1452:
2920:
3559:
1643:. Secretaries had remained to be chosen by the Chief Executive not from the Legislative Council, and their appointments need not be approved by the Legislative Council. Although essentially more presidential than parliamentary, the Legislative Council had inherited many elements of the Westminster system, including parliamentary powers, privileges and immunity, and the right to conduct inquiries, amongst others. Minutes are known as Hansards, and the theme colour of the meeting chamber is red as in other upper houses. Government secretaries and other officials are seated on the right hand side of the
1657:
3413:
22:
3279:
3327:
3577:
3541:
3353:
3249:
3526:
3235:
3223:
1239:
holds confidential weekly meetings with the prime minister to discuss governmental policy and to offer his or her opinions and advice on issues of the day. In India, the prime minister is constitutionally bound to hold regular sessions with the president, in a similar manner to the aforementioned
British practice. In essence, the head of state, as the theoretical executive authority, "reigns but does not rule". This phrase means that the head of state's role in government is generally ceremonial and as a result does not directly institute executive powers. The
1864:
2855:
1754:
rows, either with a perpendicular row of seats and desks at the furthermost point from the
Speaker's Chair at the opposite end of the chamber (e.g. UK House of Lords or Israel Knesset) or the rows of chairs and desks are rounded at the end, opposite to the Speaker's Chair (e.g. Australian chambers, Ireland, South Africa, India). The chairs in which both the government and opposition sit, are positioned so that the two rows are facing each other. This arrangement is said to have derived from an early Parliament which was held in a
1467:
3077:
1829:
3002:
2060:
3216:, unlike Commonwealth realms or parliamentary republics such as India, have a combined head of state and head of government but the President remains responsible to the lower house of parliament; it elects the President at the beginning of a new Parliament, or when there is a vacancy in the office, or when the sitting President is defeated on a vote of confidence. If the Parliament cannot elect a new President within a short period of time (a week to a month) the lower house is dissolved and new elections are called.
2111:
2820:
3136:
1444:
2885:
2740:
1933:
3428:
1968:
2970:
2679:
2319:
3498:
1992:
2614:
2183:
3037:
2783:
3339:
3456:
2540:
2231:
3291:
3180:
2571:
2141:
3398:
3305:
3110:
2427:
2025:
3381:
3512:
3484:
3442:
2946:
2703:
2655:
3470:
3367:
2207:
1631:. While the Legislative Councils in British Australasian and North American colonies were unelected upper houses and some of them had since abolished themselves, the Legislative Council of Hong Kong has remained the sole chamber and had in 1995 evolved into a fully elected house, yet only part of the seats are returned by universal suffrage. Responsible government was never granted during British colonial rule, and the
2365:
2469:
2266:
1051:, including the appointment and dismissal of cabinet members. This results in the situation where individual cabinet members in effect serve at the pleasure of the prime minister. Thus the cabinet is strongly subordinate to the prime minister as they can be replaced at any time, or can be moved ("demoted") to a different portfolio in a
1238:
The head of state will often hold meetings with the head of government and cabinet, as a means of keeping abreast of governmental policy and as a means of advising, consulting and warning ministers in their actions. Such a practice takes place in the United
Kingdom and India. In the UK, the sovereign
816:
However, uncodified conventions, practices, and precedents continue to play a significant role in most countries, as many constitutions do not specify important elements of procedure. For example, some older constitutions using the
Westminster system do not mention the existence of the cabinet or the
1753:
The
Westminster system has a very distinct appearance when functioning, with many British customs incorporated into day-to-day government function. A Westminster-style parliament is usually a long, rectangular room, with two rows of seats and desks on either side. Many chambers connect the opposing
1419:
is imminent, a lot of time is taken up in the conversations of politicians and in the news media, speculating on who will, or will not, be moved in and out of the
Cabinet by the Prime Minister, because the appointment of ministers to the Cabinet, and threat of dismissal from the Cabinet, is the
1372:
were an attempt to create a convention to cover similar situations, but have not been tested in practice. Because of differences in their written constitutions, the formal powers of monarchs, governors-general, and presidents vary greatly from one country to another. However, as sovereigns and
1765:, the number of government-party MPs is so large that it must use the "opposition" seats as well. In the lower house at Westminster (the UK's House of Commons) there are lines on the floor in front of the government and opposition benches that members may cross only when exiting the chamber.
1718:, which has since then been impossible, in the Westminster system. A government that has lost supply is severely restricted in its abilities to act; unless a solution can be negotiated and supply can be restored, such an occurrence would normally trigger a federal election. Since the
606:. While the head of state appoints the head of government, constitutional convention suggests that a majority of elected members of parliament must support the person appointed. If more than half of elected parliamentarians belong to the same political party, then the parliamentary
3207:
The
Westminster system was adopted by a number of countries which subsequently evolved or reformed their system of government departing from the original model. In some cases, certain aspects of the Westminster system were retained or codified in their constitutions. For instance
1549:
legislative body, while the upper house practices restraint in exercising its constitutional powers and serves as a consultative body. In other
Westminster countries, however, the upper house can sometimes exercise considerable power, as is the case for the Australian Senate.
1795:. Some legislatures retain Westminster's colour-coded chambers, with the upper houses associated with the colour red (after the House of Lords) and the lower with green (after the House of Commons). This is the case in India, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and Barbados.
1415:. All Cabinet decisions are made by consensus, a vote is rarely taken in a Cabinet meeting. All ministers, whether senior and in the Cabinet, or junior ministers, must support the policy of the government publicly regardless of any private reservations. When a
821:, and other influences collide in times of crisis and in such times the weaknesses of the unwritten aspects of the Westminster system, as well as the strengths of the Westminster system's flexibility, are put to the test. As an illustrative example, in the
1761:. Traditionally, the opposition parties will sit in one row of seats, and the government party will sit in the other. In some countries, the mace will face the government’s side whilst lying on the table of the House. In most
1647:
in the chamber. The Chief
Executive may dissolve the Legislative Council under certain conditions, and is obliged to resign, e.g., when a re-elected Legislative Council passes again a bill that he or she had refused to sign.
1726:). This is controversial because it conflicts with the Westminster tradition of government by a party with the confidence of the lower house (not an upper house like the Senate). Some political scientists have held that the
953:
Led by the leader of the opposition. A shadow cabinet is formed out of the elected members of the largest party or coalition in the legislature not in government, chosen by the party leader (the leader of the opposition).
1734:, especially since the Australian Senate is a powerful upper house like the US Senate; this notion is expressed in the nickname "the Washminster mutation". The ability of upper houses to block supply also features in the
1258:
in
Germany and did not speak English fluently. Over time, further arrangements continued to allow the execution of executive authority on the sovereign's behalf and more and more de facto power ended up lying in the
1145:
in order to attain such a wish. However, the sovereign in modern times has virtually always followed the advice of their prime minister without their own agency, this owes to the fact that the British sovereign is a
1373:
governors-general are not elected, and some presidents may not be directly elected by the people, they are often shielded from any public disapproval stemming from unilateral or controversial use of their powers.
3534:
between 1921 and 1958; during the monarchy, the Parliament of Iraq was a bicameral parliament made of an upper house of lords and a lower house of commons and was modelled after the Westminster system with some
1353:. Although the dissolution of the legislature and the call for new elections is formally performed by the head of state, the head of state, by convention, acts according to the wishes of the head of government.
648:
that advises on, and implements, decisions of the elected government. Civil servants hold permanent appointments and can expect merit-based selection processes and continuity of employment when governments
1404:
emphasised the divide of the constitution into two components, the Dignified (that part which is symbolic) and the Efficient (the way things actually work and get done), and called the Efficient "
1707:, which must be willing to pass all its legislation. Although government is formed in the lower house, the House of Representatives, the support of the Senate is necessary in order to govern.
1243:
of the head of state are sufficient to ensure compliance with some of their wishes. However, the extent of such powers varies from one country to another and is often a matter of controversy.
1703:
as well as from the traditions and conventions of the Westminster system and some indigenous features. Australia is exceptional because the government faces a fully elected upper house, the
1787:(or equivalent thereof) in which the head of state gives a special address (written by the government) to parliament about what kind of policies to expect in the coming year, and lengthy
997:
source of executive power within the system. In practice, such a figure does not actively exercise executive powers, even though executive authority is nominally exercised in their name.
3965:
1780:
often sit at narrow tables between the two rows of seats, as well. These narrow tables in the centre of the chamber, is usually where ministers or members of the house come to speak.
1254:(reigned 1714 to 1727) was the first British monarch to delegate some executive powers to a prime minister and a cabinet of the ministers, largely because he was also the monarch of
1722:, technically speaking, can dismiss a federal government at any time, loss of supply is sometimes, controversially, considered a suitable trigger for a dismissal (such as with the
4259:
934:
Executive ministers are chosen (normally) from members of the government party or coalition, by the head of government. They may be from either house in bicameral systems.
1189:
such as Canada, Australia and New Zealand, the day-to-day functions that would be exercised by the sovereign personally in the United Kingdom are instead exercised by the
3919:
3640:
481:
4677:
4139:
1380:
a governor-general formally represents the monarch, who is usually absent from the realm. In such countries, the identity of the "head of state" may be unclear.
1492:
being elected entirely by nationwide Proportional Representation). Most also have a smaller upper house, which is made up of members chosen by various methods:
4199:
2407:
exercising identical powers; thus, a government must maintain majorities in both. The Chamber of Deputies and most of the Senate are directly elected through
2929:
1480:
In a Westminster system, some members of parliament are elected by popular vote, while others are appointed. Nearly all Westminster-based parliaments have a
962:
Politically independent and available to the people of the state, that will work for various government organisations (health, housing, education, defence).
1735:
4669:
4379:
759:, which allows the legislature to discuss any issue it deems relevant without fear of consequences stemming from defamatory statements or records thereof.
1918:
1644:
4465:
1769:
943:
Government sits in and is responsible to the legislature, to which it reports and is accountable (in particular, to the lower house, if bicameral).
1129:
executive body in the system) generally must seek the permission of the head of state when carrying out executive functions. If, for instance the
4650:
4113:
3755:
781:. Exceptions to this include India, Quebec in Canada, and Scotland in the UK, among other countries who mix common law with other legal systems.
3169:
3095:
1847:
4658:
3969:
2847:
but by a majority vote in Parliament, then they are appointed by the monarch. Members are elected to the Parliament by instant-runoff voting.
339:
1273:, who distinguished between the separate "dignified" and "efficient" functions of government. The sovereign should be a focal point for the
2934:
2924:
1420:
single most powerful constitutional power which a Prime Minister has in the political control of the Government in the Westminster system.
4707:
1582:
485:
4069:
1039:, however, in effect, the head of government dominates the executive as the head of government is ultimately the person from whom the
2864:
1012:, will ideally have the support of a majority in the responsible house, and must, in any case, be able to ensure the existence of no
2760:
2345:
Dáil Éireann (the lower house) is elected by universal suffrage by single transferable vote from constituencies of 3 to 5 members.
1361:
1201:
3313:
following the end of British colonial rule in 1960, which resulted in the appointment of a Governor-General and then a President,
2877:, meaning that the power to govern the country and its people is shared and divided between national and subnational governments.
664:, which generally takes on an adversarial role, presenting arguments against the government's policies. In certain countries, the
3358:
3022:
2829:
2812:, meaning that the power to govern the country and its people is shared and divided between national and provincial governments.
1922:
1731:
1620:
1597:
817:
prime minister, because these offices were taken for granted by the authors of these constitutions. Sometimes these conventions,
623:
2295:, meaning that the power to govern the country and its people is shared and divided between national and state governments. The
2091:, meaning that the power to govern the country and its people is shared and divided between national and provincial governments.
4662:
4627:
3154:
3011:
2458:
2160:
Essentially identical to the Westminster system in function, but developed independently, though with inspiration from the UK.
4182:
4149:
4055:
3258:
3026:
1723:
822:
143:
2732:, meaning that the power to govern the country and its people is shared and divided between national and state governments.
4722:
4414:
How the Japanese became foreign to themselves : the impact of globalization on the private and public spheres in Japan
3055:
2840:
2645:, meaning that the power to govern the country and its people is shared and divided between national and state governments.
1895:, meaning that the power to govern the country and its people is shared and divided between national and state governments.
1310:
1260:
1130:
1059:
940:
In parliaments without political parties, ministers are either chosen by the prime minister or elected by members at large.
3021:
One significant deviation it has from the traditional Westminster model is that a person is nominated for the position of
2839:
One significant deviation it has from the traditional Westminster model is that a person is nominated for the position of
930:
Formed by the largest party/coalition in the lower house (legislature if unicameral), and led by the head of government.
633:
led by the head of government usually made up of members of the legislature with the senior members of the executive in a
3266:
2323:
1882:
505:
372:
4344:
Arian, Asher; Shamir, Michal (November 2008). "A Decade Later, the World Had Changed, the Cleavage Structure Remained".
3991:
4717:
4563:
4542:
4490:
4449:
4422:
3818:
3739:
3710:
3628:
3029:
but by a majority vote in Parliament, then they are appointed by the monarch, similar to neighboring Papua New Guinea.
2844:
1951:
1578:
1035:
Executive authority within a Westminster system is de jure exercised by the cabinet as a whole, along with more junior
798:
297:
2391:
Very similar to the Westminster system but developed independently, though with inspiration from the UK. Notably, the
2249:
4636:
4620:
4606:
4592:
4584:
4232:
3903:
3874:
3845:
3791:
3086:
2869:
2859:
2043:
1838:
1574:
1412:
1389:
1181:
This custom also occurs in other countries are regions around the world using the Westminster System, as a legacy of
638:
172:
81:
437:
in England and later the United Kingdom since the 13th century. The Westminster system is often contrasted with the
3682:
3145:
2919:
2903:
2721:
2487:
2120:
1628:
1601:
1314:
1290:
794:
461:
434:
188:
30:
1427:
and other major political parties not in the Government, will mirror the governmental organisation with their own
4712:
3165:
3081:
3016:
1852:
1833:
1570:
113:
4037:. Birch. The British System of Government. 10th Edition. Routledge. 1998. Taylor & Francis e-Library. 2006.
3318:
4386:
3159:
3140:
2400:
2379:
2125:
2115:
2100:
3046:
2955:
2688:
2192:
2010:
1719:
1696:
1063:
619:
615:
473:
3568:
1947:
1451:
3433:
3091:
2834:
2824:
2801:
2768:
2483:
2130:
1843:
716:
501:
334:
76:
4702:
3006:
2712:
2594:
2589:
2404:
2383:
2161:
1906:
1803:
Countries that use variations on the theme of the Westminster system, as of 2023, include the following:
1788:
1640:
684:
561:
148:
2357:
meaning roughly "captain" or "leader") and is appointed by the president on the nomination of the Dáil.
4727:
4141:
The constitution of a federal commonwealth : the making and meaning of the Australian constitution
3633:
3503:
3418:
3389:
3209:
2416:
2078:
2034:
1700:
1223:, where the respective prime ministers have the full legal power to implement executive decisions, and
653:
641:; such members execute executive authority on behalf of the nominal or theoretical executive authority.
544:
who functions as the nominal or legal and constitutional holder of executive power, and holds numerous
4245:
4033:
Alder and Syrett. Constitutional and Administrative Law. (Palgrave Law Masters). 11th Edition. 2017.
3595:
3262:
2894:
2717:
2647:
The Yang-di-Pertuan Agong shares characteristics of heads of state in both monarchies and republics.
1942:
1742:
1251:
1134:
1029:
746:
311:
292:
2245:
4732:
3662:
3550:
3254:
2449:
2396:
2304:
1914:
1902:
1566:
1485:
1456:
1411:
Members of the Cabinet are collectively seen as responsible for government policy, a policy termed
1396:
1265:
1216:
1085:
1032:
so that new general elections may be held in order to re-confirm or deny the government's mandate.
1028:, then the government must either resign so that a different government can be appointed or seek a
665:
661:
418:
306:
3947:
548:, but whose daily duties mainly consist of performing ceremonial functions. Examples include King
2979:
2908:
2889:
2754:
2744:
2510:
1956:
1937:
1873:
1529:
1294:
1220:
1175:
1081:
1044:
1017:
981:
The pattern of executive functions within a Westminster system is quite complex. In essence, the
802:
756:
735:
692:
457:
398:
365:
256:
3347:
from 1972 until 1978 when the constitution was remodelled into an Executive presidential system.
668:
is expected to be ready to form a government if the office of head of government becomes vacant.
3564:
3489:
3447:
2987:
2792:
2749:
2637:
2623:
2001:
1972:
1784:
1562:
1496:
Termless appointees, either lifetime or retiring, from successive prime ministers (such as the
1147:
1067:
778:
630:
414:
268:
49:
4233:
American and Australian Constitutions: Continuing Adventures in Comparative Constitutional Law
4034:
3891:
3808:
3243:
between 1961 and 1984. The 1983 constitution abolished the Westminster system in South Africa.
2133:, meaning ultimate authority for its government resides with the UK Parliament in Westminster
1656:
1277:("dignified"), while the PM and cabinet actually undertook executive decisions ("efficient").
1154:
in times of crisis. The sovereign's power to appoint and dismiss governments, appoint cabinet
1058:
In the United Kingdom, the sovereign theoretically holds executive authority, even though the
4480:
4439:
4412:
4038:
3862:
3835:
3727:
3667:
3600:
3475:
3310:
3228:
3189:
2974:
2899:
2854:
2683:
2580:
2549:
2240:
2094:
1898:
1887:
1868:
1727:
1632:
1338:
1182:
1155:
1036:
720:
712:
469:
430:
195:
26:
4051:
3781:
1349:
of the legislature and invites him or her to form a government. In the UK, this is known as
903:
Other titles include first minister, chief executive, president of the council of ministers.
4088:
3657:
3213:
3119:
3060:
3041:
2787:
2618:
2346:
2303:(upper house) is mostly elected by the members of state/union territory legislatures using
2187:
2069:
1996:
1758:
1369:
1365:
1141:
to take place, the prime minister is constitutionally bound to request permission from the
739:
634:
572:
394:
280:
168:
163:
893:
Usually the leader of the largest party in the lower house (legislature if unicameral).
8:
3677:
3623:
3613:
3385:
3184:
3076:
2991:
2664:
2575:
2559:
2544:
2445:
2318:
2275:
2254:
2235:
2155:
1828:
1777:
1762:
1715:
1689:
1677:
1593:
1424:
1377:
1306:
1224:
1209:
1105:
696:
680:
580:
576:
557:
513:
509:
438:
318:
1193:. In such nations, the prime minister is obligated to formally seek permission from the
937:
A Cabinet is formed from the most senior ministers, but may include some civil servants.
683:
from single-member districts, which is still more common, although some use a system of
4459:
4361:
3586:
3332:
3124:
3114:
3051:
2797:
2431:
2412:
2392:
2374:
2308:
2216:
2083:
2064:
2048:
2029:
2006:
1636:
1405:
1334:
1186:
1071:
1001:
806:
688:
657:
587:
477:
426:
358:
275:
200:
128:
101:
3599:
and the Westminster system. Influence from the Westminster system remained in Japan's
21:
4632:
4616:
4602:
4588:
4580:
4559:
4538:
4486:
4445:
4418:
4365:
4207:
4178:
4155:
4145:
4080:
3899:
3870:
3841:
3814:
3787:
3735:
3706:
3672:
3618:
3553:
the Parliament of Egypt was made to follow the exact model of the Westminster system.
3372:
2950:
2764:
2707:
2659:
2585:
2473:
2369:
2349:
is directly elected using instant-runoff voting. The prime minister has the title of
2337:
2270:
1878:
1755:
1704:
1661:
1511:
1488:(under various names), comprising local, elected representatives of the people (with
1416:
1302:
1247:
1246:
Such an executive arrangement first emerged in the United Kingdom. Historically, the
1171:
1052:
786:
708:
704:
493:
446:
176:
41:
3261:
assumed direct rule from London. Use of the Westminster system resumed in 1949 when
2333:
1783:
Other ceremonies sometimes associated with the Westminster system include an annual
4353:
4324:
4293:
3647:
3546:
2819:
2506:
2502:
2492:
2211:
2074:
1497:
1460:
1330:
1286:
1228:
1194:
1190:
1142:
1138:
766:, including an ability for the legislature to strike discussion from these minutes.
553:
410:
4628:
Westminster Legacies: Democracy and Responsible Government in Asia and the Pacific
1197:
when implementing executive decisions, in a manner similar to the British system.
4553:
4532:
3582:
3531:
3001:
2522:
2408:
2039:
1792:
1504:
1432:
1048:
884:
representative, such as a governor or governor-general) or ceremonial president.
864:
Elected lower house to represent the people and (normally) initiate legislation.
700:
532:
The Westminster system of government may include some of the following features:
348:
2772:
1517:
Election by electoral colleges or sub-national legislatures (such as the Indian
1466:
1150:; he or she abides by the advice of his or her ministers, except when executing
4576:
3837:
Settler self-government, 1840–1900 : the development of representative and
3314:
3150:
3135:
3066:
2514:
2498:
2354:
2110:
1977:
1711:
1525:
1443:
1428:
1401:
1298:
1270:
1240:
1005:
834:
818:
731:
603:
599:
591:
465:
138:
123:
118:
71:
4685:
4297:
3299:
between 1980 and 1987. The 1987 constitution abolished the Westminster system.
4696:
4506:
4441:
Partners for democracy : crafting the new Japanese state under MacArthur
4357:
4211:
4159:
4084:
3590:
2518:
2478:
1673:
1639:
until the transfer of sovereignty in 1997, when the role was replaced by the
1357:
1350:
1346:
1326:
1231:
approval is not required; the prime ministers of these nations are fully the
1151:
1040:
982:
830:
826:
770:
750:
676:
645:
545:
541:
442:
422:
56:
4329:
4312:
1356:
A president, monarch, or governor-general might possess clearly significant
1212:, where there is a president who functions similarly to a governor-general.
989:
or president, is a ceremonial figurehead who is the theoretical, nominal or
840:
3240:
2632:
2628:
2444:
Modified Westminster system: Powers which would have been exercised by the
1685:
1669:
1616:
1536:
810:
672:
521:
1080:
executive, even though executive powers are essentially instituted by the
805:
British constitution, most countries that use the Westminster system have
3652:
3065:
One of five countries other than the UK to use a Westminster system with
2884:
2739:
2601:
One of five countries other than the UK to use a Westminster system with
2527:
One of five countries other than the UK to use a Westminster system with
2455:
2300:
2280:
2170:
One of five countries other than the UK to use a Westminster system with
1932:
1518:
1481:
1342:
727:
549:
537:
489:
402:
3756:"How the Westminster Parliamentary System was exported around the World"
3728:"A Globalizing Constitutionalism?, Views from the Postcolony, 1945–2000"
3172:), the Prime Minister did not have the ability to call early elections.
1730:
was consciously devised as a blend or hybrid of the Westminster and the
1714:
from the government of the day – a power similar to that held in the UK
3641:
History of the constitution of the United Kingdom § Worldwide influence
2874:
2809:
2729:
2642:
2602:
2328:
2292:
2171:
2088:
1967:
1910:
1892:
1773:
1554:
1021:
881:
774:
568:
242:
230:
108:
91:
4651:
How the Westminster parliamentary system was exported around the world
3257:
between 1907 and 1934, the year self-government was suspended and the
456:
The Westminster system is used, or was once used, in the national and
4260:"The Other Metropolis: The Australian Founders' Knowledge of America"
3461:
3344:
2969:
2678:
2350:
2296:
2284:
2165:
2150:
1863:
1612:
1474:
790:
785:
Most of the procedures of the Westminster system originated with the
29:, after which the Westminster system is named. It is the home of the
4670:
The Twilight of Westminster? Electoral Reform & its Consequences
4246:
A Comparison of the Constitutions of Australia and the United States
4200:"Analysis | Comparing Australian and American federal jurisprudence"
2103:
other than cabinet, and therefore have no leader of the opposition.
1710:
The Australian Senate is unusual in that it maintains an ability to
1586:
1174:, which in modern times is exercised by the sovereign solely on the
854:
Elected or appointed upper house to approve and/or scrutinise laws.
679:
systems also exist. Traditionally, the lower house is elected using
4058:, read with the definition of the Registration Acts in section 8(2)
3403:
3361:
following independence in 1948 until the 1962 military coup d'état.
3296:
3284:
3036:
2782:
2613:
2528:
2182:
1991:
1909:) with each state and territory treated as individual electorates.
1170:(among other powers de jure held by the sovereign) is known as the
1159:
1125:
1013:
777:. Another parallel system of legal principles also exists known as
564:
263:
251:
220:
4507:"Special Issue Constitutional Law in Japan and the United Kingdom"
2599:
Constitutional monarchy that operates under a Westminster system.
1772:. The speaker usually wears black robes, and in some countries, a
488:
between 1855 and 1890. It is the form of government bequeathed to
4177:(6 ed.). Leichhardt, NSW: Federation Press. pp. 77–88.
4175:
Blackshield and Williams Australian Constitutional Law and Theory
3179:
2570:
2539:
2436:
2230:
2145:
2140:
1605:
1503:
Appointees of the premier and the opposition leader (such as the
1489:
1470:
1255:
1009:
992:
986:
763:
595:
517:
406:
133:
66:
3863:"5: Customary Law, Unwritten Law, and General Principles of Law"
2299:(lower house) is popularly elected via first past the post. The
867:
House of Commons, House of Representatives, Legislative Assembly
579:, whose presidents are de jure and de facto ceremonial, and the
3517:
3270:
3109:
2426:
2059:
2024:
1699:
is, in many respects, a unique hybrid with influences from the
1274:
1167:
1089:
1025:
611:
610:
of that party typically is appointed. An exception to this was
607:
497:
450:
512:. However, some former colonies have since adopted either the
4313:"A new political system model: Semi-parliamentary government"
3840:(1. publ. ed.). New York: Greenwood Press. p. xxi.
2945:
2702:
2654:
2468:
2364:
2265:
1624:
1205:
769:
The ability of courts to address silence or ambiguity in the
225:
3896:
Hong Kong's Legislature under China's Sovereignty: 1998–2013
1280:
900:
Premier/chief minister in provinces, states, or territories.
4678:
Westminster in the Caribbean: History, Legacies, Challenges
3593:
was a bicameral legislature modelled after both the German
2454:
The Prime Minister was directly elected from 1996 to 2001.
2206:
614:, in which direct prime-ministerial elections were made in
1791:
ceremonies that often involve the presentation of a large
1235:
source of executive authority, and not the head of state.
730:
of parliament with an ability to dismiss a government by "
1163:
841:
Summary of the typical structure of the Westminster model
4284:
Thompson, Elaine (1980). "The 'Washminster' mutation".
4173:
Williams, George; Brennan, Sean; Lynch, Andrew (2014).
2531:, along with Denmark, Lesotho, Malaysia, and Thailand.
1917:
while all other states have bicameral parliaments. The
1438:
4531:
Rhodes, R. A.W.; Wanna, John; Weller, Patrick (2009).
4114:"Chapter 2: The development of the Westminster system"
4079:(1). Canberra: Dept. of the Parliamentary Library: 1.
2509:
in an unmodified system are exercised directly by the
1821:
Notes/Differences from the standard Westminster model
1123:
As an example, the prime minister and cabinet (as the
4482:
Contested governance in Japan : sites and issues
2605:, along with Denmark, Japan, Malaysia, and Thailand.
2174:, along with Japan, Lesotho, Malaysia, and Thailand.
1741:
The Australian system has also been referred to as a
1592:
The parliaments of all other Canadian provinces, the
1250:
held and directly exercised all executive authority.
4172:
3920:"The Westminster System – Public Service Commission"
3813:. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 571.
3069:, along with Denmark, Japan, Lesotho, and Malaysia.
2415:, as well as previous Presidents of Italy, serve as
1535:
Any combination of the above (such as the Malaysian
1768:At one end of the room sits a large chair, for the
1569:, and the parliaments of the Canadian provinces of
1016:against the government. If the parliament passes a
413:made up of members of the legislature, and that is
4631:, Haig Patapan, John Wanna, Patrick Weller, 2005.
3807:Johnston, Douglas M.; Reisman, W. Michael (2008).
2452:, the Cabinet, and the speaker of the legislature.
1047:(by constitutional convention) on the exercise of
4555:Constitutional Conventions in Westminster Systems
4530:
2307:with a handful of members being appointed by the
1651:
1360:. Examples of the use of such powers include the
4694:
3833:
3406:(then known as Swaziland) between 1968 and 1973.
4551:
4014:
4012:
3806:
2763:to elect members to its unicameral Parliament.
4552:Galligan, Brian; Brenton, Scott, eds. (2015).
3786:. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 3.
3780:Seidle, F. Leslie; Docherty, David C. (2003).
3779:
3732:Constitutionalism and political reconstruction
3170:Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022
1690:Farewell Parliament House - Sunday May 8, 1988
4144:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
3834:Fieldhouse, David; Madden, Frederick (1990).
1066:effectively implement executive powers. In a
970:Defensive organisation of the state/country.
366:
4464:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4009:
3409:
3388:during its brief independence in 1960, with
1320:
851:Bicameral (unicameral in some circumstances)
797:, which form a part of what is known as the
4438:Moore, Ray A.; Robinson, Donald L. (2004).
4343:
4023:(1st ed.). London: Chapman & Hall.
2099:Two of its territorial parliaments operate
1544:
1115:
1109:
1099:
1093:
1075:
990:
897:Prime minister in a sovereign state/country
857:Senate, Legislative Council, House of Lords
809:the system, at least in part, in a written
675:, with at least one elected house—although
560:, or the presidents of many countries, and
3966:"Reinvigorating The Westminster Tradition"
3775:
3773:
3758:. University of Cambridge. 2 December 2013
3375:between 1957 and 1960, then 1969 and 1972.
910:Presiding officers of legislative chambers
373:
359:
4328:
4197:
3810:The Historical Foundations of World Order
3725:
2461:is used to elect members to the Knesset.
1553:Some Westminster-derived parliaments are
1524:Hereditary nobility (such as the British
1281:Electoral system, ministers and officials
590:(or head of the executive), known as the
397:government that incorporates a series of
4283:
2761:mixed-member proportional representation
1655:
1465:
1450:
1442:
1362:Australian constitutional crisis of 1975
1263:hands. Such a concept was reinforced in
1202:republics in the Commonwealth of Nations
833:and replaced him with opposition leader
823:Australian constitutional crisis of 1975
20:
4613:Prime Minister & Cabinet Government
4485:. London: RoutledgeCurzon. p. 55.
4444:. Oxford University Press. p. 85.
4310:
4304:
4067:
4018:
3854:
3770:
2501:which would have been exercised by the
583:possesses no reserve powers whatsoever.
500:adopted a largely Westminster-inspired
409:. Key aspects of the system include an
4695:
4663:Commonwealth Parliamentary Association
4317:European Journal of Political Research
4137:
4070:"Who is the Australian Head of State?"
3942:
3940:
3860:
3701:"Varieties of public representation".
2497:Modified Westminster system: many non-
2459:party-list proportional representation
1305:and government departments are run by
520:for example) or a hybrid system (like
4437:
4257:
4056:Representation of the People Act 1884
3392:as its first and only Prime Minister.
1736:parliaments of most Australian states
1724:1975 Australian constitutional crisis
1383:
1200:An analogous scenario also exists in
1092:, however, executive power is vested
825:, the Governor-General of Australia,
144:President of the Council of Ministers
4601:, Simon James, Pub Routledge, 1999.
4478:
4410:
4050:See, for example, the definition in
3958:
3705:. Cambridge University Press. 2010.
1798:
1439:Bicameral and unicameral parliaments
1293:. Common ministerial titles include
1158:to serve in the government, appoint
880:Monarch (sometimes represented by a
762:Minutes of meetings, often known as
417:to the legislature; the presence of
4235:, 30 J. Marshall L. Rev. 627 (1997)
3937:
3883:
3202:
1732:United States systems of government
1329:or their representative (such as a
480:), beginning with the first of the
449:system, based on the government of
13:
4708:Constitution of the United Kingdom
3889:
2097:for some parliamentary privileges.
1816:
1589:have abolished their upper houses.
1543:In the UK, the lower house is the
1484:with powers based on those of the
1020:, or refuses to pass an important
799:Constitution of the United Kingdom
734:" (rejecting a budget), passing a
527:
16:Parliamentary system of government
14:
4744:
4659:Module on Parliamentary Democracy
4643:
4198:Aroney, Nicholas; Kincaid, John.
3898:. Hotei Publishing. p. 215.
3783:Reforming parliamentary democracy
3585:between 1890 and 1940; under the
3549:between 1923 and 1953; after the
3012:Parliament of the Solomon Islands
2517:do not exist. Both houses of the
1413:cabinet collective responsibility
1390:Cabinet collective responsibility
639:cabinet collective responsibility
433:, which has been the seat of the
173:Cabinet collective responsibility
82:President of the council of state
3869:. Kluwer Law International B.V.
3730:. In Arjomand, Saïd Amir (ed.).
3683:Representation of the People Act
3575:
3557:
3539:
3524:
3510:
3496:
3482:
3468:
3454:
3440:
3426:
3411:
3396:
3379:
3365:
3351:
3337:
3325:
3303:
3289:
3277:
3247:
3233:
3221:
3178:
3134:
3108:
3075:
3035:
3000:
2968:
2944:
2925:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
2918:
2883:
2853:
2818:
2781:
2738:
2701:
2677:
2653:
2612:
2569:
2538:
2467:
2425:
2363:
2317:
2264:
2229:
2205:
2181:
2139:
2109:
2058:
2023:
1990:
1966:
1931:
1862:
1827:
1716:until 1911 by the House of Lords
1602:Legislative Council of Hong Kong
1291:Representation of the People Act
795:Parliament of the United Kingdom
732:withholding (or blocking) supply
4686:What is the Westminster System?
4524:
4499:
4472:
4431:
4404:
4372:
4337:
4277:
4251:
4238:
4225:
4191:
4166:
4131:
4106:
4068:Ireland, Ian (28 August 1995).
4061:
4044:
4027:
3984:
3867:Constitutional Law in Hong Kong
3569:the end of the monarchy in 1973
3231:between 1910 and 1961, and the
3166:Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011
2411:. Five people appointed by the
1728:Australian system of government
1459:(Parliament House) building in
524:) as their form of government.
4558:. Cambridge University Press.
4258:Evans, Harry (December 2009).
3912:
3827:
3800:
3748:
3719:
3694:
1925:have unicameral legislatures.
1:
4689:Parliament of Victoria video.
4248:, 4 Buff. L. Rev. 155 (1955).
3688:
1897:Lower house is elected using
1748:
1697:Australian constitutional law
1621:special administrative region
1510:Direct election (such as the
1301:. Ministers are supported by
644:An independent, non-partisan
637:adhering to the principle of
340:Heads of state and government
4479:Hook, Glenn D., ed. (2005).
4380:"CONSTITUTION OF NEPAL 2015"
3992:"The Role of the Opposition"
3317:. The system ended with the
1919:Australian Capital Territory
1901:. Upper house is elected by
1447:Canadian Parliament at night
976:
510:British Mandate of Palestine
429:. The term derives from the
7:
4723:Constitution of New Zealand
4537:. Oxford University Press.
4417:. Berlin: Lit. p. 72.
4264:Papers on Parliament No. 52
3607:
3335:between 1948 and 1972, and
3287:between 1965 and 1979, and
2771:for election by Indigenous
2162:Proportional representation
1907:proportional representation
1789:State Opening of Parliament
1598:Papua New Guinea Parliament
1333:) formally appoints as the
918:Speaker of the lower house
913:Speaker of the upper house
829:, dismissed Prime Minister
773:through the development of
685:proportional representation
472:(with the exception of the
149:President of the government
10:
4749:
4681:University College London.
4615:, Neil MacNaughton, 1999.
4599:British Cabinet Government
3634:History of parliamentarism
3390:Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal
2131:British Overseas Territory
1701:United States Constitution
1625:People's Republic of China
1387:
421:parties; and a ceremonial
4718:Constitution of Australia
4298:10.1080/00323268008401755
4138:Aroney, Nicholas (2009).
3734:. Brill. pp. 92–94.
2556:House of Representatives
1820:
1814:
1811:
1808:
1743:semi-parliamentary system
1321:Role of the head of state
1252:George I of Great Britain
1120:a ceremonial figurehead.
1030:parliamentary dissolution
922:
909:
873:
850:
847:
745:A parliament that can be
571:. Exceptions to this are
425:who is separate from the
4654:University of Cambridge.
4573:The English Constitution
4358:10.1177/1354068808093406
4021:The English Constitution
4019:Bagehot, Walter (1876).
3703:Political Representation
3663:Parliament in the Making
3629:His Majesty's Government
3551:1919 Egyptian Revolution
3259:Commission of Government
3255:Dominion of Newfoundland
3241:Republic of South Africa
3096:House of Representatives
3056:House of Representatives
2722:House of Representatives
2488:House of Representatives
2448:are divided between the
2305:single transferable vote
2250:House of Representatives
1903:single transferable vote
1883:House of Representatives
1848:House of Representatives
1567:Parliament of Queensland
1397:The English Constitution
1266:The English Constitution
1225:presidential (in Israel)
1215:An unusual case lies in
666:leader of the opposition
662:leader of the opposition
654:parliamentary opposition
419:parliamentary opposition
4330:10.1111/1475-6765.12224
4311:Ganghof, S (May 2018).
4118:Parliament of Australia
2990:is directly elected by
1608:never had upper houses.
1530:House of Lords Act 1999
1295:parliamentary secretary
1178:of the Prime Minister.
1104:in the cabinet and the
1055:for "underperforming".
1018:motion of no confidence
757:Parliamentary privilege
736:motion of no confidence
441:that originated in the
4713:Constitution of Canada
4411:Hein, Patrick (2009).
3861:Cooray, Anton (2019).
3565:Kingdom of Afghanistan
3520:between 1966 and 1980.
3506:between 1965 and 1970.
3492:between 1964 and 1966.
3478:between 1963 and 1964.
3464:between 1945 and 1966.
3450:between 1962 and 1963.
3436:between 1961 and 1971.
3422:between 1961 and 1962.
2401:Senate of the Republic
2380:Senate of the Republic
1785:Speech from the Throne
1776:. Robed parliamentary
1694:
1664:
1563:New Zealand Parliament
1545:
1477:
1463:
1448:
1289:is often set out in a
1148:constitutional monarch
1131:British prime minister
1116:
1110:
1100:
1094:
1076:
1068:parliamentary republic
991:
506:declaring independence
435:Westminster Parliament
34:
4673:, Pippa Norris, 2000.
4534:Comparing Westminster
3668:Parliament of England
3319:military coup of 1966
3229:Union of South Africa
2860:Saint Kitts and Nevis
2767:in NZ Parliament are
2505:on the advice of the
2164:is used to elect the
2095:official party status
1899:instant-runoff voting
1666:
1659:
1469:
1454:
1446:
1337:whoever commands the
1311:principal secretaries
1307:permanent secretaries
1183:British colonial rule
1004:, usually called the
671:A legislature, often
460:legislatures of most
431:Palace of Westminster
405:, first developed in
27:Palace of Westminster
24:
3948:"OBA.org – Articles"
3658:Parliamentary system
3601:Postwar Constitution
2956:Legislative Assembly
2484:House of Councillors
2397:perfect bicameralism
2101:without any caucuses
1770:Speaker of the House
1763:majority governments
1652:"Washminster system"
1583:Prince Edward Island
1370:Lascelles Principles
1086:Council of Ministers
502:system of government
484:in 1848 and the six
335:National governments
169:Government formation
50:Executive government
4392:on 23 December 2015
3678:Presidential system
3624:Glorious Revolution
3614:Bill of Rights 1689
3386:State of Somaliland
3082:Trinidad and Tobago
2992:first-past-the-post
2638:Monarchy (elective)
2446:President of Israel
2405:Chamber of Deputies
2384:Chamber of Deputies
1834:Antigua and Barbuda
1678:Lake Burley Griffin
1629:Legislative Council
1627:, has a unicameral
1615:, a former British
1594:Parliament of Malta
1425:Official Opposition
1378:Commonwealth realms
1303:private secretaries
1229:imperial (in Japan)
1210:Trinidad and Tobago
1187:Commonwealth realms
1135:dissolve Parliament
753:called at any time.
713:preferential voting
681:first-past-the-post
660:) with an official
562:state or provincial
558:Commonwealth realms
514:presidential system
486:Australian colonies
439:presidential system
42:the Politics series
4703:Westminster system
4511:King's Law Journal
4231:James A. Thomson,
4094:on 17 January 2011
3924:www.psc.nsw.gov.au
3726:Julian Go (2007).
3587:Meiji Constitution
2521:are elected using
2413:President of Italy
2393:Italian Parliament
2375:Italian Parliament
2309:President of India
1923:Northern Territory
1668:The waters of the
1665:
1637:head of government
1606:Israeli Parliament
1490:the only exception
1478:
1464:
1449:
1406:Cabinet Government
1384:Cabinet government
1335:head of government
1002:head of government
889:Head of government
658:multi-party system
588:head of government
482:Canadian provinces
427:head of government
387:Westminster system
293:Semi-parliamentary
129:Minister-president
102:Head of government
35:
4728:Political systems
4184:978-1-86287-918-8
4151:978-1-139-12968-8
3673:Petition of Right
3619:English Civil War
3567:between 1964 and
3200:
3199:
3047:National Assembly
2930:House of Assembly
2904:House of Assembly
2865:National Assembly
2802:National Assembly
2718:National Assembly
2689:National Assembly
2590:National Assembly
2417:senators for life
2193:House of Assembly
2093:Caucuses require
2044:House of Assembly
2035:National Assembly
2011:House of Assembly
1952:House of Assembly
1913:has a unicameral
1799:Current countries
1662:Australian Senate
1557:for two reasons:
1512:Australian Senate
1417:Cabinet reshuffle
1364:and the Canadian
1315:chief secretaries
1248:British sovereign
1172:royal prerogative
1053:cabinet reshuffle
1014:absolute majority
974:
973:
789:, practices, and
740:confidence motion
738:, or defeating a
554:governors-general
494:British Hong Kong
447:semi-presidential
391:Westminster model
383:
382:
307:Semi-presidential
4740:
4569:
4548:
4519:
4518:
4503:
4497:
4496:
4476:
4470:
4469:
4463:
4455:
4435:
4429:
4428:
4408:
4402:
4401:
4399:
4397:
4391:
4385:. Archived from
4384:
4376:
4370:
4369:
4341:
4335:
4334:
4332:
4308:
4302:
4301:
4281:
4275:
4274:
4272:
4270:
4255:
4249:
4242:
4236:
4229:
4223:
4222:
4220:
4218:
4195:
4189:
4188:
4170:
4164:
4163:
4135:
4129:
4128:
4126:
4124:
4110:
4104:
4103:
4101:
4099:
4093:
4087:. Archived from
4074:
4065:
4059:
4048:
4042:
4031:
4025:
4024:
4016:
4007:
4006:
4004:
4002:
3996:academic.oup.com
3988:
3982:
3981:
3979:
3977:
3972:on 27 March 2013
3968:. Archived from
3962:
3956:
3955:
3944:
3935:
3934:
3932:
3930:
3916:
3910:
3909:
3887:
3881:
3880:
3858:
3852:
3851:
3831:
3825:
3824:
3804:
3798:
3797:
3777:
3768:
3767:
3765:
3763:
3752:
3746:
3745:
3723:
3717:
3716:
3698:
3648:Loyal opposition
3581:
3579:
3578:
3563:
3561:
3560:
3547:Kingdom of Egypt
3545:
3543:
3542:
3530:
3528:
3527:
3516:
3514:
3513:
3502:
3500:
3499:
3488:
3486:
3485:
3474:
3472:
3471:
3460:
3458:
3457:
3446:
3444:
3443:
3432:
3430:
3429:
3421:
3417:
3415:
3414:
3402:
3400:
3399:
3384:
3383:
3382:
3371:
3369:
3368:
3357:
3355:
3354:
3343:
3341:
3340:
3331:
3329:
3328:
3309:
3307:
3306:
3295:
3293:
3292:
3283:
3281:
3280:
3253:
3251:
3250:
3239:
3237:
3236:
3227:
3225:
3224:
3203:Former countries
3183:
3182:
3155:House of Commons
3139:
3138:
3113:
3112:
3080:
3079:
3067:a native monarch
3040:
3039:
3023:Governor-General
3005:
3004:
2973:
2972:
2949:
2948:
2923:
2922:
2888:
2887:
2875:Federated nation
2858:
2857:
2841:Governor-General
2825:Papua New Guinea
2823:
2822:
2810:Federated nation
2786:
2785:
2743:
2742:
2730:Federated nation
2706:
2705:
2682:
2681:
2658:
2657:
2643:Federated nation
2617:
2616:
2603:a native monarch
2574:
2573:
2543:
2542:
2529:a native monarch
2503:Emperor of Japan
2472:
2471:
2430:
2429:
2368:
2367:
2322:
2321:
2293:Federated nation
2269:
2268:
2234:
2233:
2210:
2209:
2186:
2185:
2172:a native monarch
2144:
2143:
2114:
2113:
2089:Federated nation
2079:House of Commons
2063:
2062:
2028:
2027:
1995:
1994:
1971:
1970:
1936:
1935:
1915:state parliament
1893:Federated nation
1867:
1866:
1832:
1831:
1818:
1806:
1805:
1720:governor-general
1692:
1619:and currently a
1548:
1498:Senate of Canada
1486:House of Commons
1471:Knesset Building
1461:New Delhi, India
1433:Shadow Ministers
1366:King–Byng affair
1331:governor-general
1287:electoral system
1261:Prime Minister's
1195:governor-general
1191:governor-general
1139:general election
1119:
1113:
1103:
1097:
1079:
1070:like India, the
996:
845:
844:
717:Papua New Guinea
631:executive branch
411:executive branch
401:for operating a
375:
368:
361:
315:
303:
289:
272:
260:
37:
36:
4748:
4747:
4743:
4742:
4741:
4739:
4738:
4737:
4733:Western culture
4693:
4692:
4646:
4566:
4545:
4527:
4522:
4505:
4504:
4500:
4493:
4477:
4473:
4457:
4456:
4452:
4436:
4432:
4425:
4409:
4405:
4395:
4393:
4389:
4382:
4378:
4377:
4373:
4342:
4338:
4309:
4305:
4282:
4278:
4268:
4266:
4256:
4252:
4243:
4239:
4230:
4226:
4216:
4214:
4204:Washington Post
4196:
4192:
4185:
4171:
4167:
4152:
4136:
4132:
4122:
4120:
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4111:
4107:
4097:
4095:
4091:
4072:
4066:
4062:
4049:
4045:
4032:
4028:
4017:
4010:
4000:
3998:
3990:
3989:
3985:
3975:
3973:
3964:
3963:
3959:
3946:
3945:
3938:
3928:
3926:
3918:
3917:
3913:
3906:
3892:"8: Conclusion"
3890:Yu, Gu (2015).
3888:
3884:
3877:
3859:
3855:
3848:
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3821:
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3583:Empire of Japan
3576:
3574:
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3532:Kingdom of Iraq
3525:
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3290:
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3205:
3177:
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3133:
3107:
3094:
3090:
3074:
3054:
3050:
3034:
3007:Solomon Islands
2999:
2967:
2943:
2917:
2902:
2898:
2882:
2852:
2817:
2800:
2796:
2780:
2737:
2720:
2716:
2700:
2676:
2652:
2646:
2631:
2627:
2611:
2588:
2584:
2568:
2555:
2553:
2537:
2523:parallel voting
2513:, and Imperial
2486:
2482:
2466:
2453:
2424:
2409:parallel voting
2382:
2378:
2362:
2336:
2332:
2316:
2283:
2279:
2263:
2248:
2244:
2228:
2204:
2180:
2138:
2108:
2098:
2092:
2077:
2073:
2057:
2042:
2038:
2022:
2009:
2005:
1989:
1965:
1950:
1946:
1930:
1896:
1881:
1877:
1861:
1846:
1842:
1826:
1801:
1793:ceremonial mace
1751:
1712:withhold supply
1693:
1684:
1676:both flow into
1654:
1641:Chief Executive
1505:Jamaican Senate
1441:
1392:
1386:
1323:
1299:under-secretary
1283:
1137:in order for a
1049:executive power
979:
843:
701:parallel voting
569:federal systems
530:
528:Characteristics
470:self-government
468:, upon gaining
462:former colonies
393:, is a type of
379:
349:Politics portal
309:
295:
283:
266:
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175:
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153:
114:Chief executive
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17:
12:
11:
5:
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4645:
4644:External links
4642:
4641:
4640:
4624:
4610:
4596:
4577:Walter Bagehot
4570:
4565:978-1107100244
4564:
4549:
4544:978-0191609817
4543:
4526:
4523:
4521:
4520:
4498:
4492:978-0415364980
4491:
4471:
4451:978-0195171761
4450:
4430:
4424:978-3643100856
4423:
4403:
4371:
4352:(6): 685–705.
4346:Party Politics
4336:
4323:(2): 261–281.
4303:
4276:
4250:
4244:Zelman Cowan,
4237:
4224:
4190:
4183:
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4130:
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4026:
4008:
3983:
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3853:
3846:
3826:
3820:978-9047423935
3819:
3799:
3792:
3769:
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3741:978-9004151741
3740:
3718:
3712:978-0521128650
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3348:
3322:
3315:Nnamdi Azikiwe
3300:
3274:
3244:
3204:
3201:
3198:
3197:
3195:
3192:
3187:
3174:
3173:
3164:Between 2011 (
3162:
3157:
3151:House of Lords
3143:
3141:United Kingdom
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3127:
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3101:
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3027:Prime Minister
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2845:Prime Minister
2837:
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2827:
2814:
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2807:
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2790:
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2757:
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2607:
2597:
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2578:
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2547:
2534:
2533:
2515:reserve powers
2511:Prime Minister
2499:reserve powers
2495:
2490:
2476:
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2450:Prime Minister
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2439:
2434:
2421:
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2355:Irish language
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2116:Cayman Islands
2105:
2104:
2086:
2081:
2067:
2054:
2053:
2051:
2046:
2032:
2019:
2018:
2016:
2013:
1999:
1986:
1985:
1983:
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1978:Jatiya Sangsad
1975:
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1961:
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1940:
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1890:
1885:
1871:
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1526:House of Lords
1522:
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1437:
1429:Shadow Cabinet
1402:Walter Bagehot
1388:Main article:
1385:
1382:
1358:reserve powers
1322:
1319:
1282:
1279:
1271:Walter Bagehot
1241:reserve powers
1166:, and to sign
1152:reserve powers
1082:prime minister
1060:prime minister
1006:prime minister
978:
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839:
835:Malcolm Fraser
819:reserve powers
783:
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767:
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751:snap elections
743:
724:
669:
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627:
604:first minister
600:chief minister
592:prime minister
584:
546:reserve powers
529:
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466:British Empire
445:, or with the
381:
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124:First minister
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119:Chief minister
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4201:
4194:
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4180:
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4147:
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4109:
4090:
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4077:Research Note
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3591:Diet of Japan
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2774:
2770:
2766:
2765:Several seats
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2519:National Diet
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2479:National Diet
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2159:
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1998:
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876:
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279:
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4525:Bibliography
4514:
4510:
4501:
4481:
4474:
4440:
4433:
4413:
4406:
4394:. Retrieved
4387:the original
4374:
4349:
4345:
4339:
4320:
4316:
4306:
4292:(2): 32–40.
4289:
4285:
4279:
4267:. Retrieved
4263:
4253:
4240:
4227:
4215:. Retrieved
4203:
4193:
4174:
4168:
4140:
4133:
4121:. Retrieved
4117:
4108:
4096:. Retrieved
4089:the original
4076:
4063:
4052:section 8(1)
4046:
4029:
4020:
3999:. Retrieved
3995:
3986:
3974:. Retrieved
3970:the original
3960:
3951:
3927:. Retrieved
3923:
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3895:
3885:
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3836:
3829:
3809:
3802:
3782:
3760:. Retrieved
3750:
3731:
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3696:
3594:
3535:adjustments.
3434:Sierra Leone
3263:Newfoundland
3210:South Africa
3206:
3168:) and 2022 (
2633:Dewan Rakyat
2629:Dewan Negara
2600:
2526:
2338:Dáil Éireann
2169:
1812:Legislature
1802:
1782:
1767:
1752:
1740:
1709:
1695:
1686:James Killen
1667:
1617:crown colony
1611:
1552:
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1393:
1375:
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1324:
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999:
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522:South Africa
455:
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384:
319:Presidential
298:
285:
214:
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162:
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4396:18 February
3976:28 February
3952:www.oba.org
3762:16 December
3653:Magna Carta
3025:not by the
2890:Saint Lucia
2843:not by the
2745:New Zealand
2456:Closed list
2399:, with the
2301:Rajya Sabha
2281:Rajya Sabha
1938:The Bahamas
1905:(a form of
1672:and of the
1579:Nova Scotia
1519:Rajya Sabha
1482:lower house
1431:made up of
874:Leadership
787:conventions
728:lower house
693:New Zealand
550:Charles III
490:New Zealand
458:subnational
415:responsible
403:legislature
299:simul simul
286:Westminster
276:Directorial
4697:Categories
4517:(2). 2015.
4269:4 November
4217:4 November
4098:22 January
4001:18 October
3689:References
3504:The Gambia
3419:Tanganyika
3190:Parliament
3146:Parliament
3120:Parliament
3087:Parliament
2980:Parliament
2895:Parliament
2830:Parliament
2793:Parliament
2750:Parliament
2713:Parliament
2665:Parliament
2624:Parliament
2581:Parliament
2550:Parliament
2329:Oireachtas
2276:Parliament
2241:Parliament
2217:Parliament
2121:Parliament
2070:Parliament
2002:Parliament
1973:Bangladesh
1943:Parliament
1911:Queensland
1874:Parliament
1839:Parliament
1815:System of
1749:Ceremonies
1555:unicameral
1528:until the
1347:sole house
1339:confidence
1269:(1876) by
1204:, such as
1162:, declare
1133:wished to
1043:will take
950:Opposition
926:Government
882:vice-regal
803:uncodified
791:precedents
775:common law
677:unicameral
399:procedures
231:Presidency
109:Chancellor
92:Government
4460:cite book
4366:144231226
4212:0190-8286
4160:774393122
4123:22 August
4085:1323-5664
3929:22 August
3596:Reichstag
3462:Indonesia
3345:Sri Lanka
3265:became a
3194:Republic
3100:Republic
2988:President
2984:Republic
2975:Singapore
2960:Republic
2806:Republic
2726:Republic
2693:Republic
2684:Mauritius
2669:Republic
2441:Republic
2388:Republic
2351:Taoiseach
2347:President
2342:Republic
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2289:Republic
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2221:Republic
2197:Republic
2166:Folketing
2151:Folketing
2015:Republic
1982:Republic
1869:Australia
1645:President
1613:Hong Kong
1475:Jerusalem
1160:diplomats
1156:ministers
1143:sovereign
1106:president
1072:president
1037:ministers
977:Operation
747:dissolved
721:Australia
673:bicameral
565:governors
538:sovereign
508:from the
201:Secretary
177:Secretary
77:President
4579:, 1876.
4286:Politics
3608:See also
3404:Eswatini
3297:Zimbabwe
3285:Rhodesia
3267:province
3214:Botswana
3160:Monarchy
3125:Monarchy
3061:Monarchy
3042:Thailand
3017:Monarchy
2994:voting.
2935:Monarchy
2909:Monarchy
2870:Monarchy
2835:Monarchy
2788:Pakistan
2775:voters.
2769:reserved
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2619:Malaysia
2595:Monarchy
2560:Monarchy
2493:Monarchy
2395:employs
2353:(in the
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2126:Monarchy
2084:Monarchy
2049:Monarchy
1997:Barbados
1957:Monarchy
1921:and the
1888:Monarchy
1853:Monarchy
1809:Country
1683:—
1633:Governor
1604:and the
1571:Manitoba
1546:de facto
1376:In many
1168:treaties
1126:de facto
1117:de facto
1101:de facto
1084:and the
1062:and the
923:General
807:codified
264:Republic
252:Monarchy
221:Governor
196:Minister
189:Ministry
40:Part of
4054:of the
3311:Nigeria
3185:Vanuatu
2576:Lesotho
2545:Jamaica
2507:Cabinet
2437:Knesset
2324:Ireland
2236:Grenada
2146:Denmark
1674:Potomac
1623:of the
1341:of the
1256:Hanover
1233:de jure
1111:de jure
1095:de jure
1077:de jure
1074:is the
1064:cabinet
1010:premier
993:de jure
987:monarch
793:of the
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697:Denmark
649:change.
635:cabinet
596:premier
573:Ireland
556:in the
518:Nigeria
464:of the
407:England
243:Systems
164:Cabinet
134:Premier
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3333:Ceylon
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3115:Tuvalu
3092:Senate
3052:Senate
2900:Senate
2798:Senate
2586:Senate
2554:Senate
2432:Israel
2246:Senate
2075:Senate
2065:Canada
2040:Senate
2030:Belize
2007:Senate
1948:Senate
1879:Senate
1844:Senate
1778:clerks
1756:church
1705:Senate
1670:Thames
1600:, the
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1585:, and
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1275:nation
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1176:advice
1090:Israel
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1026:budget
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687:(e.g.
656:(in a
612:Israel
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581:latter
577:Israel
552:, the
498:Israel
478:Cyprus
451:France
4390:(PDF)
4383:(PDF)
4362:S2CID
4092:(PDF)
4073:(PDF)
4035:p 294
3476:Kenya
3373:Ghana
3359:Burma
2951:Samoa
2773:Māori
2759:Uses
2708:Nepal
2660:Malta
2474:Japan
2370:Italy
2271:India
1817:govt.
1759:choir
1343:lower
1221:Japan
1206:India
1185:. In
1088:. In
848:Type
709:Italy
705:Japan
504:upon
389:, or
327:Lists
226:Mayor
215:Other
4633:ISBN
4617:ISBN
4603:ISBN
4589:ISBN
4581:ISBN
4560:ISBN
4539:ISBN
4487:ISBN
4466:link
4446:ISBN
4419:ISBN
4398:2016
4271:2020
4219:2020
4208:ISSN
4179:ISBN
4156:OCLC
4146:ISBN
4125:2017
4100:2011
4081:ISSN
4039:p 17
4003:2023
3978:2013
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