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citizens. Despite this, no mental or physical trend is identifiable that differentiates criminals from non-criminals. Public response to criminals may be indignant or sympathetic. Indignant responses involve resentment and a desire for vengeance, wishing to see criminals removed from society or made to suffer for harm that they cause. Sympathetic responses involve compassion and understanding, seeking to rehabilitate or forgive criminals and absolve them of blame.
2913:. Repeat victimization may also occur when a potential victim appears to be a viable target, such as when indicating wealth in a less affluent region. Many of the traits that indicate criminality also indicate victimality; victims of crime are more likely to engage in unlawful behavior and respond to provocation. Overall demographic trends of victims and criminals are often similar, and victims are more likely to have engaged in criminal activities themselves.
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233:
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2265:(the citizen's duty to obey the law) and a theory of enforcement, which identifies the legitimate goals of enforcement and punishment. Legislation must conform to a theory of legitimacy, which describes the circumstances under which a particular person or group is entitled to make law, and a theory of legislative justice, which describes the law they are entitled or obliged to make.
4073:...it was part of the task of a legal theorist to explain the 'normativity' or 'authority' of law, by which they meant 'our sense that 'legal' norms provide agents with special reasons for acting, reasons they would not have if the norm were not a 'legal' one'...this may be a matter calling more for a psychological or sociological explanation, rather than a philosophical one.
2216:"This law of nature, being co-eval with mankind and dictated by God himself, is of course superior in obligation to any other. It is binding over all the globe, in all countries, and at all times: no human laws are of any validity, if contrary to this; and such of them as are valid derive all their force, and all their authority, mediately or immediately, from this original."
2103:, either studying criminal acts on an individual level or the relationship of crime and the community. Due to the wide range of concepts associated with crime and the disagreement on a precise definition, the focus of criminology can vary considerably. Various theories within criminology provide different descriptions and explanations for crime, including
1968:. There is no limit to what can be considered a crime in a legal system, so there may not be a unifying principle used to determine whether an action should be designated as a crime. From a legal perspective, crimes are generally wrong actions that are severe enough to warrant punishment that infringes on the perpetrator's liberties.
3222:; groups that are less integrated with society or that are forcibly integrated with society are more likely to engage in crime. Involvement in the community, such as through a church, decreases the likelihood of crime, while associating with criminals increases the likelihood of becoming a criminal as well.
2232:
in accepting the calculating nature of human beings and the existence of an objective morality. He denied that the legal validity of a norm depends on whether its content conforms to morality. Thus, in
Austinian terms, a moral code can objectively determine what people ought to do, the law can embody
2483:
White-collar crime refers to financially motivated, nonviolent or non-directly violent crime committed by individuals, businesses and government professionals. The crimes are believed to be committed by middle- or upper-class individuals for financial gains. Typical white-collar crimes could include
2282:
Restrictions on behavior existed in all prehistoric societies. Crime in early human society was seen as a personal transgression and was addressed by the community as a whole rather than through a formal legal system, often through the use of custom, religion, or the rule of a tribal leader. Some of
2165:
Information and statistics about crime in a given jurisdiction are collected as crime estimates, typically produced by national or international agencies. Methods to collect crime statistics may vary, even between jurisdictions within the same nation. Under-reporting of crime is common, particularly
1944:
The exact definition of crime is a philosophical issue without an agreed upon answer. Fields such as law, politics, sociology, and psychology define crime in different ways. Crimes may be variously considered as wrongs against individuals, against the community, or against the state. The criminality
2268:
There are natural-law theorists who have accepted the idea of enforcing the prevailing morality as a primary function of the law. This view entails the problem that it makes any moral criticism of the law impossible: if conformity with natural law forms a necessary condition for legal validity, all
4036:
The moral standards...which
Dworkin (in line with natural law theory) treats as capable of being morally objective & true, thus function as a direct source of law and...as already law, except when their fit with the whole set of social-fact sources in the relevant community is so weak that it
2875:
A criminal is an individual who commits a crime. What constitutes a criminal can vary depending on the context and the law, and it often carries a pejorative connotation. Criminals are often seen as embodying certain stereotypes or traits and are seen as a distinct type of person from law-abiding
2550:
as opposed to white-collar crime which is associated with crime committed by someone of a higher-level social class. These crimes are primarily small scale, for immediate beneficial gain to the individual or group involved in them. Examples of blue-collar crime include
Narcotic production or
2896:
Several factors affect an individual's likelihood of becoming a victim. Some factors may cause victims of crime to experience short-term or long-term "repeat victimization". Common long-term victims are those that have close relationships with the criminal, manifesting in crimes such as
3138:
If a crime is committed, the individual responsible is considered to be liable for the crime. For liability to exist, the individual must be capable of understanding the criminal process and the relevant authority must have legitimate power to establish what constitutes a crime.
2379:
in the 12th century. He established a system of traveling judges that tried accused criminals in each region of
England by applying precedent from previous rulings. Legal developments in 12th century England also resulted in the earliest known recording of official crime data.
2955:. Historically, criminal codes have often divided criminals by class or caste, prescribing different penalties depending on status. In some tribal societies, an entire clan is recognized as liable for a crime. In many cases, disputes over a crime in this system lead to a
2207:
beings, concluding that it becomes morally appropriate that they should behave in a way that conforms to their rational nature. Thus, to be valid, any law must conform to natural law and coercing people to conform to that law is morally acceptable. In the 1760s,
2920:. Victims, on their own, may lack the economies of scale that could allow them to administer a penal system, let alone to collect any fines levied by a court. Historically, from ancient times until the 19th century, many societies believed that non-human
2609:. Some violent crimes, such as assault, may be committed with the intention of causing harm. Other violent crimes, such as robbery, may use violence to further another goal. Violent crime is distinct from noncriminal types of violence, such as
3123:
Whether a crime can be resolved through financial compensation varies depending on the culture and the specific context of the crime. Historically, many societies have absolved acts of homicide through compensation to the victim's relatives.
3066:
and punish criminals in a way that knowingly causes suffering. This may arise out of a feeling that criminals deserve to suffer and that punishment should exist for its own sake. The existence of punishment also creates an effect of
3229:. Some genes have been found to affect traits that may incline individuals toward criminal activity, but no biological or physiological trait has been found to directly cause or compel criminal actions. One biological factor is the
3252:
Crime is often a high priority political issue in developed countries, regardless of the country's crime rates. People that are not regularly exposed to crime most often experience it through media, including news reporting and
2858:. Inchoate crimes are defined by substantial action to facilitate a crime with the intention of the crime's occurrence. This is distinct from simple preparation for or consideration of criminal activity. They are unique in that
3265:
in new stories about criminals significantly over-represent the prevalence of violent crime, and news reporting will often overemphasize a specific type of crime for a period of time, creating a "crime wave" effect.
2260:
rejects Hart's theory and proposes that all individuals should expect the equal respect and concern of those who govern them as a fundamental political right. He offers a theory of compliance overlaid by a theory of
1963:
Legal and political definitions of crime consider actions that are banned by authorities or punishable by law. Crime is defined by the criminal law of a given jurisdiction, including all actions that are subject to
2924:
were capable of committing crimes, and prosecuted and punished them accordingly. Prosecutions of animals gradually dwindled during the 19th century, although a few were recorded as late as the 1910s and 1920s.
2356:
Europe and East Asia, central government was limited and crime was defined locally. Towns established their own criminal justice systems, while crime in the countryside was defined by the social hierarchies of
2884:
A victim is an individual who has been treated unjustly or made to suffer. In the context of crime, the victim is the individual that is harmed by a violation of criminal law. Victimization is associated with
2325:. Most acts recognized as crimes in ancient societies, such as violence and theft, have persisted to the modern era. The criminal justice system of Imperial China existed unbroken for over 2,000 years.
2828:. Due to their unique relation to the state, political crimes are often encouraged by one nation against another, and it is political alignment rather than the act itself that determines criminality.
1945:
of an action is dependent on its context; acts of violence will be seen as crimes in many circumstances but as permissible or desirable in others. Crime was historically seen as a manifestation of
3173:, and they are defined through the consensus of the involved states. International crimes are not prosecuted through a standard legal system, though international organizations may establish
3058:
the criminal act. Punishment is generally reserved for serious offenses. Individuals regularly engage in activity that could be scrutinized under criminal law but are deemed inconsequential.
2404:
in the 19th century caused crime to become an immediate issue that affected society, prompting government intervention in crime and the establishment of criminology as its own field.
3388:
3233:, as men are significantly more likely to commit crimes than women in virtually all cultures. Crimes committed by men also tend to be more severe than those committed by women.
317:
3108:
Developed nations are less likely to use physical punishments. Instead, they will impose financial penalties or imprisonment. In places with widespread corruption or limited
8230:
5341:
Hipp, J. R.; Curran, P. J.; Bollen, K. A.; Bauer, D. J. (1 June 2004). "Crimes of
Opportunity or Crimes of Emotion? Testing Two Explanations of Seasonal Change in Crime".
2336:. The understanding of crime and sin were closely associated with one another for much of history, and conceptions of crime took on many of the ideas associated with sin.
6891:
3384:
3014:
suspected perpetrators of crimes. Law enforcement may focus on policing individual crimes, or it may focus on bringing down overall crime rates. One common variant,
3203:. A person that commits a criminal act typically believes that its benefits will outweigh the risk of being caught and punished. Negative economic factors, such as
2763:
2862:
of criminal intention is generally enough to absolve the perpetrator of criminal liability, as their actions are no longer facilitating a potential future crime.
6926:
6718:
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2269:
valid law must, by definition, count as morally just. Thus, on this line of reasoning, the legal validity of a norm necessarily entails its moral justice.
2850:
Inchoate crime is crime that is carried out in anticipation of other illegal actions but does not cause direct harm. Examples of inchoate crimes include
2688:
Public order crime is crime that violates a society's norms about what constitutes socially acceptable behavior. Examples of public order crimes include
4542:
Van den
Bogaard, Joop; Wiegman, Oene (1991). "Property Crime Victimization: The Effectiveness of Police Services for Victims of Residential Burglary".
952:
2019:, the predominant moral beliefs of society determine the legal definition as well as the social definition of crime. This system is less prominent in
8223:
6886:
2456:
through radio and television in the mid-20th century allowed for the sensationalism of crime. This created well-known stories of criminals such as
2621:. Acts of violence are most often perceived as deviant when they are committed as an overreaction or a disproportionate response to provocation.
6916:
3002:
The enforcement of criminal law seeks to prevent crime and sanction crimes that do occur. This enforcement is carried out by the state through
8770:
2460:, and it allowed for dramatization that perpetuates misconceptions about crime. Forensic science was popularized in the 1980s, establishing
2670:, the complexity and anonymity of computer systems may help criminal employees camouflage their operations. The victims of the most costly
2332:
and corresponded to acts that were believed to invoke the anger of a deity. This idea was further popularized with the development of the
2187:
to coerce compliance with its laws has proven a consistent theoretical problem. One of the earliest justifications involved the theory of
73:; in other words, something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant and applicable law. One proposed definition is that a crime or
8216:
4919:
See
Polinsky & Shavell (1997) on the fundamental divergence between the private and the social motivation for using the legal system.
6896:
4024:
6783:
2233:
whatever norms the legislature decrees to achieve social utility, but every individual remains free to choose what to do. Similarly,
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6711:
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569:
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In the modern era, crime came to be seen as an issue affecting society rather than conflicts between individuals. Writers such as
2736:, which posits that public order crimes increase the likelihood of other types of crime. Some public order crimes are considered
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As public opinion of morality changes over time, actions that were once condemned as crimes may be considered justifiable.
2666:. The scope of financial crimes has expanded significantly since the beginning of modern economics in the 17th century. In
302:
2437:. Crime increasingly came to be seen as a societal issue, and criminal law was seen as a means to protect the public from
9262:
6704:
5786:
Lipsey, Mark W.; Landenberger, Nana A.; Chapman, Gabrielle L. "Rehabilitation: An
Assessment of Theory and Research". In
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The victims may only want compensation for the injuries suffered, while remaining indifferent to a possible desire for
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Psychological definitions consider the state of mind of perpetrators and their relationship with their environment.
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7685:
7554:
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The state determines what actions are considered criminal in the scope of the law. Criminalization has significant
1982:
countries can define offences that the courts alone have developed over the years, without any actual legislation:
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Political crime is crime that directly challenges or threatens the state. Examples of political crimes include
2221:
1803:
1056:
753:
733:
307:
4037:
would be more accurate (according to
Dworkin) to say that judges who apply them are applying morality not law.
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7000:
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1958:
1813:
914:
909:
763:
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7807:
7286:
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5882:
4448:"Can we Trust Crime Predictors and Crime Categories? Expansions on the Potential Problem of Generalization"
2306:. The latter influenced the conception of crime across several civilizations over the following millennia.
1888:
1797:
564:
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81:) is an act harmful not only to some individual but also to a community, society, or the state ("a public
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9040:
8765:
7802:
6962:
6743:
5216:
3904:. William Blackstone Collection (Library of Congress). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 41.
3170:
3081:. Different criminological theories propose different methods of rehabilitation, including strengthening
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considerations, as it can infringe on rights of autonomy and subject individuals to unjust punishment.
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regarded assaults as a matter of private compensation. The most significant Roman law concept involved
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1924:
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404:
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39:
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Bottoms, Anthony E.; Costello, Andrew. "Understanding Repeat
Victimization: A Longitudinal Study". In
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movement of the early-20th century similarly held that crime was caused primarily by genetic factors.
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Thus the necessary and sufficient conditions for the truth of a proposition of law involved internal
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Social factors similarly affect the likelihood of criminal activity. Crime corresponds heavily with
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871:
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17:
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6368:
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4010:
3697:
3158:
2917:
1979:
1646:
758:
593:
399:
337:
2893:. Victimology is the study of victims, including their role in crime and how they are affected.
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2713:
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2009:
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31:
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include banks, brokerage houses, insurance companies, and other large financial institutions.
100:
are to be prohibited exists worldwide. What precisely is a criminal offence is defined by the
65:
definitions have been provided for certain purposes. The most popular view is that crime is a
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Authorities may respond to crime through corrections, carrying out punishment as a means to
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4009:. 3.2 Natural law & (purely) positive law as concurrent dimensions of legal reasoning.
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1971:
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8:
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Davie, Neil. "Born for Evil? Biological Theories of Crime in Historical Perspective". In
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2191:. This posits that the nature of the world or of human beings underlies the standards of
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In the United Kingdom, for instance, the definitions provided by section 243(2) of the
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seeks to understand and mitigate the causes of a criminal's unlawful action to prevent
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2693:
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2020:
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202:
164:
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132:
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3871:. Regan, Richard J., Baumgarth, William P. (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Hackett Pub.
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2037:
defines crime not only as harm to others or to society, but also as harm to the self.
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1209:
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66:
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Hanson, Rochelle F.; Sawyer, Genelle K.; Begle, Angela M.; Hubel, Grace S. (2010).
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Taking rights seriously : [with a new appendix, a response to critics]
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When the perpetrator of a crime is found guilty of the crime, the state delivers a
3018:, seeks to prevent crime by integrating police into the community and public life.
2986:
2845:
2821:
2737:
2725:
2671:
2521:
2442:
2441:
behavior. This idea was associated with a larger trend in the western world toward
2419:
2366:
2302:), and the first known criminal code that incorporated retaliatory justice was the
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2225:
2159:
2135:
2127:
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2092:
2028:
1808:
1766:
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490:
177:
5402:"Sex Differences In Crime: Do Means and Within-Sex Variation Have Similar Causes?"
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A Gift of Fire: Social, Legal, and Ethical Issues for Computing and The Internet
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4513:"Modelling Property Crime Using the British Crime Survey. What Have We Learnt?"
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Through most of history, reporting of crime was generally local. The advent of
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2203:, which is the first principle of human acts". He regarded people as by nature
2196:
2016:
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1822:
1381:
1376:
1346:
1239:
640:
267:
144:
50:
8590:
5638:
On the Disutility and Discounting of Imprisonment and the Theory of Deterrence
2162:. Besides sociology, criminology is often associated with law and psychology.
180: – be accompanied by the "intention to do something criminal" (
9361:
9060:
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8930:
8875:
8755:
8420:
8050:
8009:
7895:
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7847:
7797:
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7731:
7724:
7675:
7615:
7455:
7445:
7403:
7326:
7321:
7251:
7210:
7134:
6696:
6350:
6248:
6052:
6002:
5628:
Polinsky, A. Mitchell. (1980). "Private versus Public Enforcement of Fines".
5474:
5425:
5362:
5291:
5240:
5049:
4635:
4471:
3853:
3787:
3721:
3550:
3254:
2952:
2741:
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2461:
2389:
2284:
2234:
2058:
2024:
1628:
1482:
1194:
1144:
796:
628:
538:
436:
170:
Usually, to be classified as a crime, the "act of doing something criminal" (
109:
5854:
5272:
5255:
5232:
5160:
3952:
3886:
3779:
2744:
have moved toward decriminalization of victimless crimes in the modern era.
8532:
8506:
8182:
7932:
7900:
7855:
7593:
7588:
7559:
7472:
7450:
7418:
7351:
7331:
7225:
7165:
7155:
7107:
7065:
7043:
6986:
6788:
6658:
6593:
6198:
6087:
6072:
4855:
4528:
3989:
3919:
3211:, can increase the incentive to commit crime, while severe punishments can
3204:
2974:
2934:
2902:
2859:
2701:
2614:
2610:
2547:
2509:
2505:
2497:
2434:
2397:
2396:
developed as a long-term penalty for crime in the 18th century. Increasing
2393:
2314:
2310:
2167:
2131:
2076:
1869:
1432:
1356:
1229:
1214:
1126:
977:
791:
365:
205:) are not automatically punished by the state, but can be enforced through
160:
152:
105:
101:
58:
8570:
6681:
5354:
3542:
3349:
Farmer, Lindsay: "Crime, definitions of", in Cane and Conoghan (editors),
2939:
Virtually all countries in the 21st century have criminal law grounded in
8547:
8474:
8469:
8409:
8104:
8045:
8035:
7832:
7827:
7665:
7566:
7482:
7441:
7408:
7373:
7296:
7220:
7170:
7085:
6362:
6358:
6268:
6017:
5931:
4213:
3304:
3244:, while onset of crime at younger age predicts a longer criminal career.
3240:
with a small fraction of individuals re-offending many times due to high
3153:
International criminal law typically addresses serious offenses, such as
3109:
3045:
2948:
2906:
2829:
2751:
2659:
2618:
2337:
2249:
2238:
2204:
2188:
2151:
2072:
2054:
2034:
2005:
1988:
1884:
1640:
1636:
1502:
1159:
1088:
1012:
836:
623:
528:
475:
342:
297:
220:
194:
140:
5172:
5148:
8479:
8426:
8414:
8357:
8338:
8168:
8097:
7977:
7915:
7660:
7581:
7576:
7534:
7516:
7504:
7465:
7311:
7301:
7261:
7246:
7230:
7180:
7117:
7112:
6653:
6439:
6320:
6315:
6193:
6077:
6057:
6047:
6027:
5981:
5956:
5926:
5282:
5217:"Law, language and community: some preconditions of criminal liability"
4943:"The Historical and Contemporary Prosecution and Punishment of Animals"
4067:
4050:
3844:
3286:
3241:
3098:
3078:
3049:
2944:
2855:
2785:
2767:
2590:
2546:
Blue-collar crime is any crime committed by an individual from a lower
2513:
2485:
2453:
2372:
2170:
may be used to determine the frequency of crime in a given population.
2147:
2000:
As a sociological concept, crime is associated with actions that cause
1975:
1905:
1791:
1743:
1598:
1593:
1427:
1219:
1199:
1189:
1169:
1121:
1041:
994:
856:
851:
657:
172:
5641:, NBER Working Papers 6259, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
4837:
4432:
3097:
for physical and mental ailments. Rehabilitative programs may include
2199:
wrote in the 13th century: "the rule and measure of human acts is the
9331:
8075:
8040:
7982:
7957:
7822:
7719:
7707:
7692:
7680:
7608:
7526:
7499:
7383:
6857:
6623:
6603:
6588:
6523:
6429:
6424:
6393:
6383:
6345:
6283:
6263:
6203:
6178:
4867:
4865:
3237:
3162:
2825:
2824:
of a given state, and they are necessarily applied against political
2809:
2801:
2789:
2755:
2729:
2705:
2655:
2644:
2430:
2358:
2318:
2262:
2068:
1733:
1728:
1702:
1671:
1661:
1623:
1517:
1497:
1437:
1412:
1386:
1366:
1351:
495:
431:
62:
9348:
8351:
8163:
5975:
5400:
Rowe, David C.; Vazsonyi, Alexander T.; Flannery, Daniel J. (1995).
3280:
8124:
8109:
7812:
7697:
7494:
7038:
6825:
6543:
6513:
6434:
6378:
6330:
6305:
6287:
6223:
6188:
6159:
6141:
6136:
6119:
6082:
6062:
5041:
4627:
3258:
3174:
3166:
3154:
3117:
3113:
2910:
2805:
2759:
2747:
2740:
in which no specific victim can be identified. Most nations in the
2717:
2689:
2636:
2594:
2560:
2423:
2422:, arguing that certain people are naturally born as criminals. The
2192:
2184:
2155:
2084:
1854:
1786:
1738:
1692:
1656:
1608:
1583:
1521:
1457:
1422:
1306:
1283:
1278:
1261:
1224:
1204:
1001:
635:
582:
232:
224:
182:
9314:
4862:
3818:
Fajnzylber, Pablo; Lederman, Daniel; Loayza, Norman (2002-07-01).
2241:, with lawmakers able to adopt any law as a means to a moral end.
8333:
8257:
8014:
7962:
7942:
7890:
7702:
7620:
7436:
7398:
7346:
6643:
6485:
6451:
6419:
6388:
6335:
6310:
6258:
6238:
6233:
6213:
6183:
6146:
6131:
6042:
6007:
5867:
3094:
3086:
3055:
2851:
2793:
2663:
2606:
2598:
2593:
against another person. Common examples of violent crime include
2564:
2529:
2493:
2096:
2012:, and societal attitudes determine what is considered criminal.
1771:
1723:
1666:
1613:
1588:
1562:
1492:
1472:
1467:
1447:
1417:
1288:
1273:
1184:
1149:
1111:
969:
666:
128:
117:
5685:
Shoham, Shlomo Giora; Knepper, Paul; Kett, Martin, eds. (2010).
3177:
to investigate and rule on egregious offenses such as genocide.
3165:. As with all international law, these laws are created through
8263:
8114:
7967:
7712:
7603:
7598:
7544:
7215:
6842:
6548:
6373:
6243:
6102:
5936:
5005:
3011:
3007:
2921:
2797:
2568:
2200:
1651:
1477:
1311:
1244:
1072:
613:
247:
89:
5449:"Age, Gender, and Crime in a Stockholm Birth Cohort to Age 64"
5322:
5064:
2328:
Many of the earliest conceptions of crime are associated with
61:, have any simple and universally accepted definition, though
30:"Criminal" and "Criminals" redirect here. For other uses, see
9256:
8601:
8055:
7999:
7905:
7746:
7549:
6273:
6218:
6168:
3932:
3557:
2836:
law-abiding citizens may also be considered political crime.
2640:
2556:
2489:
2341:
2245:
2126:
Subfields of criminology and related fields of study include
1507:
1452:
1402:
608:
136:
97:
82:
5298:
5136:
5088:
4993:
3465:
3257:. Exposure of crime through news stories is associated with
2392:
saw crime as a societal issue as early as the 17th century.
1949:, but this has been superseded by modern criminal theories.
8501:
8381:
7937:
7885:
7741:
7139:
7055:
6598:
6325:
5668:
An Eye for an Eye: A Global History of Crime and Punishment
5256:"Are Crimes against Humanity More Serious than War Crimes?"
5124:
4774:
3728:
2956:
2813:
2001:
1946:
1874:
1603:
1361:
198:
151:, or, depending on the nature of their offence, to undergo
93:
5571:
Criminology: Past, Present and Future: A Critical Overview
5310:
5076:
3071:
that discourages criminal action for fear of punishment.
7009:
6892:
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
5785:
5178:
5166:
5154:
5112:
5100:
4762:
4750:
4691:
4579:
4271:
3764:"Official Crime Statistics: Their use and Interpretation"
3385:
Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992
2329:
70:
5505:
5493:
3817:
6927:
International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals
5381:
4196:
Roman law: linguistic, social and philosophical aspects
3649:
3639:
3637:
3612:
3610:
3608:
3581:
3506:
2589:
Violent crime is crime that involves an act of violent
131:
for committing a crime. In modern societies, there are
8238:
6978:
5818:
Welsh, Brandon C.; Farrington, David P., eds. (2012).
5369:
4822:"The impact of crime victimization on quality of life"
4819:
4803:
4801:
4541:
4307:
4283:
3453:
5635:
Polinsky, A. Mitchell & Shavell, Steven. (1997).
5340:
4981:
4889:
4877:
4669:
4667:
4665:
4591:
4331:
4295:
4083:
4081:
3496:
3494:
3492:
2429:
The concept of crime underwent a period of change as
2313:
systematized law and applied their system across the
8347:
5971:
5481:
5453:
Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology
5399:
4343:
4249:
4247:
4100:
4098:
4096:
3634:
3605:
3276:
2252:, and that the state's agents used state power with
5724:O'Neill, Megan. "The Police Response to Crime". In
5592:
Crimes Against the State: From Treason to Terrorism
5447:Carlsson, Christoffer; Sivertsson, Fredrik (2021).
4901:
4798:
4786:
4715:
4355:
4319:
3899:
3593:
3477:
3403:
2770:societies or those heavily influenced by religion.
108:. While many have a catalogue of crimes called the
85:"). Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law.
6882:International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg Trials)
5446:
5196:
5184:
4969:
4662:
4650:
4554:
4259:
4232:
4220:
4175:
4163:
4110:
4078:
3967:
3740:
3622:
3489:
3334:Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition on CD-ROM
5734:
5725:
5716:
5707:
5684:
4703:
4679:
4244:
4093:
2369:, feudal justice survived into the 19th century.
27:Illegal behavior defined by existing criminal law
9359:
6912:Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia
6887:International Military Tribunal for the Far East
4736:"Defining Inchoate Crime: An Incomplete Attempt"
3965:
2340:developed its own system of criminal justice as
5840:
5817:
5732:
4928:See Polinsky (1980) on the enforcement of fines
4871:
3866:
3408:(7 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
6726:
5800:The Oxford Handbook of Crime and Public Policy
5632:, Vol. IX, No. 1, (January), pp. 105–127.
5527:
5142:
5094:
5011:
4999:
4500:(Report). Australian Institute of Criminology.
4421:International Journal of Conflict and Violence
3563:
3471:
2464:as a new method to prevent and analyze crime.
189:While every crime violates the law, not every
8617:
8224:
6994:
6712:
5883:
5859:
4193:
3142:
3112:, crime may be punished extralegally through
3039:
2375:first developed in England under the rule of
1925:
946:
5546:
5406:Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
5328:
5316:
5304:
3261:and inaccurate perceptions of crime trends.
2732:. Public order crime is associated with the
2344:spread in the seventh and eighth centuries.
2008:. Under this definition, crime is a type of
5839:Skogan, Wesley G. "Disorder and Crime". In
5723:
5082:
5070:
4733:
2820:. Political crimes are associated with the
2433:was widely accepted in the years following
2287:. The earliest known criminal code was the
127:) has the power to severely restrict one's
8624:
8610:
8231:
8217:
7001:
6987:
6897:International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
6719:
6705:
5890:
5876:
5747:Crime Victims: Theory, Policy and Practice
5609:
5130:
5118:
5106:
5026:"The Optimal Structure of Law Enforcement"
4780:
4697:
4609:
4566:
4544:Journal of Social Behavior and Personality
3734:
3698:"Whither the Sociological Study of Crime?"
2635:Common examples of property crime include
1932:
1918:
953:
939:
6917:Special Panels of the Dili District Court
5532:(7th ed.). Oxford University Press.
5528:Ashworth, Andrew; Horder, Jeremy (2013).
5464:
5281:
5271:
4936:
4934:
4845:
4492:
4066:
3937:(2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
3843:
3761:
8146:History of the American legal profession
4445:
3345:
3343:
3336:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2009.
3180:
3036:to determine the penalty for the crime.
1992:to develop various common law offences.
5821:The Oxford Handbook of Crime Prevention
5179:Lipsey, Landenberger & Chapman 2004
5167:Lipsey, Landenberger & Chapman 2004
5155:Lipsey, Landenberger & Chapman 2004
5023:
4510:
4122:
4051:"Kelsen, Hart, & legal normativity"
3974:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
3695:
3399:
3397:
3191:Criminal behavior determinants include
2283:the oldest extant writings are ancient
2173:
14:
9360:
5838:
5787:
5768:The Blackwell Companion to Criminology
5764:
5743:
5567:
5511:
5499:
5487:
5375:
5253:
4940:
4931:
4907:
4895:
4883:
4807:
4792:
4768:
4756:
4597:
4585:
4414:
4349:
4337:
4002:
3933:Hart, Herbert Lionel Adolphus (1994).
3655:
3643:
3616:
3599:
3587:
3524:
3512:
3500:
3483:
3459:
3428:
8605:
8212:
6982:
6700:
5871:
5858:
5796:
5714:
5705:
5688:International Handbook of Criminology
5547:Bantekas, Ilias; Nash, Susan (2009).
5440:
5387:
5334:
5260:European Journal of International Law
4957:from the original on 29 December 2019
4656:
4410:
4408:
4361:
4325:
4313:
3813:
3811:
3809:
3807:
3805:
3757:
3755:
3746:
3691:
3689:
3441:from the original on 27 February 2013
3340:
3327:
3325:
3021:
2959:that lasts over several generations.
2766:are commonly recognized as crimes in
2677:
2650:Examples of financial crimes include
2472:
2414:in the late-19th century. This was a
2347:
2178:
9263:
5750:(2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan.
5665:
5644:
5588:
5214:
5202:
5190:
4987:
4975:
4721:
4709:
4685:
4673:
4560:
4417:"Violence, Crime, and Violent Crime"
4301:
4289:
4277:
4265:
4253:
4238:
4226:
4181:
4169:
4116:
4104:
4087:
3628:
3578:, John A. Yogis, Q.C., Barrons: 2003
3394:
3247:
2832:that is carried out by the state to
2535:
4576:. Third Ed. "Employee Crime" (2008)
4452:Applied Spatial Analysis and Policy
4048:
3902:Commentaries on the laws of England
2980:
49:is an unlawful act punishable by a
24:
5897:
4740:Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law
4405:
3802:
3752:
3686:
3422:
3322:
2991:
2962:
2773:
147:to a form of reparation such as a
25:
9394:
8543:Evidence law in the United States
7130:Restitution and unjust enrichment
5850:
5735:Shoham, Knepper & Kett (2010)
5726:Shoham, Knepper & Kett (2010)
5717:Shoham, Knepper & Kett (2010)
5708:Shoham, Knepper & Kett (2010)
4415:Felson, Richard B. (2009-05-01).
3355:, Oxford University Press, 2008 (
2839:
2624:
1986:. The courts used the concept of
9340:
9323:
9306:
9289:
9272:
8771:Democratic Republic of the Congo
8350:
8177:
8176:
8162:
6491:Perverting the course of justice
5974:
5965:
5913:. Not all types are listed here.
5706:Pease, Ken. "Crime Science". In
5393:
5247:
5030:The Journal of Law and Economics
4734:Cahill, Michael T. (2011–2012).
4006:Natural Law & Natural Rights
3279:
2574:
2277:
1568:Perverting the course of justice
968:
308:Risk & actuarial criminology
231:
8141:History of the legal profession
6229:Intellectual property violation
5648:The Dynamics of Political Crime
5221:Oxford Journal of Legal Studies
5208:
5017:
4922:
4913:
4813:
4727:
4603:
4535:
4504:
4486:
4439:
4367:
4187:
4042:
4027:from the original on 2019-08-06
3996:
3959:
3926:
3893:
3860:
3762:MacDonald, Ziggy (2002-02-01).
3661:
3569:
3531:Oxford Journal of Legal Studies
3518:
3352:The New Oxford Companion to Law
3231:disparity between men and women
2928:
2865:
2146:, criminal sociology, criminal
2067:. Criminology is a subfield of
1463:Intellectual property violation
193:counts as a crime. Breaches of
8631:
8397:Deferred prosecution agreement
6958:International humanitarian law
6902:Special Court for Sierra Leone
4517:British Journal of Criminology
3869:On law, morality, and politics
3377:
3187:Causes and correlates of crime
2361:. In some places, such as the
2183:Justifying the state's use of
116:nations no such comprehensive
13:
1:
5841:Welsh & Farrington (2012)
5612:The Other Side of Criminology
5610:Hoefnagels, G. Peter (1973).
5521:
4049:Bix, Brian H. (August 2015).
3836:10.1016/S0014-2921(01)00096-4
3429:Easton, Mark (17 June 2010).
3389:Prevention of Crimes Act 1871
2383:
2292:
2063:The study of crime is called
2040:
1959:Legalism (Western philosophy)
212:
176:) must – with
88:The notion that acts such as
53:or other authority. The term
6922:Special Tribunal for Lebanon
6907:International Criminal Court
5797:Tonry, Michael, ed. (2011).
5630:The Journal of Legal Studies
4493:Bricknell, Samantha (2008).
4446:Connealy, Nathan T. (2020).
4198:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh U.P.
3900:Blackstone, William (1979).
3820:"What causes violent crime?"
3714:10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.711
3404:Elizabeth A. Martin (2003).
3127:
3062:seeks to create a system of
2889:and a long-term decrease in
2237:saw the law as an aspect of
1995:
1798:Ignorantia juris non excusat
135:to which investigations and
7:
6963:International speech crimes
6744:Customary international law
5824:. Oxford University Press.
5803:. Oxford University Press.
5765:Sumner, Colin, ed. (2004).
5418:10.1177/0022427895032001004
4872:Bottoms & Costello 2010
4826:Journal of Traumatic Stress
3696:Sampson, Robert J. (2000).
3387:and by the Schedule to the
3272:
3236:Crime distribution shows a
2870:
2418:school of thought based in
2408:Anthropological criminology
2140:anthropological criminology
1952:
10:
9399:
7808:International legal theory
7287:International slavery laws
7282:International human rights
7277:International criminal law
6784:Convention Against Torture
6728:International criminal law
6254:Possessing stolen property
5645:Ross, Jeffrey Ian (2003).
5550:International Criminal Law
5530:Principles of Criminal Law
5466:10.1007/s40865-021-00172-w
5143:Ashworth & Horder 2013
5095:Ashworth & Horder 2013
5012:Ashworth & Horder 2013
5000:Ashworth & Horder 2013
4511:Tseloni, A. (2002-01-01).
4464:10.1007/s12061-019-09323-5
4397:: CS1 maint: url-status (
4375:"White-Collar Crime - FBI"
4155:: CS1 maint: url-status (
3702:Annual Review of Sociology
3564:Ashworth & Horder 2013
3472:Ashworth & Horder 2013
3184:
3149:International criminal law
3146:
3143:International criminal law
3131:
3043:
3040:Corrections and punishment
3025:
2995:
2984:
2966:
2932:
2843:
2777:
2681:
2628:
2585:Offence against the person
2578:
2539:
2476:
2272:
2052:
2031:over other moral beliefs.
2023:societies that prioritize
2015:In legal systems based on
1956:
1488:Possessing stolen property
1136:Offense against the person
288:Expressive function of law
40:Criminals (disambiguation)
29:
8637:
8556:
8520:
8512:Presentence investigation
8462:
8367:
8345:
8247:
8156:
8133:
8023:
7861:Administration of justice
7846:
7755:
7646:
7525:
7427:
7148:
7016:
6953:Joint criminal enterprise
6935:
6866:
6797:
6734:
6668:
6633:
6533:
6500:
6449:
6403:
6297:
6157:
5991:
5963:
5919:
5906:
5865:
5860:Articles related to crime
5666:Roth, Mitchel P. (2014).
5574:. Palgrave Macmillan UK.
5568:Fattah, Ezzat A. (1997).
5254:Frulli, M. (2001-04-01).
4610:Wertheimer, Alan (1977).
3966:Dworkin, Ronald. (1978).
3525:Lamond, G. (2007-01-01).
3010:, which are empowered to
2879:
2071:that addresses issues of
1782:Diminished responsibility
1576:Crimes against the public
36:Criminal (disambiguation)
7638:Basic structure doctrine
7488:Natural and legal rights
7369:Public international law
6873:(in order of foundation)
6353:(such as prohibition of
5614:. Springer Netherlands.
5595:. Taylor & Francis.
5553:. Taylor & Francis.
5329:Bantekas & Nash 2009
5317:Bantekas & Nash 2009
5305:Bantekas & Nash 2009
5024:Shavell, Steven (1993).
4053:. 3.3 Law and morality.
3867:Thomas, Aquinas (2002).
3824:European Economic Review
3406:Oxford Dictionary of Law
3315:
3300:Law and order (politics)
3004:law enforcement agencies
2764:invoking the name of God
2467:
2117:differential association
2048:
1711:Crimes against the state
1631:(such as prohibition of
278:Differential association
45:In ordinary language, a
7818:Principle of typicality
7292:International trade law
7008:
6811:Crimes against humanity
5215:Duff, R. (1998-06-01).
4495:Trends in violent crime
4130:"The Ur-Nammu Law Code"
3780:10.1111/1468-0297.00685
3576:Canadian Law Dictionary
3159:crimes against humanity
2317:. The initial rules of
2166:in developing nations.
1395:Crimes against property
1085:(also called violation)
338:Symbolic interactionism
8454:Statute of limitations
8249:Criminal investigation
6968:Universal jurisdiction
6943:Command responsibility
6836:Incitement to genocide
6774:United Nations Charter
6471:Miscarriage of justice
5744:Spalek, Basia (2017).
5589:Head, Michael (2016).
5036:(1, Part 2): 255–287.
4194:Daube, David. (1969).
3227:genetic cause of crime
2518:copyright infringement
2416:biological determinist
2224:(1790–1859), an early
2212:described the thesis:
1847:Other common-law areas
1680:Crimes against animals
1548:Miscarriage of justice
1530:Crimes against justice
318:Social disorganization
139:must adhere. If found
32:Crime (disambiguation)
9096:Saint Kitts and Nevis
8392:Criminal jurisdiction
7813:Principle of legality
7572:Delegated legislation
7272:Intellectual property
6466:Malfeasance in office
5909:Note: Crimes vary by
5651:. SAGE Publications.
5355:10.1353/sof.2004.0074
5273:10.1093/ejil/12.2.329
5233:10.1093/ojls/18.2.189
4003:Finnis, John (2015).
3215:crime in some cases.
3193:cost–benefit analysis
3181:Causes and correlates
2887:post-traumatic stress
2734:broken windows theory
2105:social control theory
2101:preventative measures
1753:Defenses to liability
1543:Malfeasance in office
827:Biosocial criminology
534:Uniform Crime Reports
253:Biosocial criminology
143:, an offender may be
9201:United Arab Emirates
8432:Inquisitorial system
8369:Criminal prosecution
8309:Reasonable suspicion
8284:Exigent circumstance
8031:Barristers' chambers
7973:Legal representation
7911:Justice of the peace
7257:Financial regulation
6869:International courts
6769:Nuremberg principles
6559:Cybersex trafficking
6321:Censorship violation
4941:Girgen, Jen (2003).
4529:10.1093/bjc/42.1.109
4280:, p. 84, 91–94.
3768:The Economic Journal
3171:international custom
3103:vocational education
2447:centre-left politics
2195:or constructs them.
2174:Foundational systems
1972:English criminal law
1599:Censorship violation
1322:Cybersex trafficking
702:Solitary confinement
203:breaches of contract
191:violation of the law
57:does not, in modern
9181:Trinidad and Tobago
8449:Preliminary hearing
8066:Election commission
7778:Expressive function
7307:Landlord–tenant law
7206:Consumer protection
6816:Crime of aggression
6779:Genocide Convention
6351:Illegal consumption
6023:Criminal negligence
5843:, pp. 173–188.
5790:, pp. 211–227.
5737:, pp. 649–680.
5728:, pp. 483–510.
5169:, pp. 212–213.
5073:, pp. 485–486.
4874:, pp. 674–675.
4771:, pp. 125–126.
4759:, pp. 123–124.
4612:"Victimless Crimes"
4588:, pp. 173–174.
3543:10.1093/ojls/gqm018
3060:Retributive justice
2710:breach of the peace
2698:public intoxication
2410:was popularized by
2334:Abrahamic religions
2144:criminal psychology
1984:common law offences
1777:Defense of property
1629:Illegal consumption
1165:Criminal negligence
1065:Severity of offense
892:Radical criminology
263:Collective efficacy
8781:Dominican Republic
8377:Adversarial system
8319:Search and seizure
8289:Knock-and-announce
8240:Criminal procedure
8024:Legal institutions
7891:Lawsuit/Litigation
7881:Dispute resolution
7686:Catholic canon law
7394:State of emergency
7357:Will and testament
7081:Law of obligations
7034:Constitutional law
7024:Administrative law
6821:Crime of apartheid
6759:Geneva Conventions
6554:Child sexual abuse
6519:Wildlife smuggling
6509:Cruelty to animals
6298:Against the public
6127:Negligent homicide
6038:False imprisonment
5993:Against the person
5670:. Reaktion Books.
4947:Animal Law Journal
4427:(1): 23–39 Pages.
4292:, pp. 97–105.
4135:Schøyen Collection
4068:10.4000/revus.3984
3935:The concept of law
3527:"What is a Crime?"
3370:2016-06-04 at the
3295:Crime displacement
3225:There is no known
3220:social integration
3028:Criminal procedure
3022:Criminal procedure
3016:community policing
2694:drug-related crime
2684:Public-order crime
2678:Public order crime
2668:occupational crime
2506:labor racketeering
2479:White-collar crime
2473:White-collar crime
2348:Post-classical era
2210:William Blackstone
2179:Natural-law theory
2109:subcultural theory
2087:. It includes the
2021:liberal democratic
1966:criminal procedure
1698:Wildlife smuggling
1688:Cruelty to animals
1317:Child sexual abuse
1269:Negligent homicide
1180:False imprisonment
1077:Indictable offense
1021:Scope of criminal
178:certain exceptions
149:community sentence
9254:
9253:
9248:
9247:
8599:
8598:
8581:Wikimedia Commons
8528:Criminal defenses
8463:Charges and pleas
8387:Bill of attainder
8324:Search of persons
8206:
8205:
7866:Constitutionalism
7788:Law and economics
7626:Act of parliament
7364:Product liability
7317:Legal archaeology
7242:Environmental law
7236:Entertainment law
7076:International law
6976:
6975:
6802:international law
6764:Nuremberg Charter
6754:Hague Conventions
6694:
6693:
6677:Wikimedia Commons
6635:Inchoate offenses
6579:Indecent exposure
6068:Human trafficking
6033:Domestic violence
5719:, pp. 23–49.
5677:978-1-78023-359-8
5514:, pp. 63–64.
5502:, pp. 14–16.
5390:, pp. 44–45.
5331:, pp. 10–11.
5133:, pp. 17–18.
5014:, pp. 32–33.
4990:, pp. 23–24.
4838:10.1002/jts.20508
4783:, pp. 16–17.
4433:10.4119/IJCV-2791
4316:, pp. 23–24.
4304:, pp. 63–64.
3774:(477): F85–F106.
3737:, pp. 57–66.
3658:, pp. 36–37.
3590:, pp. 35–36.
3515:, pp. 31–35.
3462:, pp. 30–37.
3415:978-0-19-860756-4
3361:978-0-19-929054-3
3248:Public perception
3209:income inequality
2899:domestic violence
2818:unlawful assembly
2738:victimless crimes
2722:street harassment
2542:Blue-collar crime
2536:Blue-collar crime
2402:industrialization
2304:Code of Hammurabi
2095:of crime and its
1942:
1941:
1342:Indecent exposure
1210:Human trafficking
1175:Domestic violence
1103:Inchoate offenses
963:
962:
709:
708:
646:Prisoners' rights
550:Positivist school
157:life imprisonment
104:of each relevant
16:(Redirected from
9390:
9353:
9345:
9344:
9343:
9336:
9328:
9327:
9326:
9319:
9311:
9310:
9309:
9302:
9294:
9293:
9292:
9285:
9277:
9276:
9275:
9265:
9051:Papua New Guinea
8626:
8619:
8612:
8603:
8602:
8360:
8355:
8354:
8314:Right to silence
8233:
8226:
8219:
8210:
8209:
8181:
8180:
8179:
8167:
8166:
7990:Question of fact
7871:Criminal justice
7201:Construction law
7196:Conflict of laws
7161:Agricultural law
7003:
6996:
6989:
6980:
6979:
6936:Related concepts
6874:
6831:Genocidal intent
6721:
6714:
6707:
6698:
6697:
6341:Ethnic cleansing
6279:Trespass to land
6174:Arms trafficking
5984:
5979:
5978:
5969:
5892:
5885:
5878:
5869:
5868:
5856:
5855:
5844:
5835:
5814:
5791:
5782:
5761:
5738:
5729:
5720:
5711:
5710:, pp. 3–22.
5702:
5681:
5662:
5625:
5606:
5585:
5564:
5543:
5515:
5509:
5503:
5497:
5491:
5485:
5479:
5478:
5468:
5444:
5438:
5437:
5397:
5391:
5385:
5379:
5373:
5367:
5366:
5349:(4): 1333–1372.
5338:
5332:
5326:
5320:
5314:
5308:
5302:
5296:
5295:
5285:
5275:
5251:
5245:
5244:
5212:
5206:
5200:
5194:
5188:
5182:
5176:
5170:
5164:
5158:
5152:
5146:
5140:
5134:
5128:
5122:
5116:
5110:
5104:
5098:
5092:
5086:
5080:
5074:
5068:
5062:
5061:
5021:
5015:
5009:
5003:
4997:
4991:
4985:
4979:
4973:
4967:
4966:
4964:
4962:
4938:
4929:
4926:
4920:
4917:
4911:
4905:
4899:
4893:
4887:
4881:
4875:
4869:
4860:
4859:
4849:
4817:
4811:
4805:
4796:
4790:
4784:
4778:
4772:
4766:
4760:
4754:
4748:
4747:
4731:
4725:
4719:
4713:
4707:
4701:
4695:
4689:
4683:
4677:
4671:
4660:
4654:
4648:
4647:
4607:
4601:
4595:
4589:
4583:
4577:
4570:
4564:
4558:
4552:
4551:
4539:
4533:
4532:
4508:
4502:
4501:
4499:
4490:
4484:
4483:
4443:
4437:
4436:
4412:
4403:
4402:
4396:
4388:
4386:
4385:
4371:
4365:
4359:
4353:
4347:
4341:
4335:
4329:
4323:
4317:
4311:
4305:
4299:
4293:
4287:
4281:
4275:
4269:
4263:
4257:
4251:
4242:
4236:
4230:
4224:
4218:
4217:
4191:
4185:
4179:
4173:
4167:
4161:
4160:
4154:
4146:
4144:
4142:
4126:
4120:
4114:
4108:
4102:
4091:
4085:
4076:
4075:
4070:
4046:
4040:
4039:
4033:
4032:
4000:
3994:
3993:
3973:
3963:
3957:
3956:
3930:
3924:
3923:
3897:
3891:
3890:
3864:
3858:
3857:
3847:
3830:(7): 1323–1357.
3815:
3800:
3799:
3759:
3750:
3744:
3738:
3732:
3726:
3725:
3693:
3684:
3683:
3681:
3680:
3665:
3659:
3653:
3647:
3641:
3632:
3626:
3620:
3614:
3603:
3597:
3591:
3585:
3579:
3573:
3567:
3561:
3555:
3554:
3522:
3516:
3510:
3504:
3498:
3487:
3481:
3475:
3469:
3463:
3457:
3451:
3450:
3448:
3446:
3431:"What is crime?"
3426:
3420:
3419:
3401:
3392:
3381:
3375:
3347:
3338:
3337:
3329:
3289:
3284:
3283:
3201:crime of passion
3093:, and providing
2987:Criminal justice
2981:Criminal justice
2846:Inchoate offense
2822:political agenda
2522:money laundering
2443:social democracy
2420:social darwinism
2367:Kingdom of Italy
2301:
2297:
2294:
2289:Code of Ur-Nammu
2160:forensic science
2136:crime statistics
2128:crime prevention
2029:multiculturalism
2010:social construct
1974:and the related
1934:
1927:
1920:
1891:
1762:Actual innocence
1619:Ethnic cleansing
1513:Trespass to land
1408:Arms trafficking
972:
965:
964:
955:
948:
941:
588:
587:
545:Crime statistics
471:
235:
217:
216:
79:criminal offence
21:
9398:
9397:
9393:
9392:
9391:
9389:
9388:
9387:
9358:
9357:
9356:
9346:
9341:
9339:
9335:from Wikivoyage
9329:
9324:
9322:
9312:
9307:
9305:
9295:
9290:
9288:
9284:from Wiktionary
9278:
9273:
9271:
9268:
9264:sister projects
9261:at Knowledge's
9255:
9250:
9249:
9244:
8633:
8630:
8600:
8595:
8552:
8516:
8497:Peremptory plea
8491:Nolo contendere
8458:
8363:
8356:
8349:
8343:
8299:Pretextual stop
8294:Miranda warning
8243:
8242:(investigation)
8237:
8207:
8202:
8175:
8161:
8152:
8129:
8120:Political party
8093:Legal education
8081:Law enforcement
8061:Court of equity
8019:
7995:Question of law
7948:Practice of law
7928:Judicial review
7842:
7793:Legal formalism
7773:Comparative law
7768:Contract theory
7751:
7671:Legal pluralism
7642:
7631:Act of Congress
7555:Executive order
7521:
7423:
7342:Nationality law
7267:Immigration law
7191:Competition law
7144:
7012:
7007:
6977:
6972:
6948:Superior orders
6931:
6875:
6872:
6871:
6862:
6804:
6801:
6793:
6749:Peremptory norm
6730:
6725:
6695:
6690:
6664:
6663:
6662:
6629:
6628:
6627:
6609:Sex trafficking
6535:Sexual offenses
6529:
6528:
6527:
6501:Against animals
6496:
6495:
6494:
6445:
6444:
6443:
6399:
6398:
6397:
6293:
6292:
6291:
6209:False pretenses
6153:
6152:
6151:
6115:Preterintention
5987:
5980:
5973:
5970:
5961:
5915:
5902:
5896:
5861:
5853:
5832:
5811:
5779:
5758:
5699:
5678:
5659:
5622:
5603:
5582:
5561:
5540:
5524:
5519:
5518:
5510:
5506:
5498:
5494:
5486:
5482:
5445:
5441:
5398:
5394:
5386:
5382:
5378:, pp. 5–6.
5374:
5370:
5339:
5335:
5327:
5323:
5315:
5311:
5307:, pp. 2–3.
5303:
5299:
5252:
5248:
5213:
5209:
5201:
5197:
5189:
5185:
5177:
5173:
5165:
5161:
5153:
5149:
5141:
5137:
5131:Hoefnagels 1973
5129:
5125:
5119:Hoefnagels 1973
5117:
5113:
5107:Hoefnagels 1973
5105:
5101:
5093:
5089:
5081:
5077:
5069:
5065:
5022:
5018:
5010:
5006:
4998:
4994:
4986:
4982:
4974:
4970:
4960:
4958:
4939:
4932:
4927:
4923:
4918:
4914:
4906:
4902:
4894:
4890:
4882:
4878:
4870:
4863:
4818:
4814:
4806:
4799:
4791:
4787:
4781:Hoefnagels 1973
4779:
4775:
4767:
4763:
4755:
4751:
4732:
4728:
4724:, pp. 3–4.
4720:
4716:
4708:
4704:
4698:Hoefnagels 1973
4696:
4692:
4684:
4680:
4672:
4663:
4655:
4651:
4608:
4604:
4596:
4592:
4584:
4580:
4571:
4567:
4559:
4555:
4540:
4536:
4509:
4505:
4497:
4491:
4487:
4444:
4440:
4413:
4406:
4390:
4389:
4383:
4381:
4373:
4372:
4368:
4360:
4356:
4348:
4344:
4340:, pp. 4–5.
4336:
4332:
4324:
4320:
4312:
4308:
4300:
4296:
4288:
4284:
4276:
4272:
4264:
4260:
4252:
4245:
4237:
4233:
4225:
4221:
4206:
4192:
4188:
4180:
4176:
4168:
4164:
4148:
4147:
4140:
4138:
4128:
4127:
4123:
4115:
4111:
4103:
4094:
4086:
4079:
4047:
4043:
4030:
4028:
4021:
4001:
3997:
3982:
3964:
3960:
3945:
3931:
3927:
3912:
3898:
3894:
3879:
3865:
3861:
3816:
3803:
3760:
3753:
3745:
3741:
3735:Hoefnagels 1973
3733:
3729:
3694:
3687:
3678:
3676:
3667:
3666:
3662:
3654:
3650:
3642:
3635:
3627:
3623:
3615:
3606:
3598:
3594:
3586:
3582:
3574:
3570:
3566:, pp. 1–2.
3562:
3558:
3523:
3519:
3511:
3507:
3499:
3490:
3482:
3478:
3474:, pp. 2–3.
3470:
3466:
3458:
3454:
3444:
3442:
3427:
3423:
3416:
3402:
3395:
3382:
3378:
3372:Wayback Machine
3348:
3341:
3331:
3330:
3323:
3318:
3310:Organized crime
3285:
3278:
3275:
3250:
3189:
3183:
3151:
3145:
3136:
3134:Legal liability
3130:
3083:social networks
3052:
3044:Main articles:
3042:
3030:
3024:
3000:
2998:Law enforcement
2994:
2992:Law enforcement
2989:
2983:
2971:
2969:Criminalization
2965:
2963:Criminalization
2937:
2931:
2891:quality of life
2882:
2873:
2868:
2848:
2842:
2782:
2780:Political crime
2776:
2774:Political crime
2726:excessive noise
2686:
2680:
2633:
2627:
2587:
2579:Main articles:
2577:
2544:
2538:
2502:insider trading
2481:
2475:
2470:
2412:Cesare Lombroso
2386:
2350:
2299:
2295:
2280:
2275:
2181:
2176:
2121:labeling theory
2061:
2053:Main articles:
2051:
2043:
1998:
1961:
1955:
1938:
1879:
1443:False pretenses
1372:Sex trafficking
1298:Sexual offenses
1257:Preterintention
1093:Summary offense
959:
930:
929:
905:
897:
896:
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524:Critical theory
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371:Cesare Lombroso
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355:Major theorists
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323:Social learning
303:Rational choice
293:Labeling theory
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5851:External links
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5246:
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5207:
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5147:
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5099:
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5075:
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4888:
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4690:
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4622:(4): 302–318.
4602:
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4590:
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4503:
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2254:responsibility
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9192:
9189:
9187:
9184:
9182:
9179:
9177:
9174:
9172:
9169:
9167:
9164:
9162:
9159:
9157:
9154:
9152:
9149:
9147:
9144:
9142:
9139:
9137:
9134:
9132:
9129:
9127:
9124:
9122:
9119:
9117:
9114:
9112:
9109:
9107:
9104:
9102:
9099:
9097:
9094:
9092:
9089:
9087:
9084:
9082:
9079:
9077:
9074:
9072:
9069:
9067:
9064:
9062:
9059:
9057:
9054:
9052:
9049:
9047:
9044:
9042:
9039:
9037:
9034:
9032:
9029:
9027:
9024:
9022:
9019:
9017:
9014:
9012:
9009:
9007:
9004:
9002:
8999:
8997:
8994:
8992:
8989:
8987:
8984:
8982:
8979:
8977:
8974:
8972:
8969:
8967:
8964:
8962:
8959:
8957:
8954:
8952:
8949:
8947:
8944:
8942:
8939:
8937:
8934:
8932:
8929:
8927:
8924:
8922:
8919:
8917:
8914:
8912:
8909:
8907:
8904:
8902:
8899:
8897:
8894:
8892:
8889:
8887:
8884:
8882:
8879:
8877:
8874:
8872:
8869:
8867:
8864:
8862:
8859:
8857:
8854:
8852:
8849:
8847:
8844:
8842:
8839:
8837:
8834:
8832:
8829:
8827:
8824:
8822:
8819:
8817:
8814:
8812:
8809:
8807:
8804:
8802:
8799:
8797:
8794:
8792:
8789:
8787:
8784:
8782:
8779:
8777:
8774:
8772:
8769:
8767:
8764:
8762:
8759:
8757:
8754:
8752:
8749:
8747:
8744:
8742:
8739:
8737:
8734:
8732:
8729:
8727:
8724:
8722:
8719:
8717:
8714:
8712:
8709:
8707:
8704:
8702:
8699:
8697:
8694:
8692:
8689:
8687:
8684:
8682:
8679:
8677:
8674:
8672:
8669:
8667:
8664:
8662:
8659:
8657:
8654:
8652:
8649:
8647:
8644:
8642:
8639:
8636:
8627:
8622:
8620:
8615:
8613:
8608:
8607:
8604:
8592:
8589:
8587:
8584:
8582:
8579:
8577:
8574:
8572:
8569:
8567:
8564:
8562:
8559:
8558:
8555:
8549:
8546:
8544:
8541:
8539:
8536:
8534:
8531:
8529:
8526:
8525:
8523:
8521:Related areas
8519:
8513:
8510:
8508:
8505:
8503:
8500:
8498:
8495:
8493:
8492:
8488:
8486:
8483:
8481:
8478:
8476:
8473:
8471:
8468:
8467:
8465:
8461:
8455:
8452:
8450:
8447:
8445:
8442:
8440:
8439:
8435:
8433:
8430:
8428:
8425:
8423:
8422:
8421:Habeas corpus
8418:
8416:
8413:
8411:
8408:
8406:
8404:
8403:Ex post facto
8400:
8398:
8395:
8393:
8390:
8388:
8385:
8383:
8380:
8378:
8375:
8374:
8372:
8370:
8366:
8359:
8353:
8348:
8340:
8337:
8335:
8332:
8330:
8327:
8325:
8322:
8320:
8317:
8315:
8312:
8310:
8307:
8305:
8302:
8300:
8297:
8295:
8292:
8290:
8287:
8285:
8282:
8280:
8277:
8275:
8272:
8270:
8267:
8265:
8262:
8260:
8259:
8255:
8254:
8252:
8250:
8246:
8241:
8234:
8229:
8227:
8222:
8220:
8215:
8214:
8211:
8199:
8198:
8194:
8192:
8191:
8187:
8185:
8184:
8173:
8171:
8170:
8165:
8159:
8158:
8155:
8147:
8144:
8143:
8142:
8139:
8138:
8136:
8132:
8126:
8123:
8121:
8118:
8116:
8113:
8111:
8108:
8106:
8103:
8099:
8096:
8095:
8094:
8091:
8087:
8084:
8083:
8082:
8079:
8077:
8074:
8072:
8069:
8067:
8064:
8062:
8059:
8057:
8054:
8052:
8051:Civil society
8049:
8047:
8044:
8042:
8039:
8037:
8034:
8032:
8029:
8028:
8026:
8022:
8016:
8013:
8011:
8010:Trier of fact
8008:
8006:
8003:
8001:
7998:
7996:
7993:
7991:
7988:
7984:
7981:
7979:
7976:
7974:
7971:
7969:
7966:
7964:
7961:
7959:
7956:
7954:
7951:
7950:
7949:
7946:
7944:
7941:
7939:
7936:
7934:
7931:
7929:
7926:
7924:
7921:
7917:
7914:
7912:
7909:
7908:
7907:
7904:
7902:
7899:
7897:
7896:Legal opinion
7894:
7892:
7889:
7887:
7884:
7882:
7879:
7877:
7876:Court-martial
7874:
7872:
7869:
7867:
7864:
7862:
7859:
7857:
7854:
7853:
7851:
7849:
7848:Jurisprudence
7845:
7839:
7836:
7834:
7831:
7829:
7826:
7824:
7821:
7819:
7816:
7814:
7811:
7809:
7806:
7804:
7801:
7799:
7796:
7794:
7791:
7789:
7786:
7784:
7781:
7779:
7776:
7774:
7771:
7769:
7766:
7764:
7761:
7760:
7758:
7754:
7748:
7745:
7743:
7740:
7738:
7737:Statutory law
7735:
7733:
7732:Socialist law
7730:
7726:
7725:Byzantine law
7723:
7722:
7721:
7718:
7714:
7711:
7709:
7706:
7704:
7701:
7699:
7696:
7694:
7691:
7687:
7684:
7683:
7682:
7679:
7678:
7677:
7676:Religious law
7674:
7672:
7669:
7667:
7664:
7662:
7659:
7657:
7654:
7653:
7651:
7649:
7648:Legal systems
7645:
7639:
7636:
7632:
7629:
7627:
7624:
7622:
7619:
7618:
7617:
7616:Statutory law
7614:
7610:
7607:
7606:
7605:
7602:
7600:
7597:
7595:
7592:
7590:
7587:
7583:
7580:
7578:
7575:
7573:
7570:
7569:
7568:
7565:
7561:
7558:
7556:
7553:
7551:
7548:
7547:
7546:
7543:
7541:
7538:
7536:
7533:
7532:
7530:
7528:
7524:
7518:
7515:
7513:
7510:
7506:
7503:
7501:
7498:
7497:
7496:
7493:
7489:
7486:
7485:
7484:
7481:
7479:
7476:
7474:
7471:
7467:
7464:
7463:
7462:
7459:
7457:
7454:
7452:
7449:
7447:
7446:Statutory law
7443:
7440:
7438:
7435:
7434:
7432:
7430:
7426:
7420:
7417:
7415:
7412:
7410:
7407:
7405:
7404:Transport law
7402:
7400:
7397:
7395:
7392:
7390:
7387:
7385:
7382:
7380:
7377:
7375:
7372:
7370:
7367:
7365:
7362:
7358:
7355:
7353:
7350:
7349:
7348:
7345:
7343:
7340:
7338:
7335:
7333:
7330:
7328:
7325:
7323:
7322:Legal fiction
7320:
7318:
7315:
7313:
7310:
7308:
7305:
7303:
7300:
7298:
7295:
7293:
7290:
7288:
7285:
7283:
7280:
7278:
7275:
7273:
7270:
7268:
7265:
7263:
7260:
7258:
7255:
7253:
7252:Financial law
7250:
7248:
7245:
7243:
7240:
7237:
7234:
7232:
7229:
7227:
7224:
7222:
7219:
7217:
7214:
7212:
7211:Corporate law
7209:
7207:
7204:
7202:
7199:
7197:
7194:
7192:
7189:
7187:
7184:
7182:
7179:
7177:
7174:
7172:
7169:
7167:
7164:
7162:
7159:
7157:
7154:
7153:
7151:
7147:
7141:
7138:
7136:
7135:Statutory law
7133:
7131:
7128:
7124:
7121:
7120:
7119:
7116:
7114:
7111:
7109:
7106:
7102:
7099:
7097:
7094:
7093:
7092:
7089:
7087:
7084:
7082:
7079:
7077:
7074:
7072:
7069:
7067:
7064:
7062:
7059:
7057:
7054:
7050:
7047:
7046:
7045:
7042:
7040:
7037:
7035:
7032:
7030:
7027:
7025:
7022:
7021:
7019:
7017:Core subjects
7015:
7011:
7004:
6999:
6997:
6992:
6990:
6985:
6984:
6981:
6969:
6966:
6964:
6961:
6959:
6956:
6954:
6951:
6949:
6946:
6944:
6941:
6940:
6938:
6934:
6928:
6925:
6923:
6920:
6918:
6915:
6913:
6910:
6908:
6905:
6903:
6900:
6898:
6895:
6893:
6890:
6888:
6885:
6883:
6880:
6879:
6877:
6870:
6865:
6859:
6856:
6854:
6851:
6849:
6848:Slave trading
6846:
6844:
6841:
6837:
6834:
6832:
6829:
6828:
6827:
6824:
6822:
6819:
6817:
6814:
6812:
6809:
6808:
6806:
6803:
6796:
6790:
6787:
6785:
6782:
6780:
6777:
6775:
6772:
6770:
6767:
6765:
6762:
6760:
6757:
6755:
6752:
6750:
6747:
6745:
6742:
6741:
6739:
6737:
6733:
6729:
6722:
6717:
6715:
6710:
6708:
6703:
6702:
6699:
6688:
6685:
6683:
6680:
6678:
6675:
6673:
6670:
6667:
6660:
6657:
6655:
6652:
6650:
6647:
6645:
6642:
6638:
6636:
6632:
6625:
6622:
6620:
6617:
6615:
6612:
6610:
6607:
6605:
6602:
6600:
6597:
6595:
6592:
6590:
6587:
6585:
6582:
6580:
6577:
6575:
6572:
6570:
6569:Homosexuality
6567:
6565:
6562:
6560:
6557:
6555:
6552:
6550:
6547:
6545:
6542:
6538:
6536:
6532:
6525:
6522:
6520:
6517:
6515:
6512:
6510:
6507:
6503:
6499:
6492:
6489:
6487:
6484:
6482:
6479:
6477:
6474:
6472:
6469:
6467:
6464:
6462:
6459:
6455:
6453:
6448:
6441:
6438:
6436:
6433:
6431:
6428:
6426:
6423:
6421:
6418:
6416:
6413:
6409:
6407:
6402:
6395:
6392:
6390:
6387:
6385:
6382:
6380:
6377:
6375:
6372:
6370:
6369:Miscegenation
6367:
6364:
6360:
6356:
6352:
6349:
6347:
6344:
6342:
6339:
6337:
6334:
6332:
6329:
6327:
6324:
6322:
6319:
6317:
6314:
6312:
6309:
6307:
6304:
6300:
6296:
6289:
6285:
6282:
6280:
6277:
6275:
6272:
6270:
6267:
6265:
6262:
6260:
6257:
6255:
6252:
6250:
6249:Pickpocketing
6247:
6245:
6242:
6240:
6237:
6235:
6232:
6230:
6227:
6225:
6222:
6220:
6217:
6215:
6212:
6210:
6207:
6205:
6202:
6200:
6197:
6195:
6192:
6190:
6187:
6185:
6182:
6180:
6177:
6175:
6172:
6170:
6167:
6163:
6161:
6156:
6148:
6145:
6143:
6140:
6138:
6135:
6133:
6130:
6128:
6125:
6121:
6118:
6117:
6116:
6113:
6109:
6106:
6105:
6104:
6101:
6099:
6096:
6093:
6089:
6086:
6084:
6081:
6079:
6076:
6074:
6071:
6069:
6066:
6064:
6061:
6059:
6056:
6054:
6053:Home invasion
6051:
6049:
6046:
6044:
6041:
6039:
6036:
6034:
6031:
6029:
6026:
6024:
6021:
6019:
6016:
6014:
6011:
6009:
6006:
6004:
6003:Assassination
6001:
6000:
5996:
5994:
5990:
5983:
5977:
5972:
5968:
5958:
5955:
5953:
5950:
5948:
5945:
5943:
5940:
5938:
5935:
5933:
5930:
5928:
5925:
5924:
5922:
5918:
5914:
5912:
5905:
5901:
5893:
5888:
5886:
5881:
5879:
5874:
5873:
5870:
5864:
5857:
5842:
5837:
5836:
5833:
5831:9780199940783
5827:
5823:
5822:
5816:
5812:
5810:9780199940264
5806:
5802:
5801:
5795:
5789:
5788:Sumner (2004)
5784:
5783:
5780:
5778:9780631220923
5774:
5770:
5769:
5763:
5759:
5757:9781137505330
5753:
5749:
5748:
5742:
5736:
5731:
5727:
5722:
5718:
5713:
5709:
5704:
5703:
5700:
5698:9781420085525
5694:
5691:. CRC Press.
5690:
5689:
5683:
5679:
5673:
5669:
5664:
5660:
5658:9780803970458
5654:
5650:
5649:
5643:
5640:
5639:
5634:
5631:
5627:
5623:
5621:9789026806698
5617:
5613:
5608:
5604:
5602:9781317157939
5598:
5594:
5593:
5587:
5583:
5581:9781349258383
5577:
5573:
5572:
5566:
5562:
5560:9781135241803
5556:
5552:
5551:
5545:
5541:
5539:9780199672684
5535:
5531:
5526:
5525:
5513:
5508:
5501:
5496:
5489:
5484:
5476:
5472:
5467:
5462:
5458:
5454:
5450:
5443:
5435:
5431:
5427:
5423:
5419:
5415:
5412:(1): 84–100.
5411:
5407:
5403:
5396:
5389:
5384:
5377:
5372:
5364:
5360:
5356:
5352:
5348:
5344:
5343:Social Forces
5337:
5330:
5325:
5318:
5313:
5306:
5301:
5293:
5289:
5284:
5279:
5274:
5269:
5265:
5261:
5257:
5250:
5242:
5238:
5234:
5230:
5226:
5222:
5218:
5211:
5205:, p. 23.
5204:
5199:
5193:, p. 24.
5192:
5187:
5180:
5175:
5168:
5163:
5156:
5151:
5145:, p. 16.
5144:
5139:
5132:
5127:
5120:
5115:
5108:
5103:
5097:, p. 18.
5096:
5091:
5084:
5079:
5072:
5067:
5059:
5055:
5051:
5047:
5043:
5039:
5035:
5031:
5027:
5020:
5013:
5008:
5002:, p. 22.
5001:
4996:
4989:
4984:
4978:, p. 48.
4977:
4972:
4956:
4952:
4948:
4944:
4937:
4935:
4925:
4916:
4909:
4904:
4897:
4892:
4885:
4880:
4873:
4868:
4866:
4857:
4853:
4848:
4843:
4839:
4835:
4831:
4827:
4823:
4816:
4809:
4804:
4802:
4794:
4789:
4782:
4777:
4770:
4765:
4758:
4753:
4745:
4741:
4737:
4730:
4723:
4718:
4711:
4706:
4699:
4694:
4687:
4682:
4676:, p. 11.
4675:
4670:
4668:
4666:
4658:
4653:
4645:
4641:
4637:
4633:
4629:
4625:
4621:
4617:
4613:
4606:
4599:
4594:
4587:
4582:
4575:
4569:
4563:, p. 13.
4562:
4557:
4550:(6): 329–362.
4549:
4545:
4538:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4514:
4507:
4496:
4489:
4481:
4477:
4473:
4469:
4465:
4461:
4457:
4453:
4449:
4442:
4434:
4430:
4426:
4422:
4418:
4411:
4409:
4400:
4394:
4380:
4376:
4370:
4364:, p. 43.
4363:
4358:
4352:, p. 14.
4351:
4346:
4339:
4334:
4328:, p. 38.
4327:
4322:
4315:
4310:
4303:
4298:
4291:
4286:
4279:
4274:
4268:, p. 64.
4267:
4262:
4255:
4250:
4248:
4241:, p. 36.
4240:
4235:
4229:, p. 42.
4228:
4223:
4215:
4211:
4207:
4201:
4197:
4190:
4184:, p. 47.
4183:
4178:
4172:, p. 26.
4171:
4166:
4158:
4152:
4137:
4136:
4131:
4125:
4119:, p. 46.
4118:
4113:
4106:
4101:
4099:
4097:
4090:, p. 18.
4089:
4084:
4082:
4074:
4069:
4064:
4060:
4056:
4052:
4045:
4038:
4026:
4022:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4007:
3999:
3991:
3987:
3983:
3977:
3972:
3971:
3962:
3954:
3950:
3946:
3940:
3936:
3929:
3921:
3917:
3913:
3907:
3903:
3896:
3888:
3884:
3880:
3874:
3870:
3863:
3855:
3851:
3846:
3841:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3814:
3812:
3810:
3808:
3806:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3781:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3758:
3756:
3748:
3743:
3736:
3731:
3723:
3719:
3715:
3711:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3692:
3690:
3674:
3670:
3669:"Criminology"
3664:
3657:
3652:
3646:, p. 38.
3645:
3640:
3638:
3631:, p. 10.
3630:
3625:
3619:, p. 29.
3618:
3613:
3611:
3609:
3601:
3596:
3589:
3584:
3577:
3572:
3565:
3560:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3536:
3532:
3528:
3521:
3514:
3509:
3502:
3497:
3495:
3493:
3486:, p. 49.
3485:
3480:
3473:
3468:
3461:
3456:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3425:
3417:
3411:
3407:
3400:
3398:
3390:
3386:
3380:
3373:
3369:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3353:
3346:
3344:
3335:
3328:
3326:
3321:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3292:
3288:
3282:
3277:
3270:
3267:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3255:crime fiction
3245:
3243:
3239:
3234:
3232:
3228:
3223:
3221:
3216:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3188:
3178:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3150:
3140:
3135:
3125:
3121:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3106:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3070:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3051:
3047:
3037:
3035:
3029:
3019:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3005:
2999:
2988:
2978:
2976:
2970:
2960:
2958:
2954:
2953:socialist law
2950:
2946:
2942:
2936:
2926:
2923:
2919:
2914:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2894:
2892:
2888:
2877:
2863:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2847:
2837:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2781:
2771:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2743:
2742:Western world
2739:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2685:
2675:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2648:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2632:
2622:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2586:
2582:
2581:Violent crime
2575:Violent crime
2572:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2549:
2543:
2533:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2498:Ponzi schemes
2495:
2491:
2487:
2480:
2465:
2463:
2462:DNA profiling
2459:
2455:
2450:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2427:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2390:Thomas Hobbes
2381:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2355:
2345:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2326:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2307:
2305:
2290:
2286:
2278:Early history
2270:
2266:
2264:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2242:
2240:
2236:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2215:
2214:
2213:
2211:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2171:
2169:
2163:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2124:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2113:strain theory
2110:
2106:
2102:
2099:, as well as
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2060:
2059:Crime science
2056:
2046:
2038:
2036:
2032:
2030:
2026:
2025:individualism
2022:
2018:
2013:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1993:
1991:
1990:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1967:
1960:
1950:
1948:
1935:
1930:
1928:
1923:
1921:
1916:
1915:
1913:
1912:
1907:
1904:
1903:
1902:
1901:
1897:
1896:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1852:
1851:
1850:
1846:
1845:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1824:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1814:Justification
1812:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1799:
1795:
1793:
1790:
1788:
1785:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1759:
1758:
1757:
1754:
1751:
1750:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1716:
1715:
1714:
1710:
1709:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1685:
1684:
1683:
1679:
1678:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1647:Miscegenation
1645:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1627:
1625:
1622:
1620:
1617:
1615:
1612:
1610:
1607:
1605:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1581:
1580:
1579:
1575:
1574:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1536:
1535:
1534:
1533:
1529:
1528:
1523:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1483:Pickpocketing
1481:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1446:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1401:
1400:
1399:
1398:
1394:
1393:
1388:
1385:
1383:
1380:
1378:
1375:
1373:
1370:
1368:
1365:
1363:
1360:
1358:
1355:
1353:
1350:
1348:
1345:
1343:
1340:
1338:
1335:
1333:
1332:Homosexuality
1330:
1328:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1308:
1305:
1304:
1303:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1295:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1275:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1263:
1260:
1259:
1258:
1255:
1251:
1248:
1247:
1246:
1243:
1241:
1238:
1235:
1231:
1228:
1226:
1223:
1221:
1218:
1216:
1213:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1203:
1201:
1198:
1196:
1195:Home invasion
1193:
1191:
1188:
1186:
1183:
1181:
1178:
1176:
1173:
1171:
1168:
1166:
1163:
1161:
1158:
1156:
1153:
1151:
1148:
1146:
1145:Assassination
1143:
1142:
1141:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1133:
1128:
1125:
1123:
1120:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1110:
1109:
1108:
1107:
1104:
1101:
1100:
1094:
1090:
1087:
1084:
1081:
1078:
1074:
1071:
1070:
1069:
1068:
1064:
1063:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1040:
1038:
1035:
1033:
1030:
1029:
1028:
1027:
1024:
1020:
1019:
1014:
1011:
1009:
1006:
1004:
1003:
999:
997:
996:
992:
991:
990:
989:
986:
983:
982:
979:
976:
975:
971:
967:
966:
956:
951:
949:
944:
942:
937:
936:
934:
933:
926:
923:
921:
920:Organizations
918:
916:
913:
911:
908:
907:
901:
900:
893:
890:
888:
885:
883:
880:
878:
875:
873:
870:
868:
867:Environmental
865:
863:
860:
858:
855:
853:
850:
848:
845:
843:
840:
838:
835:
833:
830:
828:
825:
823:
820:
818:
815:
814:
808:
807:
798:
795:
793:
790:
789:
787:
785:
784:Postmodernist
782:
780:
777:
775:
774:Neo-classical
772:
770:
767:
765:
762:
760:
757:
755:
752:
750:
749:Environmental
747:
745:
742:
740:
737:
735:
732:
730:
727:
725:
722:
721:
715:
714:
703:
700:
698:
695:
693:
690:
688:
685:
683:
680:
678:
677:Participatory
675:
674:
673:
672:
668:
665:
664:
659:
656:
654:
651:
647:
644:
642:
639:
638:
637:
634:
630:
627:
625:
622:
620:
617:
616:
615:
612:
610:
607:
605:
602:
600:
597:
595:
592:
591:
590:
589:
584:
579:
578:
571:
568:
566:
563:
561:
558:
556:
553:
551:
548:
546:
543:
540:
539:Crime mapping
537:
535:
532:
530:
527:
525:
522:
520:
517:
515:
512:
511:
505:
504:
497:
494:
492:
489:
487:
486:Transnational
484:
482:
479:
477:
474:
472:
467:
465:
462:
460:
457:
455:
454:International
452:
450:
447:
445:
442:
438:
435:
434:
433:
430:
426:
423:
421:
418:
417:
415:
411:
408:
406:
403:
401:
398:
397:
395:
394:
391:
385:
384:
377:
374:
372:
369:
367:
364:
362:
359:
358:
352:
351:
344:
341:
339:
336:
334:
331:
329:
326:
324:
321:
319:
316:
314:
311:
309:
306:
304:
301:
299:
296:
294:
291:
289:
286:
284:
281:
279:
276:
274:
271:
269:
266:
264:
261:
259:
256:
254:
251:
249:
246:
245:
239:
238:
234:
230:
229:
226:
222:
219:
218:
210:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
187:
185:
184:
179:
175:
174:
168:
166:
162:
161:jurisdictions
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
121:
119:
115:
111:
110:criminal code
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
86:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
41:
37:
33:
19:
9373:Criminal law
9347:
9330:
9313:
9301:from Commons
9296:
9279:
9258:
9216:Vatican City
9131:South Africa
9106:Saudi Arabia
8533:Criminal law
8507:Plea bargain
8489:
8444:Precognition
8436:
8419:
8402:
8256:
8195:
8188:
8174:
8160:
7933:Jurisdiction
7901:Legal remedy
7856:Adjudication
7756:Legal theory
7594:Ratification
7589:Promulgation
7560:Proclamation
7540:Codification
7473:Human rights
7461:Divine right
7451:Constitution
7419:Women in law
7337:Military law
7332:Marriage law
7327:Maritime law
7226:Election law
7166:Aviation law
7156:Abortion law
7108:Property law
7048:
7044:Criminal law
6789:Rome Statute
6659:Solicitation
6594:Prostitution
6584:Masturbation
6415:Lèse-majesté
6404:Against the
6199:Embezzlement
6088:Manslaughter
6073:Intimidation
5911:jurisdiction
5908:
5899:
5820:
5799:
5767:
5746:
5687:
5667:
5647:
5636:
5629:
5611:
5591:
5570:
5549:
5529:
5507:
5495:
5490:, p. 4.
5483:
5456:
5452:
5442:
5409:
5405:
5395:
5383:
5371:
5346:
5342:
5336:
5324:
5319:, p. 6.
5312:
5300:
5263:
5259:
5249:
5224:
5220:
5210:
5198:
5186:
5174:
5162:
5150:
5138:
5126:
5114:
5102:
5090:
5083:O'Neill 2010
5078:
5071:O'Neill 2010
5066:
5033:
5029:
5019:
5007:
4995:
4983:
4971:
4959:. Retrieved
4950:
4946:
4924:
4915:
4910:, p. 2.
4903:
4891:
4879:
4829:
4825:
4815:
4810:, p. 3.
4795:, p. 4.
4788:
4776:
4764:
4752:
4743:
4739:
4729:
4717:
4712:, p. 2.
4705:
4693:
4688:, p. 1.
4681:
4659:, p. 3.
4652:
4619:
4615:
4605:
4593:
4581:
4573:
4572:Sara Baase,
4568:
4556:
4547:
4543:
4537:
4520:
4516:
4506:
4488:
4455:
4451:
4441:
4424:
4420:
4382:. Retrieved
4378:
4369:
4357:
4345:
4333:
4321:
4309:
4297:
4285:
4273:
4261:
4256:, p. 8.
4234:
4222:
4195:
4189:
4177:
4165:
4139:. Retrieved
4133:
4124:
4112:
4107:, p. 9.
4072:
4058:
4054:
4044:
4035:
4029:. Retrieved
4005:
3998:
3969:
3961:
3934:
3928:
3901:
3895:
3868:
3862:
3827:
3823:
3771:
3767:
3749:, p. 7.
3742:
3730:
3705:
3701:
3677:. Retrieved
3675:. 2021-07-27
3672:
3663:
3651:
3624:
3602:, p. 3.
3595:
3583:
3575:
3571:
3559:
3534:
3530:
3520:
3508:
3503:, p. 5.
3479:
3467:
3455:
3443:. Retrieved
3434:
3424:
3405:
3379:
3365:Google Books
3350:
3333:
3268:
3251:
3235:
3224:
3217:
3205:unemployment
3190:
3152:
3137:
3122:
3107:
3073:
3053:
3031:
3001:
2975:human rights
2972:
2938:
2935:Criminal law
2929:Criminal law
2915:
2903:embezzlement
2895:
2883:
2874:
2866:Participants
2860:renunciation
2849:
2783:
2746:
2702:prostitution
2687:
2649:
2634:
2615:use of force
2611:self-defense
2588:
2548:social class
2545:
2510:embezzlement
2482:
2451:
2435:World War II
2428:
2406:
2398:urbanization
2394:Imprisonment
2387:
2371:
2351:
2327:
2322:
2315:Roman Empire
2308:
2281:
2267:
2243:
2219:
2182:
2164:
2132:criminal law
2125:
2097:perpetrators
2093:consequences
2077:social order
2073:social norms
2064:
2062:
2044:
2033:
2014:
2006:social norms
2004:and violate
1999:
1987:
1980:Commonwealth
1970:
1962:
1943:
1839:Self-defense
1796:
1719:Lèse-majesté
1433:Embezzlement
1357:Prostitution
1347:Masturbation
1230:Manslaughter
1215:Intimidation
1127:Solicitation
1000:
993:
978:Criminal law
872:Experimental
594:Denunciation
560:Quantitative
470:Public-order
425:White-collar
389:
366:Hans Eysenck
188:
181:
171:
169:
159:or, in some
153:imprisonment
122:
106:jurisdiction
102:criminal law
87:
78:
74:
59:criminal law
54:
46:
44:
9378:Criminology
9281:Definitions
9161:Switzerland
9136:South Korea
9101:Saint Lucia
9066:Philippines
9021:North Korea
9011:New Zealand
8891:Ivory Coast
8796:El Salvador
8641:Afghanistan
8591:Wikiversity
8548:Legal abuse
8485:Information
8475:Arraignment
8470:Alford plea
8410:Extradition
8105:Legislature
8036:Bureaucracy
7833:Rule of man
7828:Rule of law
7803:Libertarian
7666:Chinese law
7567:Legislation
7517:Regulations
7505:Law reports
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4757:Fattah 1997
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4314:Davie 2010
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