943-7 6594: 6591:. p. 4. 6590: 6586: 6582: 6576: 6569: 6566:A. Campbell, 6563: 6548: 6546:9788437083216 6542: 6538: 6537: 6529: 6522: 6517: 6510: 6501: 6494: 6488: 6481: 6475: 6468: 6462: 6455: 6449: 6442: 6436: 6429: 6423: 6408: 6404: 6398: 6390: 6383: 6381: 6379: 6377: 6375: 6373: 6371: 6369: 6367: 6365: 6363: 6361: 6359: 6357: 6355: 6346: 6344:0-521-53033-4 6340: 6336: 6328: 6322: 6318: 6308: 6305: 6303: 6300: 6298: 6295: 6293: 6290: 6288: 6285: 6283: 6280: 6278: 6275: 6273: 6270: 6269: 6265: 6254: 6247: 6245: 6241: 6237: 6232: 6230: 6226: 6222: 6218: 6210:Modern legacy 6207: 6205: 6204: 6199: 6198: 6193: 6192: 6187: 6186: 6177: 6176: 6171: 6167: 6163: 6162:Christian Kay 6159: 6156: 6152: 6148: 6145: 6140: 6136: 6133: 6129: 6128: 6126: 6122: 6118: 6117: 6112: 6108: 6105: 6102: 6098: 6097: 6092: 6089: 6088: 6087: 6079: 6077: 6073: 6069: 6065: 6060: 6058: 6054: 6050: 6046: 6042: 6038: 6034: 6030: 6026: 6022: 6021:Épinal-Erfurt 6018: 6014: 6010: 6006: 6002: 5998: 5991:Early history 5982: 5978: 5975: 5971: 5968: 5963: 5954: 5950: 5946: 5945:(forestalled) 5942: 5938: 5937: 5932: 5928: 5924: 5920: 5916: 5912: 5908: 5904: 5900: 5896: 5895: 5890: 5886: 5882: 5879: 5875: 5874: 5870: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5857: 5852: 5848: 5844: 5840: 5837:I not my shot 5836: 5832: 5829: 5824: 5823: 5819: 5815: 5811: 5810:(bring about) 5807: 5803: 5800:, and unright 5799: 5795: 5791: 5787: 5783: 5779: 5776: 5770: 5769: 5765: 5761: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5742: 5738: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5725: 5722: 5721: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5706: 5705: 5700: 5699: 5694: 5690: 5687: 5682: 5681: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5664: 5661: 5657: 5642: 5639: 5637: 5634: 5630: 5628: 5627: 5623: 5620: 5618: 5615: 5611: 5609: 5608: 5604: 5601: 5599: 5596: 5592: 5590: 5589: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5573: 5571: 5570: 5566: 5563: 5561: 5558: 5554: 5552: 5551: 5547: 5544: 5542: 5539: 5535: 5533: 5532: 5528: 5525: 5523: 5520: 5516: 5514: 5513: 5509: 5506: 5504: 5501: 5497: 5495: 5494: 5490: 5488: 5484: 5481: 5479: 5476: 5473: 5470: 5469: 5466: 5464: 5463:Lord's Prayer 5440: 5436: 5433: 5429: 5421: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5408: 5404: 5399: 5397: 5396: 5393:hear should, 5392: 5390: 5389: 5382: 5379: 5377: 5373: 5367: 5364: 5363: 5360: 5356: 5352: 5349: 5347: 5343: 5339: 5334: 5332: 5331: 5328: 5324: 5320: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5307: 5303: 5298: 5296: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5283: 5280: 5278: 5274: 5270: 5265: 5263: 5262: 5259: 5255: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5235:rlas. Syððan 5234: 5230: 5225: 5223: 5222: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5207: 5205: 5201: 5197: 5192: 5189: 5188: 5184: 5180: 5177: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5161: 5159: 5158: 5154: 5150: 5146: 5142: 5139: 5137: 5133: 5127: 5125: 5124: 5120: 5116: 5112: 5108: 5105: 5104:rym ġefrūnon, 5103: 5100:ēod-cyninga, 5099: 5094: 5092: 5091: 5087: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5074: 5068: 5065: 5064: 5061: 5058: 5054: 5051: 5049: 5048: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5033: 5031: 5024: 5022: 5015: 5013: 5006: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4987: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4975: 4967: 4962: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4951:Cædmon's Hymn 4948: 4947:Franks Casket 4944: 4943: 4938: 4934: 4933: 4926: 4921: 4919: 4912: 4902: 4896: 4891: 4882: 4856: 4845: 4839: 4830: 4825: 4821: 4805: 4800: 4797: 4796: 4793: 4788: 4785: 4781: 4778: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4764: 4740: 4717: 4716: 4700: 4695: 4692: 4691: 4688: 4674: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4625: 4621: 4609: 4604: 4600: 4597: 4592: 4588: 4576: 4573: 4572: 4569: 4558: 4552: 4550: 4542: 4533: 4504: 4490: 4481: 4466: 4455: 4452: 4448: 4445: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4426:alveolar flap 4423: 4415: 4410: 4406: 4390: 4385: 4381: 4378: 4373: 4369: 4363: 4360: 4359: 4338: 4335: 4331: 4315: 4310: 4307: 4306: 4298: 4293: 4290: 4286: 4282: 4276: 4272: 4269: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4243: 4239: 4231: 4226: 4222: 4206: 4201: 4198: 4197: 4169: 4164: 4161: 4157: 4141: 4136: 4133: 4132: 4129: 4124: 4121: 4117: 4101: 4096: 4093: 4092: 4084: 4083: 4078: 4077: 4069:to spell the 4044: 4038: 4035: 4031: 4011: 4005: 4001: 3991: 3988: 3987: 3983: 3975: 3959: 3952: 3942: 3939: 3935: 3927: 3921: 3917: 3901: 3896: 3893: 3892: 3888: 3872: 3867: 3864: 3860: 3832: 3827: 3824: 3823: 3819: 3803: 3798: 3795: 3791: 3775: 3770: 3767: 3766: 3763: 3758: 3755: 3751: 3711: 3707: 3702: 3697: 3691: 3688: 3685: 3684: 3672: 3667: 3663: 3653: 3650: 3649: 3646: 3549: 3536: 3523: 3520: 3516: 3510: 3507: 3506: 3494: 3486: 3478: 3471:it is always 3450: 3437: 3434: 3430: 3425: 3419: 3414: 3407: 3406: 3403: 3398: 3394: 3388: 3382: 3371:. The symbol 3354: 3345: 3342: 3341: 3335: 3332: 3331: 3308: 3305:Formerly the 3299: 3296: 3292: 3276: 3271: 3268: 3267: 3255: 3243: 3238: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3225:transcription 3224: 3221: 3218: 3215: 3214: 3211: 3209: 3201: 3190:) unlike the 3188:/knixt~kniçt/ 3176: 3172:—in the word 3171: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3154: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3085: 3081: 3073: 3064: 3054: 3050: 3045: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3026: 3019: 3018:Tironian note 3015: 3008: 3001: 2997: 2994:, now called 2992: 2983: 2978: 2971: 2936: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2909:elder futhark 2906: 2902: 2895: 2891: 2886: 2881: 2877: 2872: 2861: 2855: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2826: 2820: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2800: 2796: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2782: 2778: 2776: 2771: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2756: 2755: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2735: 2733: 2729: 2724: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2706: 2703: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2683:. The modern 2682: 2678: 2674: 2671:) and in the 2670: 2669: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2651: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2636:passive voice 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2588: 2586: 2582: 2577: 2571: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2517: 2515: 2509:texts (e.g., 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2453: 2443: 2433: 2431: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2412: 2405: 2402: 2399: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2373: 2370: 2367: 2363: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2351: 2350: 2348: 2347:sound changes 2342: 2335:Sound changes 2332: 2330: 2325: 2307: 2302: 2299: 2298: 2292: 2287: 2284: 2283: 2277: 2272: 2269: 2268: 2262: 2259: 2253: 2248: 2247: 2241: 2231: 2224: 2219: 2217: 2203: 2198: 2196: 2191: 2189: 2186: 2185: 2179: 2177: 2175: 2170: 2168: 2165: 2164: 2158: 2156: 2151: 2146: 2144: 2141: 2140: 2134: 2129: 2126: 2122: 2117: 2116: 2113: 2108: 2102: 2096: 2086: 2085:most speakers 2082: 2073:/xw,xl,xn,xr/ 2070: 2066: 2055: 2048: 2045: 2041: 2033: 2026: 2023: 2011: 2007: 2006: 2005: 2003: 1994: 1992: 1990: 1988: 1985: 1979: 1974: 1972: 1970: 1968: 1965: 1964: 1961: 1958: 1953: 1949: 1946: 1942: 1940: 1937: 1931: 1926: 1924: 1922: 1920: 1917: 1916: 1911: 1906: 1903: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1885: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1840: 1836: 1834: 1831: 1830: 1827: 1825: 1823: 1819: 1813: 1809: 1807: 1805: 1803: 1801: 1798: 1797: 1794: 1790: 1784: 1780: 1778: 1776: 1773: 1768: 1764: 1762: 1759: 1754: 1750: 1748: 1745: 1744: 1741: 1737: 1732: 1730: 1728: 1725: 1719: 1714: 1712: 1709: 1705: 1703: 1700: 1699: 1696: 1693: 1691: 1688: 1686: 1683: 1681: 1676: 1674: 1671: 1669: 1666: 1664: 1661: 1659: 1658: 1652: 1650: 1646: 1640: 1630: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1594: 1589: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1570: 1567: 1563: 1558: 1550: 1542: 1538: 1533: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1498: 1497: 1496:lingua franca 1492: 1487: 1485: 1484:Brittonicisms 1481: 1480: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1428: 1420: 1415: 1410: 1401: 1399: 1394: 1392: 1387: 1381: 1368: 1364: 1359: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1336: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1296: 1294: 1290: 1285: 1277: 800 CE 1270: 1261: 1259: 1256:to 1700) and 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1224: 1213: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1187: 1184: 1180: 1169: 1168: 1167: 1164: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1148: 1146: 1145: 1144:Pastoral Care 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1098: 1094: 1093:Franks Casket 1090: 1086: 1085: 1084:Cædmon's Hymn 1080: 1076: 1071: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 992: 990: 986: 982: 978: 969: 968:East Germanic 965: 964: 953: 949: 945: 941: 932: 931: 921: 920: 910: 909: 899: 898: 887: 879: 874: 864: 862: 857: 856: 851: 850: 846: 841: 839: 835: 831: 827: 823: 814: 812: 808: 804: 800: 796: 792: 788: 784: 779: 777: 773: 769: 765: 761: 757: 753: 749: 745: 741: 737: 733: 729: 728:Roman Britain 725: 721: 717: 713: 709: 705: 701: 700:Anglo-Frisian 696: 695:in Scotland. 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 670: 666: 665:Great Britain 662: 659: 655: 651: 647: 643: 638: 629: 623: 618: 607: 602: 600: 595: 593: 588: 587: 585: 584: 577: 574: 572: 569: 567: 564: 562: 559: 558: 552: 551: 543: 540: 538: 535: 533: 530: 528: 525: 524: 521: 518: 517: 514: 511: 510: 506: 501: 500: 493: 492:Cædmon's Hymn 490: 488: 485: 483: 480: 479: 476: 471: 470: 463: 460: 458: 455: 453: 450: 447: 443: 438: 435: 434: 428: 427: 420: 417: 415: 412: 410: 407: 405: 402: 401: 395: 394: 391: 388: 387: 383: 379: 378: 374: 370: 369: 361: 357: 353: 349: 345: 343: 337: 333: 329: 327: 326: 321: 315: 312: 307: 303: 299: 296: 291: 286: 281: 278: 273: 268: 264: 260: 256: 253: 249: 243: 238: 235: 233: 230: 228: 225: 223: 220: 219: 218: 214: 208: 205: 204: 203: 199: 193: 177: 174: 173: 172: 169: 168: 167: 166:Anglo-Frisian 164: 163: 162: 159: 158: 157: 156:West Germanic 154: 153: 152: 149: 148: 147: 146:Indo-European 143: 139: 133: 129: 125: 121: 117: 114: 111: 107: 104: 100: 96: 93: 89: 85: 81: 79:Pronunciation 77: 72: 67: 62: 61: 54: 49: 45: 39: 34: 29: 26: 22: 10494: 10378:Verner's law 10323: 10318:Gotho-Nordic 10316: 10309: 10230: 10223: 10215: 10209: 10199: 10184:Fårö Gutnish 10146: 10139: 10045: 10038: 10029: 10022: 10003: 9996: 9924: 9919: 9914: 9907: 9900: 9840: 9742:Swiss German 9706:Upper German 9639:Amana German 9613:Volga German 9582:Hunsrückisch 9508: 9462:Unserdeutsch 9457:Berlinerisch 9390: 9383: 9376: 9369: 9329:Cover groups 9285:Mohawk Dutch 9280:Jersey Dutch 9258:East Flemish 9241:West Flemish 9185:Middle Dutch 9139:Low Prussian 9011: 9004: 8970:Terschelling 8954:Clay Frisian 8929:West Frisian 8917:Wiedingharde 8909: 8897: 8857:Heligolandic 8834: 8809: 8802: 8795: 8790: 8773:East Frisian 8760: 8753: 8726:Middle Scots 8724: 8717: 8703: 8696: 8689: 8684: 8673: 8666: 8659: 8653: 8652: 8539: 8520: 8512: 8500: 8492: 8484: 8408: 8346:Northumbrian 8330: 8257: 8195: 8188:Dictionaries 8167: 8160: 8150: 8143: 8134: 8120: 8113: 8106: 8099: 8084: 8077: 8070: 8063: 8049: 8042: 8035: 8021: 8014: 8007: 7996: 7972: 7968: 7951: 7947: 7935: 7928: 7921: 7897: 7893: 7865: 7839: 7835: 7827: 7820: 7813: 7803: 7796: 7789: 7775: 7764: 7757: 7748: 7734: 7730: 7723: 7713: 7706: 7696: 7682: 7675: 7653: 7635: 7620: 7610: 7592: 7569: 7556: 7533: 7523: 7516: 7515:(1909–1949) 7506: 7499: 7481: 7465: 7443: 7435: 7432:Campbell, A. 7425: 7418: 7396: 7376: 7359:Bibliography 7344:. Retrieved 7340: 7330: 7322: 7317: 7309: 7304: 7296: 7291: 7283: 7279: 7270: 7261: 7255: 7246: 7219: 7209: 7190: 7186: 7180: 7171: 7162: 7153: 7144: 7135: 7126: 7117: 7109: 7104: 7096: 7091: 7066: 7058: 7049: 7040: 7034: 7028:. Continuum. 7023: 7004: 6998: 6989: 6980: 6957: 6948: 6938: 6930:Our Language 6929: 6923: 6914: 6896: 6890: 6878:. Retrieved 6874: 6864: 6855: 6830:. Retrieved 6815: 6808: 6790: 6782: 6777: 6769: 6763: 6752:the original 6739: 6735: 6722: 6704: 6686: 6678: 6673: 6661:. Retrieved 6654:the original 6641: 6629: 6620: 6607: 6584: 6575: 6567: 6562: 6550:. Retrieved 6535: 6528: 6519: 6515: 6509: 6500: 6492: 6487: 6479: 6474: 6466: 6461: 6453: 6448: 6440: 6435: 6427: 6422: 6410:. Retrieved 6406: 6397: 6388: 6334: 6326: 6321: 6233: 6225:Ransom Riggs 6213: 6201: 6195: 6189: 6183: 6181: 6173: 6165: 6150: 6138: 6131: 6120: 6114: 6094: 6085: 6075: 6067: 6061: 6033:dictionaries 5999:lies in the 5997:lexicography 5994: 5986:Dictionaries 5979: 5976: 5972: 5969: 5965: 5960: 5952: 5948: 5944: 5941:(previously) 5940: 5935: 5934: 5930: 5926: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5910: 5906: 5902: 5898: 5893: 5892: 5888: 5884: 5868: 5864: 5860: 5855: 5854: 5850: 5846: 5842: 5838: 5834: 5817: 5813: 5809: 5805: 5801: 5797: 5793: 5790:(everywhere) 5789: 5781: 5763: 5759: 5756:(uncheating) 5755: 5751: 5747: 5731: 5727: 5723: 5719: 5718: 5707: 5703: 5702: 5697: 5696: 5692: 5653: 5491:Translation 5460: 5437: 5434: 5431: 5427: 5419: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5386: 5384: 5378:ȳran scolde, 5375: 5371: 5358: 5355:(until that) 5354: 5345: 5344:ġhƿylc þāra 5341: 5337: 5326: 5322: 5321:, worthmint 5318: 5309: 5305: 5301: 5289: 5285: 5279:rōfre ġebād, 5276: 5272: 5268: 5257: 5253: 5249: 5248:earls. Sith 5245: 5236: 5232: 5228: 5216: 5212: 5203: 5199: 5195: 5182: 5173: 5169: 5165: 5152: 5148: 5144: 5135: 5131: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5101: 5097: 5085: 5076: 5072: 5038: 5029: 5020: 5011: 5007: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4988: 4972: 4970: 4965: 4940: 4930: 4928: 4923: 4917: 4914: 4852: 4610:Represented 4585:(elsewhere) 4564:or possibly 4553: 4513:occurs when 4507:/ˈɑːs.ki.ɑn/ 4484:/ˈfiʃ.ʃe.re/ 4472: 4081: 4075: 4065:rather than 3974:front vowels 3951:insular form 3580: 3485:front vowels 3455:, sometimes 3199: 3155: 3100:acute accent 3065: 3027: 2981: 2937: 2932: 2903:, using the 2898: 2871: 2844: 2829: 2809: 2805: 2791: 2774: 2764:main clauses 2742:Old English 2741: 2731: 2727: 2714:strong verbs 2707: 2692: 2688: 2680: 2676: 2667: 2662: 2658: 2652: 2638:, and other 2632:future tense 2589: 2518: 2513: 2499:instrumental 2479:instrumental 2450: 2427: 2421: 2417: 2394: 2390: 2344: 2326: 2315: 2220: 2213: 2078: 1999: 1642: 1627:prepositions 1623:conjunctions 1618: 1614: 1607:comparatives 1596: 1591: 1571: 1534: 1494: 1488: 1478: 1474:periphrastic 1446: 1395: 1382: 1360: 1337: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1315: 1304:Northumbrian 1297: 1281: 1258:Modern Scots 1247:Middle Scots 1228: 1165: 1149: 1142: 1141:'s treatise 1120: 1082: 1072: 993: 991:vocabulary. 974: 961: 929: 928: 917: 906: 895: 842: 837: 825: 821: 820: 807:runic system 799:inflectional 780: 760:Northumbrian 697: 681:Anglo-Norman 648:, spoken in 641: 616: 615: 519: 414:Northumbrian 389: 339: 323: 232:Northumbrian 175: 113:Anglo-Saxons 58: 25: 10537:Old English 10393:Kluge's law 10373:Grimm's law 10156:Dalecarlian 10135:Perkerdansk 10108:East Danish 9926:Old Gutnish 9902:Proto-Norse 9842:Langobardic 9834:Vogtlandian 9662:Upper Saxon 9516:Lachoudisch 9477:Lotegorisch 9355:High German 9101:Westphalian 9096:Eastphalian 9060:Achterhooks 8937:Hindeloopen 8872:Bökingharde 8841:Föhr–Amrum 8755:Old Frisian 8719:Early Scots 8654:Old English 8331:Old English 7346:23 February 6552:19 December 6327:Anglo-Saxon 6277:Exeter Book 6017:interlinear 6001:Anglo-Saxon 5923:(travelled) 5911:(travelled) 5899:(come upon) 5752:(civilised) 5746:And I kithe 5693:(people's)' 5348:mbsittendra 5286:(destitute) 5075:ār-Dena in 5057:constructed 4814:from short 4709:from short 4560:was either 4352:from short 4324:from short 4215:from short 4186:instead of 4150:from short 4110:from short 3956:(see also: 3910:from short 3841:from short 3784:from short 3324:from short 3285:from short 3078:instead of 3070:instead of 3030:. A common 3025:conjunction 2913:half-uncial 2868:Orthography 2843:Similarly, 2788:finite verb 2760:verb-second 2644:Adpositions 2624:participles 2612:subjunctive 2555:("the"), a 2551:serve as a 2549:inflections 2538:forms. The 2536:dual-number 2525:participles 2265:(bimoraic) 2244:Diphthongs 1919:Approximant 1655:Consonants 1569:influence. 1557:place names 1466:progressive 1429:, Hampshire 1421:in the 10th 1254: 1450 1243:Early Scots 940:Old Frisian 930:Old English 919:Old Gutnish 787:Old Frisian 693:Early Scots 661:Middle Ages 642:Anglo-Saxon 617:Old English 437:Orthography 390:Old English 354:instead of 196:Early forms 176:Old English 128:Early Scots 31:Old English 10521:Categories 10225:Burgundian 10141:Old Danish 10130:Gøtudanskt 10113:Bornholmsk 9975:Vestlandsk 9955:Kebabnorsk 9692:Halcnovian 9657:Thuringian 9320:Limburgish 9290:Stadsfries 9263:Brabantian 8990:Low German 8836:Eiderstedt 8691:Fingallian 8466:Consonants 8441:Diphthongs 8351:West Saxon 8029:Morphology 6832:29 January 6587:. Oxford: 6313:References 6292:I-mutation 6113:. (1898). 5943:forefangen 5903:(equalled) 5887:man kithed 5792:God's love 5413:ōd cyning! 5391:for "sea") 5304:ēox under 5239:rest ƿearð 5147:did ellen 5145:(noblemen) 5079:eār-dagum, 4885:Literature 4652:and thorn 4545:/ˈfis.kɑs/ 4494:/ˈwyːʃ.ʃɑn 4257:position. 3379:. Compare 3312:was used; 2825:þā X, þā Y 2752:word order 2718:weak verbs 2673:possessive 2620:infinitive 2616:imperative 2608:indicative 2594:for three 2585:determiner 2467:accusative 2463:nominative 2447:Morphology 2387:i-mutation 2258:monomoraic 2024:(doubled). 1522:Old French 1325:West Saxon 1312:West Saxon 1219: 900 1193: 650 1175: 450 1160:Winchester 1111:Winchester 1109:statue in 1068:Danish law 1000:Ingvaeonic 803:word order 764:West Saxon 704:Ingvaeonic 633:pronounced 520:Influences 475:Literature 419:West Saxon 237:West Saxon 10505:varieties 10497:indicate 10311:Northwest 10256:Philology 10161:Elfdalian 10096:Jutlandic 10018:Icelandic 9993:(written) 9987:(written) 9965:Trøndersk 9945:Norwegian 9909:Old Norse 9730:Coloniero 9714:Alemannic 9687:Wymysorys 9555:Colognian 9550:Ripuarian 9472:Rotwelsch 9302:Midslands 9253:Zeelandic 9234:Hollandic 9208:Afrikaans 9180:Old Dutch 9006:Old Saxon 8905:Karrharde 8887:Goesharde 8868:Mainland 8601:philology 8507:Rhoticity 8487:-dropping 7989:144915239 7783:Phonology 7631:. Oxford. 7193:(2): 94. 6880:4 January 6412:11 August 6282:Go (verb) 6078:of 1838. 5905:: and tho 5847:(turmoil) 5843:(endured) 5798:(promote) 5766:worldly. 5675:Original 5340:ðþæt him 5290:(comfort) 5271:ēasceaft 5217:(deprive) 5153:(promote) 5134:þelingas 5071:Hƿæt! ƿē 5052:Original 5023:eār-dagum 4937:epic poem 4855:geminated 4737:, called 4299:See also 4251:velarised 4249:Probably 4042:, rarely 3928:See also 3601:and even 3449:diacritic 3381:e caudata 3254:allophone 3208:Phonology 3080:insular S 3072:insular G 2980:, modern 2781:inverting 2659:I/me/mine 2657:(such as 2592:conjugate 2457:for five 2355:nasalised 2131:unrounded 2119:unrounded 2022:geminated 2020:and when 2010:allophone 1833:Fricative 1800:Affricate 1633:Phonology 1582:Old Norse 1537:Old Norse 1457:loanwords 1451:which it 1367:diphthong 1115:Hampshire 1070:applied. 1064:Old Norse 1034:all over 948:Old Dutch 944:Old Saxon 817:Etymology 791:Old Saxon 772:Old Norse 542:Brittonic 457:Phonology 325:Glottolog 311:ISO 639-6 295:ISO 639-3 277:ISO 639-2 109:Ethnicity 10232:Vandalic 10175:Gutnish 9980:Vikværsk 9960:Sognamål 9950:Bergensk 9800:Cimbrian 9768:Bavarian 9725:Alsatian 9672:Lusatian 9608:Palatine 9298:Amelands 9175:Frankish 9065:Sallaans 9047:Gronings 8898:Southern 8891:Northern 8882:Halligen 8831:Insular 8648:dialects 8532:stopping 8527:fronting 8479:Flapping 8474:Clusters 8128:Lexicons 7894:Language 7836:Language 7774:Again". 7722:(1957). 7705:(1959). 7652:(1992). 7464:(2013). 7434:(1959). 7200:40914943 6748:13441465 6583:(1959). 6250:See also 6149:(1969). 6055:and the 6043:and the 6013:marginal 5814:(wished) 5802:(outlaw) 5794:(praise) 5730:and lewd 5726:, hooded 5713:weregild 5710:shilling 5667:pilcrows 5633:Sōðlīċe. 5474:Original 5374:ronrāde 5353:oth that 5308:olcnum, 5258:(became) 5183:(troops) 5109:of thede 5060:cognates 5032:þelingas 5003:what-ho! 4979:Hrothgar 4500:, as in 4477:, as in 4428:, or an 4180:/e(ː)o̯/ 4176:/e(ː)o̯/ 4172:/i(ː)o̯/ 3712:form of 3633:such as 3389:⟩ 3385:⟨ 3166:phonemes 3014:digraphs 2972:⟩ 2968:⟨ 2933:Caroline 2816:such as 2777:-support 2628:subjects 2563:. Other 2547:and its 2521:Pronouns 2503:locative 2495:pronouns 2481:; three 2471:genitive 2406:Loss of 2322:/e(ː)o̯/ 2318:/i(ː)o̯/ 2251:element 2230:i-umlaut 2002:phonemes 1680:alveolar 1673:Alveolar 1647:surface 1619:together 1599:pronouns 1425:century 1419:porticus 1380:in LWS. 1282:Just as 1264:Dialects 1205:Cynewulf 1036:Cornwall 1012:Scotland 861:fishhook 724:replaced 654:Scotland 398:Dialects 382:a series 380:Part of 360:Help:IPA 332:olde1238 257:, later 216:Dialects 151:Germanic 99:Scotland 10495:Italics 10118:Scanian 10064:Swedish 10013:Faroese 9991:Nynorsk 9970:Valdris 9805:Mòcheno 9761:Swabian 9627:Hessian 9587:Hunsrik 9499:Western 9494:Eastern 9489:Yiddish 9439:creoles 9336:Bergish 9052:Drèents 9042:Tweants 8894:Central 8876:Mooring 8739:Frisian 8698:Kildare 8643:English 8341:Mercian 8336:Kentish 8261:at the 8249:at the 8240:at the 8228:Lessons 8214:at the 8204:at the 7960:4177642 7720:Ker, NR 7389:General 7366:Sources 6663:20 June 6272:Anglish 6005:glosses 5939:, afore 5936:support 5921:me fore 5867:my shot 5856:support 5845:unfrith 5806:(peace) 5780:¶ I nam 5704:greater 5658:to his 5388:kenning 5292:abode, 5284:fewship 5256:worthed 5254:(first) 5202:ǣġþum, 5198:onegum 5115:(glory) 5014:ār-Dena 4974:Beowulf 4966:Beowulf 4932:Beowulf 4895:Beowulf 4835:; e.g. 4632:Called 4480:fisċere 4459:(rare) 4082:swerian 3710:insular 3698:Called 3656:(after 3526:(after 3483:before 3477:history 3424:scēafas 3418:scēabas 3307:digraph 3256:before 3162:regular 3108:palatal 3053:Macrons 2905:futhorc 2836:and as 2784:subject 2687:ending 2675:ending 2663:she/her 2640:aspects 2596:persons 2581:inflect 2514:on rodi 2511:ᚩᚾ ᚱᚩᛞᛁ 2493:. Only 2487:numbers 2483:genders 2455:decline 2436:Grammar 2136:rounded 2125:rounded 2036:/f,θ,s/ 1695:Glottal 1685:Palatal 1586:Vikings 1541:Danelaw 1363:History 1346:, were 1316:Anglian 1308:Kentish 1300:Mercian 1209:Aldhelm 1123:Danelaw 1048:Cumbria 1044:Cumbric 1028:Pictish 867:History 838:Englisċ 826:English 822:Englisċ 756:Mercian 752:Kentish 656:in the 650:England 628:Ænglisc 622:Englisċ 505:History 482:Beowulf 452:Grammar 409:Mercian 404:Kentish 356:Unicode 227:Mercian 222:Kentish 95:England 71:kenning 60:Beowulf 44:Ænglisċ 38:Englisċ 10211:Gothic 10081:Danish 9985:Bokmål 9484:Yenish 9294:Bildts 9077:Veluws 9072:Urkers 8911:Strand 8635:Anglic 8400:Vowels 8057:Syntax 7987: 7958: 7914:411354 7912: 7881: 7856:410597 7854: 7741: 7664: 7627: 7599: 7580: 7544: 7488: 7472: 7450: 7407: 7234: 7197: 7079: 6823: 6746: 6595: 6543: 6341: 6200:, and 6170:online 6082:Modern 6039:, the 6029:Corpus 6025:Leiden 5933:God's 5931:(with) 5927:(from) 5919:(with) 5915:(with) 5907:(then) 5885:(then) 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and 738:; and 716:Saxons 712:Angles 640:), or 555:Legacy 171:Anglic 91:Region 10325:South 10276:North 9886:North 9870:North 9212:Kaaps 9203:Dutch 8850:Amrum 8791:Weser 8713:Scots 7985:S2CID 7956:JSTOR 7910:JSTOR 7852:JSTOR 7195:JSTOR 6800:(PDF) 6755:(PDF) 6744:S2CID 6732:(PDF) 6714:(PDF) 6696:(PDF) 6657:(PDF) 6650:(PDF) 6009:Latin 5897:found 5816:sell' 5732:(lay) 5485:into 5439:king! 5418:yeme 5370:ofer 5325:theed 5151:freme 5117:frain 4983:Scyld 4935:, an 4838:betst 4682:(see 4634:thorn 4536:/fiʃ/ 4217:/io̯/ 4166:/io̯/ 4152:/iy̯/ 4126:/iy̯/ 3912:/eo̯/ 3885:(see 3869:/eo̯/ 3843:/æɑ̯/ 3816:(see 3800:/æɑ̯/ 3740:with 3689:ð, þ 3677:(see 3175:cniht 3104:velar 3000:thorn 2901:runes 2812:type 2689:-(e)s 2604:moods 2507:Runic 2459:cases 2452:Nouns 2422:sechs 2395:mouse 2368:type. 2300:Open 2254:Short 2249:First 2143:Close 2107:Front 1967:Trill 1702:Nasal 1690:Velar 1678:Post- 1615:hence 1491:Latin 1386:Scots 1125:) by 1056:Wales 1052:Welsh 1040:Devon 855:*angô 740:Latin 720:Jutes 658:early 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