Trafficking of children

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children. According to Addo, before the implementation of institutional care facilities in Sub-Saharan Africa, families practiced kinship fostering to care for one another’s children in cases of extreme poverty and orphanhood. Currently, many African countries are undergoing community development to provide resources for the extended family of orphaned children to help care for them (Addo). In his article about human trafficking in Africa, Blessing tells a story of children in the Democratic Republic of the Congo whose impoverished parents sent them to a camp that was advertised as a free place for children to spend their holidays. In reality, there was no camp, and all of these children were sucked into human trafficking. Despite their best efforts, the parents of these children could not locate them for two years due to a lack of resources. Once the children were found, the parents ended up in the midst of a legal battle for their child’s custody (Blessing). Child trafficking in areas of Africa such as the DRC would be drastically reduced with the increase of resources for their parents to make a better life, and escape poverty.

2987:. Specifically, those who are trafficked constitute the "supply", while the traffickers, and all those who profit from the exploitation, provide the "demand". Two types of demand are defined: consumer demand and derived demand. Consumer demand is generated by people who actively or passively buy the products or services of trafficked labour. An example of this would be a tourist purchasing a T-shirt that has been made by a trafficked child. Derived demand, on the other hand, is generated by people who directly profit from the practice of trafficking, such as pimps or corrupt factory owners. Scholar Kevin Bales has extensively studied the application of this economic framework to instances of human trafficking; he contends that it is central to an accurate understanding of how trafficking is initiated and sustained. Bales, along with scholars Elizabeth M. Wheaton, Edward J. Schauer, and Thomas V. Galli, have asserted that national governments should more actively implement policies that reduce both types of demand, thus working towards the elimination of trafficking. 2059:

work in agriculture. A comparative study between domestic child labour rates in urban and rural regions in sub-Saharan Africa reveals that 84.3% of child labourers are working in the rural sector. 99.8% of children age five to fourteen are engaged in child labour for some form of economic activity in these regions. The ILO also estimates that 115 million children are engaged in hazardous work, such as the sex or drug trade. Overall, child labour can take many forms, including domestic servitude, work in agriculture, service, and manufacturing industries. Also, according to several researchers, most children are forced into cheap and controllable labour, and work in homes, farms, factories, restaurants, and much more. Children are cheap labour and additionally are able to complete jobs that adults cannot due to their size. One example for this is within the fishing industry in Ghana. Children can release fish easier from nets due to their small hands. Thereby their services are highly demanded and child labour remains a present consequence of child trafficking.

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corporations and other business enterprises and human rights. Endorsed in Resolution 17/4 by the Human Rights Council on June 16, 2011, the report outlines three main principles. 1) The state's existing obligation to respect, protect and fulfill human rights and fundamental freedoms, 2) the role of business enterprises as specialized organs of society performing specialized functions, required to comply with all applicable laws and to respect human rights, and 3) the need for rights and obligations to be matched to appropriate and effective remedies when breached. The resolution attempted to establish a universal understanding of appropriate employment conditions and stated punishments for those firms who violate the guiding principles. In addition, research regarding the lasting consequences for labour whose rights were violated were revealed. Yet in 2018 it was found that still, 218million children are working full-time, many of which are employed by factory owners to lower production costs.

1874:, titled the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children. Article 3(a) of this document defines child trafficking as the "recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring and/or receipt" of a child for the purpose of exploitation. The definition for child trafficking given here applies only to cases of trafficking that are transnational and/or involve organized criminal groups; in spite of this, child trafficking is now typically recognized well outside these parameters. The ILO expands upon this definition by asserting that movement and exploitation are key aspects of child trafficking. The definition of "child" used here is that listed in the 1989 UN Convention on the Rights of the Child which states, "a child means every human being below the age of 18 years, unless, under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier." The distinction outlined in this definition is important, because some countries have chosen to set the " 2644:

found that girls involved in other forms of child labour—such as domestic service or street vending—are at the highest risk of being pulled into commercial child sex trafficking. Likewise, Kendall and Funk justifies how "young girls age 12 and under are malleable and more easily trained into their prospective roles as prostitutes, and because virginity is highly prized by certain consumers willing to pay a premium". A variety of sources, including the ILO and scholars Erin Kunze and D.M. Hughes, also contend that the increased use and availability of the Internet has served as a major resource for traffickers, ultimately increasing the incidence of child sex trafficking. In fact, in 2009, Illinois Sheriff Thomas J. Dart sued the owners of Craigslist, a popular online classifieds website, for its "allowance" and "facilitation" of prostitution, particularly in children. In response to public and legal pressure, Craigslist has since blocked all access to its "Adult Services" section.

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access to assistance, protection and support, services for recovery and rehabilitation, access to justice, with due procedural safeguards in any related legal or administrative proceedings. Children at risk of exploitation have to be identified and recognised as being at risk. This implies that they have a right to assistance and support in order to prevent their exploitation or any other harm resulting from the risks. Considering the difficulties of identifying children who have been trafficked and the broad protection against all forms and contexts of exploitation afforded under the Convention, a child rights-based approach prioritises the identification of child victims of exploitation or other crime and children at risk. Whether or not exploitation takes place in a context of trafficking is of subordinate relevance for the child rights and protection context. It may interest primarily the law enforcement investigations and the prosecution.

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As UNICEF and the World Bank note, "Often children experience several risk factors at the same time, and one of them may act as a trigger that sets the trafficking event in motion. This is sometimes called 'poverty plus,' a situation in which poverty does not by itself lead to a person being trafficked, but where a 'plus' factor such as illness combines with poverty to increase vulnerability." UNICEF, UN.GIFT, and several scholars, including Una Murray and Mike Dottridge, also contend that an accurate understanding of child trafficking must incorporate an analysis of gender inequality. Specifically, in many countries, girls are at a higher risk of being trafficked, particularly into sexual exploitation. In addition, these international agencies and scholars contend that giving women and men an equal voice in anti-trafficking policy is critical to reducing the incidence of child trafficking.

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remedies” (Obokata 542). In his book titled The African Court of Justice and Human Peoples’ Rights in Context, Obokata explains how law enforcement should handle situations of trafficking based on commonly accepted human rights. Often governments of developing countries are slow to intervene in cases of human trafficking because the system benefits that country’s economy. According to Van Doore, “The largest predictor of human trafficking is governmental corruption” (Van Doore 79). Governments are responsible for ensuring that minimal standards of residential care are met by residential care facilities which include government licensing, but many choose to be too lenient in regards to these standards, resulting in the unsafe living conditions created by the human trafficking industry that have saturated many orphanages across Sub-Saharan Africa.

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suggest that forced begging is one industry that children are trafficked into, with a recent UNICEF study reporting that 13% of trafficking victims in South Eastern Europe have been trafficked for the purpose of forced begging. The UN protocol affirms that "the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of a child for the purpose of exploitation shall be considered 'trafficking in persons' even if this does not involve any of the means set forth in subparagraph (a) of this article." With this definition the transportation of a child to an urban center for the purposes of begging constitutes trafficking regardless of whether this process was enforced by a third party or family member. The severity of this form of trafficking is starting to gain global recognition, with the International Organization for Migration (IOM), the

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generally performed by well-meaning volunteers from rich and predominantly white countries, but it can create highly unstable and unsafe living conditions for orphaned children. The voluntourists live and work in the same space as these young children, but no background checks are required (Biddle 134). The majority of funding for orphanage trafficking comes from voluntourism, missions trips, and private donations, so children are trafficked into orphanages to fill the space and create a perfect volunteer environment to keep the funding coming. The shocking reality is that these children barely see a penny of all the money donated to them. Nigerian orphanages have been connected with baby factories where trafficked women are detained, raped, and forced to carry and deliver a child for the purpose of selling it into these “orphanages”.

3156:"exploitation" stage, such as hazardous working conditions. Moreover, trafficked children are often denied access to healthcare, effectively increasing their chances of serious injury and death. Trafficked children are also often subject to domestic violence; they may be beaten or starved in order to ensure obedience. In addition, these children frequently encounter substance abuse; they may be given drugs as "payment" or to ensure that they become addicted and thus dependent on their trafficker(s). As opposed to many other forms of crime, the trauma experienced by children who are trafficked is often prolonged and repeated, leading to severe psychological impacts. UN.GIFT reports that trafficked children often suffer from depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder, among other conditions. 3017:

caseworkers and officers determine if the child is actually a victim of a crime herself, such as exploitation, abuse, or trafficking. For a child in an administrative process, such as an asylum procedure, hearing the child's full story helps caseworkers to detect cases of trafficking. Children may be hesitant to share their complete stories with authorities and appointed child welfare professionals. Some service providers have found that establishing trust and a stable relationship with the child encourages increased disclosure of experiences of exploitation and trafficking that might otherwise not be detected. The trust building process can include granting assistance and support services to ensure safety, well-being and development.

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criminalization of begging and trafficking. Prosecution should be instituted in the form of greater legal ramifications for traffickers, with punishment focused on the exploiter rather than the exploited. This becomes difficult with respect to victims of familial trafficking, considering this would require changes in care placement and strict monitoring of each displaced child's welfare. Many organizations affirm that prevention begins with discouraging donations and improving services so that children, and families as a whole, have greater capabilities. Though well-intentioned, by giving child beggars money, individuals only make this practice more profitable, and soon these funds find their way into the hands of the child's abuser.

2851:, is common given that according to the Buffalo Human Rights Law Review children with apparent special needs often make upwards of three times as much as other children who beg. In addition to inflictions such as blindness and loss of limbs, other physical abuses for the purposes of heightening profits include pouring chili pepper on a child's tongue to give the appearance of impeded speech, the use of opium to elicit cries, and administering forced injections of drugs that will increase a child's energy and alertness. Testimonies against trafficking ring gang leaders have discussed the detainment of individuals in small cells devoid of food, water, and light to make victims weak and feeble, and thus more likely to elicit donations. 2068:

the 15–17 age group: in the past five years, a 20% increase in the number of these child workers has been reported. A surprising example occurred in the United States as McCabe indicates that in the 1990s, huge companies such as Gap and Nike were using industry "sweatshops" that used trafficked children to make their desired products. After further investigation of the child labour scandal the hazardous work conditions of the GAP company factories were exposed. Children were working in poorly maintained and dangerous factories, were victims of abuse and were paid far below minimum wage. In the years that followed similar scandals were revealed in other parts of Asia and Africa.

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family or in institutions, exploitative relationships, gender-based violence and discrimination, experiences of living or working on the streets, precarious and irregular migration situations, aspirations to work and to earn money and limited opportunities to enter or remain in school, vocational training or regular employment. As the efforts of national governments to improve social safety nets can lessen many of these risks, child trafficking is considered not only a result of criminal activities but also as indicating weaknesses in the national government's ability to effectively safeguard children's rights to a safe and healthy development.

2752:, the ILO, and the UN, among others, beginning to emphasize its pertinence. The European Union's Brussels Declaration on Preventing and Combating Trafficking includes child begging as one form of trafficking, stating "trafficking in human beings is an abhorrent and worrying phenomenon involving coercive sexual exploitation, labour exploitation in conditions akin to slavery, exploitation in begging and juvenile delinquency as well as domestic servitude." This issue is especially difficult to regulate given that forced begging is often imposed by family members, with parental power leveraged over a child to ensure that begging is carried out. 3115:

and their families. The decision for parents to expose their children for child trafficking, due to poverty, is not always for money incentives, but also because a lack of education causes them to believe that migration elsewhere will provide their children with more opportunities, which will help them escape chronic poverty. Sometimes children are orphaned as a result of poverty, leaving them in the hands of child traffickers. There are estimated to be around 120 million children living on the streets in the world (30 million in Africa, 30 million in Asia, and 60 million in South America), making children vulnerable and thus easy targets.

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who are apprehended are often treated as criminals, when in reality they are often the ones in need of legal assistance. While comprehensive worldwide statistics regarding the prevalence of this practice are unknown, several useful regional studies have been conducted. For example, the ILO has investigated the use of Afghan children in the heroin trade and child involvement in the drug trades of Brazil. Scholar Luke Dowdney specifically studied children in the drug trade in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; he found that children involved in the drug trades are at significantly higher risk of engaging in violence, particularly murder.

2737: 7336: 2560: 2939:(USAID) that religious leaders should outwardly condemn this practice. For talibes religious leaders have been asked to take a stance against begging using passages cited from the Quran, such as, "Except paradise, you should not beg anything for the sake of Allah" (8:23), which would help strip the practice of its religious foundation. In addition, former US President Clinton took the responsibility of providing protection against child abuse through Internet Service Providers (ISP) that can help law enforcement track any suspicious activities including child pornography. 3178:

lack of education, and the illnesses and injuries they may have incurred during trafficking work. There are major costs associated with the rehabilitation of these trafficked children, so that they are able to successfully participate in their communities. Furthermore, the persistence of child trafficking indicates the presence of sustained criminal activity and criminal networks, which, in most cases, are also associated with drugs and violence. As a result, UN.GIFT has cited child trafficking as a significant indicator of national and global security threats.

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socialization, coercive relationships, substance abuse, and lack of education can cause challenges for in the process of rehabilitation for some children. Some scholars advocate for rights-based development, where the victims, survivors, and youth at-risk should be able to participate in the planning of projects and have continued involvement in order to build autonomy and leadership. This recuperation can take quite a length of time but, with the individual having the correct support, they can work towards a functional life.

2032:, because it ensures that traffickers and trafficking victims are treated accordingly: for example, "if migration laws are used to pursue traffickers, it is often the case that the victims too are prosecuted as illegal migrants, whereas if there is a specific category of 'trafficker' and 'trafficked person,' then it is more likely that the victim will be treated as such." The existence of national laws regarding child trafficking also enables trafficking victims and/or their families to take appropriate civil action. 2864:

this practice cross-generationally. Interviews conducted by UNICEF show that children who beg have little hope for the future and do not believe their circumstances will improve. Children who work on the streets typically have little or no knowledge of their rights, leaving them especially susceptible to exploitation both as juveniles and later as adults. Children who beg have also been found by UNICEF to have much higher instances of HIV infection due to lack of awareness and supervision on the streets.

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pressure to contribute to their families, children may be kidnapped or abducted into trafficking, or families may be trafficked together. Then, movement will occur—locally, regionally, and/or internationally—through a variety of transportation types, including by car, train, boat, or foot. Ultimately, the final goal of child trafficking is exploitation, whereby traffickers use the services of children to garner illegal profit. Exploitation can take place in a variety of forms, including

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are often scarce in rural areas, which is why migration often occurs from rural to urban areas. The ILO stated that 27 million young people leave their countries of birth to seek employment abroad as international migrants. In order to make migration safer for youth the UN adopted "Addressing migration opportunities and challenges is central to achieving sustainable economic and social development" to their new development goals, which are to be released in 2030.

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children forced to beg may generate $ 30–40,000 USD for the profiteer. Though family networks are not nearly as extensive, a study conducted in Albania showed that a family with multiple children begging can earn up to fifteen euros a day, an amount greater than the average national teacher salary. Anti-Slavery International asserts that because this income is relatively high many families believe it is the best option available given the lack of existing

2098: 3032:, the right to compensation, and the right to act as a party, or plaintiff, in criminal proceedings. An important safeguard for trafficked children who have been exploited in illegal or criminal activities is the ‘non-punishment clause’. It means that child victims of criminal offences, including human trafficking, are to be protected from sanctions or prosecution for acts that they committed in relation to their situation as victims. 2663:

measures to ensure that member of their armed forces who have not attained the age of 18 years do not take a direct part in hostilities." Despite this, the ILO estimates that "tens of thousands" of girls and boys are currently forcibly enlisted in the armed forces in at least 17 countries around the world. Children conscripted into the armed forces can then be used in three distinct ways:

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from limited data, "appear to have been fairly high". Many of the boys sold were climbing boys for chimney sweeps until they were no longer small enough. Prostitution was another reason for selling a child, usually a girl. One sale was of a niece; another was the sale by a man of the daughter of a woman domestic partner who also ran his business. Some children were stolen and then sold.

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well as in depth information sessions and support groups for the victims. The events held by communities could include films, guest speakers, booths, and many more things that can help people understand the seriousness of this issue. The ICE (Human Trafficking) has a help line for victims as well as conducts awareness in the U.S.A communities through the ICE In Plain Sight Campaign.

1834:(UNODC) reported the percentage of child victims had risen in 3 years from 20 percent to 27 percent. Every year 300,000 children are taken from all around the world and sold by human traffickers as slaves. 28% of the 17,000 people brought to the United States are children—about 13 children per day. In 2014, research conducted by the anti-human trafficking organization 3230:

groups, such as the Young Women's Empowerment Project, are against working with law enforcement due to cases where law enforcement officials played roles in the exploitation of the victim. In June 2016, 14 Oakland Police officers were alleged to have been involved in a sex scandal involving a teenaged prostitute, including some while she was allegedly a minor.

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and then, once free from trafficking, is prosecuted for being an illegal migrant. The End Trafficking Project is the initiative to raise awareness about child trafficking and help people take action to protect children. The UNICEF has come up with ways to help children from child exploitation and the risk factors that need to be addressed. These include:

2799:. Capability deprivation, meaning the routine absence of adequate resources that serve in facilitating opportunities, may account for cross-generational begging practices within families. UNICEF studies have found that begging is especially prevalent among families in which parents are incapacitated in some way, leading children to be the sole providers. 3169:

cut short. As a result of this lack of education, children who escape trafficking may be less able to secure employment later in life. In addition, trafficked girls face special obstacles, in that their prospects for marriage might be diminished if the community becomes aware that they have been trafficked, particularly into sexual exploitation.

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survival schemas. It is important to note that while these may be culturally rooted practices, juvenile begging by way of familial pressure still falls under the realm of forced begging. The transport of children, even one's own, for the purposes of exploitation through begging is a form of trafficking outlined by the United Nations.

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often has human rights implications. Yet, it is only within the past decade that the prevalence and ramifications of this practice have risen to international prominence, due to a dramatic increase in research and public action. Limited research has not yet identified all causes of child trafficking, however, it appears that poverty,

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contradictions between the Labour Act of Zimbabwe and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. Many nations, such as Indonesia, have laws against begging on the books, but the repercussions for such entail temporary detainment and eventual release back onto the streets, which does little to combat the issue.

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are trained to take the children into custody if a blood relationship with their guardian cannot be established, and educate parents on the illegality and dangers of begging if they are those responsible for the child's action. This policy instituted in April 2009 has since led to the recovery of 9,300 children.

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in 2000–2004, there was a 10% reduction in child labour. The ILO contends that, globally, child labour is slowly declining, except in sub-Saharan Africa, where the number of child workers has remained relatively constant: 1 in 4 children aged 5–17 work in this region. In 2018 UNICEF reported that 31% of total

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On a national level, economic development is severely hindered by the lack of education of trafficked children; this results in a major loss of potentially productive future workers. Children who are able to successfully return to their families often pose a significant financial burden, due to their

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Child trafficking has also been shown to have a major effect on communities. If multiple children in a community are trafficked, it can result in the entire community being corrupted, and thus devastated, by trafficking. Social development efforts are hindered, as trafficked children's educations are

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In 2013 youth migrants, ages 15–24 made up 12% of total migration. The term "child trafficking" is often misused when migration is voluntary. "Youth migration" refers to youth choosing to leave homes to access opportunities elsewhere. Opportunities such as quality education, employment, and adventure

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A lack of education and literacy furthermore makes families more vulnerable to traffickers. Parents are often unaware of the negative consequences of child trafficking and voluntarily send their children away. Additionally, children are often not aware of their rights and lack understanding regarding

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shelter, adequate food, or access to healthcare where they reside. Furthermore, many of the gangs which run networks of forced begging have heavy drug involvement, thus the children under their control are often turned into drug addicts in order for them to become further reliant on their exploiters.

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toxicity trials of experimental drugs. Because international adoptees are vulnerable and because medical personnel have authority over legal guardians, facilitation of international adoption to effectively traffic children for enrollment in pharmaceutical clinical trials is a practice by many medical

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estimates that, in 2011, 150 million children aged 5–14 in developing countries were involved in child labour. Additionally, UNICEF states that current rates indicate that at least 100 million children will still be forced to work by 2020. Within this number, the ILO reports that 60% of child workers

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Protection begins first with victim identification; child trafficking laws must specifically and appropriately define what constitutes a "trafficking victim". Legal processes must then be in place for removing children from trafficking situations, and returning them either to their families or other

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Broad protection actions are geared towards children who could potentially be trafficked, and include raising awareness about child trafficking, particularly in vulnerable communities. This type of outreach also includes policies geared towards improving the economic statuses of vulnerable families,

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Poverty is the leading cause for child trafficking worldwide. Often parents are not able to provide for their families and consequentially exploit their children for financial reasons. These influencers lead to children being more inclined to take riskier jobs in order to sustain life for themselves

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According to anthropologist Samuel Pyeatt Menefee, in late 17th and 18th century Britain, parents in poverty "sold their children (actually, their children's services, but to all intents and purposes their persons as well)". Sale motivations were more economic than for wife sales and prices, drawing

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publishes an annual "Trafficking in Persons" report which provides ample data regarding the prevalence of human and child trafficking in the majority of countries. The University of Pennsylvania School of Social Work released a study that estimated as many as 300,000 American youth may be at risk of

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An increase in law enforcement is another important factor in working towards the reduction of orphanage trafficking. “Under international human right law, the obligation to protect the victims of human trafficking derives from a general duty to secure, ensure or restore rights as well as to provide

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projected that a minimum of 50,000 children within the country and neighboring nations have been trafficked for the purposes of begging. Begging is often the primary source of income for street children in a number of countries, with a current study conducted by UNICEF finding that 45.7% of children

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Disreputable international adoption agencies then arrange international adoptions, charging high fees to prospective adoptive parents. The Hague Convention on the Protection of Children and Cooperation in regard to Intercountry Adoption is an international agreement designed to protect children from

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Children are also used in drug trades in all regions of the world. Specifically, children are often trafficked into exploitation as either drug couriers or dealers, and then 'paid' in drugs, such that they become addicted and further entrapped. Due to the illicit nature of drug trafficking, children

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is located in West Africa. In this region, one in six children between the ages of six and fourteen is working. The report additionally finds that 43% of child labour in Sub-Saharan Africa is due to child migration and trafficking. Another major global trend concerns the number of child labourers in

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Law enforcement refers to the actual prosecution of traffickers; UNICEF maintains that successful prosecution of child traffickers is the surest way to send a message that child trafficking will not be tolerated. Traffickers can be "caught" at any one of the three steps of trafficking: recruitment,

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Child trafficking is 20-30% higher after natural disasters. This was seen after the 2015 earthquake and 2010 earthquake in Haiti. The increase of sex trafficking after natural disasters results in the victimization of girls under the age of 18, specifically 33%. of girls under the age of 18 in such

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It is difficult to obtain reliable estimates concerning the number of children trafficked each year, primarily due to the covert and criminal nature of this practice. It often takes years to gather and compile estimates regarding child trafficking and, as a result, data can seem both inadequate and

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The complex definition of child trafficking and the differences in national laws and interpretations makes the identification of child victims of trafficking challenging. For example, the European debate on child trafficking lacks consensus on how child trafficking is to be distinguished from other

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Studies throughout Europe have identified risks that make children vulnerable to exploitation that are also causes and contributing factors of child trafficking. These include social and economic marginalisation, dysfunctional family backgrounds, experiences of neglect, abuse or violence within the

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Various international organizations, including the ILO and UN.GIFT, have linked child trafficking to poverty, reporting that living in poverty has been found to increase children's vulnerability to trafficking. However, poverty is only one of many social "risk factors" that can lead to trafficking.

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There are several cultural factors that support begging. In Europe begging is found in a number of minority cultures, especially popular within Roma and nomadic communities. In Turkey familial networks of beggars have been documented across three generations, making it deeply ingrained within their

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The final essential element to eradicate orphanage trafficking is the restriction of voluntourism. As defined by Pippa Biddle, voluntourism is volunteer work done by a foreigner in a developing country for a short period of time with the presumption of positive outcomes (Biddle 46). Voluntourism is

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A necessary component of the fight against child trafficking in Africa is an increase in resources among impoverished communities. Many families have lost the ability to care for their children, so they feel that they must place them in care facilities, which often leads to the trafficking of these

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Most research, such as studies done by UNICEF, suggests that boys are much more likely than girls to be trafficked for the purposes of begging; experts presume this is because there is a greater female presence in trafficking for the purposes of sexual exploitation. In Albania, where forced begging

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is a protocol of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, formally adopted by the UN in 2000. Essentially, the protocol states that while volunteers below the age of 18 can voluntarily join the armed forces, they cannot be conscripted. As the protocol reads, "State parties shall take all feasible

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Trafficked children may be sexually exploited, used in the armed forces and drug trades, and in child begging. In terms of global trends, the ILO estimates that in 2004–2008, there was a 3% reduction in the incidence of child labour; this stands in contrast to a previous ILO report which found that

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Finally, steps should be taken to avoid "double victimization"—in other words, to ensure that formerly trafficked children are treated as victims, and not as criminals. An example of "double victimization" would be a child who was illegally trafficked into sexual exploitation in the United States,

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Another way to raise awareness for child trafficking is by communities from all over the world dedicating a week to this situation. Observing the 2012 Human Trafficking Awareness Day in the US, and wider world. Community groups along with police enforcements are collaborating to organize events as

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In China, the Ministry of Public Security has established a department that solely focuses on child trafficking. The department has a hotline where the public dials 110 to report suspected incidences of forced begging, which law enforcement officials are expected to investigate further. The police

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Studies have shown that children forced into begging primarily receive little to no education, with upwards of sixteen hours a day dedicated to time on the streets. With education being a leading method in escaping poverty child beggars have been shown to engage in a cyclical process of continuing

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Though measuring the extent of this practice is difficult due to its criminal and covert nature, the ILO estimates that there are as many as 1.8 million children sexually trafficked worldwide, while UNICEF's 2006 State of the World's Children Report reports this number to be 2 million. The ILO has

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Effects on families are also severe. Some families believe that sending or allowing their children to relocate in order to find work will bring in additional income, while in reality many families will never see their trafficked children again. In addition, UN.GIFT has found that certain forms of

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According to UN.GIFT, child trafficking has the most significant impact on trafficked children and their families. First, trafficking can result in the death or permanent injury of the trafficked child. This can stem from a dangerous "movement" stage of trafficking or from specific aspects of the

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Articles 19 and 32-36 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child prohibits the exploitation of children in any form and in any context. Any child who is exposed to violence, exploitation or abuse can be considered a victim of crime and enjoys the correlated rights and entitlements, including

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In general, child trafficking takes place in three stages: recruitment, movement, and exploitation. Recruitment occurs when a child is approached by a recruiter, or in some cases, directly approaches a recruiter themselves. Recruitment is initiated in many different ways: adolescents may be under

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Forced child begging is a type of begging in which boys and girls under the age of eighteen are forced to beg through psychological and physical coercion. Begging is defined by the Buffalo Human Rights Law Review as "the activity of asking for money as charity on the street". There is evidence to

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are often used as tools for conducting business within the industry and that 70 percent of child sex trafficking survivors surveyed were at some point sold online. The trafficking of children has been internationally recognized as a serious crime that exists in every region of the world and which

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laws must then be appropriately enforced and having them properly implemented. The development of grassroots surveillance systems has also been suggested by UNICEF which would enable communities to immediately report signs of child trafficking to legal authorities. However, some anti-trafficking

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programs. Another major broad protection program that has been readily endorsed by UN.GIFT, the ILO, and UNICEF involves facilitating gender equality, specifically by enhancing both boys' and girls' access to affordable, quality education. Other forms of protection and resources are conveniently

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there. This is supplemented by improved regulation of schools within the nation to ensure that they remain places of education, followed by a greater enforcement of preexisting laws banning trafficking and exploitative begging. Finally, rehabilitation services have been provided with the help of

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are extensive, there have been several initiatives with the help of the World Bank to put an end this exploitation. First, there is intervention on a community level with education on the validity of some of these Quranic institutions provided to rural villages that typically send their children

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A victim-centered human rights approach to combating trafficking has been internationally renowned as the best possible strategy when addressing this issue, with recourse focusing on punishing the exploiter and rehabilitating the child. Some countries who emphasize this method include the United

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According to the World Bank forced begging is most commonly found in the Middle East and countries of West Africa, where laws prohibiting begging are scarce and heavy regulation of trafficking absent. In Zimbabwe, where child begging is especially prominent, the United Nations has indicated many

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While concrete figures are difficult to determine, the ILO recently reported that there are at least 600,000 children involved in forced begging. The problem may be much more extensive, however, with China's Ministry of Civil Affairs reporting that as many as 1.5 million children are forced into

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Many international, regional, and national instruments deal with the trafficking of children. These instruments are used to define what legally constitutes trafficking of children, such that appropriate legal action can be taken against those who engage in and promote this practice. These legal

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rehabilitation in order to establish him or her self. Trauma-informed programs, prevention education programs, survivor-led centers, and other recovery and community integration programs are options as well. Youth-specific vulnerabilities such as homelessness, lack of family, mistrust, lack of

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In China, where the kidnapping and forced begging of children has been routinely documented, a multi-media movement has begun. Here, blogs are utilized to publicize over 3,000 photos of children whose families believe have been abducted for the purpose of begging, with hundreds of thousands of

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Many NGOs have initiated movements focusing on informing the public on the dangers of donations. As UNICEF reported in 2006, "certain behaviors, such as giving money to child beggars can also indirectly motivate traffickers and controller to demand children." The Mirror Foundation's Stop Child

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Forced begging is a profitable practice in which exploiters are motivated by economic incentives. The business structures of major rings of children trafficked for the purpose of begging have been examined as comparable to a medium-size business enterprise. In the most severe cases networks of

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The conditions in which begging takes place commonly expose children to further physical and verbal abuse, including sexual victimization and police brutality. Research completed by Human Rights Watch revealed that when begging hours are completed for the day children often do not have proper

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Responding to these cases members of the Secretary-General of the United Nations attempted to reduce the number of violations within corporate systems in 2011 by implementing the United Nations "Protect, Respect and Remedy" Framework, a report stating the guiding principles on transnational

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Trafficking of children has been documented in every region of the world. A widely used figure regarding the prevalence of this practice is provided by the ILO, which estimates that 1.2 million children are trafficked each year; this estimate includes cross-border and internal trafficking.

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Once a potential victim has come into contact with state authorities, identifying the child as a victim of trafficking takes time. The process often benefits from a thorough understanding of the child's story. For a child who is in trouble with the law, hearing the child's full story helps

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Other supported methods, such as those outlined by the Buffalo Human Rights Center, include relying on three Ps: protection, prosecution, and prevention. Protection starts with enforcing strict measures on the matters of both trafficking and begging. For many nations the first step is the

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Scholarly research has indicated that there is no root cause for child trafficking. There are, however, multiple reasons which contribute to high numbers such as poverty, humanitarian crisis and lack of education. It is additionally important to note that migration can also be voluntary.

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Many organizations have proposed potential solutions to child trafficking. These organizations continue to conduct research concerning this practice and policies that can be implemented to work towards its eradication. The most internationally recognized of these organizations include:

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which of their rights are violated. There is a need to educate children of their rights, because it will reduce the likelihood of manipulation and forced industry work. Informing children of their right to education will increase the net enrollment and grade completion rate.

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UNICEF has found that children who are forced to beg by third parties are often removed from their families, surrender the majority of their income to their exploiter, endure unsafe work and living conditions, and are at times maimed to increase profits. The process of

1823:. Not all adoption is a form of human trafficking, but illegal or informal is. Illegal adoptions violate multiple child rights norms and principles, including the best interests of the child, the principle of subsidiarity and the prohibition of improper financial gain. 3082:

As the numbers above indicate, child trafficking occurs the most frequently in Latin America and the Caribbean. Child trafficking is also the most prevalent in developing countries, though it does occur in developed and industrialized economies as well. Notably, the

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In Zimbabwe policy has adapted to ensure the safety of all persons under the age of sixteen with the Children's Protection and Adoption Act, however, the government admits that a lack of resources and capital play a critical role in inadequate enforcement.

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Preventative actions are more focused on addressing the actual practice of child trafficking, specifically by implementing legal frameworks that are aimed to both deter and prosecute traffickers. This involves the adoption and implementation of the ILO's

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Begging Project of Thailand is one such organization that emphasizes eliminating the demand. Their initiatives are focused on educating passersby on the forced begging of trafficked Cambodians within their country to decrease the likelihood of donations.

1847:, and lack of education contribute to high rates. A variety of potential solutions have accordingly been suggested and implemented, which can be categorized into four types of action: broad protection, prevention, law enforcement, and victim assistance. 3045:

outdated. This process of gathering data is only complicated by the fact that very few countries publish national estimates of child trafficking. As a result, the available statistics are widely thought to underestimate the actual scope of the problem.

1589: 4662: 1969: 1859: 2627:"The use of girls and boys in sexual activities remunerated in cash or in kind (commonly known as child prostitution) in the streets or indoors, in such places as brothels, discotheques, massage parlours, bars, hotels, restaurants, etc." 6466: 3160:

trafficking, particularly sexual exploitation in girls, bring "shame" to families. Thus, in certain cases, children who are able to escape trafficking may return to their families only to find that they are rejected and ostracized.

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By definition child begging occurs in persons younger than eighteen, though forced begging has been found by UNICEF to exist among children as young as the age of two. Incidences of this practice have been recorded by the

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Children may be trafficked for the purposes of adoption, particularly international adoption. Children are sourced from orphanages or kidnapped, or parents may be tricked, cajoled or coerced into relinquishing custody.

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National laws pertaining to child trafficking continue to develop worldwide, based on the international principles that have been established. Anti-trafficking legislation has been lauded as critical by the

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affirming "victims of severe forms of trafficking should not be inappropriately incarcerated, fined, or otherwise penalized solely for unlawful acts committed as a direct result of being trafficked."

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instruments are called by a variety of terms, including conventions, protocols, memorandums, joint actions, recommendations, and declarations. The most significant instruments are listed below:

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Identified victims of child trafficking are entitled to special safeguards that all child victims of crimes are entitled to under international law. These safeguards include the right to

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A variety of regional instruments have also been developed to guide countries in decisions regarding child trafficking. Below are some of the major instruments, though many others exist:

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Training Manual to Fight Child Trafficking in Children for Labour, Sexual and Other Forms of Exploitation – Textbook 2: Action Against Child Trafficking at Policy and Outreach Levels

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is a protocol of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, formally adopted by the UN in 2000. Essentially, this protocol formally requires states to prohibit the sale of children,

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ILO International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour: Combating Trafficking in Children for Labour Exploitation, A resource kit for policy-makers and practitioners, 2007

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followers who remain on the look out for these children in major urban centers. This campaign has enabled at least six children to be recovered and reunited with their families.

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so that reasonable alternatives are available to them, other than sending their children to work. Examples of this include increasing employment opportunities for adults and

7128: 7092: 5878:"Trafficking in Human Beings: Identification of Potential and Presumed Victims, A Community Policing Approach". Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. 2011. 5199: 4900:

Delap, Emily (2009). "Begging For Change: Research findings and recommendations on forced child begging in Albania/Greece, India, and Senegal". Anti-Slavery International.

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of migrants, the sale of children and the smuggling of migrants. People smugglers are also known to exploit children to transport migrants across international borders.

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The trafficking of children often involves both labour and migration. As such, these international frameworks clarify instances in which these practices are illegal.

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In Bangladesh, where there are an estimated 700,000 beggars, a law passed in 2009 banning the practice, though officials report some trouble with enforcement.

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Child Trafficking in the Nordic Countries, Rethinking strategies and national responses, A Technical Report (Report). UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre. 2012.

4832: 7303: 4250:"Report of the Special Representative of the Secretary- General on the issue of human rights and transnational corporations and other business enterprises" 1459: 831: 568: 7809: 7143: 4765: 1951: 1195: 836: 3759:

Training Manual to Fight Child Trafficking in Children for Labour, Sexual and Other Forms of Exploitation – Textbook 1: Understanding Child Trafficking

2936: 6590:

Gozdziak, Elzbieta; MacDonnell, Margaret (2007). "Closing the Gaps: The Need to Improve Identification and Services to Child Victims of Trafficking".

3327: 2962:(or sometimes simply hand them over without any payment). The orphanage then misrepresent them as "orphans", ensuring an income for the orphanages. 7133: 2681:

has also noted that girl soldiers must be uniquely recognized, in that they are especially vulnerable to acts of sexual violence. The incidence of

528: 6742:. The author is a graduate of the University of Virginia, and the NYU Stern School of Business; a volunteer at Little Princes Children's Home in 6357: 5233:

Wells, Matthew (2010). "Off the Backs of the Children: Forced Begging and Other Abuses Against Talibes in Senegal". New York: Human Rights Watch.

5860: 6779: 6331: 883: 1819:. This definition is substantially wider than the same document's definition of "trafficking in persons". Children may also be trafficked for 7934: 7246: 6032: 5719: 4684: 4147:

Adonteng-Kissi, Obed (October 2018). "Parental perceptions of child labour and human rights: A comparative study of rural and urban Ghana".

7882: 7261: 7251: 7107: 6987: 2541: 2321: 1579: 1429: 5861:"Bringing the ferrymen into the dock: underage Indonesians as 'people smugglers' in transporting asylum seekers and refugees to Australia" 6821: 3437: 2678: 910: 7256: 6948: 5974: 4084: 2623:, and child pornography. According to the ILO, sexual exploitation of children includes all of the following practices and activities: 2081: 1939: 1656: 408: 6467:"Badge of Dishonor: Top Oakland Police Department Officials Looked Away as East Bay Cops Sexually Exploited and Trafficked a Teenager" 5090: 4391: 7749: 7663: 6997: 4740: 3949: 2602: 2117: 858: 2005:

Multilateral cooperation agreement to combat trafficking in persons, especially women and children, in West and Central Africa, 2006

7939: 7569: 7218: 7050: 5900:"Handbook for the identification of child victims of trafficking". Sweden: National Board of Health and Welfare with UNICEF Sweden. 5281: 2264: 1831: 1629: 1449: 622: 4122: 7875: 7730: 7584: 2022: 1787: 17: 6800:

UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights: Recommended Principles and Guidelines on Human Rights and Human Trafficking

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Another cultural practice is the resolution of familial debts through the kidnapping and exploitation of one of their children.

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who work on the streets of Zimbabwe engaged in begging, though there is no way of knowing whether it was through forced means.

2018: 1932: 1855: 893: 311: 6769: 5523: 3975: 7784: 7298: 7236: 7097: 6731: 6670: 3757: 3352: 1909: 1903: 1851: 1471: 1148: 920: 4277: 7754: 6848: 4629: 2130: 1663: 1624: 1267: 7628: 7606: 5889:"Guide to Identification of Possible Victims of Trafficking". Norway: Coordination Unit for Victims of Trafficking. 2008. 3253:

Supporting the training of professionals working with children, and police and border officials to help stop trafficking.

1705: 1342: 1002: 853: 649: 558: 3901: 3875: 7929: 7919: 7640: 7241: 6628: 4001: 3794: 2164: 2144: 1725: 1419: 1173: 6784: 5911:"Guidelines for identification of victims of trafficking". Denmark: Danish Centre against Trafficking in Human Beings. 3256:

Working with communities and organizations to change societal norms that make children more vulnerable to exploitation

7463: 6649: 6580: 6442: 6407: 5445: 3745: 3567: 3295: 3290: 3250:

Lobbying governments and others to develop laws and strengthen child protection systems to prevent violence and abuse

3084: 1827: 1547: 1424: 848: 617: 484: 4352: 8015: 7735: 7675: 7468: 6804: 5391: 4967: 2493: 2126: 1678: 888: 873: 819: 504: 494: 489: 318: 174: 6809: 3024:, legal assistance and representation, safety and protection, support for physical and psychological recovery and 1811:

as the "recruitment, transportation, harboring, and/or receipt" kidnapping of a child for the purpose of slavery,

1394: 7739: 7534: 7380: 7293: 7020: 6774: 5549:"Poverty, Gender, and Human Trafficking in Sub-Saharan Africa: Rethinking Best Practices in Migration Management" 4790: 3515: 3124:

areas. The reason is increased vulnerability and financial instability which arises after natural disasters hit.

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Burke, Jason; Hammadi, Saad (January 9, 2011). "Bangladesh Arrest Uncovers Evidence of Children Forced to Beg".

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Protection: "All steps towards the redress of their grievance, rehabilitation and helping to establish her/him."

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Solutions to child trafficking, or "anti-trafficking actions", can be roughly classified into four categories:

2693:, a Ugandan war criminal who is responsible for the trafficking of thousands of child soldiers and sex slaves. 2140: 1896: 1143: 1131: 711: 523: 169: 8010: 4817: 4392:"Sex Trafficking Via the Internet: How International Agreements Address the Problem and Fail to Go Far Enough" 3494: 1957:

United Nations Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families

7524: 7432: 7308: 7148: 7045: 6929: 3471:"The Best Interests of the Child Principle at the Intersection of Private International Law and Human Rights" 3377: 3305: 2595: 2343: 2260: 1715: 1498: 359: 5576:

Gozdziak, Elzbieta M. (2008). "On Challenges, Dilemmas, and Opportunities in Studying Trafficked Children".

4059: 8040: 7944: 7914: 7779: 7652: 7076: 5364: 2355: 1926: 1720: 1564: 1434: 1095: 863: 843: 403: 371: 5317:

McCabe, K.A. (2008). "The role of internet providers in cases of child pornography and child protection".

90: 8025: 7579: 7574: 7427: 7030: 6924: 6785:

Training Manual to Fight Child Trafficking in Children for Labour, Sexual and Other Forms of Exploitation

5814:"Trafficking within migrant smuggling operations: Are underage transporters 'victims' or 'perpetrators'?" 3540: 3062:

Regionally, the ILO has provided the following estimates for trafficking of children by region per year:

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The first major international instrument dealing with the trafficking of children is part of the 2000 UN

1780: 1730: 1454: 1372: 499: 280: 100: 4029: 4027: 4025: 4023: 8000: 7821: 7040: 6364: 6289: 6208:"Human Trafficking in Post-Earthquake Nepal, Impacts of the Disaster on Methods for Victim Recruitment" 6140: 5043: 4431:

Hughes, D.M. (Spring 2000). "The Internet and Sex Industries: Partners in Global Sexual Exploitation".

3394: 3347: 2900: 2225: 2185: 1639: 1491: 1476: 1367: 563: 233: 3234:

appropriate settings. Victims should also be provided with individualized and supportive physical and

7658: 7544: 7499: 7199: 5934:"Resolution 2005/20: Guidelines on Justice in Matters involving Child Victims and Witnesses of Crime" 5922:"Guidelines on the Protection of Child Victims of Trafficking, UNICEF Technical Notes". UNICEF. 2006. 4484: 4020: 3205: 2365: 2180: 1978: 1735: 1634: 1165: 1153: 743: 716: 221: 6805:

OHCHR: Recommended Principles and Guidelines on Human Rights and Human Trafficking, Commentary, 2010

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Law enforcement: "In particular within a labour context and relating to labour laws and regulations"

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in South and Central Asia, Europe, Latin America, the Caribbean, the Middle East, and West Africa.

2720: 2682: 2653: 2588: 2412: 2397: 1515: 1384: 937: 726: 211: 112: 6039: 5933: 4458: 4249: 2781:

Gang networks involving forced begging have been found to occur in populations of 500 or greater.

391: 7954: 7852: 7437: 7320: 7213: 7179: 7035: 6799: 4692: 4565: 2316: 1979:

Hague Convention on the Protection of Children and Cooperation in regard to Intercountry Adoption

1700: 1439: 1389: 1317: 1090: 868: 812: 795: 226: 6794: 6789: 5466: 4034: 3618: 3438:"Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children" 7842: 7549: 7484: 7340: 7138: 4219: 3362: 2564: 2256: 2215: 2064: 1773: 1742: 1247: 988: 900: 748: 472: 438: 433: 5975:"An Analytical Review 10 Years on from the Adoption of the UN Trafficking in Persons Protocol" 5813: 5737: 5720:

IMPACT: Improving Monitoring and Protection systems Against Child Trafficking and exploitation

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wrote that "there were indigent parents selling their children because they needed the cash."

1970:

Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children

1860:

Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children

8030: 7539: 7458: 7417: 7407: 6899: 5980:. Inter-Agency Coordination Group Against Trafficking in Persons (ICAT). 2010. Archived from 4406: 2536: 2160: 2112: 1609: 1464: 1377: 1362: 1044: 1032: 778: 763: 548: 323: 245: 216: 6680:

Vinkovic, Mario (2010). "The 'Unbroken Marriage' - Trafficking and Child Labour in Europe".

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Though statistics regarding the magnitude of child trafficking are difficult to obtain, the

8020: 7686: 7601: 7559: 7554: 7189: 7153: 7025: 6968: 5548: 4191: 3832: 3235: 3193:

Prevention: "Of the crime of child trafficking and the exploitation that is its end result"

2360: 2280: 1835: 1747: 1651: 1614: 1542: 1486: 1355: 1312: 1126: 1056: 731: 511: 413: 297: 204: 5247:"Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000". United States. p. 1468. 5097: 4747: 3247:

Helping parents provide a living wage, so the children will not have to support the family

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The main international documents dealing with the trafficking of children are the 1989 UN

8: 8005: 7979: 7504: 7494: 7489: 7373: 7205: 7112: 7066: 6834: 6723: 4588:"Children and Armed Conflict: A Guide to International Humanitarian and Human Rights Law" 3367: 3300: 2847: 2796: 2424: 2407: 2242: 1844: 1235: 1215: 1100: 1085: 954: 925: 915: 805: 753: 721: 518: 376: 344: 339: 292: 149: 6662:

The Elephant and the Dragon: The Rise of India and China and What It Means For All of Us

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McCabe, K.A. (2008). "In the Trafficking of Persons". New York: Petter Lang. p. 81.

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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.

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Child Exploitation and Trafficking: Examining the Global Challenges and U.S. Responses

6547: 4859:"HSE raised concerns that thousands of Tuam babies may have been trafficked to the US" 1878:" lower than 18, thus influencing what exactly legally constitutes child trafficking. 418: 364: 7964: 7959: 7837: 7646: 7564: 7422: 7346: 7194: 6958: 6909: 6775:

International Framework for Action - To Implement the Trafficking in Persons Protocol

6743: 6727: 6666: 6645: 6639: 6624: 6611: 6576: 6551: 6452: 6438: 6403: 5845: 5833: 5718:

KMOP; et al. (Defence for Children International, Italy; CESIS; Cardet) (2014).

5686: 5609: 5515: 5511: 5441: 4594: 4543: 4278:"Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography" 4172: 4164: 2984: 2515: 2478: 2419: 2370: 2338: 2156: 2152: 1993: 1975:

The Recommended Principles and Guidelines on Human Rights and Human Trafficking, 2002

1871: 1804: 1569: 1287: 1282: 1225: 1210: 1190: 1012: 1007: 942: 905: 738: 704: 533: 386: 275: 154: 6826: 6563: 5338: 5266: 4184: 3190:

Broad protection: "To prevent children and former victims from being (re)trafficked"

7969: 7799: 7519: 7335: 6980: 6689: 6599: 6543: 6430: 5825: 5738:"Young People's Voices on Child Trafficking: Experiences from South Eastern Europe" 5666: 5589: 5507: 5326: 4440: 4156: 3979: 3953: 3927: 3905: 3879: 3854: 3840: 3387: 3342: 2903:

to recovered children to provide them with the capabilities they have been denied.

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such exploitation and to assist in preventing such illegal intercountry adoptions.

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Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography

2559: 2446: 2275: 2232: 2175: 2008:

Mekong sub regional cooperation agreement to fight human trafficking (COMMIT), 2004

1759: 1337: 1332: 1322: 1297: 1262: 1230: 1200: 1073: 1061: 1039: 1017: 964: 800: 768: 70: 3766: 2935:

In instances where begging is religiously sanctioned it has been suggested by the

47:. The reason given is: The figures and statistict in this article are out of date. 7924: 7867: 7774: 7529: 7164:

United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Sale and Sexual Exploitation of Children

6816: 6716: 5585: 4281: 4160: 2510: 2451: 2200: 2089: 1875: 1668: 1559: 1554: 1307: 1277: 1272: 995: 959: 758: 676: 381: 127: 6424: 4818:"Research Universities Sponsoring International Adoptions: What could go wrong?" 4791:"'Everything... she unraveled to be a lie': Mum tricked into giving up daughter" 4331:"Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children and Adolescents: The ILO's Response" 3209:

located clinics, clean water, sustainable environments, and financial literacy.

7909: 7815: 7759: 7366: 7184: 6975: 6943: 6904: 6739: 6179: 4002:"Convention on the Rights of all Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families" 3470: 3337: 3322: 3270: 3010: 2749: 2483: 2473: 2429: 2333: 2170: 1808: 1752: 1646: 538: 179: 137: 6693: 5657:

Dottridge, Mike (2002). "Trafficking in Children in West and Central Africa".

2636:"The production, promotion and distribution of pornography involving children" 8035: 7994: 7769: 7764: 7596: 6919: 6033:

The Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children In the U.S., Canada and Mexico

5837: 5829: 5330: 4168: 4035:"Recommended Principles and Guidelines on Human Rights and Human Trafficking" 3383:

List of international instruments relevant to the worst forms of child labour

3332: 2972: 2498: 2309: 2210: 2205: 2190: 2002:

Communication to the European Parliament and the Council, COM(2005) 514 Final

1812: 1690: 1619: 1066: 1049: 824: 654: 644: 428: 78: 6822:

Joint UN Commentary on the EU Directive: A Human Rights-Based Approach, 2011

4005: 3798: 3475:

Fundamental Rights and Best Interests of the Child in Transnational Families

1830:(ILO) estimates that 10,000 children are trafficked each year. In 2012, the 7804: 7358: 6883: 6870: 6555: 5773:"Children Speak Out, Trafficking risk and resilience in Southeast Europe". 5670: 5519: 5165:

Sullivan, Kevin (September 7, 1998). "A Generation's Future Goes Begging".

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UNICEF: Guidelines on the Protection of Child Victims of Trafficking, 2006

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Little Princes: One Man's Promise to Bring Home the Lost Children of Nepal

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Critical Insights on Irregular Migration Facilitation: Global Perspectives

5306:"Study on the Practice of Trafficking in Persons in Senegal". USAID. 2004. 947: 7950:

List of international and European laws on child protection and migration

7847: 7514: 7393: 7102: 6770:

ChildTrafficking.com: Extensive searchable library of scholarly resources

6738:— Describes several cases of sale or attempted sale in what is largely a 6332:"An Introduction to Human Trafficking: Vulnerability, Impact, and Action" 5461: 5459: 5457: 4356: 3029: 2690: 2375: 2220: 2195: 2148: 2136: 1895:

These legal instruments were developed by the UN in an effort to protect

1537: 1525: 878: 681: 671: 629: 443: 5601: 5418: 4060:"State of the World's Children 2011: Adolescence, an Age of Opportunity" 4040:. United Nations, Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. 2002 3820: 2040:

The intended or actual after-sale use of the child is not always known.

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In contemporary Nepal, parents of poor families sell their children to

2842: 2762: 2576: 2488: 2122: 1839: 1685: 982: 686: 553: 6400:

From Human Trafficking to Human Rights: Reframing Contemporary Slavery

6394: 6244:"How educating children on their rights can prevent human trafficking" 6121: 5454: 4444: 3310: 2983:

Child trafficking is often conceptualized using the economic model of

7789: 7712: 7509: 6992: 5758:"Child Trafficking in Europe, A Broad Vision to Put Children First". 3845: 2686: 2630:"The trafficking of girls and boys and adolescents for the sex trade" 2520: 2385: 2328: 2097: 930: 595: 457: 6491:(4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 313–327. 5491:

Wheaton, Elizabeth M.; Schauer, Edward J.; Galli, Thomas V. (2010).

4540:"Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict" 3740: 3738: 3736: 3734: 3732: 3730: 3728: 3726: 3724: 3722: 3720: 3718: 3716: 3714: 3712: 3710: 3708: 3706: 3704: 3702: 3700: 3698: 3696: 3694: 3692: 3690: 3688: 3686: 3684: 3682: 3680: 3678: 3612: 3610: 3608: 3568:"70 Percent of Child Sex Trafficking Victims Are Sold Online: Study" 3403: 3221:, as well as the development of safe and legal migration practices. 2571: 612: 7389: 7284:

Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse

6914: 5705:

Good Practices: Gender Mainstreaming in Actions Against Child Labor

4628:. Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers. 2008. Archived from 3676: 3674: 3672: 3670: 3668: 3666: 3664: 3662: 3660: 3658: 3648: 3606: 3604: 3602: 3600: 3598: 3596: 3594: 3592: 3590: 3588: 2304: 1820: 1520: 1078: 1022: 974: 634: 479: 334: 240: 4593:. International Bureau for Children's Rights. 2010. Archived from 2660:

Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict

6765:

International Center for Transitional Justice, Children and Youth

4833:"'Possible interference' with birth certs at Tuam and Cork homes" 2975:, sexual exploitation, and child begging, among other practices. 2895: 2456: 2054:

The objective of child trafficking is often forced child labour.

1503: 585: 265: 82: 6641:

Wives for Sale: An Ethnographic Study of British Popular Divorce

3655: 3585: 3225:

movement, and/or exploitation; anti-trafficking laws as well as

3749: 3281:

Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights

3275: 2055: 1205: 1027: 607: 590: 452: 287: 255: 4985: 4983: 4981: 4960:"Brussels Declaration on Preventing and Combating Trafficking" 6747: 6097: 2741: 462: 448: 423: 7129:

Association for the Treatment and Prevention of Sexual Abuse

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Association for the Treatment and Prevention of Sexual Abuse

5939:. United Nations Economic and Social Council. July 22, 2005. 6790:

US Department of State: Trafficking in Persons Report, 2011

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Operational Indicators of Trafficking in Human Beings, 2009

6426:

Fighting the US Youth Sex Trade: Gender, Race, and Politics

6057: 6031:

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5955: 5793: 5012:"Action to Prevent Child Trafficking Report". UNICEF. 2006. 4978: 4766:"Separating Children of Immigrants and Unethical Adoptions" 4353:"The State of the World's Children: Excluded and Invisible" 3286:

United Nations Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking

2769:

is a common practice, seventy percent of victims are male.

2030:

United Nations Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking

329: 159: 7267:

Child sexual abuse in New York City religious institutions

6010:"Every Child Counts: New Global Estimates on Child Labour" 5762:. Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre: 12–16. 2008. 5747:(IWP-2008-05). Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre. 2880:

Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000

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Jehovah's Witnesses' handling of child sexual abuse cases

4991:"Social Development Notes: Conflict, Crime, and Violence" 4940:

Cherneva, Iveta (2011). "Human Trafficking For Begging".

4715:"Brazil Children in Drug Trafficking: A Rapid Assessment" 4371: 2773:

begging. Additionally, a recent study done in Senegal by

2673:

For political advantage (such as for propaganda purposes)

1890: 4935: 4933: 4931: 4929: 4927: 4655:"Warrant of Arrest unsealed against five LRA Commanders" 3533: 1997:

Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings

6109: 6085: 5631:

Social Development Notes: Conflict, Crime, and Violence

4925: 4923: 4921: 4919: 4917: 4915: 4913: 4911: 4909: 4907: 6935:

Legal status of fictional pornography depicting minors

3789: 3787: 2639:"The use of children in sex shows (public or private)" 6856: 6500: 6498: 6398:. In Brysk, Alison; Choi-Fitzpatrick, Austin (eds.). 5943: 5345: 3432: 3430: 3428: 3426: 3424: 3392: 2719:

It is often difficult to recruit pediatric cases for

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National Center for Missing & Exploited Children

6038:(Report). University of Pennsylvania. Archived from 5436:

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4685:"Afghan Children Ensnared in Heroin Trade with Iran" 4512:"Craigslist Blocks Access to 'Adult Services' Pages" 1460:

Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery

7810:

Child abductions in the Russian invasion of Ukraine

6722:(1st ed.). New York: William Morrow. pp. 5490: 5178: 5176: 5146: 5058: 5016: 3928:"Worst Forms of Child Labor Recommendation No. 190" 3784: 3069:

Latin America & the Caribbean: 550,000 children

1963: 1952:

Migration for Employment Convention (Revised), 1949

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August 12, 1797. p. 2. 5566: 5282:"Children trafficked to sell flowers and beg" 5228: 5226: 5224: 5085: 5083: 5081: 5079: 5077: 5075: 5073: 2596: 2035: 1781: 7388: 7108:Survivors Network of those Abused by Priests 6988:Debate on the causes of clerical child abuse 6004: 6002: 5707:. Geneva: International Labour Organization. 5242: 5240: 5125: 4617: 4615: 4304:"Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children" 3642: 3640: 3088:commercial sexual exploitation at any time. 2542:Sex offender registries in the United States 1881: 1580:Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom 6618: 6486: 6358:"World Report on Violence against Children" 6325: 6323: 6321: 6319: 6317: 6315: 6313: 6311: 6309: 6030: 5000: 4377: 4117: 4115: 4113: 4111: 4109: 3649:"Child Trafficking: Problems and Solutions" 3078:Developed/industrialized economies: unknown 2679:Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers 2647: 1899:and, more specifically, children's rights. 7890: 7876: 7381: 7367: 6949:Commercial sexual exploitation of children 6849: 6835: 6700: 6623:. Plymouth, UK: Rowman & Littlefield. 6337:. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 6205: 5961: 5799: 5259:"The Mirror Art Group / Mirror Foundation" 5221: 5070: 2942: 2696: 2667:Direct roles in hostilities (combat roles) 2603: 2589: 2082:Commercial sexual exploitation of children 1940:Worst Forms of Child Labour Recommendation 1788: 1774: 7750:Canadian Indian residential school system 6998:Child Sexual Abuse Accommodation Syndrome 6575:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6429:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6166:Addressing the Root Causes of Trafficking 5999: 5735: 5698: 5696: 5656: 5237: 4612: 4510:Miller, Claire Cain (September 4, 2010). 3844: 3637: 3468: 3260: 2858: 7940:International Organization for Migration 7219:List of pedophile advocacy organizations 6679: 6658: 6355: 6306: 5575: 5404: 5381: 5200:"Gang Profits from Maimed Child Beggars" 5164: 4939: 4763: 4647: 4205: 4106: 3902:"Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention" 3150: 2735: 1832:United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 1585:Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf 1450:Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery 1430:Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90 7731:List of international adoption scandals 6713: 6665:(1st ed.). New York: W.W. Norton. 6637: 6570: 6329: 6201: 6199: 6127: 6115: 6103: 6091: 6075: 6063: 5859:Palmer, Wayne; Missbach, Antje (2019). 5812:Palmer, Wayne; Missbach, Antje (2017). 5652: 5650: 5648: 5351: 4948:. 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Archived from 3373:Human trafficking in Georgia (country) 3136: 3118: 3075:Transition economies: 200,000 children 2889: 2075: 2019:Human trafficking in the United States 1933:Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention 1891:International human rights instruments 1856:Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention 7871: 7785:Forced adoption in the United Kingdom 7362: 7237:Anglican Communion sexual abuse cases 7098:Circles of Support and Accountability 6830: 6422: 6391: 6290:"Labour migration (Labour migration)" 6206:Brülisauer, Manuela (December 2015). 5624:"Human Trafficking: A Brief Overview" 5431: 5425: 5371:. Season 2013. Episode 16. Channel 4. 5232: 5182: 5152: 5140: 5064: 5041: 5022: 4899: 4856: 4815: 4389: 3565: 3353:Children in emergencies and conflicts 3181: 2894:In Senegal, where the abuses against 1910:Convention on the Rights of the Child 1904:Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1852:Convention on the Rights of the Child 1472:Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention 1149:Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea 7294:Sexual abuse cases in Haredi Judaism 6619:Kendall, Virginia; Funk, T. (2012). 6402:. University of Pennsylvania Press. 6241: 6196: 5949: 5787: 5717: 5645: 5279: 4529: 3127: 3091: 2990: 2814: 1664:Slave marriages in the United States 1268:Human trafficking in the Middle East 29: 7664:Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act 7629:Adoption Information Disclosure Act 7607:History of children in the military 6682:Journal of Money Laundering Control 6604:10.17730/humo.66.2.y767h78360721702 6489:Group Work with Populations At-Risk 6477: 6416: 6382: 5818:Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 4691:. February 16, 2012. Archived from 4485:"Illinois: Sheriff Sues Craigslist" 4318: 4140: 2823: 2789: 2714: 1003:Human trafficking in Southeast Asia 24: 7930:Defence for Children International 7920:Child Rights International Network 7831:Historical criticism of orphanages 7722:Controversial violations of rights 7242:Catholic Church sexual abuse cases 6707: 4764:Emberger, E. Kay (July 18, 2018). 4661:. October 14, 2005. Archived from 3469:Distefano, Marcella (2019-09-30), 2917: 1947:ILO Forced Labour Convention, 1930 1838:reported that internet sites like 1657:last survivors of American slavery 25: 8052: 7755:Tennessee Children's Home Society 6758: 5777:. Save the Children: 20–29. 2007. 5736:Dottridge, Mike (December 2008). 5382:Williams, Evan (March 25, 2014). 4831:Siggins, Lorna (March 13, 2017). 4566:"Child Labour and Armed Conflict" 3296:United States Department of State 3291:International Labour Organization 3003: 2835: 2677:Recent research conducted by the 1828:International Labour Organization 618:Field slaves in the United States 485:Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate 7736:American Indian boarding schools 7676:Islamic adoptional jurisprudence 7334: 6644:. New York: St. Martin's Press. 6459: 6349: 6282: 6260: 6235: 6172: 6163: 6157: 6133: 6069: 6024: 5633:(122). World Bank. December 2009 5512:10.1111/j.1468-2435.2009.00592.x 5493:"Economics of Human Trafficking" 5472:. U.S. Department of State. 2011 3495:"Child Trafficking – Essentials" 3402: 3328:Bon Secours Mother and Baby Home 2926: 2731: 2570: 2558: 2096: 2043: 1964:Trafficking-specific instruments 495:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate 490:Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate 319:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate 89: 34: 7740:American Indian outing programs 7535:Cultural variations in adoption 6638:Menefee, Samuel Pyeatt (1981). 6356:Pinheiro, Paulo Sergio (2006). 6215:ETH Development and Cooperation 6141:"What Fuels Human Trafficking?" 5967: 5926: 5915: 5904: 5893: 5882: 5871: 5852: 5805: 5766: 5751: 5729: 5711: 5616: 5541: 5484: 5467:"Trafficking in Persons Report" 5398: 5375: 5357: 5310: 5299: 5273: 5251: 5191: 5158: 5042:Pumin, Yin (February 9, 2011). 4952: 4942:Buffalo Human Rights Law Review 4850: 4824: 4816:Busse, Thomas (23 March 2023). 4809: 4783: 4757: 4732: 4707: 4677: 4623:"Child Soldiers: Global Report" 4580: 4503: 4477: 4451: 4433:Technology and Society Magazine 4424: 4383: 4345: 4296: 4248:Ruggie, John (March 21, 2011). 4241: 4230: 4211: 4077: 4052: 3994: 3968: 3942: 3920: 3894: 3813: 3646: 3566:Couch, Robbie (July 25, 2014). 3477:, Intersentia, pp. 157–170 3009:contexts of exploitation, from 2755: 2689:movement, that aimed to arrest 2012: 1445:Committee of Experts on Slavery 996:East, Southeast, and South Asia 7899:Transnational child protection 7635:Adoption and Safe Families Act 7623:Access to Adoption Records Act 6526: 6487:Greif, G.; Knight, C. (2017). 6130:, pp. 164–165 nn. 19, 21. 5319:Social Science Computer Review 5096:. UNICEF. 2011. Archived from 4857:Grace, Robert (June 4, 2015). 4399:Journal of High Technology Law 4355:. UNICEF. 2006. Archived from 4202:Gozdziak & MacDonnell 2007 3559: 3541:"Human Trafficking Statistics" 3516:"Child Trafficking Statistics" 3508: 3487: 3462: 3219:international labour standards 3163: 3066:Asia/Pacific: 250,000 children 2951:, according to Keith Bradley, 2784: 1144:Slave raiding in Easter Island 13: 1: 7525:Political abuse of psychiatry 7149:Prevention Project Dunkelfeld 6548:10.1016/s0140-6736(04)17624-1 6242:Ruff, Jessinia (2017-08-08). 5187:. Portland: The Policy Press. 3617:ILO; UNICEF; UN.GIFT (2009). 3415: 3378:International child abduction 3306:International Justice Mission 3039: 2965: 1917:Labour and migration treaties 1865: 7945:International Social Service 7915:Child Helpline International 7780:Forced adoption in Australia 7724:in adoption or child custody 7653:Foster Care Independence Act 7077:Cognitive behavioral therapy 6180:"Street Children – Humanium" 5365:"Nepal: The Orphan Business" 4741:"Children of the Drug Trade" 4659:International Criminal Court 4161:10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.07.017 4123:"Fast Facts on Child Labour" 3976:"Migrant Workers Convention" 3048: 2867: 2356:Criminal transmission of HIV 1999:(Treaty series No.197), 2005 1927:Minimum Age Convention, 1973 1435:Temporary Slavery Commission 1096:Slavery in the Mongol Empire 7: 7304:Brooklyn's Haredi community 7289:Scouting sexual abuse cases 7086:Research and support groups 6573:Slavery and Society at Rome 3978:. ILO. 1949. Archived from 3952:. ILO. 1930. Archived from 3904:. ILO. 1999. Archived from 3878:. ILO. 1973. Archived from 3316: 3057: 2979:Supply and demand framework 2705: 1455:Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery 500:Volga Bulgarian slave trade 10: 8057: 7822:Jewish orphans controversy 7659:Hague Adoption Convention 7341:Human sexuality portal 6893:Behavior and legal aspects 6750:, in 2004; and founder of 5280:Kred, Pak (June 4, 2012). 5044:"Saving Child Panhandlers" 3348:Child trafficking in India 3172: 3145: 3109: 2845:, popularized by the film 2651: 2565:Human sexuality portal 2186:Deviant sexual intercourse 2079: 2047: 2036:Types of child trafficking 2016: 1897:international human rights 1640:Great Dismal Swamp maroons 1477:Anti-Slavery International 1242:North Africa and West Asia 7905: 7830: 7721: 7703: 7696: 7641:Christian law of adoption 7615: 7545:Genealogical bewilderment 7500:Adoption reunion registry 7477: 7446: 7400: 7329: 7279:Mormon sexual abuse cases 7229: 7214:Pedophile advocacy groups 7200:Sweetie (internet avatar) 7172: 7121: 7085: 7059: 7006: 6892: 6868: 6694:10.1108/13685201011034032 6412:– via Project Muse. 5578:Anthropological Quarterly 4149:Child Abuse & Neglect 3950:"Forced Labor Convention" 3206:conditional cash transfer 3100: 2529:Sex offender registration 2366:Female genital mutilation 1882:Related legal instruments 1736:Emancipation Proclamation 1408:Opposition and resistance 1166:Sex trafficking in Europe 1154:Blackbirding in Polynesia 717:Trans-Saharan slave trade 43:This article needs to be 27:Form of human trafficking 7745:Indian Placement Program 7708:Adoption in ancient Rome 7681:Putative father registry 7670:Indian Child Welfare Act 7122:Prevention organizations 6659:Meredith, Robyn (2007). 6080:Jackson's Oxford Journal 5830:10.1177/0117196817726627 5331:10.1177/0894439307301438 3876:"Minimum Age Convention" 3520:Ark of Hope for Children 3072:Africa: 200,000 children 2740:Forced child beggars in 2654:Military use of children 2648:Children in armed forces 1516:Compensated emancipation 727:Indian Ocean slave trade 8016:Crimes against children 7975:Trafficking of children 7955:Missing Children Europe 7309:Jewish Care controversy 7180:Anti-pedophile activism 6714:Grennan, Conor (2010). 6571:Bradley, Keith (1994). 6267:United Nations (2016). 5745:Innocenti Working Paper 5500:International Migration 4390:Kunze, Erin I. (2010). 4378:Kendall & Funk 2012 4218:UNICEF (October 2019). 3545:ERASE Child Trafficking 2943:Sales motivated by cash 2724:research universities. 2697:Children in drug trades 1801:Trafficking of children 1440:1926 Slavery Convention 1196:Germany in World War II 813:North and South America 335:Contract of manumission 18:Trafficking of Children 7843:Mount Cashel Orphanage 7550:International adoption 7485:Adopted child syndrome 7447:Foster care by country 7139:Jewish Community Watch 6392:Brysk, Alison (2012). 5671:10.1080/13552070215890 5659:Gender and Development 5384:"Nepal's Orphan Trade" 5198:Sidner, Sarah (2011). 4965:. 2002. Archived from 4739:Dowdney, Luke (2003). 3363:Exploitation of labour 3261:Relevant organizations 3085:US Department of State 2859:Long-term implications 2744: 2294:varies by jurisdiction 1807:and is defined by the 921:British Virgin Islands 473:Circassian slave trade 439:Safavid imperial harem 434:Ottoman Imperial Harem 7321:Child abuse in soccer 6900:Age of consent reform 6752:Next Generation Nepal 6435:10.1017/9781108225045 6269:"Youth and Migration" 5725:(Report). p. 16. 5432:Bales, Kevin (1999). 5169:. Jakarta, Indonesia. 3311:Child Recovery Agency 3151:Children and families 2739: 2685:was the focus of the 2537:Sex offender registry 1160:Europe and North Asia 1120:Australia and Oceania 820:Pre-Columbian America 392:Slave raid of Suðuroy 324:Slavery in al-Andalus 246:Black Sea slave trade 175:21st-century jihadism 7853:St. John's Orphanage 7687:Uniform Adoption Act 7602:Sealed birth records 7560:Language of adoption 7555:Interracial adoption 7154:The Awareness Center 6969:Cybersex trafficking 6276:United Nations Youth 6106:, p. 165 n. 20. 5703:Murray, Una (2003). 5286:The New Humanitarian 5263:HumanTrafficking.org 5183:Craig, Gary (2010). 4753:on February 5, 2013. 4359:on February 25, 2012 4257:Human Rights Council 4008:on November 19, 2011 3772:on September 3, 2013 3028:, regularisation of 3026:social reintegration 2873:International action 2506:UK Section 63 (2008) 2361:Cybersex trafficking 1985:Regional instruments 1615:Indentured servitude 1543:Underground Railroad 1343:United Arab Emirates 732:Zanzibar slave trade 699:By country or region 512:Atlantic slave trade 414:Ma malakat aymanukum 298:Venetian slave trade 8041:Forced prostitution 7980:Unaccompanied minor 7505:Adoption tax credit 7495:Adoption home study 7490:Adoption disclosure 7401:Adoption by country 7299:Adass Israel School 7206:To Catch a Predator 7113:Virtuous Pedophiles 7067:Chemical castration 6506:"Child Trafficking" 6066:, pp. 163–165. 5204:CNN Freedom Project 5167:The Washington Post 4996:. World Bank. 2009. 4797:. November 28, 2017 3956:on December 5, 2011 3837:1952Natur.169T.310. 3368:Forced prostitution 3301:ECPAT International 3137:Voluntary migration 3119:Humanitarian crisis 2890:Government response 2848:Slumdog Millionaire 2633:"Child sex tourism" 2243:Reproductive rights 2118:Reproductive rights 2076:Sexual exploitation 1845:humanitarian crisis 1701:Slave Route Project 832:Americas indigenous 722:Red Sea slave trade 712:Contemporary Africa 575:Topics and practice 345:Crimean slave trade 340:Bukhara slave trade 293:Genoese slave trade 170:Contemporary Africa 150:Forced prostitution 8026:Child prostitution 6954:Child prostitution 6862:child sexual abuse 6815:2022-12-08 at the 6592:Human Organization 6423:Baker, C. (2018). 6370:on August 26, 2011 6045:on October 2, 2008 5594:10.1353/anq.0.0033 4516:The New York Times 4489:The New York Times 3182:Proposed solutions 3030:immigration status 2775:Human Rights Watch 2745: 2621:child prostitution 2351:Child prostitution 2317:Anti-miscegenation 2248:Right to sexuality 2238:Red-light district 2181:Pedophile advocacy 2141:Conversion therapy 2131:Capital punishment 1858:, and the 2000 UN 1482:Blockade of Africa 789:Somali slave trade 705:Sub-Saharan Africa 397:Turkish Abductions 355:Khivan slave trade 350:Khazar slave trade 303:Balkan slave trade 261:Prague slave trade 8011:Children's rights 8001:Human trafficking 7988: 7987: 7965:Save the Children 7960:Right to be heard 7865: 7864: 7861: 7860: 7838:Duplessis Orphans 7647:Dima Yakovlev Law 7565:Same-sex adoption 7356: 7355: 7347:Psychology portal 7195:Perverted-Justice 7060:Treatment methods 6964:Child trafficking 6959:Child sex tourism 6910:Child pornography 6733:978-0-06-193005-8 6672:978-0-393-06236-6 5964:, pp. 34–44. 5952:, pp. 15–19. 5802:, pp. 34–41. 5760:Innocenti Insight 5529:on April 27, 2012 5269:on July 13, 2006. 5185:Child Slavery Now 4974:on June 17, 2012. 4863:Galway Advertiser 4695:on April 29, 2012 4600:on August 6, 2011 4445:10.1109/44.828562 4412:on April 11, 2012 4284:on March 10, 2012 3982:on March 20, 2012 3908:on August 2, 2012 3882:on August 3, 2012 3450:on April 24, 2014 3128:Lack of education 3092:History (England) 2991:Social mechanisms 2985:supply and demand 2878:States, with the 2815:Political factors 2613: 2612: 2479:Sexual harassment 2371:Forcible touching 2339:Child pornography 2289:Specific offences 2261:Decriminalization 2153:Same-sex marriage 2145:Decriminalization 1994:Council of Europe 1872:Palermo protocols 1805:human trafficking 1798: 1797: 1748:Freedmen's Bureau 1570:Third Servile War 1565:International law 1132:Human trafficking 894:Human trafficking 569:Thirteen colonies 387:Sack of Baltimore 155:Human trafficking 64: 63: 16:(Redirected from 8048: 7970:Terre des hommes 7892: 7885: 7878: 7869: 7868: 7800:Tianjin Massacre 7701: 7700: 7520:Child laundering 7383: 7376: 7369: 7360: 7359: 7339: 7338: 7262:Society of Jesus 6981:Marriageable age 6851: 6844: 6837: 6828: 6827: 6737: 6721: 6702: 6697: 6676: 6655: 6634: 6615: 6586: 6567: 6521: 6520: 6518: 6516: 6502: 6493: 6492: 6484: 6475: 6474: 6473:. June 15, 2016. 6471:East Bay Express 6463: 6457: 6456: 6420: 6414: 6413: 6397: 6389: 6380: 6379: 6377: 6375: 6369: 6363:. Archived from 6362: 6353: 6347: 6346: 6344: 6342: 6336: 6330:UN.GIFT (2008). 6327: 6304: 6303: 6301: 6300: 6286: 6280: 6279: 6273: 6264: 6258: 6257: 6255: 6254: 6239: 6233: 6232: 6230: 6229: 6223: 6217:. Archived from 6212: 6203: 6194: 6193: 6191: 6190: 6184:www.humanium.org 6176: 6170: 6169: 6161: 6155: 6154: 6152: 6151: 6137: 6131: 6125: 6119: 6113: 6107: 6101: 6095: 6089: 6083: 6073: 6067: 6061: 6055: 6054: 6052: 6050: 6044: 6037: 6028: 6022: 6021: 6019: 6017: 6006: 5997: 5996: 5994: 5992: 5987:on March 4, 2016 5986: 5979: 5971: 5965: 5959: 5953: 5947: 5941: 5940: 5938: 5930: 5924: 5923: 5919: 5913: 5912: 5908: 5902: 5901: 5897: 5891: 5890: 5886: 5880: 5879: 5875: 5869: 5868: 5856: 5850: 5849: 5809: 5803: 5797: 5791: 5785: 5779: 5778: 5770: 5764: 5763: 5755: 5749: 5748: 5742: 5733: 5727: 5726: 5724: 5715: 5709: 5708: 5700: 5691: 5690: 5654: 5643: 5642: 5640: 5638: 5628: 5620: 5614: 5613: 5573: 5564: 5563: 5561: 5559: 5553: 5545: 5539: 5538: 5536: 5534: 5528: 5522:. Archived from 5497: 5488: 5482: 5481: 5479: 5477: 5471: 5463: 5452: 5451: 5439: 5429: 5423: 5422: 5402: 5396: 5395: 5394:on June 1, 2014. 5390:. 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Archived from 5195: 5189: 5188: 5180: 5171: 5170: 5162: 5156: 5150: 5144: 5138: 5132: 5131: 5123: 5112: 5111: 5109: 5108: 5102: 5095: 5087: 5068: 5062: 5056: 5055: 5039: 5026: 5020: 5014: 5013: 5009: 4998: 4997: 4995: 4987: 4976: 4975: 4973: 4970: 4964: 4956: 4950: 4949: 4937: 4902: 4901: 4897: 4874: 4873: 4871: 4869: 4854: 4848: 4847: 4845: 4843: 4828: 4822: 4821: 4813: 4807: 4806: 4804: 4802: 4787: 4781: 4780: 4778: 4776: 4770:Psychology Today 4761: 4755: 4754: 4752: 4745: 4736: 4730: 4729: 4727: 4725: 4719: 4711: 4705: 4704: 4702: 4700: 4681: 4675: 4674: 4672: 4670: 4665:on June 16, 2011 4651: 4645: 4644: 4642: 4640: 4635:on March 7, 2013 4634: 4627: 4619: 4610: 4609: 4607: 4605: 4599: 4592: 4584: 4578: 4577: 4575: 4573: 4562: 4556: 4555: 4553: 4551: 4546:on March 4, 2012 4536: 4527: 4526: 4524: 4522: 4507: 4501: 4500: 4498: 4496: 4481: 4475: 4474: 4472: 4470: 4455: 4449: 4448: 4428: 4422: 4421: 4419: 4417: 4411: 4405:. Archived from 4396: 4387: 4381: 4375: 4369: 4368: 4366: 4364: 4349: 4343: 4342: 4340: 4338: 4327: 4316: 4315: 4313: 4311: 4300: 4294: 4293: 4291: 4289: 4274: 4265: 4264: 4254: 4245: 4239: 4238: 4234: 4228: 4227: 4215: 4209: 4195: 4189: 4188: 4144: 4138: 4137: 4135: 4133: 4127: 4119: 4104: 4103: 4101: 4100: 4091:. Archived from 4081: 4075: 4074: 4072: 4070: 4064: 4056: 4050: 4049: 4047: 4045: 4039: 4031: 4018: 4017: 4015: 4013: 3998: 3992: 3991: 3989: 3987: 3972: 3966: 3965: 3963: 3961: 3946: 3940: 3939: 3937: 3935: 3924: 3918: 3917: 3915: 3913: 3898: 3892: 3891: 3889: 3887: 3872: 3866: 3865: 3863: 3861: 3848: 3846:10.1038/169310d0 3817: 3811: 3810: 3808: 3806: 3801:on June 11, 2010 3791: 3782: 3781: 3779: 3777: 3771: 3765:. Archived from 3764: 3742: 3653: 3652: 3644: 3635: 3634: 3632: 3630: 3625: 3614: 3583: 3582: 3580: 3578: 3563: 3557: 3556: 3554: 3552: 3537: 3531: 3530: 3528: 3526: 3512: 3506: 3505: 3499: 3491: 3485: 3484: 3483: 3482: 3466: 3460: 3459: 3457: 3455: 3449: 3442: 3434: 3407: 3406: 3398: 3388:Refugee children 3343:Child laundering 2824:Cultural factors 2790:Economic factors 2715:Medical research 2605: 2598: 2591: 2575: 2574: 2563: 2562: 2420:Public indecency 2297: 2276:Bodily integrity 2233:Prostitution law 2176:Marriageable age 2100: 2086: 2085: 1790: 1783: 1776: 1760:Emancipation Day 1593: 1560:Slave Trade Acts 251:Byzantine Empire 93: 66: 65: 59: 56: 50: 38: 37: 30: 21: 8056: 8055: 8051: 8050: 8049: 8047: 8046: 8045: 7991: 7990: 7989: 7984: 7925:Child migration 7901: 7896: 7866: 7857: 7826: 7775:Michael A. Hess 7723: 7717: 7692: 7611: 7530:Closed adoption 7473: 7442: 7396: 7387: 7357: 7352: 7333: 7325: 7314:Manny Waks case 7225: 7168: 7117: 7081: 7055: 7002: 6888: 6864: 6855: 6817:Wayback Machine 6761: 6734: 6710: 6708:Further reading 6705: 6673: 6652: 6631: 6583: 6529: 6524: 6514: 6512: 6504: 6503: 6496: 6485: 6478: 6465: 6464: 6460: 6445: 6421: 6417: 6410: 6390: 6383: 6373: 6371: 6367: 6360: 6354: 6350: 6340: 6338: 6334: 6328: 6307: 6298: 6296: 6288: 6287: 6283: 6271: 6265: 6261: 6252: 6250: 6248:One Day's Wages 6240: 6236: 6227: 6225: 6221: 6210: 6204: 6197: 6188: 6186: 6178: 6177: 6173: 6162: 6158: 6149: 6147: 6139: 6138: 6134: 6126: 6122: 6114: 6110: 6102: 6098: 6090: 6086: 6074: 6070: 6062: 6058: 6048: 6046: 6042: 6035: 6029: 6025: 6015: 6013: 6008: 6007: 6000: 5990: 5988: 5984: 5977: 5973: 5972: 5968: 5962:UNICEF-IRC 2012 5960: 5956: 5948: 5944: 5936: 5932: 5931: 5927: 5921: 5920: 5916: 5910: 5909: 5905: 5899: 5898: 5894: 5888: 5887: 5883: 5877: 5876: 5872: 5857: 5853: 5810: 5806: 5800:UNICEF-IRC 2012 5798: 5794: 5786: 5782: 5775:Regional Report 5772: 5771: 5767: 5757: 5756: 5752: 5740: 5734: 5730: 5722: 5716: 5712: 5701: 5694: 5655: 5646: 5636: 5634: 5626: 5622: 5621: 5617: 5586:Fondren Library 5574: 5567: 5557: 5555: 5551: 5547: 5546: 5542: 5532: 5530: 5526: 5495: 5489: 5485: 5475: 5473: 5469: 5465: 5464: 5455: 5448: 5430: 5426: 5403: 5399: 5380: 5376: 5363: 5362: 5358: 5350: 5346: 5315: 5311: 5305: 5304: 5300: 5290: 5288: 5278: 5274: 5257: 5256: 5252: 5246: 5245: 5238: 5231: 5222: 5213: 5211: 5196: 5192: 5181: 5174: 5163: 5159: 5151: 5147: 5139: 5135: 5124: 5115: 5106: 5104: 5100: 5093: 5089: 5088: 5071: 5063: 5059: 5040: 5029: 5021: 5017: 5011: 5010: 5001: 4993: 4989: 4988: 4979: 4971: 4962: 4958: 4957: 4953: 4938: 4905: 4898: 4877: 4867: 4865: 4855: 4851: 4841: 4839: 4837:The Irish Times 4829: 4825: 4814: 4810: 4800: 4798: 4789: 4788: 4784: 4774: 4772: 4762: 4758: 4750: 4743: 4737: 4733: 4723: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4712: 4708: 4698: 4696: 4683: 4682: 4678: 4668: 4666: 4653: 4652: 4648: 4638: 4636: 4632: 4625: 4621: 4620: 4613: 4603: 4601: 4597: 4590: 4586: 4585: 4581: 4571: 4569: 4564: 4563: 4559: 4549: 4547: 4538: 4537: 4530: 4520: 4518: 4508: 4504: 4494: 4492: 4491:. March 5, 2009 4483: 4482: 4478: 4468: 4466: 4465:. March 6, 2009 4457: 4456: 4452: 4429: 4425: 4415: 4413: 4409: 4394: 4388: 4384: 4376: 4372: 4362: 4360: 4351: 4350: 4346: 4336: 4334: 4329: 4328: 4319: 4309: 4307: 4302: 4301: 4297: 4287: 4285: 4276: 4275: 4268: 4252: 4246: 4242: 4235: 4231: 4216: 4212: 4204:, p. 171; 4196: 4192: 4145: 4141: 4131: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4120: 4107: 4098: 4096: 4083: 4082: 4078: 4068: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4057: 4053: 4043: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4032: 4021: 4011: 4009: 4000: 3999: 3995: 3985: 3983: 3974: 3973: 3969: 3959: 3957: 3948: 3947: 3943: 3933: 3931: 3926: 3925: 3921: 3911: 3909: 3900: 3899: 3895: 3885: 3883: 3874: 3873: 3869: 3859: 3857: 3819: 3818: 3814: 3804: 3802: 3793: 3792: 3785: 3775: 3773: 3769: 3762: 3743: 3656: 3645: 3638: 3628: 3626: 3623: 3615: 3586: 3576: 3574: 3572:Huffington Post 3564: 3560: 3550: 3548: 3547:. July 20, 2016 3539: 3538: 3534: 3524: 3522: 3514: 3513: 3509: 3497: 3493: 3492: 3488: 3480: 3478: 3467: 3463: 3453: 3451: 3447: 3440: 3436: 3435: 3422: 3418: 3413: 3401: 3393: 3319: 3263: 3184: 3175: 3166: 3153: 3148: 3139: 3130: 3121: 3112: 3103: 3094: 3060: 3051: 3042: 3006: 2993: 2981: 2968: 2945: 2929: 2920: 2918:NGO initiatives 2892: 2875: 2870: 2861: 2838: 2826: 2817: 2792: 2787: 2758: 2734: 2717: 2708: 2699: 2656: 2650: 2609: 2569: 2557: 2452:Sex trafficking 2291: 2290: 2257:Workers' rights 2216:Objectification 2201:Public morality 2127:Criminalization 2090:Sex and the law 2084: 2078: 2052: 2046: 2038: 2025: 2015: 1987: 1966: 1919: 1893: 1884: 1876:age of majority 1868: 1854:, the 1999 ILO 1794: 1765: 1764: 1669:Slave narrative 1625:Fugitive slaves 1605: 1597: 1596: 1587: 1555:Slave rebellion 1410: 1400: 1399: 1358: 1348: 1347: 1170:United Kingdom 1106:Yankee princess 700: 692: 691: 419:Avret Pazarları 365:Avret Pazarları 234:Medieval Europe 200: 190: 189: 128:Forced marriage 103: 60: 54: 51: 48: 39: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8054: 8044: 8043: 8038: 8033: 8028: 8023: 8018: 8013: 8008: 8003: 7986: 7985: 7983: 7982: 7977: 7972: 7967: 7962: 7957: 7952: 7947: 7942: 7937: 7932: 7927: 7922: 7917: 7912: 7910:Best interests 7906: 7903: 7902: 7895: 7894: 7887: 7880: 7872: 7863: 7862: 7859: 7858: 7856: 7855: 7850: 7845: 7840: 7834: 7832: 7828: 7827: 7825: 7824: 7819: 7816:Postremo mense 7812: 7807: 7802: 7797: 7792: 7787: 7782: 7777: 7772: 7767: 7762: 7760:Baby Scoop Era 7757: 7752: 7747: 7742: 7733: 7727: 7725: 7719: 7718: 7716: 7715: 7710: 7704: 7698: 7694: 7693: 7691: 7690: 7684: 7678: 7673: 7667: 7661: 7656: 7650: 7644: 7638: 7632: 7626: 7619: 7617: 7613: 7612: 7610: 7609: 7604: 7599: 7594: 7593: 7592: 7587: 7585:United Kingdom 7582: 7577: 7572: 7562: 7557: 7552: 7547: 7542: 7537: 7532: 7527: 7522: 7517: 7512: 7507: 7502: 7497: 7492: 7487: 7481: 7479: 7475: 7474: 7472: 7471: 7466: 7464:United Kingdom 7461: 7456: 7450: 7448: 7444: 7443: 7441: 7440: 7435: 7430: 7425: 7420: 7415: 7410: 7404: 7402: 7398: 7397: 7386: 7385: 7378: 7371: 7363: 7354: 7353: 7351: 7350: 7343: 7330: 7327: 7326: 7324: 7323: 7318: 7317: 7316: 7311: 7306: 7301: 7291: 7286: 7281: 7276: 7271: 7270: 7269: 7264: 7259: 7257:media coverage 7254: 7249: 7239: 7233: 7231: 7227: 7226: 7224: 7223: 7222: 7221: 7211: 7210: 7209: 7202: 7197: 7192: 7187: 7185:Creep Catchers 7176: 7174: 7170: 7169: 7167: 7166: 7161: 7156: 7151: 7146: 7141: 7136: 7131: 7125: 7123: 7119: 7118: 7116: 7115: 7110: 7105: 7100: 7095: 7089: 7087: 7083: 7082: 7080: 7079: 7074: 7069: 7063: 7061: 7057: 7056: 7054: 7053: 7051:United Kingdom 7048: 7043: 7038: 7033: 7028: 7023: 7018: 7012: 7010: 7004: 7003: 7001: 7000: 6995: 6990: 6985: 6984: 6983: 6976:Child marriage 6973: 6972: 6971: 6966: 6961: 6956: 6946: 6944:Child sex ring 6941: 6940: 6939: 6938: 6937: 6927: 6922: 6917: 6907: 6905:Child grooming 6902: 6896: 6894: 6890: 6889: 6887: 6886: 6881: 6875: 6873: 6866: 6865: 6854: 6853: 6846: 6839: 6831: 6825: 6824: 6819: 6807: 6802: 6797: 6792: 6787: 6782: 6777: 6772: 6767: 6760: 6759:External links 6757: 6756: 6755: 6740:primary source 6732: 6709: 6706: 6704: 6703: 6698: 6677: 6671: 6656: 6650: 6635: 6630:978-1442264793 6629: 6616: 6598:(2): 171–184. 6587: 6581: 6568: 6530: 6528: 6525: 6523: 6522: 6494: 6476: 6458: 6443: 6415: 6408: 6381: 6348: 6305: 6281: 6259: 6234: 6195: 6171: 6156: 6132: 6120: 6118:, p. 163. 6108: 6096: 6094:, p. 165. 6084: 6068: 6056: 6023: 5998: 5966: 5954: 5942: 5925: 5914: 5903: 5892: 5881: 5870: 5851: 5824:(3): 287–307. 5804: 5792: 5780: 5765: 5750: 5728: 5710: 5692: 5644: 5615: 5565: 5554:. UNESCO. 2005 5540: 5506:(4): 114–141. 5483: 5453: 5446: 5424: 5413:(150): 26–32. 5407:Foreign Policy 5397: 5374: 5356: 5344: 5325:(2): 247–251. 5309: 5298: 5272: 5250: 5236: 5220: 5190: 5172: 5157: 5145: 5133: 5113: 5069: 5057: 5048:Beijing Review 5027: 5015: 4999: 4977: 4951: 4903: 4875: 4849: 4823: 4808: 4782: 4756: 4731: 4706: 4676: 4646: 4611: 4579: 4557: 4528: 4502: 4476: 4450: 4423: 4382: 4370: 4344: 4317: 4295: 4266: 4240: 4229: 4220:"Child Labour" 4210: 4200:, p. 16; 4190: 4139: 4105: 4085:"Child labour" 4076: 4065:. UNICEF. 2011 4051: 4019: 3993: 3967: 3941: 3919: 3893: 3867: 3812: 3783: 3654: 3636: 3584: 3558: 3532: 3507: 3486: 3461: 3419: 3417: 3414: 3412: 3411: 3391: 3390: 3385: 3380: 3375: 3370: 3365: 3360: 3355: 3350: 3345: 3340: 3338:Child grooming 3335: 3330: 3325: 3323:Adoption fraud 3318: 3315: 3314: 3313: 3308: 3303: 3298: 3293: 3288: 3283: 3278: 3273: 3271:United Nations 3262: 3259: 3258: 3257: 3254: 3251: 3248: 3201: 3200: 3197: 3194: 3191: 3183: 3180: 3174: 3171: 3165: 3162: 3152: 3149: 3147: 3144: 3138: 3135: 3129: 3126: 3120: 3117: 3111: 3108: 3102: 3099: 3093: 3090: 3080: 3079: 3076: 3073: 3070: 3067: 3059: 3056: 3050: 3047: 3041: 3038: 3011:social dumping 3005: 3004:Identification 3002: 2992: 2989: 2980: 2977: 2967: 2964: 2944: 2941: 2928: 2925: 2919: 2916: 2891: 2888: 2874: 2871: 2869: 2866: 2860: 2857: 2837: 2836:General abuses 2834: 2825: 2822: 2816: 2813: 2791: 2788: 2786: 2783: 2757: 2754: 2750:European Union 2733: 2730: 2716: 2713: 2707: 2704: 2698: 2695: 2683:child soldiers 2675: 2674: 2671: 2668: 2652:Main article: 2649: 2646: 2641: 2640: 2637: 2634: 2631: 2628: 2611: 2610: 2608: 2607: 2600: 2593: 2585: 2582: 2581: 2580: 2579: 2577:Law portal 2567: 2552: 2551: 2547: 2546: 2545: 2544: 2539: 2531: 2530: 2526: 2525: 2524: 2523: 2518: 2513: 2508: 2503: 2502: 2501: 2496: 2486: 2481: 2476: 2474:Sexual assault 2471: 2470: 2469: 2459: 2454: 2449: 2444: 2439: 2438: 2437: 2432: 2422: 2417: 2416: 2415: 2410: 2400: 2395: 2394: 2393: 2383: 2378: 2373: 2368: 2363: 2358: 2353: 2348: 2347: 2346: 2336: 2334:Child grooming 2331: 2326: 2325: 2324: 2314: 2313: 2312: 2299: 2298: 2286: 2285: 2284: 2283: 2278: 2273: 2268: 2250: 2245: 2240: 2235: 2230: 2229: 2228: 2218: 2213: 2208: 2203: 2198: 2193: 2188: 2183: 2178: 2173: 2171:Age of consent 2168: 2134: 2120: 2115: 2107: 2106: 2102: 2101: 2093: 2092: 2080:Main article: 2077: 2074: 2045: 2042: 2037: 2034: 2014: 2011: 2010: 2009: 2006: 2003: 2000: 1986: 1983: 1982: 1981: 1976: 1973: 1965: 1962: 1961: 1960: 1954: 1948: 1945: 1944: 1943: 1929: 1918: 1915: 1914: 1913: 1907: 1892: 1889: 1883: 1880: 1867: 1864: 1809:United Nations 1796: 1795: 1793: 1792: 1785: 1778: 1770: 1767: 1766: 1763: 1762: 1757: 1756: 1755: 1750: 1745: 1740: 1739: 1738: 1728: 1723: 1718: 1713: 1708: 1698: 1693: 1688: 1683: 1682: 1681: 1676: 1666: 1661: 1660: 1659: 1654: 1647:List of slaves 1644: 1643: 1642: 1637: 1632: 1622: 1617: 1612: 1606: 1603: 1602: 1599: 1598: 1595: 1594: 1582: 1577: 1572: 1567: 1562: 1557: 1552: 1551: 1550: 1540: 1535: 1530: 1529: 1528: 1518: 1513: 1512: 1511: 1506: 1496: 1495: 1494: 1489: 1479: 1474: 1469: 1468: 1467: 1462: 1457: 1452: 1447: 1442: 1437: 1432: 1427: 1422: 1411: 1406: 1405: 1402: 1401: 1398: 1397: 1392: 1387: 1382: 1381: 1380: 1375: 1365: 1359: 1354: 1353: 1350: 1349: 1346: 1345: 1340: 1335: 1330: 1325: 1320: 1315: 1310: 1305: 1300: 1295: 1290: 1285: 1280: 1275: 1270: 1265: 1260: 1255: 1250: 1244: 1243: 1239: 1238: 1233: 1228: 1223: 1218: 1213: 1208: 1203: 1198: 1193: 1191:Dutch Republic 1188: 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401: 400: 399: 394: 389: 384: 379: 369: 368: 367: 360:Ottoman Empire 357: 352: 347: 342: 337: 332: 327: 321: 315: 314: 308: 307: 306: 305: 295: 290: 285: 284: 283: 278: 273: 263: 258: 253: 248: 243: 237: 236: 230: 229: 224: 219: 214: 208: 207: 201: 196: 195: 192: 191: 188: 187: 182: 180:Sexual slavery 177: 172: 167: 162: 157: 152: 147: 146: 145: 140: 138:Child marriage 135: 125: 120: 115: 113:Child soldiers 110: 104: 99: 98: 95: 94: 86: 85: 75: 74: 62: 61: 42: 40: 33: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8053: 8042: 8039: 8037: 8034: 8032: 8029: 8027: 8024: 8022: 8019: 8017: 8014: 8012: 8009: 8007: 8004: 8002: 7999: 7998: 7996: 7981: 7978: 7976: 7973: 7971: 7968: 7966: 7963: 7961: 7958: 7956: 7953: 7951: 7948: 7946: 7943: 7941: 7938: 7936: 7933: 7931: 7928: 7926: 7923: 7921: 7918: 7916: 7913: 7911: 7908: 7907: 7904: 7900: 7893: 7888: 7886: 7881: 7879: 7874: 7873: 7870: 7854: 7851: 7849: 7846: 7844: 7841: 7839: 7836: 7835: 7833: 7829: 7823: 7820: 7818: 7817: 7813: 7811: 7808: 7806: 7803: 7801: 7798: 7796: 7793: 7791: 7788: 7786: 7783: 7781: 7778: 7776: 7773: 7771: 7770:Home Children 7768: 7766: 7765:Sixties Scoop 7763: 7761: 7758: 7756: 7753: 7751: 7748: 7746: 7743: 7741: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7728: 7726: 7720: 7714: 7711: 7709: 7706: 7705: 7702: 7699: 7695: 7688: 7685: 7682: 7679: 7677: 7674: 7671: 7668: 7665: 7662: 7660: 7657: 7654: 7651: 7648: 7645: 7642: 7639: 7636: 7633: 7630: 7627: 7624: 7621: 7620: 7618: 7614: 7608: 7605: 7603: 7600: 7598: 7597:Open adoption 7595: 7591: 7590:United States 7588: 7586: 7583: 7581: 7578: 7576: 7573: 7571: 7568: 7567: 7566: 7563: 7561: 7558: 7556: 7553: 7551: 7548: 7546: 7543: 7541: 7538: 7536: 7533: 7531: 7528: 7526: 7523: 7521: 7518: 7516: 7513: 7511: 7508: 7506: 7503: 7501: 7498: 7496: 7493: 7491: 7488: 7486: 7483: 7482: 7480: 7476: 7470: 7469:United States 7467: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7457: 7455: 7452: 7451: 7449: 7445: 7439: 7436: 7434: 7433:United States 7431: 7429: 7426: 7424: 7421: 7419: 7416: 7414: 7411: 7409: 7406: 7405: 7403: 7399: 7395: 7391: 7384: 7379: 7377: 7372: 7370: 7365: 7364: 7361: 7349: 7348: 7344: 7342: 7337: 7332: 7331: 7328: 7322: 7319: 7315: 7312: 7310: 7307: 7305: 7302: 7300: 7297: 7296: 7295: 7292: 7290: 7287: 7285: 7282: 7280: 7277: 7275: 7272: 7268: 7265: 7263: 7260: 7258: 7255: 7253: 7250: 7248: 7245: 7244: 7243: 7240: 7238: 7235: 7234: 7232: 7228: 7220: 7217: 7216: 7215: 7212: 7208: 7207: 7203: 7201: 7198: 7196: 7193: 7191: 7188: 7186: 7183: 7182: 7181: 7178: 7177: 7175: 7171: 7165: 7162: 7160: 7157: 7155: 7152: 7150: 7147: 7145: 7142: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7132: 7130: 7127: 7126: 7124: 7120: 7114: 7111: 7109: 7106: 7104: 7101: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7091: 7090: 7088: 7084: 7078: 7075: 7073: 7070: 7068: 7065: 7064: 7062: 7058: 7052: 7049: 7047: 7044: 7042: 7039: 7037: 7034: 7032: 7029: 7027: 7024: 7022: 7019: 7017: 7014: 7013: 7011: 7009: 7005: 6999: 6996: 6994: 6991: 6989: 6986: 6982: 6979: 6978: 6977: 6974: 6970: 6967: 6965: 6962: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6952: 6951: 6950: 6947: 6945: 6942: 6936: 6933: 6932: 6931: 6928: 6926: 6923: 6921: 6920:Child erotica 6918: 6916: 6913: 6912: 6911: 6908: 6906: 6903: 6901: 6898: 6897: 6895: 6891: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6877: 6876: 6874: 6872: 6871:chronophilias 6867: 6863: 6859: 6852: 6847: 6845: 6840: 6838: 6833: 6832: 6829: 6823: 6820: 6818: 6814: 6811: 6808: 6806: 6803: 6801: 6798: 6796: 6793: 6791: 6788: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6778: 6776: 6773: 6771: 6768: 6766: 6763: 6762: 6753: 6749: 6745: 6741: 6735: 6729: 6725: 6720: 6719: 6712: 6711: 6699: 6695: 6691: 6688:(2): 87–102. 6687: 6683: 6678: 6674: 6668: 6664: 6663: 6657: 6653: 6651:9780312886295 6647: 6643: 6642: 6636: 6632: 6626: 6622: 6617: 6613: 6609: 6605: 6601: 6597: 6593: 6588: 6584: 6582:0-521-37887-7 6578: 6574: 6569: 6565: 6561: 6557: 6553: 6549: 6545: 6541: 6537: 6532: 6531: 6511: 6507: 6501: 6499: 6490: 6483: 6481: 6472: 6468: 6462: 6454: 6450: 6446: 6444:9781108225045 6440: 6436: 6432: 6428: 6427: 6419: 6411: 6409:9780812205732 6405: 6401: 6396: 6388: 6386: 6366: 6359: 6352: 6333: 6326: 6324: 6322: 6320: 6318: 6316: 6314: 6312: 6310: 6295: 6291: 6285: 6277: 6270: 6263: 6249: 6245: 6238: 6224:on 2019-12-20 6220: 6216: 6209: 6202: 6200: 6185: 6181: 6175: 6167: 6160: 6146: 6142: 6136: 6129: 6124: 6117: 6112: 6105: 6100: 6093: 6088: 6081: 6077: 6072: 6065: 6060: 6041: 6034: 6027: 6011: 6005: 6003: 5983: 5976: 5970: 5963: 5958: 5951: 5946: 5935: 5929: 5918: 5907: 5896: 5885: 5874: 5866: 5862: 5855: 5847: 5843: 5839: 5835: 5831: 5827: 5823: 5819: 5815: 5808: 5801: 5796: 5790:, p. 18. 5789: 5784: 5776: 5769: 5761: 5754: 5746: 5739: 5732: 5721: 5714: 5706: 5699: 5697: 5688: 5684: 5680: 5676: 5672: 5668: 5664: 5660: 5653: 5651: 5649: 5632: 5625: 5619: 5611: 5607: 5603: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5587: 5583: 5579: 5572: 5570: 5550: 5544: 5525: 5521: 5517: 5513: 5509: 5505: 5501: 5494: 5487: 5468: 5462: 5460: 5458: 5449: 5447:9780520217973 5443: 5438: 5437: 5428: 5420: 5416: 5412: 5408: 5401: 5393: 5389: 5385: 5378: 5370: 5366: 5360: 5354:, p. 37. 5353: 5348: 5340: 5336: 5332: 5328: 5324: 5320: 5313: 5302: 5287: 5283: 5276: 5268: 5264: 5260: 5254: 5243: 5241: 5229: 5227: 5225: 5210:on 2021-10-16 5209: 5205: 5201: 5194: 5186: 5179: 5177: 5168: 5161: 5155:, p. 12. 5154: 5149: 5142: 5137: 5129: 5122: 5120: 5118: 5103:on 2017-08-30 5099: 5092: 5086: 5084: 5082: 5080: 5078: 5076: 5074: 5067:, p. 10. 5066: 5061: 5053: 5049: 5045: 5038: 5036: 5034: 5032: 5025:, p. 29. 5024: 5019: 5008: 5006: 5004: 4992: 4986: 4984: 4982: 4969: 4961: 4955: 4947: 4943: 4936: 4934: 4932: 4930: 4928: 4926: 4924: 4922: 4920: 4918: 4916: 4914: 4912: 4910: 4908: 4896: 4894: 4892: 4890: 4888: 4886: 4884: 4882: 4880: 4864: 4860: 4853: 4838: 4834: 4827: 4819: 4812: 4796: 4792: 4786: 4771: 4767: 4760: 4749: 4742: 4735: 4716: 4710: 4694: 4690: 4686: 4680: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4650: 4631: 4624: 4618: 4616: 4596: 4589: 4583: 4567: 4561: 4545: 4541: 4535: 4533: 4517: 4513: 4506: 4490: 4486: 4480: 4464: 4460: 4454: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4427: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4393: 4386: 4380:, p. 31. 4379: 4374: 4358: 4354: 4348: 4332: 4326: 4324: 4322: 4305: 4299: 4283: 4279: 4273: 4271: 4262: 4258: 4251: 4244: 4233: 4225: 4221: 4214: 4208:, p. 88. 4207: 4206:Vinkovic 2010 4203: 4199: 4194: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4143: 4124: 4118: 4116: 4114: 4112: 4110: 4095:on 2019-12-12 4094: 4090: 4086: 4080: 4061: 4055: 4036: 4030: 4028: 4026: 4024: 4007: 4003: 3997: 3981: 3977: 3971: 3955: 3951: 3945: 3929: 3923: 3907: 3903: 3897: 3881: 3877: 3871: 3856: 3852: 3847: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3816: 3800: 3796: 3790: 3788: 3768: 3761: 3760: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3741: 3739: 3737: 3735: 3733: 3731: 3729: 3727: 3725: 3723: 3721: 3719: 3717: 3715: 3713: 3711: 3709: 3707: 3705: 3703: 3701: 3699: 3697: 3695: 3693: 3691: 3689: 3687: 3685: 3683: 3681: 3679: 3677: 3675: 3673: 3671: 3669: 3667: 3665: 3663: 3661: 3659: 3650: 3647:Daw, Bianca. 3643: 3641: 3622: 3621: 3613: 3611: 3609: 3607: 3605: 3603: 3601: 3599: 3597: 3595: 3593: 3591: 3589: 3573: 3569: 3562: 3546: 3542: 3536: 3521: 3517: 3511: 3503: 3496: 3490: 3476: 3472: 3465: 3446: 3439: 3433: 3431: 3429: 3427: 3425: 3420: 3410: 3405: 3400: 3399: 3396: 3389: 3386: 3384: 3381: 3379: 3376: 3374: 3371: 3369: 3366: 3364: 3361: 3359: 3356: 3354: 3351: 3349: 3346: 3344: 3341: 3339: 3336: 3334: 3333:Child-selling 3331: 3329: 3326: 3324: 3321: 3320: 3312: 3309: 3307: 3304: 3302: 3299: 3297: 3294: 3292: 3289: 3287: 3284: 3282: 3279: 3277: 3274: 3272: 3269: 3268: 3267: 3255: 3252: 3249: 3246: 3245: 3244: 3240: 3237: 3236:psychological 3231: 3228: 3222: 3220: 3214: 3210: 3207: 3198: 3195: 3192: 3189: 3188: 3187: 3179: 3170: 3161: 3157: 3143: 3134: 3125: 3116: 3107: 3098: 3089: 3086: 3077: 3074: 3071: 3068: 3065: 3064: 3063: 3055: 3046: 3037: 3033: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3018: 3014: 3012: 3001: 2997: 2988: 2986: 2976: 2974: 2973:forced labour 2963: 2961: 2956: 2954: 2950: 2940: 2938: 2933: 2927:Other methods 2924: 2915: 2911: 2908: 2904: 2902: 2897: 2887: 2883: 2881: 2865: 2856: 2852: 2850: 2849: 2844: 2833: 2830: 2821: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2798: 2782: 2779: 2776: 2770: 2766: 2764: 2753: 2751: 2743: 2738: 2732:Child begging 2729: 2725: 2722: 2712: 2703: 2694: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2672: 2669: 2666: 2665: 2664: 2661: 2655: 2645: 2638: 2635: 2632: 2629: 2626: 2625: 2624: 2622: 2618: 2606: 2601: 2599: 2594: 2592: 2587: 2586: 2584: 2583: 2578: 2573: 2568: 2566: 2561: 2556: 2555: 2554: 2553: 2549: 2548: 2543: 2540: 2538: 2535: 2534: 2533: 2532: 2528: 2527: 2522: 2519: 2517: 2514: 2512: 2509: 2507: 2504: 2500: 2499:Female sodomy 2497: 2495: 2492: 2491: 2490: 2487: 2485: 2482: 2480: 2477: 2475: 2472: 2468: 2465: 2464: 2463: 2460: 2458: 2455: 2453: 2450: 2448: 2445: 2443: 2440: 2436: 2433: 2431: 2428: 2427: 2426: 2423: 2421: 2418: 2414: 2411: 2409: 2406: 2405: 2404: 2401: 2399: 2396: 2392: 2389: 2388: 2387: 2384: 2382: 2379: 2377: 2374: 2372: 2369: 2367: 2364: 2362: 2359: 2357: 2354: 2352: 2349: 2345: 2342: 2341: 2340: 2337: 2335: 2332: 2330: 2327: 2323: 2320: 2319: 2318: 2315: 2311: 2308: 2307: 2306: 2303: 2302: 2301: 2300: 2295: 2288: 2287: 2282: 2279: 2277: 2274: 2272: 2269: 2266: 2265:World Charter 2262: 2258: 2254: 2251: 2249: 2246: 2244: 2241: 2239: 2236: 2234: 2231: 2227: 2224: 2223: 2222: 2219: 2217: 2214: 2212: 2209: 2207: 2206:Antisexualism 2204: 2202: 2199: 2197: 2194: 2192: 2191:Miscegenation 2189: 2187: 2184: 2182: 2179: 2177: 2174: 2172: 2169: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2135: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2121: 2119: 2116: 2114: 2111: 2110: 2109: 2108: 2105:Social issues 2104: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2094: 2091: 2088: 2087: 2083: 2073: 2069: 2066: 2060: 2057: 2051: 2044:Forced labour 2041: 2033: 2031: 2024: 2020: 2007: 2004: 2001: 1998: 1995: 1992: 1991: 1990: 1980: 1977: 1974: 1971: 1968: 1967: 1958: 1955: 1953: 1949: 1946: 1942:No. 190, 1999 1941: 1937: 1936: 1934: 1930: 1928: 1924: 1923: 1922: 1911: 1908: 1905: 1902: 1901: 1900: 1898: 1888: 1879: 1877: 1873: 1863: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1848: 1846: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1824: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1813:forced labour 1810: 1806: 1803:is a form of 1802: 1791: 1786: 1784: 1779: 1777: 1772: 1771: 1769: 1768: 1761: 1758: 1754: 1751: 1749: 1746: 1744: 1741: 1737: 1734: 1733: 1732: 1729: 1727: 1724: 1722: 1719: 1717: 1714: 1712: 1709: 1707: 1704: 1703: 1702: 1699: 1697: 1694: 1692: 1691:Slave catcher 1689: 1687: 1684: 1680: 1677: 1675: 1672: 1671: 1670: 1667: 1665: 1662: 1658: 1655: 1653: 1650: 1649: 1648: 1645: 1641: 1638: 1636: 1633: 1631: 1628: 1627: 1626: 1623: 1621: 1620:Forced labour 1618: 1616: 1613: 1611: 1608: 1607: 1601: 1600: 1591: 1586: 1583: 1581: 1578: 1576: 1573: 1571: 1568: 1566: 1563: 1561: 1558: 1556: 1553: 1549: 1546: 1545: 1544: 1541: 1539: 1536: 1534: 1531: 1527: 1524: 1523: 1522: 1519: 1517: 1514: 1510: 1507: 1505: 1502: 1501: 1500: 1497: 1493: 1490: 1488: 1485: 1484: 1483: 1480: 1478: 1475: 1473: 1470: 1466: 1465:Abolitionists 1463: 1461: 1458: 1456: 1453: 1451: 1448: 1446: 1443: 1441: 1438: 1436: 1433: 1431: 1428: 1426: 1423: 1421: 1418: 1417: 1416: 1413: 1412: 1409: 1404: 1403: 1396: 1393: 1391: 1388: 1386: 1383: 1379: 1376: 1374: 1371: 1370: 1369: 1366: 1364: 1361: 1360: 1357: 1352: 1351: 1344: 1341: 1339: 1336: 1334: 1331: 1329: 1326: 1324: 1321: 1319: 1316: 1314: 1311: 1309: 1306: 1304: 1301: 1299: 1296: 1294: 1291: 1289: 1286: 1284: 1281: 1279: 1276: 1274: 1271: 1269: 1266: 1264: 1261: 1259: 1256: 1254: 1251: 1249: 1246: 1245: 1241: 1240: 1237: 1234: 1232: 1229: 1227: 1224: 1222: 1219: 1217: 1214: 1212: 1209: 1207: 1204: 1202: 1199: 1197: 1194: 1192: 1189: 1187: 1184: 1180: 1177: 1175: 1172: 1171: 1169: 1167: 1164: 1163: 1159: 1158: 1155: 1152: 1150: 1147: 1145: 1142: 1140: 1137: 1133: 1130: 1129: 1128: 1125: 1124: 1121: 1118: 1117: 1114: 1111: 1107: 1104: 1103: 1102: 1099: 1097: 1094: 1092: 1089: 1087: 1084: 1080: 1077: 1076: 1075: 1072: 1068: 1067:comfort women 1065: 1064: 1063: 1060: 1058: 1055: 1051: 1050:Chukri System 1048: 1046: 1043: 1042: 1041: 1038: 1034: 1031: 1029: 1026: 1024: 1021: 1020: 1019: 1016: 1014: 1011: 1009: 1006: 1004: 1001: 1000: 997: 994: 993: 990: 987: 984: 980: 976: 973: 971: 968: 967: 966: 963: 961: 958: 956: 953: 949: 946: 945: 944: 941: 939: 938:Latin America 936: 932: 929: 927: 924: 922: 919: 917: 914: 913: 912: 909: 907: 904: 902: 899: 895: 892: 890: 889:interregional 887: 885: 882: 880: 877: 875: 874:prison labour 872: 870: 867: 865: 862: 860: 857: 855: 852: 850: 847: 846: 845: 844:United States 842: 838: 835: 834: 833: 830: 826: 823: 822: 821: 818: 817: 814: 811: 810: 807: 804: 802: 799: 797: 794: 790: 787: 786: 785: 782: 780: 777: 775: 772: 770: 767: 765: 762: 760: 757: 755: 752: 750: 747: 745: 742: 740: 737: 733: 730: 729: 728: 725: 723: 720: 718: 715: 713: 710: 709: 706: 703: 702: 696: 695: 688: 685: 683: 680: 678: 675: 673: 670: 668: 665: 664: 660: 659: 656: 655:White slavery 653: 651: 648: 646: 645:Slave raiding 643: 641: 638: 636: 633: 631: 628: 624: 621: 620: 619: 616: 614: 613:Corvée labour 611: 609: 606: 604: 601: 597: 594: 592: 589: 587: 584: 583: 582: 579: 578: 574: 573: 570: 567: 565: 562: 560: 557: 555: 552: 550: 547: 545: 542: 540: 537: 535: 532: 530: 527: 525: 522: 520: 517: 516: 513: 510: 509: 506: 503: 501: 498: 496: 493: 491: 488: 486: 483: 481: 478: 474: 471: 469: 466: 464: 461: 459: 456: 454: 450: 447: 445: 442: 440: 437: 435: 432: 430: 429:Abbasid harem 427: 425: 422: 420: 417: 415: 412: 410: 407: 406: 405: 402: 398: 395: 393: 390: 388: 385: 383: 380: 378: 375: 374: 373: 372:Barbary Coast 370: 366: 363: 362: 361: 358: 356: 353: 351: 348: 346: 343: 341: 338: 336: 333: 331: 328: 325: 322: 320: 317: 316: 313: 310: 309: 304: 301: 300: 299: 296: 294: 291: 289: 286: 282: 279: 277: 274: 272: 269: 268: 267: 264: 262: 259: 257: 254: 252: 249: 247: 244: 242: 239: 238: 235: 232: 231: 228: 225: 223: 220: 218: 215: 213: 210: 209: 206: 203: 202: 199: 194: 193: 186: 183: 181: 178: 176: 173: 171: 168: 166: 163: 161: 158: 156: 153: 151: 148: 144: 141: 139: 136: 134: 131: 130: 129: 126: 124: 121: 119: 116: 114: 111: 109: 106: 105: 102: 97: 96: 92: 88: 87: 84: 80: 79:Forced labour 77: 76: 72: 68: 67: 58: 46: 41: 32: 31: 19: 8031:Child labour 7974: 7814: 7805:Mortara case 7345: 7204: 7190:Dark Justice 7173:Social views 6963: 6884:Ephebophilia 6717: 6685: 6681: 6661: 6640: 6620: 6595: 6591: 6572: 6539: 6535: 6515:November 27, 6513:. Retrieved 6509: 6488: 6470: 6461: 6425: 6418: 6399: 6374:February 18, 6372:. Retrieved 6365:the original 6351: 6339:. Retrieved 6297:. Retrieved 6293: 6284: 6275: 6262: 6251:. Retrieved 6247: 6237: 6226:. Retrieved 6219:the original 6214: 6187:. Retrieved 6183: 6174: 6165: 6159: 6148:. Retrieved 6144: 6135: 6128:Menefee 1981 6123: 6116:Menefee 1981 6111: 6104:Menefee 1981 6099: 6092:Menefee 1981 6087: 6079: 6076:Menefee 1981 6071: 6064:Menefee 1981 6059: 6047:. Retrieved 6040:the original 6026: 6016:February 18, 6014:. Retrieved 5989:. Retrieved 5982:the original 5969: 5957: 5945: 5928: 5917: 5906: 5895: 5884: 5873: 5864: 5854: 5821: 5817: 5807: 5795: 5783: 5774: 5768: 5759: 5753: 5744: 5731: 5713: 5704: 5665:(1): 38–42. 5662: 5658: 5635:. Retrieved 5630: 5618: 5581: 5577: 5556:. Retrieved 5543: 5531:. Retrieved 5524:the original 5503: 5499: 5486: 5474:. Retrieved 5435: 5427: 5410: 5406: 5400: 5392:the original 5388:SBS Dateline 5387: 5377: 5368: 5359: 5352:Bradley 1994 5347: 5322: 5318: 5312: 5301: 5289:. Retrieved 5285: 5275: 5267:the original 5262: 5253: 5212:. Retrieved 5208:the original 5203: 5193: 5184: 5166: 5160: 5148: 5143:, p. 6. 5136: 5128:The Guardian 5127: 5105:. Retrieved 5098:the original 5060: 5051: 5047: 5018: 4968:the original 4954: 4945: 4941: 4866:. Retrieved 4862: 4852: 4840:. Retrieved 4836: 4826: 4811: 4801:February 19, 4799:. Retrieved 4794: 4785: 4775:February 19, 4773:. Retrieved 4769: 4759: 4748:the original 4734: 4722:. Retrieved 4709: 4697:. Retrieved 4693:the original 4688: 4679: 4667:. Retrieved 4663:the original 4658: 4649: 4637:. Retrieved 4630:the original 4602:. Retrieved 4595:the original 4582: 4570:. Retrieved 4560: 4548:. Retrieved 4544:the original 4519:. Retrieved 4515: 4505: 4493:. Retrieved 4488: 4479: 4467:. Retrieved 4462: 4453: 4439:(1): 35–42. 4436: 4432: 4426: 4414:. Retrieved 4407:the original 4402: 4398: 4385: 4373: 4361:. Retrieved 4357:the original 4347: 4335:. Retrieved 4308:. Retrieved 4298: 4286:. Retrieved 4282:the original 4260: 4256: 4243: 4232: 4223: 4213: 4193: 4152: 4148: 4142: 4130:. Retrieved 4097:. Retrieved 4093:the original 4088: 4079: 4067:. Retrieved 4054: 4042:. Retrieved 4010:. Retrieved 4006:the original 3996: 3984:. Retrieved 3980:the original 3970: 3958:. Retrieved 3954:the original 3944: 3932:. Retrieved 3922: 3910:. Retrieved 3906:the original 3896: 3884:. Retrieved 3880:the original 3870: 3858:. Retrieved 3828: 3824: 3815: 3803:. Retrieved 3799:the original 3774:. Retrieved 3767:the original 3758: 3627:. Retrieved 3619: 3577:November 26, 3575:. Retrieved 3571: 3561: 3549:. Retrieved 3544: 3535: 3525:November 26, 3523:. Retrieved 3519: 3510: 3489: 3479:, retrieved 3474: 3464: 3452:. 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ILO. 2002 5991:February 9, 5588:: 903–923. 5054:(9): 18–19. 4720:. ILO. 2002 4401:. 241-289. 4224:UNICEF data 4198:Beyrer 2004 4128:. ILO. 2010 3930:. 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