138:
2084:(16 & 17 Vict. c. 99), substituted penal servitude for transportation to a distant British colony, except in cases where a person could be sentenced to transportation for life or for a term not less than fourteen years. Section 2 of the Penal Servitude Act 1857 (20 & 21 Vict. c. 3) abolished the sentence of transportation in all cases and provided that in all cases a person who would otherwise have been liable to transportation would be liable to penal servitude instead. Section 1 of the Penal Servitude Act 1891 makes provision for enactments which authorise a sentence of penal servitude but do not specify a maximum duration. It must now be read subject to section 1(1) of the
194:
2186:
2834:. The prison was constructed in 1816 and prison labor was used to produce common goods like combs, shoes, animal harnesses, carpets, buckets, and barrels. Goods were originally produced and made for use inside the prison only, but expanded to produce products for outside sale in the 1820s to increase the prison's profits and support the prison financially. As historian Robin Bernstein demonstrates, this system of for-profit prison labor expanded to other state prisons throughout the United States within the next fifteen years, well before the convict-leasing system of the post-Civil War era.
2230:
2845:
2038:
2685:, but on a larger scale. The kulaks were some of the first victims of the Soviet Union's forced labour system. Starting in 1930, nearly two million kulaks were taken to camps in unpopulated regions of the Soviet Union and forced to work in very harsh conditions. Most inmates in the Gulag were ordinary criminals: between 1934 and 1953 there were only two years, 1946 and 1947, when the number of counter-revolutionary prisoners exceeded that of ordinary criminals, partly because the Soviet state had
154:
2841:, enacted in 1865, explicitly allows penal labour as it states that "neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for a crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction". Unconvicted detainees awaiting trial cannot be forced to participate in forced rehabilitative labour programs in prison as it violates the Thirteenth Amendment.
39:
2942:
2099:. After sentencing, convicts would be classified according to the seriousness of the offence of which they were convicted and their criminal record. First time offenders would be classified in the Star class; persons not suitable for the Star class, but without serious convictions would be classified in the intermediate class. Habitual offenders would be classified in the
2268:. Every enactment which operated to empower a court to pass a sentence of penal servitude in any case now operates so as to empower that court to pass a sentence of imprisonment for a term not exceeding the maximum term of penal servitude for which a sentence could have been passed in that case immediately before the commencement of that Act.
2249:. Every enactment conferring power on a court to pass a sentence of penal servitude in any case must be construed as conferring power to pass a sentence of imprisonment for a term not exceeding the maximum term of penal servitude for which a sentence could have been passed in that case immediately before the commencement of that Act.
2731:, only 6,000 survived the Gulag and returned home. Many of these prisoners, however, had died of illness contracted during the siege of Stalingrad and in the forced march into captivity. More than half of all deaths occurred in 1941–1944, mostly as a result of the deteriorating food and medicine supplies caused by wartime shortages.
2953:
In a number of penal systems, inmates have the possibility of getting jobs. This may serve several purposes. One goal is to give an inmate a meaningful way to occupy their prison time and a possibility of earning some money. It may also play an important role in resocialisation as inmates may acquire
2872:
In 1934, federal prison officials concerned about growing unrest in prisons lobbied to create a work program. Private companies got involved again in 1979, when
Congress passed a law establishing the Prison Industry Enhancement Certification Program which allows employment opportunities for prisoners
2700:
The Gulags constituted a large portion of the Soviet Union's overall economy. Over half of the tin produced in the Soviet Union was produced by the Gulags. In 1951, the Gulags extracted over four times as much gold as the rest of the economy. Gulag camps also produced all of the diamonds and platinum
2488:
In the case of any enactment in force on 5 August 1891 (the date on which section 1 of the Penal
Servitude Act 1891 came into force) whereby a court had, immediately before the commencement of the Criminal Law Act 1997, power to pass a sentence of penal servitude, the maximum term of imprisonment may
2431:
Forced labour was widely used in the
African colonies. One of the most emblematic projects, the construction of the Congo-Ocean railway (140 km or 87 miles) cost the lives of 17,000 indigenous workers in 1929. In Cameroon, the 6,000 workers on the Douala-Yaoundé railway line had a mortality rate
2181:
by hand which in turn forced four large cups or ladles through sand inside a drum, doing nothing useful. Male prisoners had to turn the handle 6,000–14,400 times over the period of six hours a day (1.5–3.6 seconds per turn), as registered on a dial. The warder could make the task harder by tightening
2972:
Many businesses, large and small, already make use of prison workshops to produce high quality goods and services and do so profitably. They are not only investing in prisons but in the future of their companies and the country as a whole. I urge others to follow their lead and seize the opportunity
2162:
for punishment were used for decades in
British prisons beginning in 1818; they often took the form of large paddle wheels some 20 feet in diameter with 24 steps around a six-foot cylinder. Prisoners had to work six or more hours a day, climbing the equivalent of 5,000 to 14,000 vertical feet. While
2419:
Prison inmates can work either for the prison (directly, by performing tasks linked to prison operation, or for the Régie
Industrielle des Établissements Pénitentiaires, which produces and sells merchandise) or for a private company, in the framework of a prison/company agreement for leasing inmate
2958:
function: reducing the monotony of prison life for the inmate, keeping inmates busy on productive activities, rather than, for example, potentially violent or antisocial activities, and helping to increase inmate fitness, and thus decrease health problems, rather than letting inmates succumb to a
2484:
Every enactment conferring a power on a court to pass a sentence of penal servitude in any case must be treated as an enactment empowering that court to pass a sentence of imprisonment for a term not exceeding the maximum term of penal servitude for which a sentence could have been passed in that
2294:
Every enactment conferring power on a court to pass a sentence of penal servitude in any case must be construed as conferring power to pass a sentence of imprisonment for a term not exceeding the maximum term of penal servitude for which a sentence could have been passed in that case immediately
2213:
As late as 1885, 75% of all prison inmates were involved in some sort of productive endeavour, mostly in private contract and leasing systems. By 1935, the portion of prisoners working had fallen to 44%, and almost 90% of those worked in state-run programmes rather than for private contractors.
2000:
or in a prison workshop. In such cases, the pursuit of income from their productive labour may even overtake the preoccupation with punishment or reeducation as such of the prisoners, who are then at risk of being exploited as slave-like cheap labour (profit may be minor after expenses, e.g. on
2962:
The classic occupation in 20th-century
British prisons was sewing mailbags. This has diversified into areas such as engineering, furniture making, desktop publishing, repairing wheelchairs and producing traffic signs, but such opportunities are not widely available, and many prisoners who work
2822:(BOP) to produce goods and services. FPI is restricted to selling its products and services, which include clothing, furniture, electrical components and vehicle parts, to federal government agencies and has no access to the commercial market so as not to compete against private employment.
2720:. There were at least 476 separate camp complexes, each one comprising hundreds, even thousands of individual camps. It is estimated that there may have been 5–7 million people in these camps at any one time. In later years the camps also held victims of Joseph Stalin's purges as well as
2464:
do not have sufficient demand for prison labour. In the Indian Penal Code prior to 1949, Many sections prescribed penal servitude for life as a viable punishment. This was removed by Act No. XVII of 1949, Simply known as the
Criminal Law (Removal of Racial Discriminations) Act, 1949
2697:'s death just over one-quarter. In the 1930s, many ordinary criminals were guilty of crimes that would have been punished with a fine or community service in the 1920s. They were victims of harsher laws from the early 1930s, driven, in part, by the need for more prison camp labour.
2675:, political opponents of these governments were often sentenced to forced labour camps. These forced labour camps are called Gulags, an acronym for the government organisation that was in charge of them. The Soviet Gulag camps were a continuation of the punitive labour system of
2864:
former slaves were often arrested and worked in much the same way as before the war. Since the impoverished state governments could not afford penitentiaries, they leased out prisoners to work at private firms. Reformers abolished convict leasing in the 20th-century
2424:, the prison system has been governed by a new penal code. Some prisons became quasi-factories, in the nineteenth century, many discussions focused on the issue of competition between free labour and prison labour. Prison work was temporarily prohibited during the
1989:, is a form of forced labour used in both the past and the present as an additional form of punishment beyond imprisonment alone. Punitive labour encompasses two types: productive labour, such as industrial work; and intrinsically pointless tasks used as primitive
2963:
perform routine prison maintenance tasks (such as in the prison kitchen) or obsolete unskilled assembly work (such as in the prison laundry) that is argued to be no preparation for work after release. Classic 20th-century
American prisoner work involved making
1692:
2637:(Kyo-hwa-so in Korean). According to human rights organisations, the prisoners face forced hard labour in all North Korean prison camps. The conditions are harsh and life-threatening and prisoners are subject to torture and inhumane treatment.
2169:
involved stooping without bending the knees, lifting a heavy cannonball slowly to chest height, taking three steps to the right, replacing it on the ground, stepping back three paces, and repeating, moving cannonballs from one pile to another.
5316:
2930:, are considered the largest in the country's history. In particular, inmates objected to being excluded from the 13th Amendment which forces them to work for pennies a day, a condition they assert is tantamount to "modern-day slavery".
2428:. Prison labour then specialised in the production of goods sold to government departments (and directly to prisons, for example guards' uniforms), or in small low-skilled manual labour (mainly subcontracting to small local industries).
2201:
between 1788 and 1868 provide a major historical example of convict labour, as described above: during that period, Australia received thousands of transported convict labourers, many of whom had received harsh sentences for minor
1938:
used as a means to secure labour, and labour as providing occupation for convicts. These scenarios can be applied to those imprisoned for political, religious, war, or other reasons as well as to criminal convicts.
5035:
2145:(Inveraray was a busy herring port); those with skills were often employed where their skills could be used, such as shoemaking, tailoring or joinery. Female prisoners picked oakum, knitted stockings or sewed.
2265:
2883:
Over the years, the courts have held that inmates may be required to work and are not protected by the constitutional prohibition against involuntary servitude. Correctional standards promulgated by the
3842:
2915:. The prison labour industry makes over $ 1 billion per year selling products that inmates make, while inmates are paid very little or nothing in return. In California, 2,500 incarcerated workers fight
5138:
3536:
4611:(2004), pp. 17 & 34. "It rendered all clauses directly dealing with slavery null and altered the meaning of other clauses that had originally been designed to protect the institution of slavery."
1687:
2826:
also use penal labour and have their own penal labour divisions. This has changed over time since the beginning of for-profit prisons in the United States. One of the first for-profit prisons was
2311:
2303:
2667:, especially in totalitarian regimes since the 20th century where millions of convicts were exploited and often killed by hard labour and bad living conditions. For much of the history of the
2288:
5002:
2611:
abolished the distinction between imprisonment with and without hard labour and replaced 'reformative detention' with 'corrective training', which was later abolished on 30 June 2002.
2011:. In some cases, it was productive labour to grind grain (an example of using convict labour to meet costs); in others, it served no purpose. Similar punishments included turning the
2411:
represent a major source of penal labour in China according to controversial expert, Adrien Zenz. Since 2002, some prisoners have been eligible to receive payment for their labour.
4971:
3046:
2933:
Prison industries today are often operating at a loss, with much of the labour undertaken by prisoners actually constituting "prison housework" rather than productive activity.
5214:
Wood, Phillip J. (1 September 2007). "Globalization and Prison
Privatization: Why Are Most of the World's For-Profit Adult Prisons to Be Found in the American South?".
5045:
1813:
4497:
2106:
Penal servitude included hard labour as a standard feature. Although it was prescribed for severe crimes (e.g. rape, attempted murder, wounding with intent, by the
3009:
2478:
3895:
3868:"The Hidden Gulag – Part Two: Kwan-li-so political panel-labor colonies (page 25 – 82), Part Three: Kyo-hwa-so long-term prison-labor facilities (page 82 – 110)"
4039:
Getty, J.; Rittersporn, T.; Zemskov, V. (1993). "Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-War Years: A First
Approach on the Basis of Archival Evidence".
2838:
1677:
1208:
5127:
4471:
4891:
2595:) is one of the primary punishments which can be imposed on a convicted offender. The maximum punishment is 240 hours, according to article 22c, part 2 of
2399:. They were intended not only for criminals, but also for those deemed to be counter-revolutionary (political and/or religious prisoners). According to an
1562:
934:
671:
4698:
3525:
2403:
special report on slavery, China has the largest penal labour system in the world today. Often these prisoners are used to produce products for export to
2295:
before 12 June 1950. But this does not empower any court, other than the High Court, to pass a sentence of imprisonment for a term exceeding three years.
4312:
3005:
1298:
939:
2995:, where roughly 7% of the prison population are within privately owned institutions. Goods produced through this penal labour are regulated through the
3262:
3554:
2766:
to remote areas of the Soviet Union. The fatality rate was as high as 80% during the first months in many camps. Immediately after the start of the
631:
5161:
5012:
4286:
2701:
in the Soviet Union, and forced labourers in the Gulags constituted approximately one fifth of all construction labourers in the Soviet Union.
986:
4673:
3120:
3702:
3257:
1682:
1532:
4243:
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of 61.7% according to a report by the authorities. Forced labour was officially abolished in the colonies in 1946 under pressure from the
1013:
137:
4979:
4865:
4824:
1759:
511:
3957:
3002:
The advent of automated production in the 20th and 21st century has reduced the availability of unskilled physical work for inmates.
2927:
2539:
961:
3988:
3672:
2599:. The labour must be done in their free time. Reclassering Nederland keeps track of those who were sentenced to community services.
2907:, protesting for better pay, better conditions and for the end of forced labour. Strike leaders have been punished with indefinite
1732:
1552:
725:
3750:
5343:
2650:
1890:
3728:
2763:
996:
414:
2433:
4562:
4552:
4338:
4211:
3682:
3331:
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2163:
the purpose was mainly punitive, the mills could have been used to grind grain, pump water, or operate a ventilation system.
2096:
1574:
1251:
1023:
4454:
3475:
5304:
Employment Focused Programs for Ex-Prisoners: What Have We Learned, What Are We Learning, and Where Should We Go From Here?
3138:
2823:
2107:
2070:
1766:
1727:
1370:
103:
4507:
2727:. It is possible that approximately 10% of prisoners died each year. Out of the 91,000 German soldiers captured after the
3271:
2122:
deemed harmful to the fabric of society. Notable recipients of hard labour under British law include the prolific writer
1808:
1445:
1105:
956:
752:
661:
75:
3821:
2892:, be required to work and be paid for that work. Some states require, as with Arizona, all able-bodied inmates to work.
4930:
4155:
3906:
1828:
1522:
1276:
3446:
4394:
4182:
4120:
4085:
2885:
2572:
2198:
1650:
1527:
951:
720:
587:
122:
5250:
2987:
A significant amount of controversy has arisen with regard to the use of prison labour if the prison in question is
82:
3511:
Patricia O'Brien, The Promise of Punishment: Prisons in Nineteenth-century France, Princeton University Press, 1982
2799:
1781:
991:
976:
922:
607:
597:
592:
421:
277:
1497:
2634:
2626:
2337:
1776:
1547:
353:
3581:
3161:
4702:
2218:
1246:
1234:
814:
626:
272:
60:
4316:
3520:
Guilbaud, Fabrice. "To Challenge and Suffer: The Forms and Foundations of Working Inmates' Social Criticism",
3487:
89:
5169:
2369:
1818:
1601:
462:
56:
4554:
Federal Prison Industries, Inc: Hearing Before the Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. House of Representatives
4313:"The National Archives | Heroes & Villains | Stalin & industrialisation | Background"
5192:
4537:
2916:
2654:
2454:
Only convicts sentenced to "rigorous imprisonment" have to undertake work during their prison term. A 2011
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2058:
1823:
1667:
1537:
1198:
966:
946:
506:
474:
4766:
2284:
193:
5336:
5276:
Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black People in America from the Civil War to World War II
4923:
3698:
3598:
3021:
2923:; the voluntary participation of prisoners in this work saves the state as much as $ 100 million a year.
2889:
2384:
1883:
1833:
1557:
1475:
602:
383:
203:
71:
27:
3344:
2790:
Inmates in Taiwan are required to work during their stay in prison but receive a wage for their labour.
4943:"A New Form of Slavery? Meet Incarcerated Firefighters Battling California's Wildfires for $ 1 an Hour"
3345:"CNN In-Depth Specials – Visions of China – Red Giant: Labor camps reinforce China's totalitarian rule"
2964:
2877:
2327:
2074:
1742:
1594:
1579:
1470:
666:
336:
5379:
4839:
3539:[Colonial forced labor in the French empire must be recognized as a crime against humanity].
3537:"le travail forcé colonial dans l'empire français doit être reconnu comme un crime contre l'humanité"
2819:
2804:
2510:
parts which are then sold cheaply to private Japanese companies. This practice has raised charges of
2460:
article reported that 99% of convicts that receive such sentences rarely undertake work because most
2425:
2408:
2331:
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2085:
1838:
1737:
1268:
1256:
846:
819:
324:
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3124:
2400:
2361:
2081:
1618:
1487:
1040:
829:
314:
215:
4637:
Adamson, Christopher (1983). "Punishment after Slavery: Southern State Penal Systems, 1865–1890".
3190:
2141:
from 1839 prisoners worked up to ten hours a day. Most male prisoners made herring nets or picked
2001:
security). This is sometimes not the case, and the income goes to defray the costs of the prison.
494:
4529:
3798:
3370:
3366:
2900:
2896:
2775:
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class. Care was taken to ensure that convicts in one class did not mix with convicts in another.
1803:
1542:
1492:
1420:
1193:
971:
915:
898:
329:
49:
5036:"As prison strikes heat up, former inmates talk about horrible state of labor and incarceration"
4620:
5329:
5321:
4247:
3056:
2815:
2689:
1 million ordinary criminals as part of the victory celebrations in 1945. At the height of the
2620:
2596:
2437:
2234:
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1845:
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1003:
851:
575:
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536:
162:
20:
4451:"The Gulag Collection: Paintings of the Soviet Penal System By Former Prisoner Nikolai Getman"
4384:
3296:
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3213:
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on 12 June 1950, and imprisonment with hard labour was abolished by section 16(2) of the act.
5430:
4797:
3641:
3201:
2920:
2551:
2501:
2392:
2042:
1712:
1567:
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1465:
1147:
1135:
881:
866:
651:
426:
348:
319:
4013:
3965:
2734:
Probably the worst of the camp complexes were the three built north of the Arctic Circle at
2608:
2908:
2767:
2728:
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1990:
1959:
1850:
1754:
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1415:
1229:
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516:
400:
307:
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96:
8:
4502:
4268:
3026:
2996:
2587:(Hard) penal labour does not exist in the Netherlands, but a light variant consisting of
2474:
2229:
2032:
1955:
1338:
1318:
1203:
1188:
1057:
1028:
1018:
908:
856:
824:
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479:
447:
442:
395:
252:
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provide that sentenced inmates, who are generally housed in maximum, medium, or minimum
2746:. Prisoners in Soviet labour camps were sometimes worked to death with a mix of extreme
5107:
5090:
Guilbaud, Fabrice (2010). "Working in Prison: Time as Experienced by Inmates-Workers".
4654:
4203:
4056:
3703:"Straffen en maatregelen voor volwassenen - Straffen en maatregelen - Rijksoverheid.nl"
3308:
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skills that would help them to find a job after release. It may also have an important
2857:
2660:
2511:
2420:
labour. Work ceased being compulsory for sentenced inmates in France in 1987. From the
2396:
2341:
2091:
Sentences of penal servitude were served in convict prisons and were controlled by the
1934:. The term may refer to several related scenarios: labour as a form of punishment, the
1584:
1430:
1405:
1395:
1360:
1355:
1323:
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Twice the Work of Free Labor: The Political Economy of Convict Labor in the New South
5231:
5227:
4926:
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4217:
4207:
4178:
4151:
4126:
4116:
4091:
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3420:
3327:
3233:
3189:"An Act to substitute, in certain Cases, other Punishment in lieu of Transportation",
3036:
2588:
2526:
2421:
2353:
2242:
2178:
2131:
2115:
1672:
1390:
1385:
1328:
1313:
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1115:
1110:
1045:
1008:
841:
807:
636:
489:
378:
257:
3611:
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2693:
in the 1930s political prisoners made up 12% of the camp population; at the time of
2037:
5223:
5099:
4646:
4048:
2751:
2747:
2461:
2449:
2261:
2119:
2061:", which authorised prisoners being put to work on improving the navigation of the
1862:
1440:
1435:
1425:
1400:
1365:
1333:
1303:
1176:
1164:
1142:
1120:
1067:
903:
871:
173:
3394:"Expert Estimates China Has More Than 1,000 Internment Camps For Xinjiang Uyghurs"
5133:
4458:
4450:
4225:
4172:
4145:
3674:
Crime and Punishment around the World [4 volumes]: [Four Volumes]
3398:
3322:
3253:
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2672:
2456:
2349:
2149:
2127:
2008:
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1380:
1375:
1098:
1062:
861:
779:
484:
230:
4917:
5068:
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4595:
Freeman's Challenge: The Murder That Shook America's Original Prison for Profit
4580:
Freeman's Challenge: The Murder That Shook America's Original Prison for Profit
3470:
Guilbaud, Fabrice. "Working in Prison: Time as Experienced by Inmate-Workers",
2912:
2758:
and the harsh elements. In all, more than 18 million people passed through the
2365:
2138:
1951:
1919:
1855:
1749:
641:
282:
240:
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5424:
5352:
5235:
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4221:
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2979:
2904:
2861:
2853:
2827:
2812:
2694:
2555:
2507:
2404:
2153:
2049:
Imprisonment with hard labour was first introduced into English law with the
2012:
2004:
1935:
1915:
1907:
1793:
1722:
1169:
1152:
927:
757:
747:
531:
181:
158:
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1611:
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742:
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683:
570:
287:
245:
235:
225:
220:
210:
3012:
in Britain, has proposed the development of in-house prison call centres.
2778:
about 100,000 prisoners who awaited deportation either to NKVD prisons in
2506:
Most Japanese prisoners are required to engage in prison labour, often in
2492:
Imprisonment with hard labour was abolished by section 11(3) of that Act.
1050:
5409:
5103:
4972:"Major prison strike spreads across US and Canada as inmates refuse food"
4110:
4075:
2926:
The prison strikes of 2018, sponsored by Jailhouse Lawyers Speak and the
2709:
2690:
2271:
Imprisonment with hard labour was abolished by section 1(2) of that Act.
2252:
Imprisonment with hard labour was abolished by section 1(2) of that Act.
2203:
2123:
2092:
1997:
1963:
1947:
1640:
1628:
981:
784:
774:
732:
546:
5111:
5003:"U.S. Inmates Plan Nationwide Prison Strike To Protest Labor Conditions"
3751:"wetten.nl – Wet- en regelgeving – Wetboek van Strafrecht – BWBR0001854"
3729:"wetten.nl – Wet- en regelgeving – Wetboek van Strafrecht – BWBR0001854"
5384:
5374:
5283:
One Dies, Get Another: Convict Leasing in the American South, 1866–1928
4866:"US inmates stage nationwide prison labor strike over 'modern slavery'"
4060:
3186:
3031:
2988:
2808:
2664:
2489:
not exceed five years or any greater term authorised by the enactment.
2485:
case immediately before the commencement of the Criminal Law Act 1997.
2357:
2345:
2100:
1788:
1085:
789:
656:
5297:"Worse than Slavery": Parchman Farm and the Ordeal of Jim Crow Justice
4892:"US inmates sent to solitary confinement over 'prison slavery' strike"
4658:
3843:"4 Custodial sentences and remands – Ministry of Justice, New Zealand"
3612:"On Business History of Hokkaido Coal Mining and Shipping Corporation"
2659:
Another historically significant example of forced labour was that of
2356:
from 1938 to 1949. Young activists and students accused of supporting
153:
5040:
2518:
2190:
2054:
1033:
698:
560:
142:
5369:
4052:
1918:. The work may be light or hard, depending on the context. Forms of
715:
157:
Female convicts chained together by their necks for work on a road.
38:
5389:
4802:
4674:"How US prison labour pads corporate profits at taxpayers' expense"
4650:
4115:(First Anchor books ed.). New York: Anchor Books. p. 98.
4080:(First Anchor books ed.). New York: Anchor Books. p. 19.
2955:
2630:
2522:
2280:
2020:
1996:
Sometimes authorities turn prison labour into an industry, as on a
1911:
1623:
1181:
1125:
1077:
737:
582:
437:
343:
4825:"The Largest Prison Strike in U.S. History Enters its Second Week"
5404:
5399:
3958:"2009 Human Rights Report: Democratic People's Republic of Korea"
3081:
Secretariat, United Nations. (1962). "Yearbook on Human Rights".
2967:; the task is still being performed by inmates in certain areas.
2743:
2739:
2713:
2686:
2681:
2207:
1606:
688:
368:
185:
5351:
4269:"Politics, economics and time bury memories of the Kazakh gulag"
3047:
Coproduction of public services by service users and communities
4840:"America's prisoners are going on strike in at least 17 states"
3160:
Emsley, Clive; Hitchcock, Tim; Shoemaker, Robert (March 2015).
3061:
2946:
2779:
2755:
2735:
2547:
2323:
1308:
1130:
710:
693:
555:
390:
358:
4918:
Caught: The Prison State and the Lockdown of American Politics
3772:
3642:"Building Industrial Relations System in Hokkaido (1872-1940)"
2941:
2869:. At the same time, labour has been required at many prisons.
2110:) it was also widely applied in cases of minor crime, such as
3697:
3488:"Prison labour: a vehicle for reintegration or exploitation?"
2759:
2646:
2376:
2142:
2111:
2016:
565:
551:
526:
3582:"Criminal Law (Removal of Racial Discriminations) Act, 1949"
2375:
After the communists took power in 1949 and established the
2015:
or carrying cannonballs. Semi-punitive labour also included
2999:
which criminalises the interstate transport of such goods.
2856:" system became popular throughout the South following the
2395:) was (and still is in some cases) used as a way to punish
432:
262:
5007:
4717:
2991:. Many of these privatised prisons exist in the Southern
2724:
2221:, prisoners are excluded from the national minimum wage.
19:"Penal servitude" redirects here. For the 1928 film, see
3159:
3100:, vol. 25, H.M. Stationery Office, 1855, p. 52
2848:
Convicts leased to harvest timber in Florida, circa 1915
4038:
4376:
3822:"Paparua men's prison: a social and political history"
3314:
2876:
Penal labour is sometimes used as a punishment in the
2514:
since the prisoners' wages are far below market rate.
5153:
4244:"Gulag: Understanding the Magnitude of What Happened"
4200:
The Economics of Forced Labor : The Soviet Gulag
4137:
3989:"Survivors Report Torture in North Korea Labor Camps"
3326:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press
2625:
North Korean prison camps can be differentiated into
5162:"Colorado inmates: Making license plates since 1926"
5118:
4147:
Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953
4014:"North Korea: Torture, death penalty and abductions"
3096:
Parliament, Great Britain. House of Commons (1855),
2554:, which were severe. It was thought to be a form of
1969:
1942:
Large-scale implementations of penal labour include
1563:
Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery
3986:
3311:
of the Criminal Justice Act (Northern Ireland) 1953
3162:"Crime and Justice – Punishments at the Old Bailey"
63:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
5126:
4597:. The University of Chicago Press. p. 15, 19.
4164:
4746:"Perspectives on Paying the Federal Minimum Wage"
4725:"Perspectives on Paying the Federal Minimum Wage"
4627:, Library of Congress. Retrieved 15 February 2007
3263:Journal of Social, Political and Economic Studies
2911:. Forced prison labour occurs in both public and
26:"Hard labor" redirects here. For other uses, see
5422:
4701:. Military.com. 2 September 2009. Archived from
4386:The Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia
4198:Gregory, Paul R.; Lazarev, Valery, eds. (2003).
4174:The Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia
3905:, pp. 406–428, 15 July 2011, archived from
3753:(in Dutch). Wetten.overheid.nl. 27 December 2012
3731:(in Dutch). Wetten.overheid.nl. 27 December 2012
2818:created in 1934 that uses penal labour from the
1678:13th Amendment to the United States Constitution
141:Male convicts sewing at the Văcărești prison in
4498:"Stalin's forgotten victims stuck in the gulag"
3705:[Punishments and measures for adults].
3121:"Inveraray Jail and County Court, Life in Jail"
2563:
2530:
2364:were arrested and re-educated in the spirit of
2019:-picking: teasing apart old tarry rope to make
4197:
3485:
2570:
2537:
5337:
5034:Bozelko, Chandra; Lo, Ryan (25 August 2018).
4609:The Thirteenth Amendment and American Freedom
3903:Database Center for North Korean Human Rights
3896:"Political Prison Camps in North Korea Today"
3875:The Committee for Human Rights in North Korea
2936:
1884:
3921:Chapter 4 Current Status of Compulsory Labor
2860:and continued into the 20th century. During
2266:Criminal Justice Act (Northern Ireland) 1953
2148:Forms of labour for punishment included the
1683:Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom
16:Type of forced labour performed by prisoners
5069:"How to Create American Manufacturing Jobs"
4768:Constituent Services Informational Handbook
3115:
3113:
3111:
3109:
3107:
3080:
5344:
5330:
5137:. London: Independent News and Media Ltd.
5128:"More to prison work than sewing mailbags"
4969:
4863:
3579:
3095:
2440:. In fact, it lasted well into the 1950s.
1891:
1877:
5066:
5033:
4592:
4577:
4403:
4108:
4073:
3831:. University of Canterbury, Christchurch.
3258:"Using the Private Sector to Deter Crime"
2928:Incarcerated Workers Organizing Committee
2830:, located in Auburn, New York, along the
2073:, which had become impossible due to the
123:Learn how and when to remove this message
5184:
5089:
4550:
3555:"How rigorous is rigorous imprisonment?"
3474:, vol. vol. 51, no. 5, 2010, pp. 41–68.
3421:"Beijing Prisons First to Pay Prisoners"
3252:
3153:
3104:
2940:
2843:
2627:internment camps for political prisoners
2525:many prisoners were forced to engage in
2228:
2184:
2036:
1688:Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf
1553:Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery
1533:Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90
152:
136:
5190:
4636:
4495:
4469:
4143:
2651:Population transfer in the Soviet Union
5423:
5242:
5000:
4792:
4699:"'Malingerer' Gets 90 Days Hard Labor"
4671:
4412:"Gulag: A History of the Soviet Camps"
4315:. Learningcurve.gov.uk. Archived from
3670:
3639:
3447:"Factbox: China's use of prison labor"
3131:
2312:Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1995
2304:Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1975
5325:
5248:
5159:
5124:
5073:Tennessee Journal of Law & Policy
4889:
4837:
4625:Primary Documents in American History
4409:
4382:
4284:Anne Applebaum. "Inside the Gulag".
4170:
3932:"North Korea: Political Prison Camps"
3819:
3801:from the original on 14 November 2021
3773:"Home :: Reclassering Nederland"
3671:Newman, Graeme R. (19 October 2010).
3391:
3373:from the original on 14 November 2021
3287:of the National Minimum Wage Act 1998
2839:13th Amendment of the US Constitution
2811:UNICOR since 1977) is a wholly owned
1922:involving penal labour have included
1575:Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention
1252:Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea
5213:
4343:The World War II Multimedia Database
4287:"Anne Applebaum -- Inside the Gulag"
3987:Nicholas D. Kristof (14 July 1996).
3795:"Werkstraf – Reclassering Nederland"
3323:Criminal Justice in China: A History
3225:
2289:Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 1949
2224:
2108:Offences against the Person Act 1861
1767:Slave marriages in the United States
1371:Human trafficking in the Middle East
61:adding citations to reliable sources
32:
5251:"Prison call centre plans revealed"
4774:. Corrections ADC. 2013. p. 16
3609:
3486:Alouti, Feriel (31 December 2014).
3367:"Al Jazeera slavery debate in full"
3272:National Center for Policy Analysis
2919:for $ 1 an hour through the CDCR's
2434:Rassemblement démocratique africain
2255:
2199:British penal colonies in Australia
1993:, punishment, or physical torment.
1914:are required to perform, typically
1106:Human trafficking in Southeast Asia
13:
5306:New York: National Poverty Center.
5268:
5166:The Gazette (Colorado Springs, CO)
4922:Princeton University Press, 2014.
4890:Fryer, Brooke (5 September 2018).
4582:. The University of Chicago Press.
3610:OBA, Yoshirō (25 September 2012).
3444:
3392:Lipes, Joshua (12 November 2019).
3139:"Public Act, 16 George III, c. 43"
2260:Penal servitude was abolished for
2241:Penal servitude was abolished for
2217:According to section 45(1) of the
1760:last survivors of American slavery
14:
5442:
5310:
5216:International Political Sociology
5001:Corley, Cheryl (21 August 2018).
4970:Pilkington, Ed (23 August 2018).
4864:Pilkington, Ed (21 August 2018).
3445:Wu, Huizhong (24 December 2019).
3229:The A-Z of Punishment and Torture
2886:American Correctional Association
2473:Penal servitude was abolished in
2279:Penal servitude was abolished in
2026:
1970:Punitive versus productive labour
721:Field slaves in the United States
588:Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate
5228:10.1111/j.1749-5687.2007.00015.x
5141:from the original on 25 May 2022
4838:Lopez, German (22 August 2018).
3299:of the Criminal Justice Act 1948
2800:Penal labor in the United States
2793:
2137:Labour was sometimes useful. In
598:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate
593:Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate
422:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate
192:
37:
5317:McGarry v. Pallito 2nd Cir 2012
5207:
5125:Simon, Frances (6 March 1999).
5083:
5060:
5027:
4994:
4963:
4935:
4909:
4883:
4857:
4831:
4817:
4786:
4759:
4738:
4691:
4665:
4630:
4614:
4601:
4586:
4571:
4557:. DIANE Publishing. p. 1.
4544:
4522:
4489:
4470:Merritt, Steven (11 May 2003).
4463:
4444:
4426:
4361:
4331:
4305:
4278:
4262:
4236:
4191:
4102:
4067:
4032:
4006:
3980:
3950:
3924:
3888:
3860:
3835:
3813:
3787:
3765:
3743:
3721:
3691:
3664:
3633:
3603:
3591:
3573:
3547:
3529:
3514:
3505:
3479:
3464:
3438:
3413:
3385:
3359:
3337:
3302:
3290:
3278:
3246:
3216:of the Penal Servitude Act 1891
3204:of the Penal Servitude Act 1857
3168:. Old Bailey Proceedings Online
2895:From 2010 to 2015 and again in
2663:and other persecuted people in
2640:
2340:, a system of labour camps for
1906:is a term for various kinds of
1548:Committee of Experts on Slavery
1099:East, Southeast, and South Asia
48:needs additional citations for
5355:relationships and institutions
5191:Cameron, David (24 May 2005).
5160:Brown, Andrea (5 March 2006).
5067:Gleissner, John Dewar (2013).
4345:. 26 July 2011. Archived from
4041:The American Historical Review
3232:. BeWrite Books. p. 134.
3219:
3207:
3195:
3180:
3089:
3074:
2762:, with further millions being
2614:
2602:
2582:
2219:National Minimum Wage Act 1998
2041:Prisoners at the treadmill in
2023:material for sailing vessels.
1247:Slave raiding in Easter Island
1:
5249:Malik, Shiv (9 August 2012).
5092:Revue Française de Sociologie
4496:Parfitt, Tom (1 March 2003).
4389:. W. W. Norton Company, Inc.
4339:"German POWs in Allied Hands"
4177:. W. W. Norton Company, Inc.
3699:Ministerie van Algemene Zaken
3472:Revue française de sociologie
3369:. YouTube. 25 November 2011.
3067:
2370:Northwestern Youth Labor Camp
2057:. c. 43), also known as the "
1932:imprisonment with hard labour
4273:International Herald Tribune
3580:Government, (India) (1949).
2973:that working prisons offer.
2655:Katorga labor (Soviet Union)
2177:was a device which turned a
2075:American War of Independence
2007:inmates commonly worked the
1538:Temporary Slavery Commission
1199:Slavery in the Mongol Empire
7:
4472:"The Other Killing Machine"
3797:. YouTube. 31 August 2012.
3597:The Criminal Law Act 1997,
3543:(in French). 10 April 2019.
3022:Slavery in the 21st century
3015:
2903:, some prisoners in the US
2770:of the Soviet Union during
2704:Between 1930 and 1960, the
2564:
2531:
2385:Re-education through labour
2274:
2233:Prisoners picking oakum at
1558:Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery
603:Volga Bulgarian slave trade
28:Hard labor (disambiguation)
10:
5447:
4621:"The Thirteenth Amendment"
4551:McCollum, William (1996).
4144:Roberts, Geoffrey (2008).
2937:Non-punitive prison labour
2797:
2644:
2618:
2499:
2468:
2447:
2328:Re-education through labor
2321:
2126:(after his conviction for
2030:
1743:Great Dismal Swamp maroons
1580:Anti-Slavery International
1345:North Africa and West Asia
25:
18:
5360:
4593:Bernstein, Robin (2024).
4578:Bernstein, Robin (2024).
4150:. Yale University Press.
3640:Hippoh, Yasuyuki (1971).
3347:. Cnn.com. 9 October 1984
2921:Conservation Camp Program
2820:Federal Bureau of Prisons
2805:Federal Prison Industries
2785:
2609:Criminal Justice Act 1954
2571:
2538:
2426:French Revolution of 1848
2422:French Revolution of 1789
2414:
2409:Xinjiang internment camps
2332:Xinjiang internment camps
2247:Criminal Justice Act 1948
2193:in the early 20th century
2086:Criminal Justice Act 1948
1839:Emancipation Proclamation
1511:Opposition and resistance
1269:Sex trafficking in Europe
1257:Blackbirding in Polynesia
820:Trans-Saharan slave trade
4798:"America's Slave Empire"
4204:Hoover Institution Press
4109:Applebaum, Anne (2004).
4074:Applebaum, Anne (2004).
3962:U.S. Department of State
3320:Mühlhahn, Klaus (2009).
2495:
2477:by section 11(1) of the
2443:
2317:
2082:Penal Servitude Act 1853
1619:Compensated emancipation
830:Indian Ocean slave trade
5193:"A message from the PM"
4672:Walshe, Sadhbh (2012).
4383:Overy, Richard (2004).
4171:Overy, Richard (2004).
3829:Department of Sociology
3522:Sociétés contemporaines
3166:www.oldbaileyonline.org
3141:. The National Archives
2873:in some circumstances.
2264:by section 1(1) of the
2245:by section 1(1) of the
2071:North American colonies
1543:1926 Slavery Convention
1299:Germany in World War II
916:North and South America
438:Contract of manumission
4112:Gulag : a history
4077:Gulag : a history
3010:Prison Industries Unit
2975:
2950:
2849:
2816:government corporation
2621:Prisons in North Korea
2597:Wetboek van Strafrecht
2479:Criminal Law Act, 1997
2438:French Communist Party
2238:
2235:Coldbath Fields Prison
2194:
2152:, shot drill, and the
2051:Criminal Law Act 1776
2046:
1024:British Virgin Islands
576:Circassian slave trade
542:Safavid imperial harem
537:Ottoman Imperial Harem
166:
150:
21:Penal Servitude (film)
5274:Douglas A. Blackmon.
4018:Amnesty International
3936:Amnesty International
3191:Short Titles Act 1853
2970:
2959:sedentary lifestyle.
2944:
2847:
2558:. It was replaced by
2552:railroad construction
2502:Penal system of Japan
2393:Reform through labour
2322:Further information:
2237:in London, circa 1864
2232:
2189:Convict labourers in
2188:
2040:
2031:Further information:
1924:involuntary servitude
1263:Europe and North Asia
1223:Australia and Oceania
923:Pre-Columbian America
495:Slave raid of Suðuroy
427:Slavery in al-Andalus
349:Black Sea slave trade
278:21st-century jihadism
156:
140:
5281:Matthew J. Mancini.
5104:10.3917/rfs.515.0041
4827:. 16 September 2016.
4457:22 July 2009 at the
4434:"Gulag – Infoplease"
3820:SYMON, TONI (2012).
3707:www.rijksoverheid.nl
3127:on 12 February 2015.
3098:Parliamentary Papers
2945:Inmates sewing in a
2909:solitary confinement
2824:State prison systems
2729:Battle of Stalingrad
2708:regime created many
2560:indentured servitude
2182:an adjusting screw.
2120:victimless behaviour
2097:Prison Commissioners
1991:occupational therapy
1960:penal transportation
1956:penal military units
1718:Indentured servitude
1646:Underground Railroad
1446:United Arab Emirates
835:Zanzibar slave trade
802:By country or region
615:Atlantic slave trade
517:Ma malakat aymanukum
401:Venetian slave trade
57:improve this article
5295:David M. Oshinsky.
5288:Alex Lichtenstein.
5195:. ONE3ONE Solutions
4951:. 12 September 2018
4538:Ministry of Justice
4503:The Daily Telegraph
4319:on 7 September 2008
3912:on 28 February 2013
3847:www.justice.govt.nz
3254:Reynolds, Morgan O.
3027:Ashurst-Sumners Act
2997:Ashurst-Sumners Act
2982:, UK Prime Minister
2764:deported and exiled
2661:political prisoners
2397:political prisoners
2352:existed during the
2342:political prisoners
2033:Penal Servitude Act
1804:Slave Route Project
935:Americas indigenous
825:Red Sea slave trade
815:Contemporary Africa
678:Topics and practice
448:Crimean slave trade
443:Bukhara slave trade
396:Genoese slave trade
273:Contemporary Africa
253:Forced prostitution
5302:Bloom, D. (2006).
5172:on 23 January 2013
5048:on 4 February 2021
5015:on 4 February 2021
4982:on 9 February 2021
4915:Marie Gottschalk.
4540:. 15 January 2020.
4438:www.infoplease.com
4293:on 15 October 2008
3993:The New York Times
2951:
2858:American Civil War
2850:
2512:unfair competition
2239:
2195:
2047:
2043:Pentonville Prison
1585:Blockade of Africa
892:Somali slave trade
808:Sub-Saharan Africa
500:Turkish Abductions
458:Khivan slave trade
453:Khazar slave trade
406:Balkan slave trade
364:Prague slave trade
167:
151:
5418:
5417:
4564:978-0-7567-0060-7
4414:. Arlindo-Correia
4410:Applebaum, Anne.
4213:978-0-8179-3943-4
3775:. Reclassering.nl
3684:978-0-313-35134-1
3332:978-0-674-03323-8
3239:978-1-906609-43-6
3226:Thompson, Irene.
3037:Community service
3006:ONE3ONE Solutions
2809:doing business as
2782:or to the Gulag.
2748:production quotas
2635:reeducation camps
2589:community service
2527:road construction
2517:During the early
2354:Chinese Civil War
2243:England and Wales
2225:England and Wales
2130:), imprisoned in
1901:
1900:
1851:Freedmen's Bureau
1673:Third Servile War
1668:International law
1235:Human trafficking
997:Human trafficking
672:Thirteen colonies
490:Sack of Baltimore
258:Human trafficking
133:
132:
125:
107:
5438:
5346:
5339:
5332:
5323:
5322:
5262:
5261:
5259:
5257:
5246:
5240:
5239:
5211:
5205:
5204:
5202:
5200:
5188:
5182:
5181:
5179:
5177:
5168:. Archived from
5157:
5151:
5150:
5148:
5146:
5130:
5122:
5116:
5115:
5087:
5081:
5080:
5064:
5058:
5057:
5055:
5053:
5044:. Archived from
5031:
5025:
5024:
5022:
5020:
5011:. Archived from
4998:
4992:
4991:
4989:
4987:
4978:. Archived from
4967:
4961:
4960:
4958:
4956:
4939:
4933:
4913:
4907:
4906:
4904:
4902:
4887:
4881:
4880:
4878:
4876:
4861:
4855:
4854:
4852:
4850:
4835:
4829:
4828:
4821:
4815:
4814:
4812:
4810:
4796:(22 June 2015).
4790:
4784:
4783:
4781:
4779:
4773:
4763:
4757:
4756:
4750:
4742:
4736:
4735:
4729:
4721:
4715:
4714:
4712:
4710:
4695:
4689:
4688:
4686:
4684:
4669:
4663:
4662:
4634:
4628:
4618:
4612:
4605:
4599:
4598:
4590:
4584:
4583:
4575:
4569:
4568:
4548:
4542:
4541:
4526:
4520:
4519:
4517:
4515:
4510:on 20 April 2008
4506:. Archived from
4493:
4487:
4486:
4484:
4482:
4467:
4461:
4448:
4442:
4441:
4430:
4424:
4423:
4421:
4419:
4407:
4401:
4400:
4380:
4374:
4365:
4359:
4358:
4356:
4354:
4349:on 12 April 2012
4335:
4329:
4328:
4326:
4324:
4309:
4303:
4302:
4300:
4298:
4289:. Archived from
4282:
4276:
4275:, 1 January 2007
4266:
4260:
4259:
4257:
4255:
4246:. Archived from
4240:
4234:
4233:
4202:. Stanford, CA:
4195:
4189:
4188:
4168:
4162:
4161:
4141:
4135:
4134:
4106:
4100:
4099:
4071:
4065:
4064:
4047:(4): 1017–1049.
4036:
4030:
4029:
4027:
4025:
4010:
4004:
4003:
4001:
3999:
3984:
3978:
3977:
3975:
3973:
3968:on 24 March 2010
3964:. Archived from
3954:
3948:
3947:
3945:
3943:
3928:
3922:
3920:
3919:
3917:
3911:
3900:
3892:
3886:
3885:
3883:
3881:
3872:
3864:
3858:
3857:
3855:
3853:
3839:
3833:
3832:
3826:
3817:
3811:
3810:
3808:
3806:
3791:
3785:
3784:
3782:
3780:
3769:
3763:
3762:
3760:
3758:
3747:
3741:
3740:
3738:
3736:
3725:
3719:
3718:
3716:
3714:
3701:(11 June 2012).
3695:
3689:
3688:
3668:
3662:
3661:
3659:
3657:
3637:
3631:
3630:
3628:
3626:
3607:
3601:
3595:
3589:
3588:
3586:
3577:
3571:
3570:
3568:
3566:
3551:
3545:
3544:
3533:
3527:
3518:
3512:
3509:
3503:
3502:
3500:
3498:
3483:
3477:
3468:
3462:
3461:
3459:
3457:
3442:
3436:
3435:
3433:
3431:
3425:www.china.org.cn
3417:
3411:
3410:
3408:
3406:
3389:
3383:
3382:
3380:
3378:
3363:
3357:
3356:
3354:
3352:
3341:
3335:
3318:
3312:
3306:
3300:
3294:
3288:
3282:
3276:
3275:
3250:
3244:
3243:
3223:
3217:
3211:
3205:
3199:
3193:
3184:
3178:
3177:
3175:
3173:
3157:
3151:
3150:
3148:
3146:
3135:
3129:
3128:
3123:. Archived from
3117:
3102:
3101:
3093:
3087:
3086:
3078:
2983:
2890:security prisons
2673:Communist states
2578:
2576:
2575:
2567:
2545:
2543:
2542:
2534:
2462:prisons in India
2450:Prisons in India
2344:operated by the
2338:pre-Maoist China
2262:Northern Ireland
2256:Northern Ireland
1977:, also known as
1893:
1886:
1879:
1863:Emancipation Day
1696:
1663:Slave Trade Acts
354:Byzantine Empire
196:
169:
168:
128:
121:
117:
114:
108:
106:
65:
41:
33:
5446:
5445:
5441:
5440:
5439:
5437:
5436:
5435:
5421:
5420:
5419:
5414:
5356:
5350:
5313:
5271:
5269:Further reading
5266:
5265:
5255:
5253:
5247:
5243:
5212:
5208:
5198:
5196:
5189:
5185:
5175:
5173:
5158:
5154:
5144:
5142:
5134:The Independent
5123:
5119:
5088:
5084:
5079:(3): Article 4.
5065:
5061:
5051:
5049:
5032:
5028:
5018:
5016:
4999:
4995:
4985:
4983:
4968:
4964:
4954:
4952:
4941:
4940:
4936:
4914:
4910:
4900:
4898:
4888:
4884:
4874:
4872:
4862:
4858:
4848:
4846:
4836:
4832:
4823:
4822:
4818:
4808:
4806:
4791:
4787:
4777:
4775:
4771:
4765:
4764:
4760:
4748:
4744:
4743:
4739:
4727:
4723:
4722:
4718:
4708:
4706:
4697:
4696:
4692:
4682:
4680:
4670:
4666:
4639:Social Problems
4635:
4631:
4619:
4615:
4606:
4602:
4591:
4587:
4576:
4572:
4565:
4549:
4545:
4528:
4527:
4523:
4513:
4511:
4494:
4490:
4480:
4478:
4468:
4464:
4459:Wayback Machine
4449:
4445:
4432:
4431:
4427:
4417:
4415:
4408:
4404:
4397:
4381:
4377:
4366:
4362:
4352:
4350:
4337:
4336:
4332:
4322:
4320:
4311:
4310:
4306:
4296:
4294:
4285:
4283:
4279:
4267:
4263:
4253:
4251:
4250:on 2 March 2010
4242:
4241:
4237:
4214:
4196:
4192:
4185:
4169:
4165:
4158:
4142:
4138:
4123:
4107:
4103:
4088:
4072:
4068:
4053:10.2307/2166597
4037:
4033:
4023:
4021:
4020:. 2 August 2009
4012:
4011:
4007:
3997:
3995:
3985:
3981:
3971:
3969:
3956:
3955:
3951:
3941:
3939:
3930:
3929:
3925:
3915:
3913:
3909:
3898:
3894:
3893:
3889:
3879:
3877:
3870:
3866:
3865:
3861:
3851:
3849:
3841:
3840:
3836:
3824:
3818:
3814:
3804:
3802:
3793:
3792:
3788:
3778:
3776:
3771:
3770:
3766:
3756:
3754:
3749:
3748:
3744:
3734:
3732:
3727:
3726:
3722:
3712:
3710:
3696:
3692:
3685:
3669:
3665:
3655:
3653:
3638:
3634:
3624:
3622:
3608:
3604:
3596:
3592:
3584:
3578:
3574:
3564:
3562:
3559:Hindustan Times
3553:
3552:
3548:
3535:
3534:
3530:
3519:
3515:
3510:
3506:
3496:
3494:
3484:
3480:
3469:
3465:
3455:
3453:
3443:
3439:
3429:
3427:
3419:
3418:
3414:
3404:
3402:
3399:Radio Free Asia
3390:
3386:
3376:
3374:
3365:
3364:
3360:
3350:
3348:
3343:
3342:
3338:
3319:
3315:
3307:
3303:
3295:
3291:
3283:
3279:
3251:
3247:
3240:
3224:
3220:
3212:
3208:
3200:
3196:
3185:
3181:
3171:
3169:
3158:
3154:
3144:
3142:
3137:
3136:
3132:
3119:
3118:
3105:
3094:
3090:
3079:
3075:
3070:
3018:
3008:, formerly the
2985:
2977:
2939:
2913:private prisons
2905:refused to work
2867:Progressive Era
2802:
2796:
2788:
2768:German invasion
2677:Imperial Russia
2657:
2645:Main articles:
2643:
2633:in Korean) and
2623:
2617:
2605:
2585:
2568:
2535:
2504:
2498:
2471:
2457:Hindustan Times
2452:
2446:
2417:
2377:Communist China
2350:Chiang Kai-shek
2334:
2320:
2277:
2258:
2227:
2128:gross indecency
2035:
2029:
1975:Punitive labour
1972:
1928:penal servitude
1897:
1868:
1867:
1772:Slave narrative
1728:Fugitive slaves
1708:
1700:
1699:
1690:
1658:Slave rebellion
1513:
1503:
1502:
1461:
1451:
1450:
1273:United Kingdom
1209:Yankee princess
803:
795:
794:
522:Avret Pazarları
468:Avret Pazarları
337:Medieval Europe
303:
293:
292:
231:Forced marriage
206:
129:
118:
112:
109:
66:
64:
54:
42:
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5444:
5434:
5433:
5416:
5415:
5413:
5412:
5407:
5402:
5397:
5392:
5387:
5382:
5380:Haruwa–charuwa
5377:
5372:
5367:
5361:
5358:
5357:
5349:
5348:
5341:
5334:
5326:
5320:
5319:
5312:
5311:External links
5309:
5308:
5307:
5300:
5293:
5286:
5279:
5270:
5267:
5264:
5263:
5241:
5222:(3): 222–239.
5206:
5183:
5152:
5117:
5082:
5059:
5026:
4993:
4962:
4948:Democracy Now!
4934:
4931:978-0691170831
4908:
4882:
4856:
4830:
4816:
4785:
4758:
4753:Prisoner Labor
4737:
4732:Prisoner Labor
4716:
4705:on 10 May 2012
4690:
4664:
4651:10.2307/800272
4645:(5): 555–569.
4629:
4613:
4600:
4585:
4570:
4563:
4543:
4534:law.moj.gov.tw
4521:
4488:
4476:New York Times
4462:
4443:
4425:
4402:
4395:
4375:
4360:
4330:
4304:
4277:
4261:
4235:
4212:
4190:
4183:
4163:
4157:978-0300150407
4156:
4136:
4121:
4101:
4086:
4066:
4031:
4005:
3979:
3949:
3923:
3887:
3859:
3834:
3812:
3786:
3764:
3742:
3720:
3690:
3683:
3663:
3632:
3602:
3590:
3572:
3561:. 24 July 2011
3546:
3528:
3524:3/2012 (No 87)
3513:
3504:
3478:
3463:
3437:
3412:
3384:
3358:
3336:
3334:. pp. 132–133.
3313:
3301:
3289:
3277:
3245:
3238:
3218:
3206:
3194:
3179:
3152:
3130:
3103:
3088:
3072:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3065:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3017:
3014:
2969:
2965:license plates
2938:
2935:
2798:Main article:
2795:
2792:
2787:
2784:
2776:NKVD massacred
2642:
2639:
2619:Main article:
2616:
2613:
2604:
2601:
2584:
2581:
2500:Main article:
2497:
2494:
2470:
2467:
2448:Main article:
2445:
2442:
2416:
2413:
2366:anti-communism
2319:
2316:
2308:section 307(4)
2276:
2273:
2257:
2254:
2226:
2223:
2206:in Britain or
2139:Inveraray Jail
2067:transportation
2045:, London, 1895
2028:
2027:British Empire
2025:
1971:
1968:
1952:penal colonies
1899:
1898:
1896:
1895:
1888:
1881:
1873:
1870:
1869:
1866:
1865:
1860:
1859:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1842:
1841:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1801:
1796:
1791:
1786:
1785:
1784:
1779:
1769:
1764:
1763:
1762:
1757:
1750:List of slaves
1747:
1746:
1745:
1740:
1735:
1725:
1720:
1715:
1709:
1706:
1705:
1702:
1701:
1698:
1697:
1685:
1680:
1675:
1670:
1665:
1660:
1655:
1654:
1653:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1632:
1631:
1621:
1616:
1615:
1614:
1609:
1599:
1598:
1597:
1592:
1582:
1577:
1572:
1571:
1570:
1565:
1560:
1555:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1535:
1530:
1525:
1514:
1509:
1508:
1505:
1504:
1501:
1500:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1484:
1483:
1478:
1468:
1462:
1457:
1456:
1453:
1452:
1449:
1448:
1443:
1438:
1433:
1428:
1423:
1418:
1413:
1408:
1403:
1398:
1393:
1388:
1383:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1363:
1358:
1353:
1347:
1346:
1342:
1341:
1336:
1331:
1326:
1321:
1316:
1311:
1306:
1301:
1296:
1294:Dutch Republic
1291:
1286:
1285:
1284:
1279:
1271:
1265:
1264:
1260:
1259:
1254:
1249:
1244:
1239:
1238:
1237:
1226:
1225:
1219:
1218:
1213:
1212:
1211:
1201:
1196:
1191:
1186:
1185:
1184:
1174:
1173:
1172:
1162:
1157:
1156:
1155:
1150:
1140:
1139:
1138:
1133:
1128:
1118:
1113:
1108:
1102:
1101:
1095:
1094:
1089:
1082:
1081:
1080:
1075:
1065:
1060:
1055:
1054:
1053:
1043:
1038:
1037:
1036:
1031:
1026:
1021:
1011:
1006:
1001:
1000:
999:
994:
989:
984:
979:
974:
969:
964:
959:
954:
944:
943:
942:
932:
931:
930:
919:
918:
912:
911:
906:
901:
896:
895:
894:
884:
879:
874:
869:
864:
859:
854:
849:
844:
839:
838:
837:
827:
822:
817:
811:
810:
804:
801:
800:
797:
796:
793:
792:
787:
782:
777:
772:
766:
765:
761:
760:
755:
753:Child soldiers
750:
745:
740:
735:
730:
729:
728:
718:
713:
708:
703:
702:
701:
696:
691:
680:
679:
675:
674:
669:
664:
662:Spanish Empire
659:
654:
649:
644:
642:Middle Passage
639:
634:
629:
624:
618:
617:
611:
610:
605:
600:
595:
590:
585:
580:
579:
578:
573:
568:
563:
558:
549:
544:
539:
534:
529:
524:
519:
514:
504:
503:
502:
497:
492:
487:
482:
472:
471:
470:
463:Ottoman Empire
460:
455:
450:
445:
440:
435:
430:
424:
418:
417:
411:
410:
409:
408:
398:
393:
388:
387:
386:
381:
376:
366:
361:
356:
351:
346:
340:
339:
333:
332:
327:
322:
317:
311:
310:
304:
299:
298:
295:
294:
291:
290:
285:
283:Sexual slavery
280:
275:
270:
265:
260:
255:
250:
249:
248:
243:
241:Child marriage
238:
228:
223:
218:
216:Child soldiers
213:
207:
202:
201:
198:
197:
189:
188:
178:
177:
131:
130:
113:September 2013
72:"Penal labour"
45:
43:
36:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5443:
5432:
5429:
5428:
5426:
5411:
5408:
5406:
5403:
5401:
5398:
5396:
5393:
5391:
5388:
5386:
5383:
5381:
5378:
5376:
5373:
5371:
5368:
5366:
5363:
5362:
5359:
5354:
5353:Unfree labour
5347:
5342:
5340:
5335:
5333:
5328:
5327:
5324:
5318:
5315:
5314:
5305:
5301:
5298:
5294:
5291:
5287:
5284:
5280:
5277:
5273:
5272:
5252:
5245:
5237:
5233:
5229:
5225:
5221:
5217:
5210:
5194:
5187:
5171:
5167:
5163:
5156:
5140:
5136:
5135:
5129:
5121:
5113:
5109:
5105:
5101:
5097:
5093:
5086:
5078:
5074:
5070:
5063:
5047:
5043:
5042:
5037:
5030:
5014:
5010:
5009:
5004:
4997:
4981:
4977:
4973:
4966:
4950:
4949:
4944:
4938:
4932:
4928:
4925:
4921:
4919:
4912:
4897:
4893:
4886:
4871:
4867:
4860:
4845:
4841:
4834:
4826:
4820:
4805:
4804:
4799:
4795:
4794:Hedges, Chris
4789:
4770:
4769:
4762:
4754:
4747:
4741:
4733:
4726:
4720:
4704:
4700:
4694:
4679:
4675:
4668:
4660:
4656:
4652:
4648:
4644:
4640:
4633:
4626:
4622:
4617:
4610:
4604:
4596:
4589:
4581:
4574:
4566:
4560:
4556:
4555:
4547:
4539:
4535:
4531:
4525:
4509:
4505:
4504:
4499:
4492:
4477:
4473:
4466:
4460:
4456:
4452:
4447:
4439:
4435:
4429:
4413:
4406:
4398:
4396:9780141912240
4392:
4388:
4387:
4379:
4373:
4369:
4368:Antony Beevor
4364:
4348:
4344:
4340:
4334:
4318:
4314:
4308:
4292:
4288:
4281:
4274:
4270:
4265:
4249:
4245:
4239:
4231:
4227:
4223:
4219:
4215:
4209:
4206:. p. 8.
4205:
4201:
4194:
4186:
4184:9780141912240
4180:
4176:
4175:
4167:
4159:
4153:
4149:
4148:
4140:
4132:
4128:
4124:
4122:1-4000-3409-4
4118:
4114:
4113:
4105:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4087:1-4000-3409-4
4083:
4079:
4078:
4070:
4062:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4042:
4035:
4019:
4015:
4009:
3994:
3990:
3983:
3967:
3963:
3959:
3953:
3937:
3933:
3927:
3908:
3904:
3897:
3891:
3876:
3869:
3863:
3848:
3844:
3838:
3830:
3823:
3816:
3800:
3796:
3790:
3774:
3768:
3752:
3746:
3730:
3724:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3694:
3686:
3680:
3676:
3675:
3667:
3651:
3647:
3643:
3636:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3606:
3600:
3599:section 11(1)
3594:
3583:
3576:
3560:
3556:
3550:
3542:
3538:
3532:
3526:
3523:
3517:
3508:
3493:
3489:
3482:
3476:
3473:
3467:
3452:
3448:
3441:
3426:
3422:
3416:
3401:
3400:
3395:
3388:
3372:
3368:
3362:
3346:
3340:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3324:
3317:
3310:
3305:
3298:
3293:
3286:
3281:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3264:
3259:
3255:
3249:
3241:
3235:
3231:
3230:
3222:
3215:
3210:
3203:
3198:
3192:
3188:
3183:
3167:
3163:
3156:
3140:
3134:
3126:
3122:
3116:
3114:
3112:
3110:
3108:
3099:
3092:
3084:
3077:
3073:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3057:Trusty system
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3042:Convict lease
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3019:
3013:
3011:
3007:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2994:
2993:United States
2990:
2984:
2981:
2980:David Cameron
2974:
2968:
2966:
2960:
2957:
2948:
2943:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2924:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2893:
2891:
2887:
2881:
2879:
2874:
2870:
2868:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2854:convict lease
2846:
2842:
2840:
2835:
2833:
2829:
2828:Auburn Prison
2825:
2821:
2817:
2814:
2813:United States
2810:
2806:
2801:
2794:United States
2791:
2783:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2732:
2730:
2726:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2702:
2698:
2696:
2695:Joseph Stalin
2692:
2688:
2684:
2683:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2638:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2622:
2612:
2610:
2600:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2580:
2574:
2566:
2565:Takobeya-rōdō
2561:
2557:
2556:unfree labour
2553:
2549:
2541:
2533:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2515:
2513:
2509:
2508:manufacturing
2503:
2493:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2480:
2476:
2466:
2463:
2459:
2458:
2451:
2441:
2439:
2435:
2429:
2427:
2423:
2412:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2373:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2315:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2296:
2292:
2290:
2286:
2285:section 16(1)
2282:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2263:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2244:
2236:
2231:
2222:
2220:
2215:
2211:
2209:
2205:
2204:misdemeanours
2200:
2192:
2187:
2183:
2180:
2176:
2175:crank machine
2171:
2168:
2164:
2161:
2157:
2155:
2154:crank machine
2151:
2146:
2144:
2140:
2135:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2118:, as well as
2117:
2113:
2109:
2104:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2089:
2087:
2083:
2078:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2024:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2013:crank machine
2010:
2006:
2002:
1999:
1994:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1967:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1940:
1937:
1936:prison system
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1916:manual labour
1913:
1909:
1908:forced labour
1905:
1894:
1889:
1887:
1882:
1880:
1875:
1874:
1872:
1871:
1864:
1861:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1840:
1837:
1836:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1806:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1795:
1794:Slave catcher
1792:
1790:
1787:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1775:
1774:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1765:
1761:
1758:
1756:
1753:
1752:
1751:
1748:
1744:
1741:
1739:
1736:
1734:
1731:
1730:
1729:
1726:
1724:
1723:Forced labour
1721:
1719:
1716:
1714:
1711:
1710:
1704:
1703:
1694:
1689:
1686:
1684:
1681:
1679:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1664:
1661:
1659:
1656:
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1649:
1648:
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1644:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1634:
1630:
1627:
1626:
1625:
1622:
1620:
1617:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1604:
1603:
1600:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1588:
1587:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1569:
1568:Abolitionists
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1520:
1519:
1516:
1515:
1512:
1507:
1506:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1482:
1479:
1477:
1474:
1473:
1472:
1469:
1467:
1464:
1463:
1460:
1455:
1454:
1447:
1444:
1442:
1439:
1437:
1434:
1432:
1429:
1427:
1424:
1422:
1419:
1417:
1414:
1412:
1409:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1392:
1389:
1387:
1384:
1382:
1379:
1377:
1374:
1372:
1369:
1367:
1364:
1362:
1359:
1357:
1354:
1352:
1349:
1348:
1344:
1343:
1340:
1337:
1335:
1332:
1330:
1327:
1325:
1322:
1320:
1317:
1315:
1312:
1310:
1307:
1305:
1302:
1300:
1297:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1283:
1280:
1278:
1275:
1274:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1266:
1262:
1261:
1258:
1255:
1253:
1250:
1248:
1245:
1243:
1240:
1236:
1233:
1232:
1231:
1228:
1227:
1224:
1221:
1220:
1217:
1214:
1210:
1207:
1206:
1205:
1202:
1200:
1197:
1195:
1192:
1190:
1187:
1183:
1180:
1179:
1178:
1175:
1171:
1170:comfort women
1168:
1167:
1166:
1163:
1161:
1158:
1154:
1153:Chukri System
1151:
1149:
1146:
1145:
1144:
1141:
1137:
1134:
1132:
1129:
1127:
1124:
1123:
1122:
1119:
1117:
1114:
1112:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1103:
1100:
1097:
1096:
1093:
1090:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1070:
1069:
1066:
1064:
1061:
1059:
1056:
1052:
1049:
1048:
1047:
1044:
1042:
1041:Latin America
1039:
1035:
1032:
1030:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1020:
1017:
1016:
1015:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1005:
1002:
998:
995:
993:
992:interregional
990:
988:
985:
983:
980:
978:
977:prison labour
975:
973:
970:
968:
965:
963:
960:
958:
955:
953:
950:
949:
948:
947:United States
945:
941:
938:
937:
936:
933:
929:
926:
925:
924:
921:
920:
917:
914:
913:
910:
907:
905:
902:
900:
897:
893:
890:
889:
888:
885:
883:
880:
878:
875:
873:
870:
868:
865:
863:
860:
858:
855:
853:
850:
848:
845:
843:
840:
836:
833:
832:
831:
828:
826:
823:
821:
818:
816:
813:
812:
809:
806:
805:
799:
798:
791:
788:
786:
783:
781:
778:
776:
773:
771:
768:
767:
763:
762:
759:
758:White slavery
756:
754:
751:
749:
748:Slave raiding
746:
744:
741:
739:
736:
734:
731:
727:
724:
723:
722:
719:
717:
716:Corvée labour
714:
712:
709:
707:
704:
700:
697:
695:
692:
690:
687:
686:
685:
682:
681:
677:
676:
673:
670:
668:
665:
663:
660:
658:
655:
653:
650:
648:
645:
643:
640:
638:
635:
633:
630:
628:
625:
623:
620:
619:
616:
613:
612:
609:
606:
604:
601:
599:
596:
594:
591:
589:
586:
584:
581:
577:
574:
572:
569:
567:
564:
562:
559:
557:
553:
550:
548:
545:
543:
540:
538:
535:
533:
532:Abbasid harem
530:
528:
525:
523:
520:
518:
515:
513:
510:
509:
508:
505:
501:
498:
496:
493:
491:
488:
486:
483:
481:
478:
477:
476:
475:Barbary Coast
473:
469:
466:
465:
464:
461:
459:
456:
454:
451:
449:
446:
444:
441:
439:
436:
434:
431:
428:
425:
423:
420:
419:
416:
413:
412:
407:
404:
403:
402:
399:
397:
394:
392:
389:
385:
382:
380:
377:
375:
372:
371:
370:
367:
365:
362:
360:
357:
355:
352:
350:
347:
345:
342:
341:
338:
335:
334:
331:
328:
326:
323:
321:
318:
316:
313:
312:
309:
306:
305:
302:
297:
296:
289:
286:
284:
281:
279:
276:
274:
271:
269:
266:
264:
261:
259:
256:
254:
251:
247:
244:
242:
239:
237:
234:
233:
232:
229:
227:
224:
222:
219:
217:
214:
212:
209:
208:
205:
200:
199:
195:
191:
190:
187:
183:
182:Forced labour
180:
179:
175:
171:
170:
164:
160:
159:Dar es Salaam
155:
148:
144:
139:
135:
127:
124:
116:
105:
102:
98:
95:
91:
88:
84:
81:
77:
74: –
73:
69:
68:Find sources:
62:
58:
52:
51:
46:This article
44:
40:
35:
34:
29:
22:
5431:Penal labour
5395:Penal labour
5394:
5365:Conscription
5303:
5296:
5289:
5282:
5275:
5254:. Retrieved
5244:
5219:
5215:
5209:
5197:. Retrieved
5186:
5174:. Retrieved
5170:the original
5165:
5155:
5143:. Retrieved
5132:
5120:
5098:(5): 41–68.
5095:
5091:
5085:
5076:
5072:
5062:
5052:13 September
5050:. Retrieved
5046:the original
5039:
5029:
5019:13 September
5017:. Retrieved
5013:the original
5006:
4996:
4986:13 September
4984:. Retrieved
4980:the original
4976:The Guardian
4975:
4965:
4955:13 September
4953:. Retrieved
4946:
4937:
4916:
4911:
4901:13 September
4899:. Retrieved
4895:
4885:
4875:13 September
4873:. Retrieved
4870:The Guardian
4869:
4859:
4849:13 September
4847:. Retrieved
4843:
4833:
4819:
4809:13 September
4807:. Retrieved
4801:
4788:
4776:. Retrieved
4767:
4761:
4752:
4740:
4731:
4719:
4707:. Retrieved
4703:the original
4693:
4681:. Retrieved
4678:The Guardian
4677:
4667:
4642:
4638:
4632:
4624:
4616:
4608:
4603:
4594:
4588:
4579:
4573:
4553:
4546:
4533:
4530:"Prison Act"
4524:
4512:. Retrieved
4508:the original
4501:
4491:
4479:. Retrieved
4475:
4465:
4446:
4437:
4428:
4416:. Retrieved
4405:
4385:
4378:
4371:
4363:
4351:. Retrieved
4347:the original
4342:
4333:
4321:. Retrieved
4317:the original
4307:
4295:. Retrieved
4291:the original
4280:
4272:
4264:
4252:. Retrieved
4248:the original
4238:
4199:
4193:
4173:
4166:
4146:
4139:
4111:
4104:
4076:
4069:
4044:
4040:
4034:
4022:. Retrieved
4017:
4008:
3996:. Retrieved
3992:
3982:
3970:. Retrieved
3966:the original
3961:
3952:
3940:. Retrieved
3938:. 4 May 2011
3935:
3926:
3914:, retrieved
3907:the original
3902:
3890:
3878:. Retrieved
3874:
3862:
3850:. Retrieved
3846:
3837:
3828:
3815:
3803:. Retrieved
3789:
3777:. Retrieved
3767:
3755:. Retrieved
3745:
3733:. Retrieved
3723:
3711:. Retrieved
3706:
3693:
3677:. ABC-CLIO.
3673:
3666:
3654:. Retrieved
3649:
3645:
3635:
3623:. Retrieved
3619:
3615:
3605:
3593:
3575:
3563:. Retrieved
3558:
3549:
3540:
3531:
3521:
3516:
3507:
3495:. Retrieved
3491:
3481:
3471:
3466:
3454:. Retrieved
3450:
3440:
3428:. Retrieved
3424:
3415:
3403:. Retrieved
3397:
3387:
3375:. Retrieved
3361:
3349:. Retrieved
3339:
3321:
3316:
3309:section 1(1)
3304:
3297:section 1(1)
3292:
3280:
3267:
3261:
3248:
3228:
3221:
3209:
3197:
3182:
3170:. Retrieved
3165:
3155:
3143:. Retrieved
3133:
3125:the original
3097:
3091:
3083:Civil Rights
3082:
3076:
3052:Galley slave
3004:
3001:
2986:
2976:
2971:
2961:
2952:
2932:
2925:
2894:
2882:
2875:
2871:
2851:
2836:
2832:Owasco River
2803:
2789:
2772:World War II
2733:
2722:World War II
2718:Central Asia
2710:labour camps
2703:
2699:
2680:
2669:Soviet Union
2665:labour camps
2658:
2641:Soviet Union
2624:
2606:
2592:
2586:
2516:
2505:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2472:
2455:
2453:
2430:
2418:
2388:
2380:
2374:
2335:
2297:
2293:
2278:
2270:
2259:
2251:
2240:
2216:
2212:
2196:
2174:
2172:
2166:
2165:
2159:
2158:
2147:
2136:
2132:Reading Gaol
2105:
2090:
2079:
2063:River Thames
2050:
2048:
2003:
1995:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1973:
1964:prison ships
1962:, or aboard
1948:prison farms
1944:labour camps
1941:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1904:Penal labour
1903:
1902:
1799:Slave patrol
1636:Freedom suit
1612:Sierra Leone
1602:Colonization
1518:Abolitionism
1498:Baháʼí Faith
1471:Christianity
1421:Saudi Arabia
1277:Penal Labour
1242:Blackbirding
1148:Debt bondage
1136:penal system
962:Contemporary
952:Field slaves
940:U.S. Natives
899:South Africa
770:Galley slave
743:Slave market
733:House slaves
706:Blackbirding
684:Conscription
608:21st century
571:Umm al-walad
415:Muslim world
384:Emancipation
288:Wage slavery
268:Penal labour
267:
246:Wife selling
236:Bride buying
221:Conscription
211:Child Labour
204:Contemporary
165:c.1890–1927.
134:
119:
110:
100:
93:
86:
79:
67:
55:Please help
50:verification
47:
5410:Truck wages
5385:Labour camp
4709:4 September
4514:6 September
4481:6 September
4418:6 September
4353:6 September
4323:6 September
3942:24 November
3880:11 November
3805:6 September
3779:6 September
3757:6 September
3735:6 September
3713:18 November
3646:北海道大學 經濟學研究
3541:Le Monde.fr
3497:19 November
3492:Equal Times
3456:26 February
3430:26 February
3405:13 November
3377:6 September
3351:6 September
3187:long titled
2956:penological
2878:US military
2615:North Korea
2603:New Zealand
2583:Netherlands
2532:Shūjin dōro
2300:section 221
2124:Oscar Wilde
2112:petty theft
2093:Home Office
2065:in lieu of
1998:prison farm
1987:hard labour
1985:labour, or
1814:court cases
1691: [
1641:Slave Power
1629:Manumission
1476:Catholicism
1351:Afghanistan
1092:Puerto Rico
1004:The Bahamas
982:Slave codes
785:Shanghaiing
775:Impressment
667:Slave Coast
547:Qajar harem
507:Concubinage
480:slave trade
5375:Encomienda
5176:7 December
5145:8 February
4755:: 2. 1993.
4734:: 4. 1993.
4372:Stalingrad
3916:7 February
3709:(in Dutch)
3616:北海学園大学学園論集
3285:Section 45
3068:References
3032:Chain gang
2989:privatised
2671:and other
2631:Kwan-li-so
2401:Al Jazeera
2362:communists
2358:Mao Zedong
2348:forces of
2346:Kuomintang
2167:Shot drill
2160:Treadmills
2101:Recidivist
1829:J.Q. Adams
1819:Washington
1789:Slave name
1738:convention
1713:Common law
1086:Encomienda
882:Seychelles
867:Mauritania
790:Slave ship
657:Panyarring
652:New France
301:Historical
163:Tanganyika
83:newspapers
5256:10 August
5236:1749-5687
5199:10 August
5041:USA Today
4924:pp. 59–61
4896:NITV News
4222:843883154
3852:1 January
3656:9 October
3625:6 October
3214:Section 1
3202:Section 2
2947:Brazilian
2917:wildfires
2752:brutality
2725:prisoners
2687:amnestied
2679:known as
2593:taakstraf
2519:Meiji era
2191:Australia
2150:treadmill
2059:Hulks Act
2055:16 Geo. 3
2009:treadmill
2005:Victorian
1912:prisoners
1824:Jefferson
1481:Mormonism
1416:Palestine
1230:Australia
1160:Indonesia
1051:Lei Áurea
1034:Code Noir
1014:Caribbean
987:Treatment
726:Treatment
699:Devshirme
561:Odalisque
379:In Russia
320:Babylonia
308:Antiquity
143:Bucharest
5425:Category
5139:Archived
5112:40731128
4803:Truthdig
4607:Tsesis,
4455:Archived
4230:9650930M
4131:55203139
4096:55203139
3998:3 August
3799:Archived
3371:Archived
3256:(1994).
3016:See also
2862:Jim Crow
2591:(Dutch:
2523:Hokkaido
2436:and the
2405:the West
2360:and his
2281:Scotland
2275:Scotland
2116:vagrancy
2095:and the
2021:caulking
1981:labour,
1920:sentence
1856:Iron bit
1846:40 acres
1809:breeding
1624:Freedman
1459:Religion
1319:Portugal
1204:Thailand
1194:Maldives
1189:Malaysia
1182:Kwalliso
1126:Booi Aha
1078:Restavek
1058:Colombia
1029:Trinidad
1019:Barbados
909:Zanzibar
857:Ethiopia
738:Saqaliba
632:Database
583:Saqaliba
344:Ancillae
174:a series
172:Part of
149:, 1930s.
5405:Slavery
5400:Serfdom
5299:(1996).
4297:16 July
4254:16 July
4061:2166597
3451:Reuters
3172:12 June
3145:12 June
2744:Vorkuta
2740:Norilsk
2714:Siberia
2682:katorga
2475:Ireland
2469:Ireland
2381:laojiao
2368:at the
2310:of the
2302:of the
2287:of the
2208:Ireland
2069:to the
1979:convict
1834:Lincoln
1707:Related
1607:Liberia
1493:Judaism
1431:Tunisia
1406:Morocco
1396:Lebanon
1361:Bahrain
1356:Algeria
1324:Romania
1289:Denmark
1282:Slavery
1216:Vietnam
887:Somalia
877:Nigeria
852:Comoros
780:Pirates
689:Ghilman
622:Bristol
512:history
485:pirates
374:History
263:Peonage
186:slavery
147:Romania
97:scholar
5370:Corvée
5292:(1996)
5285:(1996)
5278:(2008)
5234:
5110:
4929:
4778:14 May
4683:14 May
4659:800272
4657:
4561:
4393:
4228:
4220:
4210:
4181:
4154:
4129:
4119:
4094:
4084:
4059:
3681:
3330:
3236:
3085:: 102.
3062:UNICOR
2949:prison
2807:(FPI;
2786:Taiwan
2780:Moscow
2774:, the
2756:hunger
2736:Kolyma
2706:Soviet
2691:purges
2653:, and
2573:タコ部屋労働
2550:, and
2548:mining
2415:France
2389:laogai
2387:) and
2330:, and
2324:Laogai
1983:prison
1930:, and
1755:owners
1391:Kuwait
1386:Jordan
1339:Sweden
1329:Russia
1314:Poland
1309:Norway
1131:Laogai
1116:Brunei
1111:Bhutan
1073:revolt
1046:Brazil
1009:Canada
972:partus
957:female
842:Angola
711:Coolie
694:Mamluk
647:Nantes
627:Brazil
556:Cariye
391:Thrall
359:Kholop
325:Greece
99:
92:
85:
78:
70:
5390:Mit'a
5108:JSTOR
4772:(PDF)
4749:(PDF)
4728:(PDF)
4655:JSTOR
4057:JSTOR
4024:4 May
3972:4 May
3910:(PDF)
3899:(PDF)
3871:(PDF)
3825:(PDF)
3585:(PDF)
3565:4 May
3274:: 33.
3270:(2).
2852:The "
2760:Gulag
2647:Gulag
2521:, in
2496:Japan
2444:India
2318:China
2179:crank
2143:oakum
2017:oakum
1910:that
1782:songs
1777:films
1695:]
1651:songs
1488:Islam
1466:Bible
1441:Yemen
1436:Qatar
1426:Syria
1401:Libya
1366:Egypt
1334:Spain
1304:Malta
1177:Korea
1165:Japan
1143:India
1121:China
1068:Haiti
928:Aztec
904:Sudan
872:Niger
764:Naval
637:Dutch
566:Qiyan
552:Jarya
527:Harem
369:Serfs
315:Egypt
104:JSTOR
90:books
5258:2012
5232:ISSN
5201:2012
5178:2008
5147:2009
5054:2018
5021:2018
4988:2018
4957:2018
4927:ISBN
4903:2018
4877:2018
4851:2018
4811:2018
4780:2015
4711:2014
4685:2015
4559:ISBN
4516:2013
4483:2013
4420:2013
4391:ISBN
4355:2013
4325:2013
4299:2010
4256:2010
4218:OCLC
4208:ISBN
4179:ISBN
4152:ISBN
4127:OCLC
4117:ISBN
4092:OCLC
4082:ISBN
4026:2010
4000:2012
3974:2010
3944:2011
3918:2014
3882:2010
3854:2016
3807:2013
3781:2013
3759:2013
3737:2013
3715:2022
3679:ISBN
3658:2020
3627:2020
3567:2019
3499:2017
3458:2021
3432:2021
3407:2019
3379:2013
3353:2013
3328:ISBN
3234:ISBN
3174:2016
3147:2016
2901:2018
2899:and
2897:2016
2837:The
2742:and
2716:and
2607:The
2540:囚人道路
2306:and
2298:See
2197:The
2173:The
2114:and
2080:The
1733:laws
1595:U.S.
1590:U.K.
1528:U.S.
1523:U.K.
1411:Oman
1381:Iraq
1376:Iran
1063:Cuba
967:maps
862:Mali
847:Chad
433:Baqt
330:Rome
226:Debt
184:and
76:news
5224:doi
5100:doi
5008:NPR
4844:Vox
4647:doi
4049:doi
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