1003:) are the product of biological and cultural factors that manifest in individual brain development, neural wiring, and neurochemical homeostasis. According to received view in neuroscience, an observed human behavior, in any context, is the last event in a long chain of biological and cultural interactions. The brain´s anatomy is subject to neuroplasticity and depends on both, contextual (cultural) and historically dependent (previous experience) mechanisms to shape the neural system. By bridging sociology with anthropology and cognitive science perspectives, we can assess shared cultural knowledge – understand processes underlying unspoken social norms and beliefs, as well as study processes of shaping individual values that together constitute societies.
980:) that seek to evaluate the effects of shared cognitive structures on social life and the human condition beginning from the onset of cognitive development. The major part of social and cognitive anthropology concepts (e.g., Cultural consonance, Cultural models, Knowledge structures, Shared knowledge etc.) seem to rely upon broad pervasive, unaware interactions between society members. Research shows that unconscious remembering increases recall efficiency over time and yields greater confidence in that thought. According to the received view in
976:. The following part of the section shows the significance of their co-research for understanding the processes that constitute society. According to Sir Edward Tylor: "Culture, or civilization, taken in its broad, ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.” The cultural consensus principle is incorporated in the reasoning behind the cultural consonance model and other similar models (see
1394:. At the time, the field was dominated by "the comparative method". It was assumed that all societies passed through a single evolutionary process from the most primitive to most advanced. Non-European societies were thus seen as evolutionary "living fossils" that could be studied in order to understand the European past. Scholars wrote histories of prehistoric migrations which were sometimes valuable but often also fanciful. It was during this time that Europeans first accurately traced
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institutional units no longer necessarily reflect fully the content of the disciplines these cover. Some, such as the
Institute of Social and Cultural Anthropology (Oxford), changed their name to reflect the change in composition; others, such as Social Anthropology at the University of Kent, became simply Anthropology. Most retain the name under which they were founded.
1824:, took BSA in new directions through their introduction of explicitly Marxist-informed theory, their emphasis on conflicts and conflict resolution, and their attention to the ways in which individuals negotiate and make use of the social structural possibilities. During this period Gluckman was also involved in a dispute with American anthropologist
1959:. Departments of Social Anthropology at different universities have tended to focus on disparate aspects of the field, and can be found in several universities around the world. The field of social anthropology has expanded in ways not anticipated by the founders of the field, as for example in the subfield of
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anthropology is a term applied to ethnographic works that attempt to isolate a particular system of social relations such as those that comprise domestic life, economy, law, politics, or religion, give analytical priority to the organizational bases of social life, and attend to cultural phenomena as
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Malinowski and
Radcliffe-Brown's influence stemmed from the fact that they, like Boas, actively trained students and aggressively built up institutions that furthered their programmatic ambitions. This was particularly the case with Radcliffe-Brown, who spread his agenda for "Social Anthropology" by
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Toward the turn of the 20th century, a number of anthropologists became dissatisfied with this categorization of cultural elements; historical reconstructions also came to seem increasingly speculative to them. Under the influence of several younger scholars, a new approach came to predominate among
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Differences among
British, French, and American sociocultural anthropologies have diminished with increasing dialogue and borrowing of both theory and methods. Social and cultural anthropologists, and some who integrate the two, are found in most institutes of anthropology. Thus the formal names of
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as "that complex whole, which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by as of society." However, as
Stocking notes, Tylor mainly concerned himself with describing and mapping the distribution of particular elements of culture, rather
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on ethnographic methodology within the anthropological study of law. He believed that indigenous terms used in ethnographic data should be translated into Anglo-American legal terms for the benefit of the reader. The
Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth was founded in
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than with the larger function, and he generally seemed to assume a
Victorian idea of progress rather than the idea of non-directional, multilineal cultural change proposed by later anthropologists. Tylor also theorized about the origins of religious beliefs in human beings, proposing a theory of
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in the late 19th century and underwent major changes in both method and theory during the period 1890–1920 with a new emphasis on original fieldwork, long-term holistic study of social behavior in natural settings, and the introduction of French and German social theory.
1740:, which focused on how institutions in societies worked to balance out or create an equilibrium in the social system to keep it functioning harmoniously. His structuralist approach contrasted with Malinowski's functionalism, and was quite different from the later French
1704:(1962) defined social anthropology as a kind of comparative micro-sociology based on intensive fieldwork studies. Scholars have not settled a theoretical orthodoxy on the nature of science and society, and their tensions reflect views which are seriously opposed.
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dimensions. Practitioners have developed an awareness of the sense in which scholars create their objects of study and the ways in which anthropologists themselves may contribute to processes of change in the societies they study. An example of this is the
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Anthropology grew increasingly distinct from natural history and by the end of the 19th century the discipline began to crystallize into its modern form—by 1935, for example, it was possible for T. K. Penniman to write a history of the discipline entitled
1291:, one of the most important influences on British social anthropology, emphasized long-term fieldwork in which anthropologists work in the vernacular and immerse themselves in the daily practices of local people. This development was bolstered by
992:: unaware knowledge assimilation. Therefore, mechanisms of unaware interactions at the onset of life, one of the focuses of research in cognitive sciences, have become the central research issue in social and cognitive anthropology.
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studies how people represent and think about events and objects in the world. It links human thought processes and the physical and ideational aspects of culture. The scopes of these two disciplines intersect in the field of
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and the influence of his supervisor, M.N. Srinivas. His work on equality and inequality in human societies and publications on such, especially the caste system. He reflects on and analyzes the work of Dumont, as well as
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became unattended "laboratories", especially the so-called "ethnological exhibitions" or "Negro villages". Thus, "savages" from the
Americas, Africa and Asia were displayed, often nude, in cages, in what has been termed
1463:, stating that there are three ways that different groups can have similar cultural forms or technologies: "independent invention, inheritance from ancestors in a distant region, transmission from one race [
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range and the attention it gives to the comparative diversity of societies and cultures across the world, and the capacity this gives the discipline to re-examine Euro-American assumptions. It is differentiated from
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58 (1): 7–19. doi:10.1093/analys/58.1.7. JSTOR 3328150.; reprinted as: Andy Clark, David J Chalmers (2010). "Chapter 2: The extended mind". In
Richard Menary (ed.). The Extended Mind. MIT Press. pp. 27–42. ISBN
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Ho, Karen (2009): "Disciplining
Investment Bankers, Disciplining the Economy: Wall Street’s Institutional Culture of Crisis and the Downsizing of American Corporations." American Anthropologist, Vol. 111, No.
1903:, and the like. In other countries (and in some, particularly smaller, British and North American universities), anthropologists have also found themselves institutionally linked with scholars of
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as the earliest stage, and noting that "religion" has many components, of which he believed the most important to be belief in supernatural beings (as opposed to moral systems, cosmology, etc.).
1752:. From the late 1930s until the postwar period appeared a string of monographs and edited volumes that cemented the paradigm of British Social Anthropology (BSA). Famous ethnographies include
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Dressler, W. W., Balieiro, M. C., Ribeiro, R. P., & Santos, J. E. D. (2007). "Cultural consonance and psychological distress: Examining the associations in multiple cultural domains."
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Malinowski, B. (1922). Argonauts of the
Western Pacific: An account of native enterprise and adventure in the Archipelagoes of Melanesian New Guinea. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
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methods), has been traditionally encouraged in social anthropology rather than quantitative analysis of surveys, questionnaires and brief field visits typically used by
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1299:, arguing that cultures are based on different ideas about the world and can therefore only be properly understood in terms of their own standards and values.
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After dinner talk on the history of social anthropology: Beteille speaks of his childhood and natural inclination to anthropology, his training, fieldwork in
3153:- website offers tutorials, information on the subject, discussion-forums and a large link-collection for all interested scholars of social anthropology
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Moore, Sally F. 1966. Comparative Studies: Introduction. in Law in Culture and Society, edited by Laura Nader. London: University of California Press.
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edited by Felix Stein. Facsimile of the first edition in The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Anthropology. Initially published 14 Sep 2021. Online:
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Dianteill, Erwan, "Cultural Anthropology or Social Anthropology? A Transatlantic Argument", L’Année sociologique 1/2012 (Vol. 62), p. 93-122
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Sarto-Jackson, I., Larson, D.O. & Callebaut, W. (2017). "Culture, neurobiology, and human behavior: new perspectives in anthropology."
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Tylor advocated strongly for unilinealism and a form of "uniformity of mankind". Tylor in particular laid the groundwork for theories of
1502:, analyzed similarities in religious belief and symbolism globally. Neither Tylor nor Frazer, however, were particularly interested in
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Maltseva, K. (2020). "Bridging sociology with anthropology and cognitive science perspectives to assess shared cultural knowledge."
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in the "indigenous village"; it received 24 million visitors in six months, thus demonstrating the popularity of such "human zoos".
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Specializations within social anthropology shift as its objects of study are transformed and as new intellectual paradigms appear;
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The Association seeks to advance anthropology in Europe by organizing biennial conferences and by editing its academic journal,
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while social anthropology diversified in Europe by challenging the principles of structure-functionalism, absorbing ideas from
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1935:. British anthropology has continued to emphasize social organization and economics over purely symbolic or literary topics.
1812:, and embracing the study of conflict, change, urban anthropology, and networks. Together with many of his colleagues at the
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Coral Gardens and Their Magic: A Study of the Methods of Tilling the Soil and of Agricultural Rites in the Trobriand Islands
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1796:, sociocultural anthropology as comprised by the fields of ethnography and ethnology diverged into an American school of
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affects individual experience, or aim to provide a rounded view of the knowledge, customs, and institutions of people.
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Graf, P., & Mandler, G. (1984). "Activation makes words more accessible, but not necessarily more retrievable,"
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students in February 2006. Introducing some of the major approaches to the anthropology of politics and economics.
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in the old model, collecting lists of cultural items, when the outbreak of the First World War stranded him in
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research. Behavioral propensities (an exteriorization of Cultural models, Schemata, etc.; see key concepts of
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Hendry, Joy.1999. An Introduction to Social Anthropology: Other People's Worlds. London: Macmillan Press Ltd
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is the study of patterns of behaviour in human societies and cultures. It is the dominant constituent of
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Hasher, L., Goldstein, D., Toppino, T. (1977). "Frequency and the conference of referential validity,"
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Primitive culture: researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom
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in the old style of historical reconstruction. However, after reading the work of French sociologists
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The subject has been enlivened by, and has contributed to, approaches from other disciplines, such as
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1947:(EASA) was founded in 1989 as a society of scholarship at a meeting of founder members from fourteen
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Erickson, P.A. and Murphy, L.D. (2008) A History of Anthropological Theory, Toronto: Broadview Press
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Academic blog post explaining the similarities/differences between social and cultural anthropology.
1360:(1916). Such exhibitions were attempts to illustrate and prove in the same movement the validity of
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Hendry, Joy.1999. An Introduction to Social Anthropology: Other People's Worlds. Palgrave. p. 9-10.
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are examples of current, well-defined specialities. More recent and currently specializations are:
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Rosemary Firth interview by Alan Macfarlane: about her arrival in anthropology and fieldwork in
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Ingold, T. (1985) Who Studies Humanity? The Scope of Anthropology. Anthropology Today, 1:6:15-16
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interpretation, which examined how social institutions functioned to satisfy individual needs.
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or historical analysis), and emphasizing long-term (one to several years) immersion fieldwork.
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Frazer, a Scottish scholar with a broad knowledge of Classics, also concerned himself with the
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British anthropologists, concerned with analyzing how societies held together in the present (
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Argonauts of West Africa: Unauthorized Migration and Kinship Dynamics in a Changing Europe.
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Stocking, George Jir. (1963) "Matthew Arnold, E. B. Tylor, and the Uses of Invention,"
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also published a seminal work in 1922. He had carried out his initial fieldwork in the
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was actively discussed as a way to classify—and rank—human beings based on difference.
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The Expansive Moment: The Rise of Social Anthropology in Britain and Africa, 1918-1970
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Audit Cultures: Anthropological Studies in Accountability, Ethics and the Academy
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Tylor formulated one of the early and influential anthropological conceptions of
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The American Historical Review, Vol. 102, No. 5 (December, 1997), pp. 1486-1488
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that became standard in the field: getting "the native's point of view" through
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Chalupa, L.M., Berardi, N., Caleo, M., Galli-Resta, L., Pizzorusso, T. (2011).
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One Discipline, Four Ways: British, German, French, and American anthropology
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2008:
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Researches into the early history of mankind the development of civilization
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Leach, Edmund (1954): Political systems of Highland Burma. London: G. Bell.
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Bernard, R. 2006. Research Methods in Anthropology. Lanham: Alta Mira Press
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Monoclonal Antibodies to Migraine: Witnesses to modern biomedicine, an AZ.
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to the technical explanations rooted in economic and political theory.
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The tell-tale brain: a neuroscientist’s quest for what makes us human.
1966:
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1440:. Although the British anthropologist Tylor undertook a field trip to
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works that are holistic in spirit, are oriented to the ways in which
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Anthropology § Key topics by field: Socio-cultural anthropology
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somewhat secondary to the main issues of social scientific inquiry.
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1568:(1884–1942) was beginning what he expected to be a brief period of
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begins from birth (and even from prenatal) due to motive forces of
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Andy Clark, David J Chalmers (January 1998). "The extended mind".
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identities in India, as well as his lectures on backward classes.
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was abridged drastically in subsequent editions after his first.
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Culture in mind: Cognition, culture, and the problem of meaning.
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in a number of 19th-century disciplines, including the study of
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Pfaffenberger, B. (1992). "Social anthropology of technology."
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Checketts, L. (2017). "New Technologies—Old Anthropologies?."
2252:"Anthropology for beginners: Social and cultural anthropology"
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1952:
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for instance—although some of them believed it originated in
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Topics of interest for social anthropologists have included
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Anthropology and Anthropologists: The Modern British School
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Anthropology and Anthropologists: The Modern British School
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A decade and a half later, the Polish anthropology student
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weren't the only site of anthropological studies; with the
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Social anthropology is distinguished from subjects such as
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2602:"Postsocialism". In The Open Encyclopedia of Anthropology,
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1135:: the anthropological analysis of ecological learning in
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Another intersection of these two disciplines appears in
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social and ethical understandings of novel technologies
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Comparison and intersection with cognitive anthropology
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2275:"The Department of Anthropology at Harvard University"
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anthropologists, and his classic ethnographical work,
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The Sexual Life of Savages in North-Western Melanesia
2652:. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. pp. 14–16.
1953:
Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research.
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1967:
Anthropologists associated with social anthropology
825:and much of Europe, where it is distinguished from
2993:"Lectures on Political and Economic Anthropology"
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3073:Eriksen, Thomas H. (1985):, pp. 926–929 in
1634:London School of Economics and Political Science
1623:London School of Economics and Political Science
1527:London School of Economics and Political Science
1525:, Polish anthropologist and ethnographer at the
2437:16: 107–112. doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(77)80012-1.
2435:Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior.
2424:23: 553–568. doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(84)90346-3.
2422:Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior.
2319:"Institute of Social and Cultural Anthropology"
1680:, whose orientation reflected the contemporary
1161:– the ongoing social fall-out of the demise of
3151:The Moving Anthropology Student Network (MASN)
2177:List of important publications in anthropology
1945:European Association of Social Anthropologists
3172:
2519:https://doi.org/10.15407/sociology2020.01.108
1891:, which may be connected with departments of
1879:, which may be connected with departments of
795:
3078:Kuper, Adam; Kuper, Jessica (January 1985).
2213:
925:provided an alternative explanation for the
1781:
1764:The Dynamics of Clanship Among the Tallensi
3179:
3165:
3077:
2990:
2924:
2364:The Development of Cognitive Anthropology,
1628:Modern social anthropology was founded in
1557:and including a physician-anthropologist,
1364:, whose first formulation may be found in
802:
788:
2842:
2455:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10539-017-9574-2
2337:"School of Anthropology and Conservation"
1957:Social Anthropology/Anthropologies Social
1371:An Essay on the Inequality of Human Races
1219:
1057:Learn how and when to remove this message
2872:
2737:. New York, Harcourt, Brace & World
1706:
1616:
1517:
1417:
1301:
2796:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2735:A diary in the strict sense of the term
2606:http://doi.org/10.29164/21postsocialism
2221:"Benchmark Statement Anthropology (UK)"
1772:African Systems of Kinship and Marriage
1672:. Other intellectual founders include
1287:Polish anthropologist and ethnographer
14:
3854:
2515:Sociology: Theory, Methods, Marketing,
2499:Cerebral plasticity: new perspectives.
3160:
3026:Benchmark Statement Anthropology (UK)
2955:
2875:"After-dinner talk by Andre Beteille"
2645:
2635:https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203449721
2591:Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
1425:, 19th-century British anthropologist
1006:
845:anthropology is generally applied to
837:Comparison with cultural anthropology
3810:
2937:from the original on 12 October 2016
2382:Vol 1. New York: J.P. Putnam's Sons.
1770:; well-known edited volumes include
1748:teaching at universities across the
1094:, cognition, or health and illness.
1039:adding citations to reliable sources
1010:
3186:
1938:
1413:
1338:was put by American anthropologist
24:
3031:
1097:
25:
3873:
3132:
2925:Macfarlane, Alan (7 March 2006).
2587:Andrikopoulos, Apostolos (2023).
2551:Queen Mary, University of London.
2393:Culture, medicine and psychiatry,
1514:Malinowski and the British School
1295:' introduction of the concept of
1224:The subject has both ethical and
3833:
3822:
3809:
3798:
3797:
3137:
3048:Argonauts of the Western Pacific
2848:Heyck, Thomas William (1997) at
2666:from the original on 2018-04-29.
2343:from the original on 2012-02-14.
2325:from the original on 2012-02-24.
1605:. Theoretically, he advocated a
1597:(1922) advocated an approach to
1594:Argonauts of the Western Pacific
1123:– neuroscience research for the
1015:
59:
3752:List of social science journals
3075:The Social Science Encyclopedia
2999:from the original on 2007-08-10
2991:MacFarlane, Alan (2006-02-20).
2984:
2964:from the original on 2007-06-07
2958:"Interview with Rosemary Firth"
2949:
2918:
2881:from the original on 2007-04-23
2866:
2831:from the original on 2011-04-08
2817:
2808:
2799:
2781:
2749:
2740:
2727:
2714:
2701:
2679:
2670:
2639:
2623:
2610:
2594:
2581:
2568:
2554:
2541:
2532:
2523:
2507:
2491:
2475:
2459:
2427:
2414:
2398:
2385:
2372:
2356:
2281:from the original on 2011-04-08
2233:from the original on 2013-09-21
1750:British Empire and Commonwealth
1392:A Hundred Years of Anthropology
1322:period, starting in the 1870s,
1026:needs additional citations for
3709:Science and technology studies
3082:. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
3058:Malinowski, Bronislaw (1935):
3052:Malinowski, Bronislaw (1929):
3046:Malinowski, Bronislaw (1922):
3037:Malinowski, Bronislaw (1915):
3008:Eight lectures for first-year
2956:Firth, Rosemary (2004-06-29).
2873:Beteille, Andre (2006-05-05).
2724:. 2 vols. London: John Murray.
2600:Martin, Dominic. (2021) 2023.
2576:Annual review of Anthropology,
2347:
2329:
2311:
2301:
2292:
2267:
2244:
2194:
749:Anthropologists by nationality
27:For the academic journal, see
13:
1:
3019:
2733:Malinowski, Bronisław (1967)
1612:
1357:The Passing of the Great Race
927:financial crisis of 2007–2010
1820:, collectively known as the
1814:Rhodes-Livingstone Institute
1547:multidisciplinary expedition
1184:cultures and accountability.
7:
2927:"Interview of Mary Douglas"
2155:
1760:Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard
1582:British colonial possession
10:
3878:
2486:Cambridge University Press
2368:Cambridge University Press
1808:and from the followers of
1785:
1656:between 1915 and 1918 and
1406:. Finally, the concept of
1374:(1853–1855). In 1931, the
1240:
1236:
1169:the politics of resurgent
1101:
831:sociocultural anthropology
769:List of indigenous peoples
26:
3793:
3760:
3744:
3491:
3217:
3194:
2089:Siegfried Frederick Nadel
1788:Aftermath of World War II
1776:African Political Systems
1378:in Paris still displayed
1354:, was also the author of
514:Cross-cultural comparison
2483:Neurophilosophy at work.
2465:Ramachandran VS (2011).
2187:
1782:Post-World War II trends
1738:structural functionalism
1247:Social anthropology has
883:consumption and exchange
881:resolution, patterns of
686:Historical particularism
3397:international relations
2688:American Anthropologist
2481:Churchland, P. (2007).
2409:Oxford University Press
2362:D'Andrade, Roy (1995).
1844:modes of analysis with
1834:erosion of Christianity
1662:structure-functionalist
1603:participant observation
1578:Austro-Hungarian Empire
1243:History of anthropology
946:participant observation
519:Participant observation
3724:Quantum social science
3067:Leach, Edmund (1982):
2711:. London: John Murray.
2633:(1st ed.). Routledge.
2629:Strathern, M. (2000).
2547:Tansey, E. M. (2014).
2099:Alfred Radcliffe-Brown
1999:Thomas Hylland Eriksen
1961:structure and dynamics
1714:
1658:Alfred Radcliffe-Brown
1625:
1576:. As a subject of the
1553:in 1898, organized by
1537:analysis, rather than
1529:
1426:
1398:migrations across the
1331:". In 1906, Congolese
1311:
1220:Ethical considerations
1001:cognitive anthropology
978:cognitive anthropology
969:Cognitive anthropology
940:, including intensive
889:and family structure,
661:Cross-cultural studies
37:Branch of anthropology
3761:Other categorizations
3614:International studies
3599:History of technology
3534:Communication studies
3417:public administration
3146:at Wikimedia Commons
2378:Tylor, Edward. 1920.
2162:Cultural anthropology
2004:E. E. Evans-Pritchard
1984:Edmund Snow Carpenter
1873:physical anthropology
1818:Manchester University
1798:cultural anthropology
1786:Further information:
1734:The Andaman Islanders
1718:A. R. Radcliffe-Brown
1712:A. R. Radcliffe-Brown
1710:
1621:Main entrance to the
1620:
1551:Torres Strait Islands
1521:
1461:cultural diffusionism
1421:
1305:
1137:cognitive development
1129:shared intentionality
1121:cognitive development
990:shared intentionality
974:cognitive development
827:cultural anthropology
3594:Historical sociology
3104:Kuper, Adam (1996):
3010:Cambridge University
2646:Kuper, Adam (1973).
2104:Juan Mauricio Renold
2084:Bronisław Malinowski
1869:British Commonwealth
1867:In countries of the
1644:'s process-oriented
1642:Bronisław Malinowski
1566:Bronisław Malinowski
1543:Cambridge University
1523:Bronisław Malinowski
1430:Edward Burnett Tylor
1423:Edward Burnett Tylor
1350:"—Grant, a renowned
1314:Museums such as the
1289:Bronisław Malinowski
1277:Edward Burnett Tylor
1159:postsocialism crisis
1133:extended mind thesis
1114:medical anthropology
1035:improve this article
954:political scientists
938:qualitative research
754:Anthropology by year
691:Boasian anthropology
666:Cultural materialism
651:Actor–network theory
249:Paleoanthropological
3862:Social anthropology
3774:Geisteswissenschaft
3768:Behavioral sciences
3694:Political sociology
3609:Information science
3554:Development studies
3144:Social anthropology
3080:Social Anthropology
3069:Social Anthropology
2720:Tylor, E.B. (1871)
2707:Tylor, E.B. (1865)
2277:. Fas.harvard.edu.
2064:Claude LĂ©vi-Strauss
1979:Aleksandar Boskovic
1951:, supported by the
1862:Claude LĂ©vi-Strauss
1838:cultural relativism
1802:Claude LĂ©vi-Strauss
1469:] to another."
1434:James George Frazer
1376:Colonial Exhibition
1297:cultural relativism
1281:James George Frazer
905:, ethnic violence,
893:, childbearing and
815:Social anthropology
706:Performance studies
599:Kinship and descent
539:Cultural relativism
189:Paleoethnobotanical
164:Ethnoarchaeological
30:Social Anthropology
18:Social Anthropology
3829:Society portal
3316:auxiliary sciences
2766:2007-11-06 at the
2695:2007-12-02 at the
2690:, 65:783-799, 1963
2404:Shore, B. (1998).
2380:Primitive Culture.
2206:2016-03-04 at the
2029:Stephen D. Glazier
1949:European countries
1715:
1626:
1555:Alfred Cort Haddon
1530:
1427:
1366:Arthur de Gobineau
1312:
1206:history of science
1007:Focus and practice
982:cognitive sciences
726:Post-structuralism
485:Research framework
3849:
3848:
3689:Political economy
3684:Political ecology
3539:Community studies
3529:Cognitive science
3492:Interdisciplinary
3392:Political science
3142:Media related to
3041:Trobriand Islands
2134:Susan Visvanathan
2124:Marilyn Strathern
2074:Judith MacDougall
1852:and his students
1822:Manchester School
1650:Trobriand Islands
1486:study of religion
1362:scientific racism
1342:in a cage in the
1075:political science
1067:
1066:
1059:
812:
811:
711:Political economy
534:Thick description
331:Political economy
194:Zooarchaeological
154:Bioarchaeological
16:(Redirected from
3869:
3837:
3827:
3826:
3813:
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3801:
3800:
3704:Regional science
3549:Cultural studies
3524:Business studies
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2211:
2198:
2139:Douglas R. White
2119:Marshall Sahlins
2069:David MacDougall
1989:Philippe Descola
1939:1980s to present
1929:social relations
1905:cultural studies
1901:Oriental studies
1836:, the growth of
1816:and students at
1682:Parapsychologies
1508:The Golden Bough
1499:The Golden Bough
1432:(1832–1917) and
1414:Tylor and Frazer
1249:historical roots
1231:hawthorne effect
1131:approach to the
1062:
1055:
1051:
1048:
1042:
1019:
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891:gender relations
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214:Anthrozoological
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3498:Administration
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3188:Social sciences
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3032:Further reading
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2768:Wayback Machine
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2208:Wayback Machine
2199:
2195:
2190:
2158:
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2109:Audrey Richards
2079:Alan Macfarlane
1969:
1941:
1917:human geography
1790:
1784:
1722:Andaman Islands
1674:W. H. R. Rivers
1615:
1516:
1416:
1320:New Imperialism
1245:
1239:
1222:
1163:state socialism
1125:neuroplasticity
1106:
1100:
1098:Specializations
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821:throughout the
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716:Practice theory
656:Alliance theory
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3589:Global studies
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3567:social science
3563:Environmental
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1726:Émile Durkheim
1664:conception of
1614:
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1580:resident on a
1559:William Rivers
1515:
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1450:Ancient Greece
1415:
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1316:British Museum
1308:British Museum
1241:Main article:
1238:
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433:
432:
429:
428:
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419:
414:
409:
404:
399:
394:
389:
384:
379:
374:
369:
364:
359:
354:
349:
344:
339:
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327:
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317:
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307:
302:
297:
292:
287:
281:
278:
277:
272:
266:
265:
264:
261:
260:
257:
256:
254:Primatological
251:
246:
241:
236:
231:
226:
221:
216:
210:
205:
204:
201:
200:
197:
196:
191:
186:
181:
176:
171:
166:
161:
156:
151:
146:
141:
136:
130:
127:Archaeological
125:
124:
121:
120:
117:
116:
111:
106:
101:
96:
94:Archaeological
90:
87:
86:
83:
82:
80:
79:
74:
68:
65:
64:
56:
55:
49:
48:
36:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3874:
3863:
3860:
3859:
3857:
3842:
3841:
3836:
3832:
3830:
3825:
3820:
3818:
3817:
3808:
3806:
3805:
3796:
3795:
3792:
3786:
3783:
3781:
3780:Human science
3778:
3776:
3775:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3765:
3763:
3759:
3753:
3750:
3749:
3747:
3743:
3737:
3736:Vegan studies
3734:
3732:
3729:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3717:
3716:
3715:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3702:
3700:
3699:Public health
3697:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3687:
3685:
3682:
3678:
3675:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3664:
3662:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3634:
3633:Philosophies
3632:
3630:
3629:Media studies
3627:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3604:Human ecology
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3565:
3564:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3514:Anthrozoology
3512:
3508:
3505:
3503:
3500:
3499:
3497:
3496:
3494:
3490:
3482:
3479:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3458:
3457:
3454:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3439:developmental
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3426:
3425:
3422:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3412:public policy
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3394:
3393:
3390:
3386:
3383:
3382:
3381:
3378:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3363:legal systems
3361:
3359:
3358:legal history
3356:
3354:
3353:jurisprudence
3351:
3350:
3349:
3346:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3308:
3307:
3304:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3281:
3280:
3277:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3260:
3258:
3255:
3254:
3253:
3250:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3227:
3226:
3223:
3222:
3220:
3216:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3196:
3193:
3189:
3182:
3177:
3175:
3170:
3168:
3163:
3162:
3159:
3152:
3149:
3148:
3147:
3145:
3140:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3116:0-415-11895-6
3112:
3108:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3089:0-7102-0008-0
3085:
3081:
3076:
3072:
3070:
3066:
3063:
3061:
3057:
3055:
3051:
3049:
3045:
3043:
3042:
3036:
3035:
3027:
3024:
3023:
3011:
2998:
2994:
2987:
2980:
2979:Raymond Firth
2976:
2963:
2959:
2952:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2921:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2893:
2880:
2876:
2869:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2845:
2830:
2826:
2820:
2811:
2802:
2795:
2794:
2789:
2784:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2769:
2765:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2743:
2736:
2730:
2723:
2717:
2710:
2704:
2698:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2682:
2673:
2665:
2661:
2659:0-7100-9409-4
2655:
2651:
2650:
2642:
2636:
2632:
2626:
2619:
2613:
2607:
2603:
2597:
2590:
2584:
2577:
2571:
2563:
2557:
2550:
2544:
2535:
2526:
2520:
2516:
2510:
2503:
2500:
2494:
2487:
2484:
2478:
2471:
2468:
2462:
2456:
2453:32, 729–748.
2452:
2446:
2444:
2436:
2430:
2423:
2417:
2410:
2407:
2401:
2394:
2388:
2381:
2375:
2369:
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2359:
2350:
2342:
2338:
2332:
2324:
2320:
2314:
2304:
2295:
2280:
2276:
2270:
2253:
2247:
2229:
2222:
2216:
2209:
2205:
2202:
2197:
2193:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2159:
2150:
2149:Robert Layton
2147:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2114:Victor Turner
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2039:David Graeber
2037:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2009:Raymond Firth
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1971:
1964:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1936:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1865:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1830:
1827:
1826:Paul Bohannan
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1806:structuralism
1803:
1799:
1795:
1789:
1779:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1756:
1751:
1745:
1743:
1742:structuralism
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1703:
1699:
1698:Auguste Comte
1695:
1691:
1690:Adolf Bastian
1687:
1686:Wilhelm Wundt
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1624:
1619:
1610:
1608:
1607:functionalist
1604:
1600:
1596:
1595:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1562:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1511:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1500:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1482:
1480:
1475:
1470:
1468:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1438:Great Britain
1435:
1431:
1424:
1420:
1411:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1400:Pacific Ocean
1397:
1393:
1387:
1385:
1384:New Caledonia
1381:
1377:
1373:
1372:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1358:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1340:Madison Grant
1337:
1334:
1330:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1309:
1304:
1300:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1285:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1244:
1234:
1232:
1227:
1217:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1198:phenomenology
1195:
1191:
1183:
1179:
1176:
1173:
1172:
1167:
1164:
1160:
1157:
1154:
1150:
1147:
1144:
1141:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1119:
1118:
1117:
1115:
1111:
1105:
1095:
1093:
1092:human ecology
1089:
1085:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1061:
1058:
1050:
1040:
1036:
1030:
1029:
1024:This section
1022:
1018:
1013:
1012:
1004:
1002:
998:
993:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
970:
961:
959:
956:, and (most)
955:
951:
947:
944:(emphasizing
943:
942:field studies
939:
934:
930:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
896:
895:socialization
892:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
859:
856:
852:
848:
844:
834:
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
805:
800:
798:
793:
791:
786:
785:
783:
782:
775:
774:Organizations
772:
770:
767:
765:
762:
760:
757:
755:
752:
750:
747:
746:
740:
739:
732:
729:
727:
724:
722:
721:Structuralism
719:
717:
714:
712:
709:
707:
704:
702:
699:
697:
696:Functionalism
694:
692:
689:
687:
684:
682:
679:
677:
674:
672:
669:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
652:
649:
648:
642:
641:
634:
630:
627:
625:
622:
620:
617:
615:
612:
610:
607:
605:
602:
600:
597:
595:
592:
588:
587:sociocultural
585:
584:
583:
580:
578:
575:
573:
570:
568:
565:
564:
558:
557:
550:
549:Emic and etic
547:
545:
544:Ethnocentrism
542:
540:
537:
535:
532:
530:
527:
525:
522:
520:
517:
515:
512:
510:
507:
503:
500:
499:
498:
495:
493:
492:Anthropometry
490:
489:
486:
481:
480:
473:
470:
468:
465:
463:
460:
458:
457:Ethnopoetical
455:
453:
450:
448:
445:
443:
440:
439:
436:
431:
430:
423:
420:
418:
415:
413:
412:Transpersonal
410:
408:
405:
403:
400:
398:
395:
393:
392:Psychological
390:
388:
385:
383:
380:
378:
375:
373:
370:
368:
365:
363:
360:
358:
355:
353:
352:Institutional
350:
348:
345:
343:
340:
338:
335:
333:
328:
326:
323:
321:
320:Environmental
318:
316:
313:
311:
308:
306:
303:
301:
298:
296:
293:
291:
288:
286:
283:
282:
276:
273:
271:
268:
267:
263:
262:
255:
252:
250:
247:
245:
242:
240:
237:
235:
232:
230:
227:
225:
222:
220:
217:
215:
212:
211:
208:
203:
202:
195:
192:
190:
187:
185:
182:
180:
177:
175:
172:
170:
167:
165:
162:
160:
159:Environmental
157:
155:
152:
150:
147:
145:
142:
140:
137:
135:
132:
131:
128:
123:
122:
115:
112:
110:
107:
105:
102:
100:
97:
95:
92:
91:
85:
84:
78:
75:
73:
70:
69:
67:
66:
62:
58:
57:
54:
51:
50:
46:
42:
41:
33:
31:
19:
3838:
3814:
3802:
3772:
3579:Food studies
3519:Area studies
3272:mathematical
3267:econometrics
3239:
3225:Anthropology
3136:
3106:
3079:
3074:
3068:
3059:
3053:
3047:
3038:
3001:. Retrieved
2986:
2966:. Retrieved
2951:
2939:. Retrieved
2930:
2920:
2892:Delhi, India
2883:. Retrieved
2868:
2844:
2833:. Retrieved
2819:
2810:
2801:
2792:
2783:
2759:
2751:
2742:
2734:
2729:
2721:
2716:
2708:
2703:
2687:
2681:
2672:
2648:
2641:
2630:
2625:
2617:
2612:
2601:
2596:
2588:
2583:
2575:
2570:
2561:
2556:
2548:
2543:
2534:
2525:
2514:
2509:
2504:, Cambridge.
2498:
2493:
2482:
2477:
2466:
2461:
2450:
2434:
2429:
2421:
2416:
2405:
2400:
2395:31, 195-224.
2392:
2387:
2379:
2374:
2363:
2358:
2349:
2331:
2313:
2303:
2294:
2283:. Retrieved
2269:
2256:. Retrieved
2246:
2235:. Retrieved
2226:. QAA (UK).
2215:
2196:
2129:Hebe Vessuri
2094:A.H.J. Prins
2054:Edmund Leach
2019:Meyer Fortes
1994:Mary Douglas
1956:
1942:
1866:
1854:Mary Douglas
1850:Edmund Leach
1831:
1810:Max Gluckman
1794:World War II
1791:
1775:
1771:
1768:Meyer Fortes
1763:
1753:
1746:
1733:
1730:Marcel Mauss
1716:
1702:Edmund Leach
1681:
1678:A. C. Haddon
1627:
1592:
1586:
1563:
1531:
1507:
1497:
1483:
1471:
1464:
1458:
1428:
1391:
1388:
1369:
1355:
1313:
1286:
1246:
1223:
1187:
1177:
1168:
1158:
1148:
1142:
1120:
1107:
1068:
1053:
1044:
1033:Please help
1028:verification
1025:
997:neuroscience
994:
967:
958:sociologists
935:
931:
921:who studied
915:Gillian Tett
860:
854:
847:ethnographic
842:
840:
819:anthropology
814:
813:
759:Bibliography
701:Interpretive
676:Diffusionism
645:Key theories
631: /
561:Key concepts
472:Sociological
452:Ethnological
269:
239:Neurological
224:Evolutionary
169:Experiential
113:
53:Anthropology
29:
3840:Wikiversity
3731:Social work
3619:Linguistics
3544:Criminology
3461:criminology
3444:personality
3402:comparative
3380:Linguistics
3373:private law
3230:archaeology
2909:nationalism
2451:Biol Philos
2366:Cambridge:
2182:Rajamandala
2059:Murray Leaf
1933:social work
1889:archaeology
1887:; and from
1877:primatology
1694:E. B. Tylor
1638:World War I
1545:financed a
1269:linguistics
1257:ethnography
1214:linguistics
1171:religiosity
923:Wall Street
629:Colonialism
572:Development
529:Reflexivity
497:Ethnography
447:Descriptive
305:Development
244:Nutritional
219:Biocultural
144:Battlefield
3785:Humanities
3719:historical
3652:psychology
3624:Management
3466:demography
3424:Psychology
3407:philosophy
3368:public law
3299:integrated
3020:References
3003:2007-04-12
2968:2007-04-12
2885:2007-04-12
2835:2011-03-27
2771:review at
2756:Jack Goody
2618:Religions,
2472:, New York
2470:W.W.Norton
2285:2011-03-27
2237:2012-01-09
2049:Adam Kuper
2034:Jack Goody
1897:Egyptology
1858:Nur Yalman
1846:synchronic
1842:diachronic
1792:Following
1692:, and Sir
1636:following
1613:1920s–1940
1574:New Guinea
1539:diachronic
1535:synchronic
1396:Polynesian
1352:eugenicist
1348:White race
1329:human zoos
1293:Franz Boas
1190:philosophy
1110:musicology
1088:demography
950:economists
936:Long-term
911:cyberspace
609:Prehistory
462:Historical
435:Linguistic
347:Historical
315:Ecological
207:Biological
109:Linguistic
99:Biological
3663:Planning
3642:economics
3559:Education
3456:Sociology
3434:cognitive
3385:semiotics
3336:political
3294:technical
3279:Geography
3252:Economics
2931:cam.ac.uk
2620:8(4), 52.
2562:Analysis.
2502:MIT Press
2488:, London.
2167:Ethnology
2144:Eric Wolf
1925:sociology
1670:sociology
1654:Melanesia
1646:fieldwork
1599:fieldwork
1570:fieldwork
1504:fieldwork
1490:mythology
1446:fieldwork
1344:Bronx Zoo
1336:Ota Benga
1273:sociology
1261:ethnology
1226:reflexive
1084:sociology
1071:economics
1047:June 2020
986:cognition
903:globalism
871:political
841:The term
582:Evolution
577:Ethnicity
509:Ethnology
387:Political
295:Cognitive
234:Molecular
32:(journal)
3856:Category
3804:Category
3672:regional
3667:land use
3502:business
3471:internet
3429:abnormal
3331:military
3321:economic
3311:cultural
3284:physical
3245:physical
3235:cultural
3125:32509209
3098:11623683
2997:Archived
2962:Archived
2941:29 April
2935:Archived
2901:Hinduism
2879:Archived
2829:Archived
2764:Archived
2693:Archived
2664:Archived
2341:Archived
2323:Archived
2279:Archived
2258:18 March
2228:Archived
2204:Archived
2156:See also
2044:Don Kalb
1913:folklore
1893:Classics
1755:The Nuer
1666:Durkheim
1310:, London
1265:folklore
1253:Classics
1127:and the
1079:holistic
919:Karen Ho
899:religion
879:conflict
867:economic
843:cultural
764:Journals
681:Feminism
467:Semiotic
407:Symbolic
402:Religion
337:Feminist
325:Economic
275:Cultural
229:Forensic
184:Maritime
179:Forensic
174:Feminist
149:Biblical
139:Aviation
104:Cultural
45:a series
43:Part of
3816:Commons
3647:history
3637:science
3572:studies
3306:History
3218:Primary
3204:History
3199:Outline
2897:Marxism
2854:2171126
2758:(1995)
1885:zoology
1881:biology
1648:in the
1632:at the
1630:Britain
1589:British
1549:to the
1479:animism
1474:culture
1237:History
1204:), the
1153:kinship
1149:kinship
1077:by its
887:kinship
863:customs
851:culture
619:Society
567:Culture
382:Musical
377:Museums
372:Medical
357:Kinship
310:Digital
285:Applied
77:History
72:Outline
3507:public
3449:social
3341:social
3240:social
3123:
3113:
3096:
3086:
2975:Malaya
2913:tribal
2852:
2777:646577
2775:
2656:
1931:, and
1829:1946.
1762:, and
1492:, and
1442:Mexico
1380:Kanaks
1271:, and
1212:, and
1194:ethics
855:Social
594:Gender
524:Holism
422:Visual
397:Public
300:Cyborg
270:Social
134:Aerial
114:Social
3677:urban
3481:urban
3476:rural
3326:human
3289:human
3209:Index
2977:with
2905:Islam
2850:JSTOR
2773:JSTOR
2517:(1).
2231:(PDF)
2224:(PDF)
2188:Notes
1766:, by
1758:, by
1494:magic
1404:Egypt
1382:from
1333:pygmy
1202:logic
1182:audit
1174:; and
743:Lists
624:Value
502:cyber
417:Urban
367:Media
362:Legal
88:Types
3745:List
3121:OCLC
3111:ISBN
3094:OCLC
3084:ISBN
3039:The
2943:2018
2911:and
2903:and
2654:ISBN
2260:2014
1943:The
1883:and
1875:and
1856:and
1774:and
1728:and
1688:and
1676:and
1454:Rome
1452:and
1408:race
1324:zoos
1306:The
1279:and
1112:and
917:and
877:and
869:and
614:Race
604:Meme
342:Food
3348:Law
2858:doi
1804:'s
1684:of
1668:’s
1652:of
1466:sic
1368:'s
1073:or
1037:by
875:law
290:Art
3858::
3119:.
3109:.
3092:.
2995:.
2960:.
2933:.
2929:.
2899:,
2877:.
2662:.
2442:^
2339:.
2321:.
2308:2.
1963:.
1927:,
1923:,
1919:,
1915:,
1911:,
1907:,
1899:,
1895:,
1864:.
1778:.
1700:.
1488:,
1267:,
1263:,
1259:,
1255:,
1216:.
1208:,
1200:,
1196:,
1090:,
984:,
960:.
952:,
897:,
885:,
865:,
833:.
47:on
3180:e
3173:t
3166:v
3127:.
3100:.
3006:.
2971:.
2945:.
2888:.
2860::
2838:.
2411:.
2288:.
2262:.
2240:.
2210:.
1327:"
1229:"
1192:(
1165:;
1155:;
1139:;
1060:)
1054:(
1049:)
1045:(
1031:.
803:e
796:t
789:v
34:.
20:)
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