Slavery in medieval Europe

4140: 3943: 225: 3738:, the Arab word for Slavs. Slavs’ status as the most common group in the slave trade by the tenth century led to the development of the word “slave.” The Saqaliba were mostly assigned to palaces as guards, concubines, and eunuchs, although they were sometimes privately owned. Along with Christians and Slavs, Sub-Saharan Africans were also held as slaves, brought back from the caravan trade in the Sahara. Slaves in Islamic lands were generally used for domestic, military, and administrative purposes, rarely used for agriculture or large-scale manufacturing. Christians living in Al-Andalus were not allowed to hold authority over Muslims, but they were permitted to hold non-Muslim slaves. 485: 3785:, in which only slaves were liable to corporal punishment, under Visigothic law, people of any social status were subject to corporal punishment. However, the physical punishment, typically beatings, administered to slaves was consistently harsher than that administered to freed or free people. Slaves could also be compelled to give testimony under torture. For example, slaves could be tortured to reveal the adultery of their masters, and it was illegal to free a slave for fear of what he or she might reveal under torture. Slaves' greater liability to physical punishment and judicial torture suggests their inferior social status in the eyes of Visigothic lawmakers. 3452: 3338: 4632:, with being a "servant of servants unto his brethren". Although race or skin color is not mentioned, many Jewish, Christian and Muslim scholars began to interpret the passage as a curse of both slavery and black skin, in an attempt to justify the enslavement of people of color, specifically those of African descent. In the medieval period, however, it was also used by some Christians as a justification for serfdom. Muslim sources in the 7th century allude to the Curse of Ham gaining relevance as a justifying myth for the Islamic world’s longstanding enslavement of Africans. 3016:, and open hostilities between Christian and Muslim nations intensified, large-scale slave trade moved to more distant sources. Sending slaves to Egypt, for example, was forbidden by the papacy in 1317, 1323, 1329, 1338, and, finally, 1425, as slaves sent to Egypt would often become soldiers, and end up fighting their former Christian owners. Although the repeated bans indicate that such trade still occurred, they also indicate that it became less desirable. In the 16th century, African slaves replaced almost all other ethnicities and religious enslaved groups in Europe. 3928:

Crete, Genoese Chios, and Cyprus where enslaved people worked in vineyards, fields, and sugar mills. These were colonial societies, and enslaved people worked with free laborers in these areas. Enslaved women were sought after the most and therefore sold at the highest prices. This reflects the desire for domestic workers in elite households; however, enslaved women also could face sexual exploitation. Furthermore, even if freed from their stations, the former masters of these women often maintained power over them by becoming their employers or patrons.

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of servitude. Of particular interest to historians is the role of serfdom and slavery within the state, and the implications that held for both serf and slave. Some think that slavery was the exclusion of people from the public sphere and its institutions, whereas serfdom was a complex form of dependency that usually lacked a codified basis in the legal system. Wendy Davies argues that serfs, like slaves, also became excluded from the public judicial system and that judicial matters were attended to in the private courts of their respective lords.

2486: 3222: 3894: 4421: 3839:. However, the ethnic composition of slaves in Christian Iberia shifted over the course of the Middle Ages. Slaveholders in the Christian kingdoms gradually moved away from owning Christians, in accordance with Church proscriptions. In the middle of the medieval period most slaves in Christian Iberia were Muslim, either captured in battle with the Islamic states from the southern part of the peninsula, or taken from the eastern Mediterranean and imported into Iberia by merchants from cities such as 2376: 2771: 3804:) moved away from using slaves as field laborers or in work gangs, and did not press slaves into military service. Slaves tended to be owned singly rather than in large groups. There appear to have been many more female than male slaves, and they were most often used as domestic servants, or to supplement free labor. In this respect, slave institutions in Aragon, especially, closely resembled those of other Mediterranean Christian kingdoms in France and Italy. 9602: 2984: 4343: 3360:. This network was a large market for African slaves, transporting approximately four million African slaves from its 7th century inception to its 20th century demise. Ironically, the consolidation of borders in the Islamic Near East changed the face of the slave trade. A rigid Islamic code, coupled with crystallizing frontiers, favored slave purchase and tribute over capture as lucrative slave avenues. Even the sources of slaves shifted from the 9592: 4441:

allowed to remarry if an enslaved fostre or fostra could manage the farm in her absence. Likewise, the Younger Västgöta Law indicates further trust for fostre and fostra as they could occasionally be entrusted with the master’s keys. Likewise, some fostre were in such a trusted position they could undertake military actions while a slave. Yet, for all their independence, any children of fostre or fostra were still property of their masters.

4527:. Complicating this issue is that regions in Europe often had both serfs and slaves simultaneously. In northwestern Europe, a transition from slavery to serfdom happened by the 12th century. The Catholic Church promoted the transformation by giving the example. Enslavement of fellow Catholics was prohibited in 992 and manumission was declared to be a pious act. However it remained legal to enslave people of other religions and dogmas. 3694:

In this regard, the slave trade outperformed and was the most commercially successful venture for maximizing capital. This major change in the form of numismatics serves as a paradigm shift from the previous Visigothic economic arrangement. Additionally, it demonstrates profound change from one regional entity to another, the direct transfer of people and pure coinage from one religiously similar semi-autonomous province to another.

3598:, founded in 1099, at most 120,000 Franks ruled over 350,000 Muslims, Jews, and native Eastern Christians. Following the initial invasion and conquest, sometimes accompanied by massacres or expulsions of Jews and Muslims, a peaceable co-existence between followers of the three religions prevailed. The Crusader states inherited many slaves. To this may have been added some Muslims taken as captives of war. The Kingdom’s largest city, 349: 3673: 28: 9612: 2996:

Charles Verlinden, that Jewish merchants where the primary dealers in European slaves is based on misreadings of primary documents from that era. Contemporary Jewish sources do not attest any large-scale slave trade or ownership of slaves which may be distinguished from the wider phenomenon of early medieval European slavery. The trope of the Jewish dealer of Christian slaves was additionally a prominent

3774:(Liber Iudiciorum), to which subsequent Visigothic kings added new legislation. Although the Visigothic Kingdom collapsed in the early 8th century, portions of the Visigothic Code were still observed in parts of Spain in the following centuries. The Code, with its pronounced and frequent attention to the legal status of slaves, reveals the continuation of slavery as an institution in post-Roman Spain. 3815:, slavery followed the Visigothic model more closely than in the littoral kingdoms. Slaves in León and Castile were more likely to be employed as field laborers, supplanting free labor to support an aristocratic estate society. These trends in slave populations and use changed in the wake of the Black Death in 1348, which significantly increased the demand for slaves across the whole of the peninsula. 3924:

also participated in slave markets. From these markets merchants would sell enslaved people domestically, or transport them to somewhere enslaved people were more in demand. For example, the Italian slave market often found itself selling to Egypt in order to meet the Mamluk demand for slaves. This demand caused Venice and Genoa to compete with one another for control of Black Sea trading ports.

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Iberian Muslim source of slaves further encouraged Christians to look to other sources of manpower. Beginning with the first Portuguese slave raid in sub-Saharan Africa in 1411, the focus of slave importation began to shift from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic World, and the racial composition of slaves in Christian Iberia began to include an increasing number of Sub-Saharan Africans.

3045:. Although the Corpus was lost to the West for centuries, it was rediscovered in the 11th and 12th centuries, and led to the foundation of law schools in Italy and France. According to the Corpus, the natural state of humanity is freedom, but the "law of nations" may supersede natural law and reduce certain people to slavery. The basic definition of slave in Romano-Byzantine law was: 3916:

Mediterranean was the greed of the slavers. The motivation behind many raids was to make money from the resulting slaves, with no political or religious agenda. Also, state and religious institutions frequently participated in the ransoming of individuals, so piracy became a lucrative market. This meant some individuals were returned home while others were sold away.

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slavery, but this fate was as common for Muslim prisoners of war as it was for Christian prisoners taken by the Muslims. In the later medieval period, some slaves were used to oar Hospitaller ships. Generally, it was a relatively small number non-Christian slaves in medieval Europe, and this number significantly decreased by the end of the medieval period.

4546:. Serfs were typically indigenous Europeans and were not subject to the same involuntary movements as slaves. Serfs worked in family units, whereas the concept of family was generally murkier for slaves. At any given moment, a slave’s family could be torn apart via trade, and masters often used this threat to coerce compliant behavior from the slave. 4539:; in other words, failure to work resulted in physical punishment. Serfs held plots of land, which was essentially a form of "payment" that the lord offered in exchange for the serf’s service. Serfs worked part-time for the masters and part-time for themselves and had opportunities to accumulate personal wealth that often did not exist for the slave. 3793:

did not make up a significant portion of the labor pool. Furthermore, while the existence of slavery continued from the earlier period, the use of slaves in post-Visigothic Christian Iberia differed from early periods. Ian Wood has suggests that, under the Visigoths, the majority of the slave population lived and worked on rural estates.

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transactions. Additionally, religious division was the fundamental basis of law for the ownership of slaves during this period; it was not legal for Christians, Muslims, or Jewish people to enslave fellow believers. However, the enslavement, and compulsory conversion, of nonbelievers or people from other religions was permissible.

3303:, early Islamic traders, in contrast to Byzantine and early modern slave traders, imported large numbers of female slaves. The very earliest Islamic states did not create corps of slave soldiers (a practice familiar from later contexts) but did integrate freedmen into armies, which may have contributed to the rapid expansion of 3778:

stipulates that if a free woman marries another person’s slave, the couple is to be separated and given 100 lashes. Furthermore, if the woman refuses to leave the slave, then she becomes the property of the slave’s master. Likewise, any children born to the couple would follow the father’s condition and be slaves.

4454:(Land’s law), does not mention slaves, but former slaves. Thus it seems that slavery was abolished in Norway by this time. In Denmark, slavery was gradually replaced by serfdom (hoveriet) in the 13th-century, and in Sweden, slavery was abolished in 1334 and not replaced with serfdom, which never existed in Sweden. 3390:), or wives. Domestic and commercial slaves were mostly better off than their agricultural counterparts, either becoming family members or business partners rather than condemned to a grueling life in a chain gang. There are references to gangs of slaves, mostly African, put to work in drainage projects in 4574:

The absence of serfdom in some parts of medieval Europe raises several questions. Devroey thinks it is because slavery was not born out of economic structures in these areas, but was rather a societal practice. Heinrich Fichtenau points out that in Central Europe, there was not a labor market strong

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There were markets throughout the Mediterranean where enslaved people were bought and sold. In Italy the major slave trade centers were Venice and Genoa; in Iberia they were Barcelona and Valencia; and islands off the Mediterranean including Majorca, Sardinia, Sicily, Crete, Rhodes, Cyprus, and Chios

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in 1239 addressed rumors that the Jews were involved in kidnapping and selling Christian women and children into slavery while their husbands were away fighting the Muslims. Despite these worries, the primary role of Jewish slave traders lay in facilitating the exchange of captives between Muslim and

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in the 8th century, and the Visigothic law codes continued to control slave ownership. However, as William Phillips notes, medieval Iberia should not be thought of as a slave society, but rather as a society that owned slaves. Slaves accounted for a relatively small percentage of the population, and

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being a form of piety under Islamic law, slavery in Muslim Spain couldn't maintain the same level of auto-reproduction as societies with older slave populations. Therefore, Al-Andalus relied on trade systems as an external means of replenishing the supply of enslaved people. Forming relations between

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them and the practice of baptising slaves was often discouraged. The enslavement of co-religionists was discouraged, if not forbidden, for Christians, Jews, and Muslims alike. Consequently, northern European pagans and black Africans were a target for all three religious groups. Ethnic and religious

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shed light on the decline of serfdom. There is a widespread theory that the introduction of currency hastened the decline of serfdom because it was preferable to pay for labor rather than depend on feudal obligations. Some historians argue that landlords began selling serfs their land – and hence,

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Generally speaking, regarding how slaves differed from serfs, the underpinnings of slavery and serfdom are debated as well. Dominique Barthélemy, among others, has questioned the very premises for neatly distinguishing serfdom from slavery, arguing that a binary classification masks the many shades

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and methodology. Some historians believe that slavery transitioned into serfdom (a view that has only been around for the last 200 years), though there is disagreement among them regarding how rapid this transition was. Pierre Bonnassie, a medieval historian, thought that the chattel slavery of the

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were among the last areas of Christian Europe to give up their institution of slavery. Under Gaelic custom, prisoners of war were routinely taken as slaves. During the period that slavery was disappearing across most of western Europe, it was reaching its height in the British Isles: with the Viking

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The duties and expectations of slaves varied geographically; however, in the Mediterranean, it was most common for enslaved people to work in the households of elites. Enslaved people also worked in agricultural fields, but this was infrequent across the Mediterranean. It was most common in Venetian

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in 1182 brought him over two-thousand Muslim slaves. These raiding expeditions also included the Sa’ifa (summer) incursions, a tradition produced during the Amir reign of Cordoba. In addition to acquiring wealth, some of these Sa’ifa raids sought to bring mostly male captives, often eunuchs, back to

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served as a highly lucrative trade configuration. The archaeological evidence of human trafficking and proliferation of early trade in this case follows numismatics and materiality of text. This monetary structure of consistent gold influx proved to be a tenet in the development of Islamic commerce.

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dealt more with fugitive slaves and the punishments ascribed to them, the prohibition of slaves testifying in court, and manumission of slaves, which could be accomplished, for example, through a will, or by conversion to Christianity. Conversion was apparently used as an excuse to escape slavery by

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forbade sexual relations between crusaders and their female Muslim slaves: if a man raped his own slave, he would be castrated, but if he raped someone else’s slave, he would be castrated and exiled from the kingdom. But Benjamin Z. Kedar argued that the canons of the Council of Nablus were in force

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takes the institution of slavery for granted, though it urges kindness toward slaves and eventual manumission, especially for slaves who convert to Islam. In early Middle Ages, many slaves in Islamic society served as such for only a short period of time—perhaps an average of seven years. Like their

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Towards the end of the Reconquista, however, this source of slaves became increasingly exhausted. Muslim rulers were increasingly unable to pay ransoms, and the Christian capture of large centers of population in the south made wholesale enslavement of Muslim populations impractical. The loss of an

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groomed young slave boys for civil or military service. Young Christian boys were uprooted from their conquered villages periodically as a levy, and were employed in government, entertainment, or the army, depending on their talents. Slaves attained great success from this program, some winning the

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For the slave raiders, slaves were a valuable currency. You could sell them to buy wine and other luxury goods. There was always a market for them. There was always an unending supply of them, if only you were stronger than your neighbour. For the Irish, slave-raiding was a lucrative extension to

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The Christian kingdoms of Iberia frequently traded their Muslim captives back across the border for payments of money or kind. Indeed, historian James Broadman writes that this type of redemption offered the best chance for captives and slaves to regain their freedom. The sale of Muslim captives,

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Christians were not the only slaveholders in Christian Iberia. Both Jews and Muslims living under Christian rule owned slaves, though more commonly in Aragon and Valencia than in Castile. After the conquest of Valencia in 1245, the Kingdom of Aragon prohibited the possession of Christian slaves by

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Communities of Muslims, Christians, and Jews existed on both sides of the political divide between Muslim and Christian kingdoms in Medieval Iberia: Al-Andalus hosted Jewish and Christian communities while Christian Iberia hosted Muslim and Jewish communities. Christianity had introduced the ethos

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Christian law mandated Christians could not enslave other Christians; however, enslaving non-Christians was acceptable. In fact, military orders frequently enslaved Muslims and used slave labor for agricultural estates. No Christian, whether Western or Eastern, was permitted by law to be sold into

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The end of serfdom is also debated, with Georges Duby pointing to the early 12th century as a rough end point for "serfdom in the strict sense of the term". Other historians dispute this assertion, citing discussions and the mention of serfdom as an institution during later dates (such as in 13th

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A freed slave did not have full legal status; for example, the punishment for killing a former slave was low. A former slave’s son also had a low status, but higher than that of his parents. Women were commonly taken as slaves and forced into concubinage for lords. The children of these women had

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In the Mediterranean region, individuals became enslaved through war and conquest, piracy, and frontier raiding. Additionally, some courts would sentence people to slavery, and even some people sold themselves or their children into slavery due to extreme poverty. The incentive for slavery in the

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Additionally, the possession of slaves was legal in 13th century Italy; many Christians held Muslim slaves throughout the country. These Saracen slaves were often captured by pirates and brought to Italy from Muslim Spain or North Africa. During the 13th century, most of the slaves in the Italian

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The evidence indicates that slavery in Scandinavia was more common in southern regions, as there are fewer northern provincial laws that contain mentions of slavery. Likewise, slaves were likely numerous but consolidated under the ownership of elites as chattel labor on large farm estates.

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protected ‘people of the book’ (Christians and Jews living in Islamic lands) from enslavement, an immunity which also applied to Muslims living in Christian Iberia. Despite these restrictions, criminal or indebted Muslims and Christians in both regions were still subject to judicially-sanctioned

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The Law of Scania indicates free men may become slaves as a way to atone for a crime with the implication they would be eventually freed. Likewise, the Gotlander Guta Lag indicates slavery could be for a fixed period and as a method to pay for debt. Within the Older Västgöta Law widows are only

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Between 1489 and 1497 almost 2,100 black slaves were shipped from Portugal to Valencia. By the end of the 15th century, Spain held the largest population of black Africans in Europe, with a small, but growing community of black ex-slaves. In the mid 16th century Spain imported up to 2,000 black

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Patterns of preference for slaves in the Near East, as well as patterns of use, continued into the later Middle Ages with only slight changes. Slaves were employed in many activities, including agriculture, industry, the military, and domestic labor. Women were prioritized over men, and usually

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pp. 226–228. quote = "Just as non-muslim communities survived under Islam, so non-Christians lived unfree but largely unmolested in Frankish outremer. After the early massacres, displacements and expulsions of Muslims and Jews from conquered cities, coexistence, rather than integration or

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By the 16th century, slavery in Russia consisted mostly of those who sold themselves into slavery owing to poverty. They worked predominantly as household servants, among the richest families, and indeed generally produced less than they consumed. Laws forbade the freeing of slaves in times of

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The Code regulated the social conditions, behavior, and punishments of slaves in early medieval Spain. The marriage of slaves and free or freed people was prohibited. Book III, title II, iii ("Where a Freeborn Woman Marries the Slave of Another or a Freeborn Man the Female Slave of Another")

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The role of Jewish merchants in the early medieval slave trade has been subject to much misinterpretation and distortion. Although medieval records demonstrate that there were Jews who owned slaves in medieval Europe, Toch (2013) notes that the claim repeated in older sources, such as those by

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was the first monarch of this family who surrounded his throne with a certain splendour and magnificence. He increased the number of mamelukes (slave soldiers) until they amounted to 5,000 horse and 1,000 foot. ... he increased the number of his slaves, eunuchs and servants; had a bodyguard of

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code (in about 1160), domestic slaves could not, unlike foreign slaves, be sold out of the country. This and other laws defined slaves as their master’s property at the same level as cattle; if either were harmed then the perpetrator was responsible for damages, but if either caused damage to

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property then the owners were held accountable. It also described a procedure for giving a slave their freedom. According to the Law of Scania slaves could be granted freedom or redeem it themselves, upon which they must then be accepted into a new kin group or face societal ostracization.

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The Islamic Near East extensively relied upon professional slave soldiers, and was known for having them compose the core of armies. The institution was conceived out of political predicaments and reflected the attitudes of the time, and was not indicative of political decline or financial

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For those who traded in the Mediterranean, it was the humanity and intellect of these enslaved peoples that made them valuable merchandise worth commodifying. To purchase an individual was to purchase their labor, autonomy, and faith; religious conversion was often a motivation for these

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in the slave trade in Iberia remains largely hypothetical, their depredations are clearly recorded. Raids on al-Andalus by Vikings are reported in the years 844, 859, 966 and 971, conforming to the general pattern of such activity concentrating in the mid ninth and late tenth centuries.

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Justifications for slavery throughout the medieval period were dominated by the perception of religious difference. Slaves were often outsiders taken in war. As such, Hebrew and Islamic thinking both conceived of the slave as an "enemy within". In the Christian tradition,

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cavalry always stationed at the gate of his palace and surrounded his person with a guard of mamelukes .... these mamelukes were called Al-haras (the Guard) owing to their all being Christians or foreigners. They occupied two large barracks, with stables for their horses.

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Despite the scholarly disagreement, it is possible to piece together a general picture of slavery and serfdom. Slaves typically owned no property, and were in fact the property of their masters. Slaves worked full-time for their masters and operated under a negative

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In the early period after the fall of the Visigothic kingdom in the 8th century, slaves primarily came into Christian Iberia through trade with the Muslim kingdoms of the south. Most were Eastern European, captured in battles and raids, with the heavy majority being

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serfdom. Jean-Pierre Devroey thinks that the shift from slavery to serfdom was gradual as well in some parts of the continent. Other areas, though, did not have what he calls "western-style serfdom" after the end of slavery, such as the rural areas of the

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Gaiser, A. (2014) "Slaves and Silver across the Strait of Gibraltar: Politics and Trade between Umayyad Iberia and Khārijite North Africa" in Liang, Y.G. et al. (eds.) Spanning the Strait: Studies in Unity in the Western Mediterranean, Leiden: Brill, pp.

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1983: 2851:, raids undertaken by groups of noblemen, sometimes illegally because they contravened treaties concluded by the khans with neighbouring rulers. For a long time, until the early 18th century, the khanate maintained a massive slave trade with the 2543:, which has associations with food. The word can be understood to mean, cook, and to break bread, which would place a person with this label as the person in charge of food in some manner. There is a runic inscription that describes a man of 4671:

full and free power, through the Apostolic authority by this edict, to invade, conquer, fight, and subjugate the Saracens and pagans, and other infidels and other enemies of Christ, and ... to reduce their persons into perpetual servitude

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Jews, though they were still permitted to hold Muslim or pagan slaves. The main role of Iberian Jews in the slave trade came as facilitators: Jews acted as slave brokers and agents of transfer between the Christian and Muslim kingdoms.

3330:, which incorporated more professional black soldiers than the previous two dynasties. It was the Fatimids who first incorporated black professional slave soldiers into the cavalry, despite massive opposition from Central Asian Turkish 3102:. The Decretum, like the Corpus, defined a slave as anyone whose mother was a slave. Otherwise, the canons were concerned with slavery only in ecclesiastical contexts: slaves for instance were not permitted to be ordained as clergy. 425:

As a result, most Christian slave merchants focused on moving slaves from non-Christian areas to Muslim Spain, North Africa, and the Middle East; and most non-Christian merchants, although not bound by the Church’s rules, focused on

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is one such method. There is supposedly a clear shift in diction when referencing those who were either slaves or serfs at approximately 1000, though there is not a consensus on how significant this shift is, or if it even exists.

268:’s prescribing enslavement for criminals who could not pay financial penalties for their crimes and as an actual punishment for various other crimes. Such criminals would become slaves to their victims, often with their property. 3186:

in the early Middle Ages and the practices of early medieval Byzantines and western Europeans. The status of freed slaves under Islamic rule, who continued to owe services to their former masters, bears a strong similarity to

3498:. The new force was based on the sultan’s right to a fifth of the war booty, which he interpreted to include captives taken in battle. The captive slaves were converted to Islam and trained in the sultan’s personal service. 8908: 7059:

persecution prevailed ... At Acre, where the two faiths shared a converted mosque as well as a suburban shrine, Muslim visitors were treated fairly and efficiently. Mosques still operated openly in Tyre and elsewhere."

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on 9 May 1877. They were considered less valuable because they were taxable, only skilled at agricultural work and could not be used as tribute. It was common for both boyars and monasteries to register their Romanian

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As a result of the crusades, thousands of Muslims and Christians were sold into slavery. Once sold into slavery most were never heard from again, so it is challenging to find evidence of specific slave experiences.

410:, Venice promised not to buy Christian slaves in the Empire, and not to sell Christian slaves to Muslims. The Church prohibited the export of Christian slaves to non-Christian lands, for example in the Council of 2590:

recorded that Franks who had been defeated by a group of Vikings in 880 CE were taken as captives after being defeated. Viking groups would have political conflicts that also resulted in the taking of captives.

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invasions and the subsequent warring between Scandinavians and the natives, the number of captives taken as slaves drastically increased. The Irish church was vehemently opposed to slavery and blamed the 1169

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Miller, Kathryn (2014). ""Reflections on Reciprocity: A Late Medieval Islamic Perspective on Christian-Muslim Commitment to Captive Exchange."". In Trivellato, Francesca; Halevi, Leor; Antunes, Catia (eds.).

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Bacharach, Jere L., "African Military Slaves in the Medieval Middle East: The Cases of Iraq (869–955) and Egypt (868–1171)." International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 13, No. 4 (Nov., 1981) 471–495.

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were similarly considered enemies of the faith who could be justly enslaved. In theory, slaves who converted could embark on the path to freedom, but practices were inconsistent: masters were not obliged to

2847:. For each captive, the khan received a fixed share (savğa) of 10% or 20%. The campaigns by Crimean forces categorize into "sefers", officially declared military operations led by the khans themselves, and 2361:, until the 13th century, when increasing Venetian control over the Eastern Mediterranean allowed Venice to dominate that market. Between 1414 and 1423 alone, at least 10,000 slaves were sold in Venice. 2309:

Venice was far from the only slave trading hub in Italy. Southern Italy boasted slaves from distant regions, including Greece, Bulgaria, Armenia, and Slavic regions. During the 9th and 10th centuries,

3602:, had a large slave market; however, the vast majority of Muslims and Jews remained free. The laws of Jerusalem declared that former Muslim slaves, if genuine converts to Christianity, must be freed. 1978: 4101:

as "Gypsies" so that they would not pay the taxes that were imposed on the serfs. Any Romanian, regardless of gender, marrying a Roma would immediately become a slave that could be used as tribute.

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and other northwestern European Viking settlements were established as gateways through which captives were traded northwards. Thralls could be bought and sold at slave markets. An account from the

4247:. The master, however, was responsible before the law for his kholop’s actions. A person could become a kholop as a result of capture, selling himself or herself, being sold for debts or committed 3437:

bankruptcy. Slave units were desired because of their unadulterated loyalty to the ruler, since they were imported and therefore could not threaten the throne with local loyalties or alliances.

2411:, as well as served as a staging point for Muslim and Jewish merchants to market slaves to the rest of the Islamic world. A ready market, especially for men of fighting age, could be found in 5852: 4448:

Slavery began to be replaced by a feudal-style tenant farmer economy wherein free men tied to the land worked farms for a lord reducing the need for slaves The Norwegian law code from 1274,

3626:, contrary to both the laws of Jerusalem and the canon laws that he himself was partially responsible for compiling, allowed for Muslim slaves to remain enslaved even if they had converted. 4643:

was resolved by a legal "compromise": enslavement was allowable given a just cause, which could then be defined by papal authority. The state of slavery was thought to be closely tied to

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Whatever currency was in use , it was not coin – as in other pre-coin economies, there was a system of conventional valuations in which female slaves, for example, were important units.

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used black slave units to liberate itself from Abbasid rule after the Abbasids destroyed ibn Tulun’s autonomous empire in 935. Black professional soldiers were most associated with the

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across Europe. Other historians argue that the end of slavery came from the royalty, who gave serfs freedom through edicts and legislation in an attempt to broaden their tax base.

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in the 12th century but had fallen out of use by the thirteenth. Marwan Nader questions this and suggests that the canons may not have applied to the whole kingdom at all times.

2915:, Christians did acquire Muslim slaves; in Southern France, in the 13th century, "the enslavement of Muslim captives was still fairly common". There are records, for example, of 6658:

Wegner, J. R. "Islamic and Talmudic Jurisprudence: The Four Roots of Islamic Law and their Talmudic Counterparts," The American Journal of Legal History, 26, 1 (1982): p. 25-71.

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Gutierrez, J. and Valor, M. (2014) "Trade, Transport and Travel" in Valor, M. and Gutierrez, A. (eds.) The Archaeology of Medieval Spain 1100–1500, Sheffield: Equinox, pp. 124.

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that banned the enslavement of fellow Christians, an ethos that was reinforced by the banning of the enslavement of co-religionists during the rise of Islam. Additionally, the

4139: 2551:, which would have been used for a runaway slave. From this, it can be gathered that the different names for those who were thralls indicate position and duties performed. 4554:, or in Central Europe, where the rise of serfdom coincided with its decline in Western Europe). There are several approaches to get a time span for the transition, and 4261:, an advice book, speaks of the need to choose slaves of good character and to provide for them properly. Slavery remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when 4651:, in particular the Papacy, took an active role in offering justifications for the enslavement of Saracens, pagans, infidels, and "other enemies of Christ". In 1452, a 2104: 2931:, an event during which a large number of Muslim women from this area were enslaved as war booty, as it has been recorded in some Arabic poetry, notably by the poet 200:

was widespread. Europe and North Africa were part of a highly interconnected trade network across the Mediterranean Sea, and this included slave trading. During the

3553:

consisted chiefly of purchased slaves. Because Islamic law forbade Muslims to enslave fellow Muslims, the Sultan’s concubines were generally of Christian origin (

6765:

Yaacov Lev, David Ayalon (1914–1998) and the history of Black Military Slavery in medieval Islam, Der Islam 90.1 (January 2013): Accessed 22 November 2014, doi:

2752:

in the Middle East. Captives may have been traded far within the Viking trade network, and within that network, it was possible to be sold again. In the Life of

9055: 4683:

Historians such as Timothy Rayborn have contended that religious justifications served to mask the economic necessities underlying the institution of slavery.

1968: 1499: 9421: 4445:

little formal rights with inheritance and legitimacy possible should they be needed for succession or favored by their parents, but nothing was guaranteed.

2965:

While they would at times seize Muslims as slaves, it was more likely that Christian armies would kill their enemies, rather than take them into servitude.

427: 2618:

where negotiations and trades for slaves would take place. Though slaves could be bought and sold, it was more common to sell captives from other nations.

1853: 1225: 962: 9557: 5867:

Korpela, Jukka. The Baltic Finnic People in the Medieval and Pre-Modern Eastern European Slave Trade, in 'Russian History, Volume 41, Issue 1' p. 85-117

5791:

The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives. Selected Papers from the Jerusalem 1999 International Khazar Colloquium. (2007). Nederländerna: Brill. p. 232

4628:, sins by seeing his father inebriated and naked, although scholars differ on the exact nature of Ham’s transgression. Noah then curses Ham’s offspring, 2455:

note that the Jewish merchants of Verdun specialized in castrating slaves, to be sold as eunuch saqaliba, which were enormously popular in Muslim Spain.

1589: 1230: 3859:

sent almost 10,000 of the city’s Muslim women and children to Genoa to be sold into slavery as partial repayment of Genoese assistance in the campaign.

3942: 3758:, slavery thrived as an institution in medieval Christian Iberia. Slavery existed in the region under the Romans, and continued to do so under the 7894: 7156: 5894: 5850: 3571:, daughter of a Greek Christian priest, who dominated the Ottoman Empire during the early decades of the 17th century. Another notable example was 3433:, or, slaves "of the Gate", or Sultanate. While not slaves per se under Islamic law, these Devşrime alumni remained under the Sultan’s discretion. 922: 7898: 4116: 3983: 6291:"Mediterranean Slavery Revisited (500-1800): Neue Perspektiven auf Mediterrane Sklaverei (500-1800), written by Stefan Hanss and Juliane Schiel" 9070: 7890: 5502: 5094:"Pacta Veneta. A chronology in four steps. PAX TIBI MARCE Venice: government, law, jurisprudence Venezia: istituzioni, diritto, giurisprudenza" 3847:

either back to the Islamic southern states or to third-party slave brokers, supplied one of the means by which Aragon and Castile financed the

1277: 339: 6263: 4680:, Pope Nicholas V reiterated his support for the enslavement of infidels in the context of Portugal’s monopoly on North African trade routes. 4218: 2554:

A fundamental part of Viking activity was the sale and taking of captives. The thralls were mostly from Western Europe, among them many

5083:. (1939–1940) – In: Atti. Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, Classe di Scienze Morali e Lettere Ser. 2, vol. 99 (1939–40) p. 11–49 9147: 3195:. However, the practice of slavery in the early medieval Near East also grew out of slavery practices in currency among pre-Islamic Arabs. 1973: 1823: 212:—began to replace slavery as the main economic and agricultural engine. Throughout medieval Europe, the perspectives and societal roles of 2962:

remained a slave market until well into the late 18th century. One thousand slaves were required to man the galleys (ships) of the Order.

2943:

were of Muslim origin. These Muslim slaves were owned by royalty, military orders or groups, independent entities, and the church itself.

4505:

In considering how serfdom evolved from slavery, historians who study the divide between slavery and serfdom encounter several issues of

1304: 4008: 4251:, or marriage to a kholop. Until the late 10th century, the kholops represented a majority among the servants who worked lordly lands. 2206:

in Northern Africa (Zacharias himself reportedly forbade such traffic out of Rome). When the sale of Christians to Muslims was banned (

2050: 802: 8853: 6884: 3059:

It was, however, possible to become a freedman or a full citizen; the Corpus, like Roman law, had extensive and complicated rules for

1252: 5782:

The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 3, C.900-c.1024. (1995). Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press. p. 91

4391: 2023: 1843: 1016: 8902: 5810: 5325: 3705:

among Muslims and Christians (although sometimes Muslims and Christians were allies). Periodic raiding expeditions were sent from

2306:

were especially valuable, and "castration houses" arose in Venice, as well as other prominent slave markets, to meet this demand.

2181: 375: 184: 2736:

selling Slavic slaves to middle-eastern merchants. Finland proved another source for Viking slave raids. Slaves from Finland or

3183: 3122: 2912: 1287: 705: 280: 5933: 4941: 9025: 8180: 7866: 7132: 6894: 6634: 6607: 6413: 6339: 6002: 5561: 5478: 5379: 5257: 4894: 4819: 4788: 4759: 4034:

and considered their slavery as a vestige of that era. The practice of enslaving prisoners may also have been taken from the

2887:, as a commonly traded commodity slaves could, like cattle, become a form of internal or trans-border currency. In 1102, the 1865: 1542: 1314: 216:

differed greatly, from some being restricted to agricultural labor to others being positioned as trusted political advisors.

6649:

Crone, Patricia. Roman, Provincial, and Islamic Law: The Origins of the Islamic Patronate. Cambridge University Press, 1987.

4292:

routinely made raids on Russian principalities for slaves and to plunder towns. Russian chronicles record about 40 raids of

3398:, and sugar and cotton plantations in North Africa and Spain. References to this latter type of slavery are rare, however. 2793:

established an international slave market. The Mongols enslaved skilled individuals, women and children and marched them to

8869: 5047: 2057: 2018: 1661: 264:

included provisions dealing with slaves. In the Germanic realms, laws instituted the enslavement of criminals, such as the

5246:

Valante, Mary A. (2013). "Castrating Monks: Vikings, the Slave Trade, and the Value of Eunuchs". In Tracy, Larissa (ed.).

9651: 9481: 9456: 9396: 6963: 5093: 3831:

Christian rulers, one of the primary threads of economic and political connectivity between Christian and Muslim Iberia.

2099: 1736: 1396: 1247: 1043: 952: 279:, who himself was captured and enslaved at one time, protested an attack that enslaved newly baptized Christians in his 9572: 5008: 4377: 4013: 2119: 1813: 1567: 5800:

The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 3, C.900-c.1024. (1995). Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press. p. 504

2978: 224: 9615: 9577: 9107: 8706: 8673: 8562: 8529: 8496: 8412: 8379: 8306: 8281: 8208: 8053: 8033: 7981: 7973: 7931: 7598: 7226: 7085: 6366: 6126: 6080: 6050: 5868: 5664: 5431: 5395: 5290: 4925: 4211: 3429:

It is a bit of a misnomer to classify these men as "slaves", because in the Ottoman Empire, they were referred to as

2229: 1941: 1818: 1242: 1011: 878: 434:, presumably exchanged for slaves, are plentiful in eastern Europe and Southern Sweden, indicating trade routes from 3182:

Whatever the relationship between these different legal traditions, many similarities exist between the practice of

8458:

Devroey, Jean-Pierre (2000). "Men and Women in Early Medieval Serfdom: The Ninth-Century North Frankish Evidence".

8428:

Devroey, Jean-Pierre (2007). "Men and Women in Early Medieval Serfdom: the Ninth-Century North Frankish Evidence".

6793: 4081: 4066: 3515:

were taken away from their homes and families, converted to Islam and enlisted into special soldier classes of the

3212: 3208: 3126: 2790: 2765: 2749: 2666: 2570:(874–930). Raids on monasteries provided a source of young, educated slaves who could be sold in Venice or via the 2072: 1282: 1267: 1213: 898: 888: 883: 712: 568: 4243:. A kholop's master had unlimited power over his life: he could kill him, sell him, or use him as payment upon a 1788: 9075: 6803:

Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East. (Oxford University Press, 1994). Retrieved 19 November 2014.

6792:

Jere L. Bacharach, African Military Slaves in the Muslim Middle East. BlackPast.org. Retrieved 20 November 2014.

3689:

the Umayyads, Khārijites and 'Abbāsids, the flow of trafficked people from the main routes of the Sahara towards

3381: 3216: 3164: 3111: 2586:

in northern Russia before the end of the 8th century. The collection of slaves was a by-product of conflict. The

2067: 1838: 644: 8839:

David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966), pp. 92–94.

8113: 6667:

Lewis, Bernard, Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Oxford University Press, 1990, p. 4.

283:. The restoration of order and the growing power of the church slowly transmuted the late Roman slave system of 9441: 9381: 9353: 9112: 8596:

Engerman, Stanley (1996). "Slavery, Serfdom, and Other Forms of Coerced Labour: Similarities and Differences".

5347: 5314: 3516: 2840: 2202:

had established a thriving slave trade, enslaving people in Italy, among other places, and selling them to the

1537: 1525: 1105: 917: 563: 8641:

Engerman, Stanley (1996). "Slavery, serfdom and other forms of coerced labour: similarities and differences".

4432:

The laws from 12th and 13th centuries describe the legal status of two categories. According to the Norwegian

4361:; however, slavery was restricted to those captured during war. In some special cases and for limited periods 3622:

Muslims who would then continue to practise Islam; crusader lords often refused to allow them to convert, and

9527: 9358: 5849:

Medieval slave trade routes in Eastern Europe extended from Finland and the Baltic Countries to Central Asia

4388: 4070: 3726: 3446: 3430: 3334:, who saw the African contingent as a threat to their role as the leading military unit in the Egyptian army. 2317:, along with Venice, dominated the trade in the Eastern Mediterranean beginning in the 12th century, and the 2109: 1892: 753: 5282:

Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800

4587:, slavery was defined as "an institution according to the law of nations whereby one person falls under the 7207:"Empire, Monotheism and Slavery in the Greater Mediterranean Region from Antiquity to the Early Modern Era" 7172:"Empire, Monotheism and Slavery in the Greater Mediterranean Region from Antiquity to the Early Modern Era" 4296:

on Russian territories in the first half of the 16th century. In 1521, the combined forces of Crimean khan

4204: 3789: 3300: 2114: 1958: 1828: 1489: 1257: 1237: 797: 765: 5836: 4667:, recognized King Alfonso’s military action as legitimate in the form of the papal bull, and declared the 4053:

While it is possible that some Romani people were slaves or auxiliary troops of the Mongols or Tatars and

484: 9641: 9537: 4693: 4648: 4612:

A major Christian justification for the use of slavery, especially against those with dark skin, was the

4481: 4384: 2719: 2658: 2174: 2124: 1848: 1766: 893: 674: 494: 177: 5175:

Le Liber pontificalis; texte, introduction et commentaire par L. Duchesne (Volume 1). 1886. p. 426–439.

3348:

In the later half of the Middle Ages, the expansion of Islamic rule further into the Mediterranean, the

9636: 9532: 9522: 9328: 9230: 8737:

Engerman, Stanley. "Slavery, serfdom and other forms of coerced labour: similarities and differences".

8092: 6989: 4486: 4354: 3535: 2692:

to present day Russia, where slaves and furs were sold to Muslim merchants in exchange for Arab silver

2285: 2033: 1885: 1870: 1761: 957: 319: 272: 7530:

Wood, Ian (1999). "Social Relations in the Visigothic Kingdom from the Fifth to the Seventh Century".

4368:

Slavery was banned officially in 1529 and prohibition on slavery was one of the most important of the

3082:

In fact, there was an explicit legal justification given for the enslavement of Muslims, found in the

2950:

attacked pirates and Muslim ships, and their base became a center for slave trading, selling captured

9646: 9255: 9018: 8352:

Dick Harrison (2006). Slaveri: Forntiden till renässansen. Lund: Historiska media. ISBN 91-85057-81-9

4917: 4713: 4031: 3192: 2932: 2888: 2129: 2028: 1559: 1547: 1137: 1110: 615: 396:(500–1500). For most of that time, the sale of Christian slaves to non-Christians was banned. In the 204:(500–1500), wartime captives were commonly forced into slavery. As European kingdoms transitioned to 8074: 7913: 7099:

On the origins of the earliest laws of Frankish Jerusalem: The canons of the Council of Nablus, 1120

6725:

Ali, Kecia. Marriage and Slavery in Early Islam. Harvard University Press, 2010; Wright, 2007, p. 3.

3709:

to ravage the Christian Iberian kingdoms, bringing back booty and people. For example, in a raid on

3451: 9506: 6267: 5631: 4708: 4698: 4473: 4373: 4284:, burning the city and carrying off thousands of inhabitants as slaves. For years, the khanates of 4085: 4003: 3576: 3527:. The Janissaries eventually became a decisive factor in the Ottoman military conquests in Europe. 3357: 3172: 1909: 1778: 1331: 1120: 605: 506: 415: 8986:

Verhulst, Adriaan. "The decline of slavery and the economic expansion of the Early Middle Ages."

6548:"BRITISH HISTORY THE STORY of FREEDOM LIBERTY! THE TIMELINE Freedom & justice go hand in hand" 6547: 3762:. From the fifth to the early 8th century, large portions of the Iberian Peninsula were ruled by 2672:

People taken captive during the Viking raids in Western Europe, such as Ireland, could be sold to

785: 322:. It is difficult to be certain about slave numbers, however, since the old Roman word for slave ( 9210: 9180: 7823:(2005). "Black Africans in Renaissance Spanish Literature". In Earle, T.F.; Lowe, K.J.P. (eds.). 4718: 4617: 4089: 4062: 3947: 3730: 3559:). The mother of a Sultan, though technically a slave, received the extremely powerful title of 3304: 3188: 3176: 2836: 2547:

status named Tolir who was able to marry and acted as the king’s estate manager. Another name is

2094: 1833: 1783: 1711: 1484: 1262: 1206: 1189: 620: 389: 253: 7718:

Trade and Traders in Muslim Spain: The Commercial Realignment of the Iberian Peninsula, 900–1500

5339:

Trade and Traders in Muslim Spain: The Commercial Realignment of the Iberian Peninsula, 900–1500

3288:

may have contributed to the integration of former slaves into the wider society. However, under

2987:

Christian slaves stand with Jewish merchants while bishop pleads for their release with duke of

9567: 9323: 9097: 6290: 6042: 6035: 3481: 3477: 2614:

spoke of how during the 10th century there would be a meeting of kings every third year on the

2167: 2136: 1641: 1382: 1294: 1142: 866: 832: 827: 439: 371: 275:, the church worked more actively to reduce the practice of holding coreligionists in bondage. 170: 8226:"The Slave Markets of the Viking World: Comparative Perspectives on an 'Invisible Archaeology" 6597: 6477: 6403: 5421: 5338: 4776: 4255:

famine, to avoid feeding them, and slaves generally remained with the family a long time; the

3856: 3539: 9386: 9278: 9235: 8698: 8665: 8554: 8521: 8404: 8371: 6624: 6216:"A medical service for slaves in Malta during the rule of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem" 5281: 4884: 4749: 4728: 4369: 4346: 3659: 2673: 2646: 2571: 2567: 2408: 2370: 2326: 2233: 2003: 1858: 1771: 1756: 1438: 1426: 1172: 1157: 942: 717: 639: 610: 451: 306:. When she became regent, her government outlawed slave-trading of Christians throughout the 8690: 8657: 8546: 8513: 8396: 8363: 7590: 7582: 6329: 5769: 5719:

Laxdaela saga ; Translated with an introduction by Magnus Magnusson and Hermann Palsson

3337: 2756:, the Irishman was bought and sold three times after being taken captive by a Viking group. 2440: 2389: 9605: 9547: 9343: 9250: 9220: 9205: 9011: 7687:

Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: The Order of Merced on the Christian-Islamic Frontier

7532:

The Visigoths from the Migration Period to the Seventh Century: An Ethnographic Perspective

5326:

Rawlins, Gregory J.E. Rebooting Reality — Chapter 2, Labor (archive from December 23, 2008)

5227:

MGH, Leges, Capitularia regum Francorum, II, ed. by A. Boretius, Hanovre, 1890, p. 250–252

5003:

ed. Strayer, Joseph R. Dictionary of the Middle Ages. Volume 11. New York: Scribner, 1982.

4723: 4660: 4584: 4383:

The First Statute was drafted in 1522 and came into power in 1529 by the initiative of the

4337: 3888: 3618: 3595: 3042: 2892: 2871:

coast of Crimea was one of the best known and significant trading ports and slave markets.

2594:

This traffic continued into the 9th century as Scandinavians founded more trade centers at

2452: 2318: 2213: 2141: 2045: 2008: 1936: 1880: 1749: 1706: 1520: 1450: 1125: 905: 807: 691: 598: 249: 244:, and was continued by an influx of captives in the wake of the social chaos caused by the 8921:

Women and Slavery, Vol. 1: Africa, the Indian Ocean World, and the Medieval North Atlantic

8883:

European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies to 1648

7466:

Kamen, Deborah (2010). "A Corpus of Inscriptions: representing slave marks in Antiquity".

6522: 6496: 5908: 5125: 8: 9491: 9471: 9451: 9416: 9348: 9260: 9127: 7051: 5553: 4317: 4293: 4124: 3909: 3884: 3801: 3639: 3293: 3277: 3234: 2947: 2856: 2745: 2662: 2480: 2353:, to the Muslim nations of the Middle East. Genoa primarily managed the slave trade from 2322: 1629: 1609: 1494: 1479: 1348: 1319: 1309: 1199: 1147: 1115: 912: 770: 738: 733: 686: 543: 307: 295: 245: 6142: 5541: 3070:

slavery was forbidden in the 15th century; it was replaced by the second enserfment. In

326:) continued to be applied to unfree people whose status later was reflected by the term 9595: 9431: 9406: 9308: 9185: 9137: 9132: 9122: 9060: 8870:

http://unamsanctamcatholicam.blogspot.com/2011/02/dum-diversas-english-translation.html

8335: 8247: 8140: 7937: 7884: 7475: 7399: 7288: 7187: 7150: 7103: 7034:, ed. James M. Powell, Princeton University Press, 1990. Kedar quotes his numbers from 6572: 6458: 6240: 6215: 6196: 5979: 5888: 5814: 5613: 5496: 5263: 5023: 4703: 4568: 4543: 4467: 4463: 4407: 3937: 3905: 3897: 3827: 3812: 3763: 3663: 3564: 3253: 2900: 2896: 2816: 2715: 2677: 2654: 2476: 2225: 2221: 2199: 1875: 1721: 1696: 1686: 1651: 1646: 1614: 1579: 1572: 1513: 1506: 1363: 1182: 1177: 1167: 937: 790: 748: 743: 696: 664: 654: 591: 455: 407: 403: 256:, new laws and practices concerning slavery spread throughout Europe. For example, the 8909:

That Most Precious Merchandise: The Mediterranean Trade in Black Sea Slaves, 1260-1500

6913: 6752:

Savage, E., "Berbers and Blacks: Ibadi Slave Traffic in Eighth-Century North Africa",

4300:

and his Kazan allies attacked Moscow and captured thousands of slaves. About 30 major

4038:. The ethnic identity of the "Tatar slaves" is unknown, they could have been captured 2485: 812: 758: 9591: 9333: 9303: 9293: 9283: 9200: 9190: 9175: 9042: 8970: 8779: 8702: 8691: 8669: 8658: 8558: 8547: 8525: 8514: 8492: 8408: 8397: 8375: 8364: 8302: 8277: 8251: 8204: 8049: 8029: 7977: 7941: 7927: 7872: 7862: 7594: 7583: 7403: 7391: 7292: 7280: 7222: 7179: 7138: 7128: 6890: 6630: 6603: 6520: 6450: 6409: 6362: 6335: 6310: 6245: 6200: 6188: 6122: 6076: 6046: 5998: 5723: 5660: 5617: 5605: 5557: 5484: 5474: 5427: 5375: 5343: 5310: 5286: 5253: 5228: 5004: 4921: 4890: 4815: 4811:

The Archaeology of Slavery in Early Medieval Northern Europe: The invisible commodity

4784: 4755: 4621: 4411: 4395: 4333: 4305: 4289: 4110: 3995: 3901: 3797: 3698: 3606: 3353: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3263: 3087: 3083: 2997: 2844: 2812: 2806: 2753: 2689: 2650: 2630: 2587: 2444: 2432: 2404: 2314: 1963: 1681: 1676: 1619: 1604: 1584: 1406: 1401: 1336: 1299: 1132: 1098: 927: 780: 669: 548: 392:, which arose in the seventh century, dominated the slave trade in Europe during the 357: 233: 60: 6494: 5586:"Piratical slave-raiding – the demise of a Viking practice in high medieval Denmark" 4510:

ancient world ceased to exist in the Europe of the 10th century and was followed by

4073:), the Christian Orthodox monasteries, or the state. They were used only as smiths, 3722: 9552: 9501: 9496: 9436: 9401: 9313: 9270: 9240: 9162: 9080: 9050: 8467: 8437: 8237: 7919: 7383: 7270: 7214: 7109:

Burgesses and Burgess Law in the Latin Kingdoms of Jerusalem and Cyprus (1099–1325)

7027: 6804: 6442: 6302: 6235: 6227: 6180: 6169:"Freedom and Bondage among Muslims in Southern Italy during the Thirteenth Century" 5937: 5652: 5597: 5585: 5549: 5367: 5267: 5247: 4949: 4677: 4516: 4285: 3880: 3635: 3530:

Most of the military commanders of the Ottoman forces, imperial administrators and

3373: 3361: 3311:

in cavalry units and Africans in infantry units, was a relatively common practice.

3204: 3152: 3034: 3013: 2911:

Although the primary flow of slaves was toward Muslim countries, as evident in the

2786: 2725: 2642: 2498: 2153: 1731: 1726: 1716: 1691: 1656: 1624: 1594: 1467: 1455: 1433: 1411: 1358: 1194: 1162: 464: 380: 94: 39: 8850:

Bullarium patronatus Portugalliae regum in ecclesiis Africae, Asiae atque Oceaniae

8242: 8225: 8177: 5601: 5527:

The Viking-Age Rune-Stones: custom and commemoration in early medieval Scandinavia

5100: 4269:. Russian agricultural slaves were formally converted into serfs earlier in 1679. 2835:. In the time of the Crimean Khanate, Crimeans engaged in frequent raids into the 2574:

to Byzantium for high prices. Scandinavian trade centers stretched eastwards from

9562: 9476: 9446: 9170: 9087: 8486: 8184: 7820: 6938: 6356: 6306: 6070: 6026: 5992: 5856: 5644: 4911: 4809: 4664: 4588: 4262: 3999: 3893: 3823: 3808: 3771: 3718: 3623: 3315: 3280:

preferred slaves who were not co-religionists and hence focused on "pagans" from

3168: 3156: 2832: 2602:, farther south than Staraya Ladoga, and Kiev, farther south still and closer to 2523:). There were also other terms used to describe thralls based on gender, such as 2208: 2062: 1953: 1948: 1701: 1671: 1666: 1389: 1353: 1152: 1070: 775: 521: 398: 393: 315: 265: 153: 127: 46: 19: 8975:

Stuard, Susan Mosher. "Ancillary evidence for the decline of medieval slavery."

7259:"What Does the Slave Trade in the Saqaliba Tell Us about Early Islamic Slavery?" 5656: 5051: 4583:

In late Rome, the official attitude toward slavery was ambivalent. According to

3822:

This role caused some degree of fear among Christian populations. A letter from

3568: 3299:

Slaves were employed in heavy labor as well as in domestic contexts. Because of

3221: 2789:

and conquests in the 13th century added a new force in the slave trade, and the

2611: 9466: 9411: 9365: 9318: 9298: 9142: 9065: 8004: 7371: 7206: 6030: 5155:"Dirhams for slaves. Investigating the Slavic slave trade in the tenth century" 4506: 4477: 4420: 4309: 4297: 4232: 4093: 3967: 3963: 3550: 3485: 3455: 3406: 3405:

The most fortunate slaves found employment in politics or the military. In the

3308: 3160: 2955: 2951: 2872: 2860: 2852: 2583: 2346: 2245: 2146: 2040: 932: 573: 531: 261: 241: 35: 7387: 7275: 7258: 7218: 6967: 6231: 6184: 6101: 5371: 4542:

Slaves were generally imported from foreign countries or continents, via the

2375: 9630: 9225: 8118: 8046:

The Domostroi: Rules for Russian Households in the Time of Ivan the Terrible

7876: 7395: 7284: 7183: 7142: 7035: 6454: 6314: 6192: 5727: 5609: 5488: 5188: 5080: 4945: 4358: 4027: 3091: 3001: 2774: 2737: 2733: 2714:; initially this trade route between Europe and the Abbasid Caliphate passed 2615: 2459: 2412: 2084: 2013: 1460: 1443: 1218: 1048: 1038: 822: 472: 311: 87: 8815:

The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam

7859:

The Mediterranean world : from the fall of Rome to the rise of Napoleon

6168: 3851:. Battles and sieges provided large numbers of captives; after the siege of 9391: 9288: 9092: 8471: 8441: 6626:

The Legal Understanding of Slavery: From the Historical to the Contemporary

6358:

The Economic History of European Jews: Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages

4656: 4644: 4613: 4563: 4555: 4273: 4074: 4043: 3987: 3979: 3767: 3646: 3415: 3365: 3349: 3148: 2828: 2824: 2798: 2778: 2741: 2559: 2393: 2358: 2220:

and other Eastern European non-Christian slaves in greater numbers via the

2195: 2089: 1926: 1902: 1808: 1801: 1532: 1060: 1033: 996: 974: 861: 578: 558: 536: 526: 516: 511: 501: 237: 7923: 6249: 3507:(translated "blood tax" or "child collection"), young Christian boys from 1341: 9542: 9245: 9152: 9034: 7640:

Jews, Visigoths & Muslims in Medieval Spain: Cooperation and Conflict

5217: 5176: 4636: 4605: 4524: 4130: 4054: 3848: 3685: 3423: 3285: 3060: 3038: 2685: 2638: 2338: 1931: 1919: 1272: 1075: 1065: 1023: 837: 276: 201: 120: 8802:

The Violent Pilgrimage: Christians, Muslims and Holy Conflicts, 850–1150

8339: 8323: 7703:

Religion and Trade: Cross Cultural Exchanges in World History, 1000–1900

7585:

Enemies and Familiars: Slavery and Mastery in Fifteenth-Century Valencia

7479: 7191: 7171: 5959: 4635:

The apparent discrepancy between the notion of human liberty founded in

3871:

6,327 slaves (out of a total population of 85,538) were black Africans.

3796:

After the Muslim invasions, slave owners (especially in the kingdoms of

3503: 3494: 3464: 2253: 9117: 9003: 8274:

The Danish medieval laws : the laws of Scania, Zealand and Jutland

7494: 7445: 6462: 6430: 4843: 4652: 4536: 4342: 4277: 3755: 3706: 3690: 3681: 3281: 2983: 2920: 2634: 2626: 2622: 2502: 2490: 2448: 2423: 2400: 2295: 2079: 1376: 1080: 947: 366: 284: 257: 113: 72: 53: 8991: 8980: 8786:(Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1982), pp. 40–41. 7022:

Benjamin Z. Kedar, "The Subjected Muslims of the Frankish Levant", in

4489:

on divine punishment for the practice, along with local acceptance of

9426: 9195: 8023: 7122: 5717: 4640: 4511: 4257: 3971: 3782: 3759: 3750:

Iberia in AD 1300. (Partially based on Euratlas map of Europe, 1300.)

3520: 3469: 3410: 3369: 3230: 3132: 3071: 3030: 2974: 2946:

Christians also sold Muslim slaves captured in war. The Order of the

2868: 2794: 2603: 2516: 2435:(912–961), there were at first 3,750, then 6,087, and finally 13,750 2342: 2334: 2270: 1324: 989: 851: 303: 228:

Costumes of slaves or serfs, from the sixth to the twelfth centuries.

205: 83: 68: 8578:

Davies, Wendy (1996). "On Servile Status in the Early Middle Ages".

7559:

A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal: 1441–1555

6446: 3982:

in stages during the 1840s and 1850s before the independence of the

3318:

imported thousands of black slaves to wrestle independence from the

3307:. By the 9th century, use of slaves in Islamic armies, particularly 2770: 2732:

provides an account of the other end of this trade route, namely of

2257: 1006: 384:) (blue) – and other trade routes of the 8th–11th centuries (orange) 9461: 9338: 9215: 8299:

Guta Lag and Guta Saga : the Law and History of the Gotlanders

7345: 6361:. Leiden, The Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill nV. pp. 178–190. 5755:

Niels Skyum-Nielsen, "Nordic Slavery in an International Context,"

5154: 4600: 4596: 4490: 4450: 4433: 4171: 4161: 3991: 3975: 3766:, whose rulers worked to codify human bondage. In the 7th century, 3735: 3667: 3572: 3508: 3271:

Like the Old and New Testaments and Greek and Roman law codes, the

3243: 2928: 2599: 2436: 2384: 2350: 2265: 1914: 1472: 1416: 1368: 1028: 873: 728: 634: 348: 343: 134: 106: 64: 8935:

The Work of Work: Servitude, Slavery and Labor in Medieval England

7080: 7078: 27: 9102: 7689:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. passim. 6838: 6836: 5705:. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 190, bk. 4, ch.6. 4551: 4520: 4494: 4362: 4313: 4098: 4035: 4020: 3959: 3868: 3852: 3714: 3702: 3592: 3512: 3489: 3095: 2988: 2924: 2916: 2884: 2802: 2729: 2595: 2506: 2463: 2241: 1897: 979: 659: 476: 411: 361: 288: 213: 209: 145: 141: 102: 79: 8026:: Rules for Russian Households in the Time of Ivan the Terrible 6405:

The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery [2 Volumes]

4663:

to enslave any "Saracens" or "pagans" he encountered. The Pope,

3672: 3066:

The slave trade in England was officially abolished in 1102. In

2831:

declared independence from the Golden Horde and established the

8488:

Religions and the abolition of slavery – a comparative approach

7075: 5762: 4629: 4415: 4321: 4301: 4281: 4240: 4236: 4191: 4120: 4058: 4047: 4039: 3710: 3555: 3459: 3419: 3399: 3395: 3386: 3331: 3289: 3140: 3136: 3067: 2820: 2711: 2694: 2681: 2607: 2575: 2555: 2511: 2416: 2354: 2310: 2303: 2289: 2261: 2237: 2228:

through Alpine passes in Austria, to reach Venice. A record of

1599: 1421: 1001: 984: 846: 681: 649: 431: 419: 299: 149: 98: 8864:

Pope Nicholas V (1452), "Dum Diversas (English Translation)",

7777:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 140. 6833: 5685: 4387:. It has been proposed that the codification was initiated by 3867:

African slaves annually through Portugal, and by 1565 most of

3007: 8998:

Slaves and warriors in medieval Britain and Ireland, 800–1200

8953:

The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2 AD500-AD1420

7856: 7519:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 10. 6027:"Part I: The Romans to the Norman Conquest, 500 BC – AD 1066" 5690:. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. p. 311. 4266: 4248: 4181: 4157: 4147: 3970:

rulership, from before the founding of the principalities of

3840: 3836: 3746: 3342: 3272: 3226: 3144: 3099: 2959: 2940: 2864: 2707: 2703: 2579: 2563: 2379: 2330: 2240:, describes such merchants. Some are Slavic themselves, from 2217: 2203: 856: 842: 817: 318:

of English Christians being nominally discontinued after the

8160:

Juliusz Bardach, Bogusław Lesnodorski, and Michał Pietrzak,

8064:

The Full Collection of the Russian Annals, vol.13, SPb, 1904

5703:

Adam of Bremen. History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen

8582:. London: Addison Wesley Longman Limited. pp. 236–238. 8164:(Warsaw: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987; p. 40–41 5934:"Life in 13th Century Novgorod – Women and Class Structure" 4625: 4609:

difference were conflated in the justification of slavery.

4244: 3599: 3391: 3175:. Likewise, some scholars have argued for the influence of 2805:. Many of these slaves were shipped to the slave market in 2699: 2249: 2224:. Caravans of slaves traveled from Eastern Europe, via the 723: 553: 435: 353: 310:. About ten percent of England’s population entered in the 7760:

The Second Crusade: Extending the Frontiers of Christendom

6817: 6815: 6813: 6811: 6521:

Fordham University, Internet History Sourcebooks Project.

6495:

Fordham University, Internet History Sourcebooks Project.

5212:

Reverend Alban Butler. "St. Zachary, Pope and Confessor".

3788:

Slavery remained persistent in Christian Iberia after the

3721:

took 3,000 female and child captives, and his governor of

3680:

An early economic pillar of the Islamic empire in Iberia (

8960:

Slavery from Roman Times to the Early Transatlantic Trade

8754:

Living in the 10th century: Mentalities and Social Orders

8645:. London: Addison Wesley Longman Limited. pp. 24–26. 8600:. London: Addison Wesley Longman Limited. pp. 31–32. 6886:

Slavery from Roman Times to the Early Transatlantic Trade

5883:. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 195–198. 5307:

Before European Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250–1350

4803: 4801: 3563:, and at times became effective ruler of the Empire (see 7561:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 84–85. 3725:

took 3,000 Christian slaves in a subsequent attack upon

3684:) during the eighth century was the slave trade. Due to 3173:

institutions of slavery in Islamic law and jurisprudence

2875:

raiders enslaved more than 1 million Eastern Europeans.

2566:. Many Irish slaves were brought on expeditions for the 8201:

Nordic Elites in Transformation, c. 1050–1250, Volume I

8000: 7998: 6889:. Manchester: Manchester University Press. p. 37. 6808: 6573:"Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to History" 6264:"Brief History of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem" 4850:(in Latin). Conway, AR: University of Central Arkansas. 4312:

attacked and sacked Moscow, burning everything but the

3151:

coastline. All of these areas were ruled by either the

8141:"Historical survey > Slave societies (broken link)" 7918:. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 209–212. 4808:

Biermann, Felix; Jankowiak, Marek (18 November 2021).

4798: 3476:

Slavery was an important part of Ottoman society. The

3284:, Europe, and especially from sub-Saharan Africa. The 2539:. Another name that is indicative of thrall status is 8741:. London: Addison Wesley Longman Limited. p. 38. 8726:. London: Addison Wesley Longman Limited. p. 12. 7372:"The Arab/Muslim Presence in Medieval Central Europe" 7042:, tr. G. Nahon, Paris, 1969, vol. 1, pp. 498, 568–72. 4061:

at the end of the 14th century, some time before the

3402:

were the most prized and sought-after type of slave.

2899:

which was aimed mainly at the sale of English slaves

2777:

and its subsequent divisions with the khanate of the

2718:, but from the early 10th-century onward it went via 8804:, Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 2013, p. 93. 8756:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 372. 8630:. London: Addison Wesley Longman Limited. p. 2. 8615:. London: Addison Wesley Longman Limited. p. 3. 7995: 7827:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 70. 7720:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 47. 7705:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 131–159. 7618:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 83. 6779: 6777: 6775: 6773: 5994:

Roxolana in European Literature, History and Culture

5990: 4916:. Manchester University Press. pp. 97–99 & 3931: 1854:

Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery

7616:

The Aristocracy of Twelfth-Century Leon and Castile

7030:, Blackwell, 2002, p. 244. Originally published in 5018: 5016: 4676:In a follow-up bull, released in 1455 and entitled 4324:, about 75% of the population consisted of slaves. 4316:and taking thousands of captives as slaves for the 4030:associated the Roma people’s arrival with the 1241 3542:, were recruited in this way. By 1609 the Sultan’s 3484:brought large numbers of Christian slaves into the 3116: 3086:and later expanded upon by the 14th century jurist 2906: 236:(500–1000) was initially a continuation of earlier 8770:(Brooklyn, New York: Melville House, 2011), ch. 7. 6692: 6034: 5811:"James E. Montgomery, IBN FAḌLĀN AND THE RŪSIYYAH" 5419: 4909: 4327: 3105: 2407:, (711–1492) imported a large number of slaves to 8796: 8794: 8792: 8553:. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. pp. 6770: 6497:"Book I: Of Persons, Section III: Law of Persons" 6037:A World by Itself: A History of the British Isles 5024:"Historical survey The international slave trade" 4807: 4616:. The Curse of Ham refers to a biblical parable ( 4394:as a reworking and expansion of the 15th century 3734:Al-Andalus. They were generically referred to as 3582: 2923:in 1248, a date which coincided with the fall of 9628: 8697:. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. p. 8664:. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. p. 7762:. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 260. 7127:. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 20. 6990:"In the Service of the State and Military Class" 5715: 5468: 5013: 4913:Late Merovingian France: History and hagiography 4308:territories between 1558 and 1596. In 1571, the 3958:Slavery existed on the territory of present-day 2313:was a major exporter of slaves to North Africa. 2298:) and male slaves, who were more numerous, at a 1969:13th Amendment to the United States Constitution 7772: 7543: 7541: 6121:. East Lansing: Michigan State UP. p. xv. 5837:"Why did Medieval Slave Traders go to Finland?" 4910:Fouracre, Paul; Gerberding, Richard A. (1996). 4457: 3984:United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia 3874: 3754:Contrary to suppositions of historians such as 3468:("blood tax") system as soldier-slaves for the 3462:children in red being forcibly taken under the 2927:and its surrounding area, to raiding Christian 208:, a different legal category of unfree persons— 8817:(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005). 8789: 8484: 8453: 8451: 7815: 7813: 7811: 7671: 7669: 7667: 6334:. Harvard University Press. pp. ix, 564. 4647:. Towards the middle of the 15th century, the 4353:Slavery in Poland existed on the territory of 4006:(Gypsy) ethnicity and a significant number of 2329:beginning in the 13th century. They sold both 9019: 8933:Frantzen, Allen J., and Douglas Moffat, eds. 8897:Barker, Hannah "Slavery in Medieval Europe." 8784:Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study 8739:Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage 8724:Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage 8643:Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage 8628:Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage 8613:Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage 8598:Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage 8580:Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage 8154: 7211:Critical Readings on Global Slavery (4 vols.) 6266:. Hmml.org. 23 September 2010. Archived from 5909:"William of Rubruck's Account of the Mongols" 5741:Krag, Claus (1982). "Treller og Trellehold". 5426:. Vol. 1. A – K. ABC-CLIO. p. 674. 5048:"Battuta's Trip: Anatolia (Turkey) 1330–1331" 4578: 4212: 3492:built his own personal slave army called the 3179:on the development of Islamic legal thought. 3147:, with strong connections to the rest of the 2649:, or to Muslim buyers, via paths such as the 2535:is used in reference to female slaves, as is 2349:and other ethnic groups of the Black Sea and 2175: 376:trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks 178: 7972:Viorel Achim, The Roma in Romanian History, 7538: 7376:International Journal of Middle East Studies 7263:International Journal of Middle East Studies 7155:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 6527:Corpus Iurus Civilis: The Institutes, 535 CE 6501:Corpus Iurus Civilis: The Institutes, 535 CE 6478:"Corpus Juris Civilis: A Historical Romance" 5960:"The Effects of the Mongol Empire on Russia" 5893:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 5716:Magnusson, Magnus; Palsson, Hermann (1969). 5583: 5423:The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery 4996: 4994: 4992: 4990: 4988: 4986: 4984: 4982: 4837: 4835: 4833: 4831: 4781:The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery 3098:, was beaten and cast out by Abraham’s wife 1974:Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom 8942:Slavery and Society in Medieval Scandinavia 8848:Pope Nicholas V, "Dum diversas" (1452), in 8448: 8324:"Concubinage and Slavery in the Viking Age" 8276:. London: Routledge medieval translations. 8075:"The Tatar Khanate of Crimea – All Empires" 7893:) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 7808: 7664: 7517:Slavery in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia 7124:Slavery in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia 6166: 5651:, Manchester University Press, p. 88, 5548:. Oxford University Press. pp. 70–76. 5342:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 203–204. 5071: 5069: 4117:Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe 3008:Slave trade at the close of the Middle Ages 9026: 9012: 8688: 8655: 8544: 8511: 8485:Clarence-Smith, W. G. (24 December 2006). 8394: 8361: 7897:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 7889:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 7580: 7084:Hans E. Mayer, "The Concordat of Nablus" ( 5878: 5501:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 5330: 5241: 5239: 5237: 5148: 5146: 5042: 5040: 4575:enough for slavery to become a necessity. 4265:converted the household slaves into house 4219: 4205: 4057:, the bulk of them came from south of the 3380:served in the domestic sphere as menials, 3074:, slavery was formally abolished in 1588. 2823:were involved in the slave trade with the 2182: 2168: 185: 171: 8751: 8241: 7857:O'Connell, Monique, 1974– (23 May 2016). 7836: 7834: 7715: 7534:. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. p. 195. 7274: 7256: 7204: 7169: 7070:God’s War, A new History of the Crusades, 6523:"Book I: Of Persons, Section V: Freedmen" 6401: 6239: 6024: 5301: 5299: 5249:Castration and Culture in the Middle Ages 5221: 5189:"CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Pope St. Zachary" 5152: 4979: 4828: 4774: 4500: 4401: 4372:, which had to be implemented before the 3055:anyone who has sold himself to pay a debt 9033: 8912:(University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019) 8640: 8595: 8271: 8223: 7819: 7775:Reconquest and Crusade in Medieval Spain 7757: 7684: 7556: 7514: 7502:The Library of Iberian References Online 7474:. University of Michigan Press: 95–110. 7056:God’s War, A new History of the Crusades 6908: 6906: 6882: 6602:. Oxford University Press. p. 144. 6599:Figuring Racism in Medieval Christianity 6484:. American Bar Association. p. 564. 5997:. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 111. 5357: 5355: 5066: 4970: 4419: 4341: 4239:, the slaves were usually classified as 3941: 3892: 3745: 3671: 3450: 3336: 3220: 3177:Rabbinic tradition in regards to slavery 2982: 2769: 2484: 2374: 1979:Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf 1844:Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery 1824:Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90 347: 302:, who had been enslaved before marrying 223: 8990:No. 133 (Nov., 1991), pp. 195–203 8457: 8427: 8198: 7468:Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 7453:The Library of Iberian Resources Online 6327: 6289:Zilfi, Madeline C. (25 November 2016). 6116: 6099: 5686:E.g. Mac Airt and Mac Niocaill (1983). 5584:Heebøll-Holm, Thomas K. (4 June 2020). 5413: 5361: 5245: 5234: 5143: 5037: 4889:. Oxford University Press. p. 39. 4841: 4754:. Oxford University Press. p. 23. 3954:of Roma slaves to the Rădăuţi bishopric 3171:may have influenced the development of 9629: 8626:Bush, Michael (1996). "Introduction". 8611:Bush, Michael (1996). "Introduction". 8591: 8589: 8577: 8478: 8321: 8267: 8265: 8263: 8261: 8194: 8192: 7911: 7852: 7850: 7848: 7846: 7831: 7699: 7613: 7369: 7107:74, 1999), pp. 330–331; Marwan Nader, 7040:Histoire du royaume latin de Jérusalem 6939:"Internet History Sourcebooks Project" 6622: 6595: 6475: 6431:"The Origins of Western Legal Science" 6428: 6402:Rodriguez, Junius P. (December 1997). 6213: 6143:"Internet History Sourcebooks Project" 6068: 5980:Historical survey > Slave societies 5700: 5642: 5524: 5296: 5126:"Internet History Sourcebooks Project" 4775:Rodriguez, Junius P. (December 1997). 4050:, or the slaves of Tatars and Cumans. 3908:(green) and their trade routes in the 3534:rulers of the Ottoman Empire, such as 3276:European counterparts, early medieval 3052:anyone who has been captured in battle 2935:, who was contemporary to the events. 2913:history of slavery in the Muslim world 2878: 2264:, and Bohemia. The same record values 356:territories used for the slave trade: 9007: 8693:The Serf the Knight and the Historian 8660:The Serf the Knight and the Historian 8549:The Serf the Knight and the Historian 8516:The Serf the Knight and the Historian 8399:The Serf the Knight and the Historian 8370:. Cornell University Press. pp. 8366:The Serf the Knight and the Historian 7589:. Cornell University Press. pp. 7465: 6903: 6591: 6589: 6288: 5991:Galina I. Yermolenko (15 July 2010). 5879:Somerville, Angus A., trans. (2014). 5539: 5520: 5518: 5516: 5514: 5512: 5464: 5462: 5460: 5458: 5352: 5153:Jankowiak, Marek (27 February 2012). 3986:was allowed, and also until 1783, in 3488:. In the middle of the 14th century, 2968: 1866:Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention 1543:Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea 294:Another major factor was the rise of 8736: 8625: 8610: 8520:. Cornell University Press. p. 8403:. Cornell University Press. p. 8296: 7912:Barker, Hannah (27 September 2019). 7825:Black Africans in Renaissance Europe 7637: 7529: 7257:Jankowiak, Marek (20 January 2017). 7024:The Crusades: The Essential Readings 6354: 6075:. Xlibris Corporation. p. 152. 5740: 5446: 4973:Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism 4104: 4065:. The Roma slaves were owned by the 3629: 2641:. Slaves were often sold south, to 2415:, with its need for supplies of new 2274:(about 1.5 grams of gold or roughly 2058:Slave marriages in the United States 1662:Human trafficking in the Middle East 445: 219: 9611: 9056:Decline of the Western Roman Empire 8962:(Manchester University Press, 1985) 8586: 8258: 8189: 7843: 7032:Muslims Under Latin Rule, 1100–1300 6716:IV:3, XXIII:6; XXXIII:50–52; LXX:30 6596:Kaplan, Lindsay (7 December 2018). 6167:Anne Taylor, Julie (1 April 2007). 5540:Brink, Stefan (23 September 2021). 4964: 4882: 4747: 3978:in 13th–14th century, until it was 3741: 3546:forces increased to about 100,000. 3519:. These soldier classes were named 2801:, whence they were sold throughout 1397:Human trafficking in Southeast Asia 340:European slaves in the Muslim world 281:letter to the soldiers of Coroticus 13: 9148:Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire 8955:(Cambridge University Press, 2021) 8891: 8272:Tamm, Ditlev; Vogt, Helle (2016). 8162:Historia państwa i prawa polskiego 7642:. Leiden: Brill. pp. 160–161. 7455:. Book III, Title II, Section III. 7120: 6855:Lewis, Race and Slavery, pp. 11–12 6623:Allain, Jean (27 September 2012). 6586: 6173:Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 5643:Reuter, Timothy (1 January 2013), 5554:10.1093/oso/9780197532355.003.0004 5509: 5455: 4639:and the recognition of slavery by 4567:their freedom – during periods of 2895:obtained a resolution against the 2665:in Central Asia and from there to 2621:The 10th-century Persian traveler 2505:(700–1100) practiced slavery. The 2489:Slave chain lock and key. Sweden, 2051:last survivors of American slavery 14: 9663: 9578:Historiography in the Middle Ages 7992:Marushiakova and Vesselin, p. 103 7974:Central European University Press 7504:. Book III, Title IV, Section VI. 7492: 7443: 7346:"Ransoming Captives, Chapter One" 7086:Journal of Ecclesiastical History 6883:Phillips, William D. Jr. (1985). 6756:, Vol. 33, No. 3 (1992), 351–368. 6072:The True Origins of Irish Society 5936:. 26 October 2009. Archived from 4591:of another, contrary to nature". 3932:Slavery in Moldavia and Wallachia 3653: 3440: 3296:did not necessitate manumission. 3198: 3029:Slavery was heavily regulated in 3019: 2855:and the Middle East known as the 1012:Field slaves in the United States 879:Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate 9610: 9601: 9600: 9590: 8969:(Oxford University Press, 2017) 8875: 8858: 8842: 8833: 8820: 8807: 8773: 8760: 8745: 8730: 8721: 8715: 8682: 8649: 8634: 8619: 8604: 8571: 8538: 8505: 8421: 8388: 8355: 8346: 8315: 8290: 8217: 8178:Stages of the Lithuanian Statute 8167: 8133: 8106: 8085: 8067: 8058: 8038: 8014: 7986: 7966: 7957: 7948: 7905: 7799: 7790: 7781: 7766: 7751: 7742: 7733: 7724: 7709: 7693: 7685:Broadman, James William (1986). 7678: 7655: 7646: 7631: 7622: 7607: 7574: 7565: 7550: 7523: 7508: 7486: 7459: 7437: 7428: 7419: 7410: 7363: 7338: 7328: 7319: 7309: 7299: 7250: 7241: 7198: 7163: 7114: 7091: 7088:33 (October 1982)), pp. 531–533. 7062: 7045: 7016: 7009:See generally Jay Winik (2007), 7003: 6982: 6964:"The Turks: History and Culture" 6956: 6931: 5701:Tschan, Francis J., ed. (1959). 5688:The Annals of Ulster, to AD 1131 5645:"The text – The Annals of Fulda" 4138: 3551:concubines of the Ottoman Sultan 3523:, the most famous branch of the 3358:Saharan-Indian Ocean slave trade 3301:Quranic allowance of concubinage 3213:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate 3209:Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate 3127:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate 3117:Slavery in the Islamic Near East 2907:Christians holding Muslim slaves 2791:slave trade in the Mongol Empire 2766:Slave trade in the Mongol Empire 2750:slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate 2667:slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate 2451:, Ibrahim al-Qarawi, and Bishop 889:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate 884:Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate 713:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate 483: 254:Roman legal practices of slavery 26: 9076:Christianity in the Middle Ages 9071:Decline of Hellenistic religion 8928:Medieval Slavery and Liberation 8722:Bush, Michael. "Introduction". 8224:Raffield, Ben (December 2019). 7773:O'Callaghan, Joseph F. (2003). 7557:Saunders, A.C. de C.M. (1982). 6876: 6867: 6858: 6849: 6824: 6797: 6786: 6759: 6746: 6737: 6728: 6719: 6710: 6701: 6679: 6670: 6661: 6652: 6643: 6616: 6565: 6540: 6514: 6488: 6469: 6422: 6395: 6382: 6348: 6321: 6295:Journal of Early Modern History 6282: 6256: 6207: 6160: 6135: 6110: 6093: 6062: 6018: 5984: 5973: 5952: 5926: 5901: 5872: 5861: 5843: 5829: 5803: 5794: 5785: 5776: 5749: 5734: 5709: 5694: 5679: 5636: 5624: 5590:Scandinavian Journal of History 5577: 5533: 5473:. North York, Ontario, Canada. 5471:An Introduction to the Crusades 5440: 5388: 5364:Early Medieval Spain – Springer 5336:Olivia Remie Constable (1996). 5319: 5274: 5206: 5181: 5171:Duchesne, Louis Marie Olivier. 5165: 5118: 5086: 4846:[The Visigothic Code]. 4328:Slavery in Poland and Lithuania 3217:Slavery in the Mamluk Sultanate 3169:Persian institutions of slavery 3112:Slavery in the Byzantine Empire 3106:Slavery in the Byzantine Empire 3049:anyone whose mother was a slave 3033:, which was reorganized in the 2637:taken in their raids along the 2403:, the Muslim-ruled area of the 1839:Committee of Experts on Slavery 1390:East, Southeast, and South Asia 9354:Crisis of the late Middle Ages 8885:(Washington, D.C.), pp. 20–26. 8689:Barthélemy, Dominique (2009). 8656:Barthélemy, Dominique (2009). 8545:Barthélemy, Dominique (2009). 8512:Barthélemy, Dominique (2009). 8395:Barthélemy, Dominique (2009). 8362:Barthélemy, Dominique (2009). 7915:That Most Precious Merchandise 7861:. Dursteler, Eric. Baltimore. 7121:D., Phillips, William (2014). 6873:Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 71 6864:Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 12 6830:Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 11 6754:The Journal of African History 6331:A History of the Jewish People 4934: 4903: 4876: 4865: 4854: 4768: 4741: 4378:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 4080:The Rumâni were only owned by 3583:Slavery in the Crusader states 3024: 2633:, terrorized and enslaved the 2333:and Slavic slaves, as well as 1538:Slave raiding in Easter Island 333: 1: 9528:Disability in the Middle Ages 9201:Rise of the Republic of Genoa 9133:Rise of the Venetian Republic 8944:(Yale University Press, 1988) 8243:10.1080/0144039X.2019.1592976 8203:. Routledge. pp. 60–79. 6687:The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade 6476:Alburn, Cary R. (June 1959). 6025:Campbelly, Jamesetta (2011). 5602:10.1080/03468755.2020.1748106 5285:. Robert Davis (2004). p.45. 4735: 4389:Grand Chancellor of Lithuania 4365:was also applied to debtors. 4077:and as agricultural workers. 4071:Wallachian Revolution of 1848 3855:in 1147, sources report that 3764:Christian Visigothic Kingdoms 3447:Slavery in the Ottoman Empire 3394:, salt and gold mines in the 3341:13th-century slave market in 8967:Slavery After Rome, 500-1100 8881:Frances Gardiner Davenport, 8752:Fichtenau, Heinrich (1984). 8009:Slavery in Russia, 1450–1725 6307:10.1163/15700658-00200006-05 5770:"The Slave Market of Dublin" 4886:Slavery After Rome, 500-1100 4883:Rio, Alice (30 March 2017). 4777:"Slavery in medieval Europe" 4751:Slavery After Rome, 500–1100 4748:Rio, Alice (30 March 2017). 4458:Slavery in the British Isles 4000:The Austria-Hungarian Empire 3875:Slavery in the Mediterranean 3567:). One notable example was 3422:and others positions in the 3123:Slavery in the Islamic world 3077: 1829:Temporary Slavery Commission 1490:Slavery in the Mongol Empire 418:in 1102, and the Council of 314:(1086) were slaves, despite 7: 7758:Phillips, Jonathan (2007). 7370:Wenner, Manfred W. (1980). 7213:, Brill, pp. 553–587, 7205:Fynn-Paul, Jeffrey (2017), 7170:Fynn-Paul, Jeffrey (2009). 6117:Sturges, Robert S. (2015). 6106:, John J. Crawley & Co. 5657:10.7765/9781526112736.00009 5420:Junius P Rodriguez (1997). 5159:Medieval Seminar, All Souls 4694:Catholic Church and slavery 4686: 4385:Lithuanian Council of Lords 3012:As more and more of Europe 2702:, which have been found in 2659:Volga Bulgarian slave trade 2625:described how Vikings, the 2598:in southwestern Norway and 2230:tolls paid in Raffelstetten 1849:Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery 894:Volga Bulgarian slave trade 252:. With the continuation of 10: 9668: 9652:Slavery in the Middle Ages 9329:Rise of the Ottoman Empire 8768:Debt: The First 5000 Years 8491:. C. Hurst & Company. 8044:Carolyn Johnston Pouncey, 8020:Carolyn Johnston Pouncey, 7716:Constable, Olivia (1994). 7581:Blumenthal, Debra (2009). 7515:Phillips, William (2014). 6629:. OUP Oxford. p. 38. 6429:Berman, Harold J. (1977). 6214:Cassar, P (24 July 1968). 5173:XCIII Zacharias (741–752). 4579:Justifications for slavery 4461: 4405: 4331: 4114: 4108: 3935: 3878: 3701:was the scene of episodic 3657: 3633: 3444: 3202: 3120: 3109: 2972: 2763: 2759: 2474: 2470: 2368: 2034:Great Dismal Swamp maroons 1871:Anti-Slavery International 1636:North Africa and West Asia 449: 337: 198:Slavery in medieval Europe 9586: 9515: 9374: 9269: 9256:Mongol invasion of Europe 9161: 9041: 8830:(Routledge, 1949), p. 57. 8183:27 September 2006 at the 7388:10.1017/s0020743800027136 7276:10.1017/s0020743816001240 7219:10.1163/9789004346611_021 6408:. ABC-CLIO. p. 550. 6328:Malamat, Abraham (1976). 6232:10.1017/s0025727300013314 6185:10.1080/13602000701308889 6100:Crawley, John J. (1910), 5469:Susan Jane Allen (2017). 5451:. RGA 1:258. p. 258. 5372:10.1007/978-1-349-24135-4 4783:. ABC-CLIO. p. 596. 4714:Slavery in ancient Greece 4661:King Afonso V of Portugal 4304:raids were recorded into 4032:Mongol invasion of Europe 3729:in 1191; an offensive by 3233:and its expansion to the 3193:slavery in ancient Greece 3131:The ancient and medieval 2462:although the role of the 2364: 2130:Emancipation Proclamation 1802:Opposition and resistance 1560:Sex trafficking in Europe 1548:Blackbirding in Polynesia 1111:Trans-Saharan slave trade 8297:Peel, Christine (2015). 7111:(Ashgate: 2006), pg. 45. 6689:. Routledge, 2007, p. 2. 6390:The Atlantic Slave Trade 6069:Keenan, Desmond (2004). 6041:. Random House. p. 5881:The Viking Age: A Reader 5855:10 December 2014 at the 5309:Oxford University Press 5252:. Boydell & Brewer. 5177:Available on archive.org 4971:Anderson, Perry (1996). 4709:Islamic views on slavery 4699:Christianity and slavery 4374:Grand Duchy of Lithuania 4357:during the times of the 3577:Suleiman the Magnificent 3575:, the favourite wife of 3090:: the Bible states that 2716:via the Khazar Kaghanate 2388:) and African slaves in 1910:Compensated emancipation 1121:Indian Ocean slave trade 298:(626–680), queen of the 20:Feudal titles and status 9211:Investiture Controversy 9181:Second Bulgarian Empire 8866:Unam Sanctam Catholicam 8230:Slavery & Abolition 8199:Iversen, Frode (2019). 7571:Phiilps pages 14–15, 19 6943:sourcebooks.fordham.edu 6821:Lewis, Race and Slavery 6147:sourcebooks.fordham.edu 5743:Historisk Tidsskrift 61 5722:. Penguin. p. 64. 5525:Sawyer, Birgit (2000). 5362:Collins, Roger (1995). 5214:The Lives of the Saints 5130:sourcebooks.fordham.edu 4719:Slavery in ancient Rome 4424:Viking-era slave chains 4090:Independence of Romania 4063:foundation of Wallachia 4002:). Most slaves were of 3948:Stephen III of Moldavia 3946:Donation deed in which 3731:Alfonso VIII of Castile 3286:practice of manumission 3189:slavery in ancient Rome 2979:Jewish views on slavery 2837:Danubian principalities 2748:, connecting it to the 2688:and from there via the 2568:colonization of Iceland 2439:, or Slavic slaves, at 2409:its own domestic market 1834:1926 Slavery Convention 1590:Germany in World War II 1207:North and South America 729:Contract of manumission 430:as well. Arabic silver 9568:Post-classical history 9324:Fall of Constantinople 9231:Capet–Plantagenet feud 9098:First Bulgarian Empire 7614:Barton, Simon (1997). 6355:Toch, Michael (2013). 6119:Aucassin and Nicolette 5542:"Scandinavian Slavery" 4674: 4585:Justinian’s legal code 4501:Serfdom versus slavery 4425: 4402:Slavery in Scandinavia 4350: 3955: 3912: 3751: 3677: 3482:Ottoman wars in Europe 3478:Byzantine-Ottoman wars 3473: 3345: 3305:early Islamic conquest 3268: 2992: 2897:slave trade in England 2782: 2781:in green, 13th century 2740:were traded as far as 2494: 2429: 2397: 2319:Venetian slave traders 2302:(which is much less). 2214:Venetian slave traders 1315:British Virgin Islands 867:Circassian slave trade 833:Safavid imperial harem 828:Ottoman Imperial Harem 385: 229: 8958:Phillips, William D. 8899:Oxford Bibliographies 8813:David M. Goldenberg, 8322:Karras, Ruth (1990). 8301:. London: Routledge. 7924:10.9783/9780812296488 7638:Roth, Norman (1994). 7495:"The Visigothic Code" 7446:"The Visigothic Code" 7068:Christopher Tyerman, 5305:Janet L. Abu-Lughod, 5001:Slavery, Slave Trade. 4729:The Bible and slavery 4669: 4423: 4370:Statutes of Lithuania 4347:Statutes of Lithuania 4345: 3945: 3896: 3749: 3675: 3660:Slavery in Al-Andalus 3536:Pargalı İbrahim Pasha 3454: 3340: 3278:Islamic slave traders 3224: 3000:in medieval European 2986: 2773: 2647:Black Sea slave trade 2572:Black Sea slave trade 2488: 2421: 2378: 2371:Slavery in al-Andalus 2327:Black Sea slave trade 2323:Genoese slave traders 2248:. They had come from 1554:Europe and North Asia 1514:Australia and Oceania 1214:Pre-Columbian America 786:Slave raid of Suðuroy 718:Slavery in al-Andalus 640:Black Sea slave trade 569:21st-century jihadism 452:Black Sea slave trade 351: 227: 9548:Medieval reenactment 9344:Renaissance Humanism 9251:Medieval Warm Period 9221:Republic of Florence 9035:European Middle Ages 8472:10.1093/past/166.1.3 8442:10.1093/past/166.1.3 8328:Scandinavian Studies 6552:britsattheirbest.com 5913:depts.washington.edu 5757:Medieval Scandinavia 5449:Amt. 1. Sprachlichee 4724:Slavery in antiquity 4349:banned slavery, 1529 4338:Slavery in Lithuania 3950:donates a number of 3910:Mediterranean region 3889:Venetian slave trade 3619:Assizes of Jerusalem 3596:Kingdom of Jerusalem 3322:in Iraq in 868. The 3235:Mediterranean region 3135:includes modern day 3094:, the slave girl of 3043:Corpus Iuris Civilis 2919:slave girls sold in 2893:Anselm of Canterbury 2509:called their slaves 2493:(8th–11th centuries) 2453:Liutprand of Cremona 2431:During the reign of 2009:Indentured servitude 1937:Underground Railroad 1737:United Arab Emirates 1126:Zanzibar slave trade 1093:By country or region 906:Atlantic slave trade 808:Ma malakat aymanukum 692:Venetian slave trade 250:Western Roman Empire 9261:Kingdom of Portugal 9128:Old Church Slavonic 9113:Anglo-Saxon England 8940:Karras, Ruth Mazo. 8868:, 5 February 2011. 7097:Benjamin Z. Kedar, 7052:Christopher Tyerman 6734:Lewis, 1990, p. 62. 6707:Wright, 2007, p. 4. 6698:Wright, 2007, p. 3. 6441:(5): 894–943, 898. 6103:Lives of the Saints 6088:the cattle-raiding. 5759:11 (1978–79) 126–48 5649:The Annals of Fulda 5447:Kuhn, Hans (1973). 5268:10.7722/j.ctt2tt1pr 5229:(available on-line) 4952:on 27 February 2009 4848:libro.uca.edu/vcode 4842:Scott, S.P. (ed.). 4814:. Springer Nature. 4537:incentive structure 4318:Crimean slave trade 4134: 4131:Early Slavic status 4125:Crimean slave trade 4121:Crimean slave raids 3885:Genoese slave trade 3857:Alfonso VII of León 3807:In the kingdoms of 3640:Slavery in Portugal 3540:Sokollu Mehmet Paşa 3294:conversion to Islam 3237:from 622 to 750 AD 2879:England and Ireland 2857:Crimean slave trade 2746:Bukhara slave trade 2663:Bukhara slave trade 2481:Bukhara slave trade 2095:Slave Route Project 1226:Americas indigenous 1116:Red Sea slave trade 1106:Contemporary Africa 969:Topics and practice 739:Crimean slave trade 734:Bukhara slave trade 687:Genoese slave trade 564:Contemporary Africa 544:Forced prostitution 246:barbarian invasions 22: 9642:History of slavery 9442:In popular culture 9407:Crusading movement 9279:Hundred Years' War 9138:Civitas Schinesghe 9123:Carolingian Empire 9108:Kingdom of Croatia 9061:Barbarian kingdoms 8988:Past & Present 8977:Past & Present 8342:– via JSTOR. 8093:"Supply of Slaves" 7976:, Budapest, 2004, 7425:Jankowiak, p. 169. 7176:Past & Present 7011:The Great Upheaval 6970:on 18 October 2006 6676:Lewis, 1990, p. 5. 6435:Harvard Law Review 6270:on 12 January 2009 5940:on 26 October 2009 5396:"BREPOLiS – Login" 5216:, Volume 3. 1866. 4704:History of slavery 4569:economic inflation 4468:Slavery in Ireland 4464:Slavery in Britain 4426: 4408:Slavery in Denmark 4351: 4129: 3964:The Ottoman Empire 3956: 3938:Slavery in Romania 3913: 3898:Maritime republics 3752: 3678: 3664:Slavery in Morocco 3565:Sultanate of women 3474: 3346: 3269: 3254:Rashidun Caliphate 2993: 2969:Jewish slave trade 2783: 2680:or transported to 2678:Dublin slave trade 2655:Khazar slave trade 2495: 2477:Khazar slave trade 2398: 2296:Islamic gold dinar 2226:Prague slave trade 2222:Balkan slave trade 1876:Blockade of Africa 1183:Somali slave trade 1099:Sub-Saharan Africa 791:Turkish Abductions 749:Khivan slave trade 744:Khazar slave trade 697:Balkan slave trade 655:Prague slave trade 456:Balkan slave trade 408:Carolingian Empire 386: 372:Muslim Middle East 308:Merovingian empire 230: 18: 9637:Slavery in Europe 9624: 9623: 9533:Basic topics list 9334:Swiss mercenaries 9284:Wars of the Roses 9191:Kingdom of Poland 9176:Holy Roman Empire 9043:Early Middle Ages 8979:149 (1995): 3-28 8828:Medieval Papalism 8800:Timothy Rayborn, 8780:Orlando Patterson 7868:978-1-4214-1901-5 7821:Lawrance, Jeremey 7787:Phillips pp.60–61 7652:Phillips pp.20–21 7247:Fynn-Paul, p. 26. 7134:978-0-8122-4491-5 6896:978-0-7190-1825-1 6783:Lev, David Ayalon 6636:978-0-19-966046-9 6609:978-0-19-067824-1 6415:978-0-87436-885-7 6341:978-0-674-39731-6 6004:978-0-7546-6761-2 5817:on 1 October 2013 5563:978-0-19-753235-5 5480:978-1-4426-0023-2 5400:apps.brepolis.net 5381:978-0-333-64171-2 5259:978-1-84384-351-1 4896:978-0-19-100902-0 4821:978-3-030-73291-2 4790:978-0-87436-885-7 4761:978-0-19-100902-0 4412:Slavery in Sweden 4392:Mikołaj Radziwiłł 4355:Kingdom of Poland 4334:Slavery in Poland 4229: 4228: 4196: 4186: 4176: 4166: 4152: 4111:Slavery in Russia 4105:Slavery in Russia 3996:Habsburg monarchy 3826:to the Bishop of 3790:Umayyad invasions 3768:King Chindasuinth 3699:Iberian Peninsula 3676:Al-Andalus in 732 3630:Slavery in Iberia 3617:The 13th-century 3607:Council of Nablus 3354:Arabian Peninsula 3324:Ikhshidid dynasty 3320:Abbasid Caliphate 3264:Umayyad Caliphate 3167:(i.e. Roman) and 3088:Oldradus de Ponte 3084:Decretum Gratiani 2889:Council of London 2690:Volga trade route 2651:Volga trade route 2445:Umayyad Caliphate 2443:, capital of the 2433:Abd-ar-Rahman III 2405:Iberian Peninsula 2286:Byzantine solidus 2192: 2191: 2142:Freedmen's Bureau 1964:Third Servile War 1959:International law 1526:Human trafficking 1288:Human trafficking 963:Thirteen colonies 781:Sack of Baltimore 549:Human trafficking 446:Italian merchants 416:Council of London 358:Volga trade route 271:As these peoples 234:Early Middle Ages 220:Early Middle Ages 195: 194: 61:Lord of the manor 9659: 9647:Medieval society 9614: 9613: 9604: 9603: 9594: 9553:Medieval studies 9397:Church and State 9271:Late Middle Ages 9163:High Middle Ages 9081:Christianization 9051:Migration Period 9028: 9021: 9014: 9005: 9004: 8926:Dockès, Pierre. 8886: 8879: 8873: 8862: 8856: 8846: 8840: 8837: 8831: 8826:Walter Ullmann, 8824: 8818: 8811: 8805: 8798: 8787: 8777: 8771: 8764: 8758: 8757: 8749: 8743: 8742: 8734: 8728: 8727: 8719: 8713: 8712: 8696: 8686: 8680: 8679: 8663: 8653: 8647: 8646: 8638: 8632: 8631: 8623: 8617: 8616: 8608: 8602: 8601: 8593: 8584: 8583: 8575: 8569: 8568: 8552: 8542: 8536: 8535: 8519: 8509: 8503: 8502: 8482: 8476: 8475: 8460:Past and Present 8455: 8446: 8445: 8430:Past and Present 8425: 8419: 8418: 8402: 8392: 8386: 8385: 8369: 8359: 8353: 8350: 8344: 8343: 8319: 8313: 8312: 8294: 8288: 8287: 8269: 8256: 8255: 8245: 8221: 8215: 8214: 8196: 8187: 8175: 8171: 8165: 8158: 8152: 8151: 8149: 8147: 8137: 8131: 8130: 8128: 8126: 8110: 8104: 8103: 8101: 8099: 8089: 8083: 8082: 8071: 8065: 8062: 8056: 8042: 8036: 8018: 8012: 8002: 7993: 7990: 7984: 7970: 7964: 7961: 7955: 7952: 7946: 7945: 7909: 7903: 7902: 7888: 7880: 7854: 7841: 7838: 7829: 7828: 7817: 7806: 7803: 7797: 7794: 7788: 7785: 7779: 7778: 7770: 7764: 7763: 7755: 7749: 7746: 7740: 7737: 7731: 7728: 7722: 7721: 7713: 7707: 7706: 7697: 7691: 7690: 7682: 7676: 7673: 7662: 7661:Roth pp.156, 160 7659: 7653: 7650: 7644: 7643: 7635: 7629: 7626: 7620: 7619: 7611: 7605: 7604: 7588: 7578: 7572: 7569: 7563: 7562: 7554: 7548: 7545: 7536: 7535: 7527: 7521: 7520: 7512: 7506: 7505: 7499: 7490: 7484: 7483: 7463: 7457: 7456: 7450: 7441: 7435: 7434:Phillips, p. 18. 7432: 7426: 7423: 7417: 7416:Phillips, p. 17. 7414: 7408: 7407: 7367: 7361: 7360: 7358: 7356: 7342: 7336: 7332: 7326: 7323: 7317: 7313: 7307: 7303: 7297: 7296: 7278: 7254: 7248: 7245: 7239: 7238: 7237: 7235: 7202: 7196: 7195: 7167: 7161: 7160: 7154: 7146: 7118: 7112: 7095: 7089: 7082: 7073: 7066: 7060: 7049: 7043: 7028:Thomas F. Madden 7020: 7014: 7007: 7001: 7000: 6998: 6996: 6986: 6980: 6979: 6977: 6975: 6966:. 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Archived from 5807: 5801: 5798: 5792: 5789: 5783: 5780: 5774: 5773: 5772:. 23 April 2013. 5766: 5760: 5753: 5747: 5746: 5738: 5732: 5731: 5713: 5707: 5706: 5698: 5692: 5691: 5683: 5677: 5676: 5675: 5673: 5640: 5634: 5628: 5622: 5621: 5581: 5575: 5574: 5572: 5570: 5537: 5531: 5530: 5522: 5507: 5506: 5500: 5492: 5466: 5453: 5452: 5444: 5438: 5437: 5417: 5411: 5410: 5408: 5406: 5392: 5386: 5385: 5359: 5350: 5334: 5328: 5323: 5317: 5303: 5294: 5278: 5272: 5271: 5243: 5232: 5225: 5219: 5210: 5204: 5203: 5201: 5199: 5185: 5179: 5169: 5163: 5162: 5150: 5141: 5140: 5138: 5136: 5122: 5116: 5115: 5113: 5111: 5105: 5099:. Archived from 5098: 5090: 5084: 5073: 5064: 5063: 5061: 5059: 5050:. Archived from 5044: 5035: 5034: 5032: 5030: 5020: 5011: 4998: 4977: 4976: 4968: 4962: 4961: 4959: 4957: 4948:. Archived from 4938: 4932: 4931: 4907: 4901: 4900: 4880: 4874: 4869: 4863: 4858: 4852: 4851: 4839: 4826: 4825: 4805: 4796: 4794: 4772: 4766: 4765: 4745: 4678:Romanus Pontifex 4517:Byzantine Empire 4221: 4214: 4207: 4194: 4184: 4174: 4164: 4150: 4142: 4135: 4128: 4017: 3881:Slavery in Malta 3742:Christian Iberia 3636:Slavery in Spain 3374:Byzantine Empire 3362:Fertile Crescent 3356:established the 3261: 3251: 3241: 3205:Slavery in Egypt 3035:Byzantine Empire 2948:Knights of Malta 2841:Poland-Lithuania 2787:Mongol invasions 2726:Ahmad ibn Fadlan 2499:Nordic countries 2283: 2282: 2278: 2232:(903–906), near 2194:By the reign of 2184: 2177: 2170: 2154:Emancipation Day 1987: 1954:Slave Trade Acts 645:Byzantine Empire 487: 460: 459: 440:Muslim territory 388:Demand from the 214:enslaved peoples 206:feudal societies 187: 180: 173: 128:Domestic servant 40:Territorial lord 30: 23: 17: 9667: 9666: 9662: 9661: 9660: 9658: 9657: 9656: 9627: 9626: 9625: 9620: 9582: 9563:Neo-medievalism 9511: 9447:Itinerant court 9370: 9265: 9186:Georgian Empire 9171:Norman Conquest 9157: 9103:Frankish Empire 9037: 9032: 8996:Wyatt David R. 8915:Campbell, Gwyn 8906:Barker, Hannah 8894: 8892:Further reading 8889: 8880: 8876: 8863: 8859: 8847: 8843: 8838: 8834: 8825: 8821: 8812: 8808: 8799: 8790: 8778: 8774: 8766:David Graeber, 8765: 8761: 8750: 8746: 8735: 8731: 8720: 8716: 8709: 8687: 8683: 8676: 8654: 8650: 8639: 8635: 8624: 8620: 8609: 8605: 8594: 8587: 8576: 8572: 8565: 8543: 8539: 8532: 8510: 8506: 8499: 8483: 8479: 8456: 8449: 8426: 8422: 8415: 8393: 8389: 8382: 8360: 8356: 8351: 8347: 8320: 8316: 8309: 8295: 8291: 8284: 8270: 8259: 8222: 8218: 8211: 8197: 8190: 8185:Wayback Machine 8176:E. Gudavičius, 8174:(in Lithuanian) 8173: 8172: 8168: 8159: 8155: 8145: 8143: 8139: 8138: 8134: 8124: 8122: 8112: 8111: 8107: 8097: 8095: 8091: 8090: 8086: 8073: 8072: 8068: 8063: 8059: 8043: 8039: 8019: 8015: 8003: 7996: 7991: 7987: 7971: 7967: 7963:Barker, p. 210. 7962: 7958: 7954:Barker, p. 211. 7953: 7949: 7934: 7910: 7906: 7882: 7881: 7869: 7855: 7844: 7839: 7832: 7818: 7809: 7805:Saunders pp.5–7 7804: 7800: 7796:Blumenthal p.20 7795: 7791: 7786: 7782: 7771: 7767: 7756: 7752: 7747: 7743: 7738: 7734: 7729: 7725: 7714: 7710: 7698: 7694: 7683: 7679: 7674: 7665: 7660: 7656: 7651: 7647: 7636: 7632: 7627: 7623: 7612: 7608: 7601: 7579: 7575: 7570: 7566: 7555: 7551: 7546: 7539: 7528: 7524: 7513: 7509: 7497: 7491: 7487: 7464: 7460: 7448: 7442: 7438: 7433: 7429: 7424: 7420: 7415: 7411: 7368: 7364: 7354: 7352: 7344: 7343: 7339: 7333: 7329: 7324: 7320: 7314: 7310: 7304: 7300: 7255: 7251: 7246: 7242: 7233: 7231: 7229: 7203: 7199: 7168: 7164: 7148: 7147: 7135: 7119: 7115: 7096: 7092: 7083: 7076: 7067: 7063: 7050: 7046: 7021: 7017: 7008: 7004: 6994: 6992: 6988: 6987: 6983: 6973: 6971: 6962: 6961: 6957: 6947: 6945: 6937: 6936: 6932: 6922: 6920: 6918:everything2.com 6912: 6911: 6904: 6897: 6881: 6877: 6872: 6868: 6863: 6859: 6854: 6850: 6841: 6834: 6829: 6825: 6820: 6809: 6802: 6798: 6791: 6787: 6782: 6771: 6764: 6760: 6751: 6747: 6742: 6738: 6733: 6729: 6724: 6720: 6715: 6711: 6706: 6702: 6697: 6693: 6684: 6680: 6675: 6671: 6666: 6662: 6657: 6653: 6648: 6644: 6637: 6621: 6617: 6610: 6594: 6587: 6577: 6575: 6571: 6570: 6566: 6556: 6554: 6546: 6545: 6541: 6531: 6529: 6519: 6515: 6505: 6503: 6493: 6489: 6474: 6470: 6447:10.2307/1340133 6427: 6423: 6416: 6400: 6396: 6387: 6383: 6373: 6371: 6369: 6353: 6349: 6342: 6326: 6322: 6287: 6283: 6273: 6271: 6262: 6261: 6257: 6220:Medical History 6212: 6208: 6165: 6161: 6151: 6149: 6141: 6140: 6136: 6129: 6115: 6111: 6098: 6094: 6083: 6067: 6063: 6053: 6031:Clark, Jonathan 6023: 6019: 6009: 6007: 6005: 5989: 5985: 5978: 5974: 5964: 5962: 5958: 5957: 5953: 5943: 5941: 5932: 5931: 5927: 5917: 5915: 5907: 5906: 5902: 5886: 5885: 5877: 5873: 5866: 5862: 5857:Wayback Machine 5848: 5844: 5835: 5834: 5830: 5820: 5818: 5809: 5808: 5804: 5799: 5795: 5790: 5786: 5781: 5777: 5768: 5767: 5763: 5754: 5750: 5739: 5735: 5714: 5710: 5699: 5695: 5684: 5680: 5671: 5669: 5667: 5641: 5637: 5632:Iceland History 5629: 5625: 5582: 5578: 5568: 5566: 5564: 5538: 5534: 5523: 5510: 5494: 5493: 5481: 5467: 5456: 5445: 5441: 5434: 5418: 5414: 5404: 5402: 5394: 5393: 5389: 5382: 5360: 5353: 5335: 5331: 5324: 5320: 5304: 5297: 5279: 5275: 5260: 5244: 5235: 5226: 5222: 5211: 5207: 5197: 5195: 5187: 5186: 5182: 5170: 5166: 5151: 5144: 5134: 5132: 5124: 5123: 5119: 5109: 5107: 5106:on 26 June 2016 5103: 5096: 5092: 5091: 5087: 5077:pactum Lotharii 5074: 5067: 5057: 5055: 5054:on 29 July 2016 5046: 5045: 5038: 5028: 5026: 5022: 5021: 5014: 4999: 4980: 4969: 4965: 4955: 4953: 4940: 4939: 4935: 4928: 4908: 4904: 4897: 4881: 4877: 4870: 4866: 4859: 4855: 4844:"Forum judicum" 4840: 4829: 4822: 4806: 4799: 4791: 4773: 4769: 4762: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4733: 4689: 4665:Pope Nicholas V 4649:Catholic Church 4589:property rights 4581: 4503: 4487:Norman invasion 4470: 4462:Main articles: 4460: 4418: 4406:Main articles: 4404: 4376:could join the 4340: 4332:Main articles: 4330: 4263:Peter the Great 4225: 4132: 4127: 4113: 4107: 4011: 3940: 3934: 3891: 3877: 3824:Pope Gregory XI 3772:Visigothic Code 3744: 3719:Yaqub al-Mansur 3670: 3656: 3642: 3634:Main articles: 3632: 3624:Pope Gregory IX 3585: 3449: 3443: 3411:Devşirme system 3328:Fatimid dynasty 3316:Ahmad ibn Tulun 3267: 3259: 3257: 3249: 3247: 3239: 3219: 3201: 3184:Islamic slavery 3163:. Pre-existing 3129: 3121:Main articles: 3119: 3114: 3108: 3080: 3027: 3022: 3010: 2981: 2971: 2909: 2881: 2833:Crimean Khanate 2768: 2762: 2588:Annals of Fulda 2578:in Denmark and 2483: 2473: 2373: 2367: 2280: 2276: 2275: 2209:pactum Lotharii 2188: 2159: 2158: 2063:Slave narrative 2019:Fugitive slaves 1999: 1991: 1990: 1981: 1949:Slave rebellion 1804: 1794: 1793: 1752: 1742: 1741: 1564:United Kingdom 1500:Yankee princess 1094: 1086: 1085: 813:Avret Pazarları 759:Avret Pazarları 628:Medieval Europe 594: 584: 583: 522:Forced marriage 497: 458: 448: 402:of 840 between 399:pactum Lotharii 394:medieval period 352:Routes through 346: 336: 316:chattel slavery 266:Visigothic Code 240:practices from 232:Slavery in the 222: 202:medieval period 191: 47:Tenant-in-chief 12: 11: 5: 9665: 9655: 9654: 9649: 9644: 9639: 9622: 9621: 9619: 9618: 9608: 9598: 9587: 9584: 9583: 9581: 9580: 9575: 9570: 9565: 9560: 9558:Misconceptions 9555: 9550: 9545: 9540: 9535: 9530: 9525: 9519: 9517: 9513: 9512: 9510: 9509: 9504: 9499: 9494: 9489: 9484: 9479: 9474: 9469: 9464: 9459: 9454: 9449: 9444: 9439: 9434: 9429: 9424: 9419: 9414: 9409: 9404: 9399: 9394: 9389: 9384: 9378: 9376: 9372: 9371: 9369: 9368: 9366:Little Ice Age 9363: 9362: 9361: 9351: 9346: 9341: 9336: 9331: 9326: 9321: 9319:Western Schism 9316: 9311: 9306: 9301: 9296: 9291: 9286: 9281: 9275: 9273: 9267: 9266: 9264: 9263: 9258: 9253: 9248: 9243: 9238: 9233: 9228: 9223: 9218: 9213: 9208: 9203: 9198: 9193: 9188: 9183: 9178: 9173: 9167: 9165: 9159: 9158: 9156: 9155: 9150: 9145: 9140: 9135: 9130: 9125: 9120: 9115: 9110: 9105: 9100: 9095: 9090: 9085: 9084: 9083: 9073: 9068: 9066:Late antiquity 9063: 9058: 9053: 9047: 9045: 9039: 9038: 9031: 9030: 9023: 9016: 9008: 9002: 9001: 8994: 8984: 8973: 8963: 8956: 8945: 8938: 8931: 8924: 8913: 8904: 8893: 8890: 8888: 8887: 8874: 8857: 8841: 8832: 8819: 8806: 8788: 8772: 8759: 8744: 8729: 8714: 8707: 8681: 8674: 8648: 8633: 8618: 8603: 8585: 8570: 8563: 8537: 8530: 8504: 8497: 8477: 8447: 8420: 8413: 8387: 8380: 8354: 8345: 8334:(2): 141–162. 8314: 8307: 8289: 8282: 8257: 8236:(4): 682–705. 8216: 8209: 8188: 8166: 8153: 8132: 8105: 8084: 8079:allempires.com 8066: 8057: 8037: 8013: 8005:Richard Hellie 7994: 7985: 7965: 7956: 7947: 7932: 7904: 7867: 7842: 7830: 7807: 7798: 7789: 7780: 7765: 7750: 7741: 7732: 7723: 7708: 7692: 7677: 7663: 7654: 7645: 7630: 7621: 7606: 7599: 7573: 7564: 7549: 7537: 7522: 7507: 7485: 7458: 7436: 7427: 7418: 7409: 7362: 7337: 7327: 7318: 7308: 7298: 7249: 7240: 7227: 7197: 7162: 7133: 7113: 7090: 7074: 7061: 7044: 7015: 7002: 6981: 6955: 6930: 6902: 6895: 6875: 6866: 6857: 6848: 6832: 6823: 6807: 6796: 6785: 6769: 6758: 6745: 6736: 6727: 6718: 6709: 6700: 6691: 6685:Wright, John, 6678: 6669: 6660: 6651: 6642: 6635: 6615: 6608: 6585: 6564: 6539: 6513: 6487: 6468: 6421: 6414: 6394: 6381: 6367: 6347: 6340: 6320: 6301:(6): 594–595. 6281: 6255: 6226:(3): 270–277. 6206: 6159: 6134: 6127: 6109: 6092: 6081: 6061: 6051: 6017: 6003: 5983: 5972: 5951: 5925: 5900: 5871: 5860: 5842: 5828: 5802: 5793: 5784: 5775: 5761: 5748: 5733: 5708: 5693: 5678: 5665: 5635: 5623: 5596:(4): 431–454. 5576: 5562: 5532: 5508: 5479: 5454: 5439: 5432: 5412: 5387: 5380: 5351: 5329: 5318: 5295: 5273: 5258: 5233: 5220: 5205: 5180: 5164: 5142: 5117: 5085: 5081:Cessi, Roberto 5065: 5036: 5012: 5009:978-0684190730 4978: 4975:. p. 141. 4963: 4933: 4926: 4902: 4895: 4875: 4864: 4853: 4827: 4820: 4797: 4789: 4767: 4760: 4739: 4737: 4734: 4732: 4731: 4726: 4721: 4716: 4711: 4706: 4701: 4696: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4580: 4577: 4507:historiography 4502: 4499: 4459: 4456: 4403: 4400: 4396:Casimir's Code 4329: 4326: 4310:Crimean Tatars 4298:Mehmed I Giray 4227: 4226: 4224: 4223: 4216: 4209: 4201: 4198: 4197: 4188: 4187: 4178: 4177: 4168: 4167: 4154: 4153: 4144: 4143: 4109:Main article: 4106: 4103: 4094:Ottoman Empire 3994:(parts of the 3968:Russian Empire 3936:Main article: 3933: 3930: 3876: 3873: 3743: 3740: 3655: 3654:Islamic Iberia 3652: 3631: 3628: 3584: 3581: 3486:Ottoman Empire 3445:Main article: 3442: 3441:Ottoman Empire 3439: 3407:Ottoman Empire 3258: 3248: 3238: 3200: 3199:Islamic states 3197: 3161:late antiquity 3159:at the end of 3118: 3115: 3110:Main article: 3107: 3104: 3079: 3076: 3057: 3056: 3053: 3050: 3026: 3023: 3021: 3020:Slavery in law 3018: 3009: 3006: 2970: 2967: 2952:North Africans 2939:trade city of 2908: 2905: 2880: 2877: 2861:Genoese colony 2853:Ottoman Empire 2761: 2758: 2744:, that is the 2720:Volga Bulgaria 2657:and later the 2616:Branno Islands 2584:Staraya Ladoga 2472: 2469: 2366: 2363: 2325:dominated the 2216:began to sell 2190: 2189: 2187: 2186: 2179: 2172: 2164: 2161: 2160: 2157: 2156: 2151: 2150: 2149: 2144: 2139: 2134: 2133: 2132: 2122: 2117: 2112: 2107: 2102: 2092: 2087: 2082: 2077: 2076: 2075: 2070: 2060: 2055: 2054: 2053: 2048: 2041:List of slaves 2038: 2037: 2036: 2031: 2026: 2016: 2011: 2006: 2000: 1997: 1996: 1993: 1992: 1989: 1988: 1976: 1971: 1966: 1961: 1956: 1951: 1946: 1945: 1944: 1934: 1929: 1924: 1923: 1922: 1912: 1907: 1906: 1905: 1900: 1890: 1889: 1888: 1883: 1873: 1868: 1863: 1862: 1861: 1856: 1851: 1846: 1841: 1836: 1831: 1826: 1821: 1816: 1805: 1800: 1799: 1796: 1795: 1792: 1791: 1786: 1781: 1776: 1775: 1774: 1769: 1759: 1753: 1748: 1747: 1744: 1743: 1740: 1739: 1734: 1729: 1724: 1719: 1714: 1709: 1704: 1699: 1694: 1689: 1684: 1679: 1674: 1669: 1664: 1659: 1654: 1649: 1644: 1638: 1637: 1633: 1632: 1627: 1622: 1617: 1612: 1607: 1602: 1597: 1592: 1587: 1585:Dutch Republic 1582: 1577: 1576: 1575: 1570: 1562: 1556: 1555: 1551: 1550: 1545: 1540: 1535: 1530: 1529: 1528: 1517: 1516: 1510: 1509: 1504: 1503: 1502: 1492: 1487: 1482: 1477: 1476: 1475: 1465: 1464: 1463: 1453: 1448: 1447: 1446: 1441: 1431: 1430: 1429: 1424: 1419: 1409: 1404: 1399: 1393: 1392: 1386: 1385: 1380: 1373: 1372: 1371: 1366: 1356: 1351: 1346: 1345: 1344: 1334: 1329: 1328: 1327: 1322: 1317: 1312: 1302: 1297: 1292: 1291: 1290: 1285: 1280: 1275: 1270: 1265: 1260: 1255: 1250: 1245: 1235: 1234: 1233: 1223: 1222: 1221: 1210: 1209: 1203: 1202: 1197: 1192: 1187: 1186: 1185: 1175: 1170: 1165: 1160: 1155: 1150: 1145: 1140: 1135: 1130: 1129: 1128: 1118: 1113: 1108: 1102: 1101: 1095: 1092: 1091: 1088: 1087: 1084: 1083: 1078: 1073: 1068: 1063: 1057: 1056: 1052: 1051: 1046: 1044:Child soldiers 1041: 1036: 1031: 1026: 1021: 1020: 1019: 1009: 1004: 999: 994: 993: 992: 987: 982: 971: 970: 966: 965: 960: 955: 953:Spanish Empire 950: 945: 940: 935: 933:Middle Passage 930: 925: 920: 915: 909: 908: 902: 901: 896: 891: 886: 881: 876: 871: 870: 869: 864: 859: 854: 849: 840: 835: 830: 825: 820: 815: 810: 805: 795: 794: 793: 788: 783: 778: 773: 763: 762: 761: 754:Ottoman Empire 751: 746: 741: 736: 731: 726: 721: 715: 709: 708: 702: 701: 700: 699: 689: 684: 679: 678: 677: 672: 667: 657: 652: 647: 642: 637: 631: 630: 624: 623: 618: 613: 608: 602: 601: 595: 590: 589: 586: 585: 582: 581: 576: 574:Sexual slavery 571: 566: 561: 556: 551: 546: 541: 540: 539: 534: 532:Child marriage 529: 519: 514: 509: 507:Child soldiers 504: 498: 493: 492: 489: 488: 480: 479: 469: 468: 447: 444: 428:Muslim markets 335: 332: 262:Hywel the Good 242:late antiquity 221: 218: 193: 192: 190: 189: 182: 175: 167: 164: 163: 157: 156: 138: 137: 131: 130: 124: 123: 117: 116: 110: 109: 91: 90: 76: 75: 57: 56: 50: 49: 43: 42: 36:Lord paramount 32: 31: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9664: 9653: 9650: 9648: 9645: 9643: 9640: 9638: 9635: 9634: 9632: 9617: 9609: 9607: 9599: 9597: 9593: 9589: 9588: 9585: 9579: 9576: 9574: 9571: 9569: 9566: 9564: 9561: 9559: 9556: 9554: 9551: 9549: 9546: 9544: 9541: 9539: 9536: 9534: 9531: 9529: 9526: 9524: 9521: 9520: 9518: 9514: 9508: 9505: 9503: 9500: 9498: 9495: 9493: 9490: 9488: 9485: 9483: 9480: 9478: 9475: 9473: 9470: 9468: 9465: 9463: 9460: 9458: 9455: 9453: 9450: 9448: 9445: 9443: 9440: 9438: 9435: 9433: 9430: 9428: 9425: 9423: 9420: 9418: 9415: 9413: 9410: 9408: 9405: 9403: 9400: 9398: 9395: 9393: 9390: 9388: 9385: 9383: 9380: 9379: 9377: 9373: 9367: 9364: 9360: 9357: 9356: 9355: 9352: 9350: 9347: 9345: 9342: 9340: 9337: 9335: 9332: 9330: 9327: 9325: 9322: 9320: 9317: 9315: 9312: 9310: 9307: 9305: 9302: 9300: 9297: 9295: 9292: 9290: 9287: 9285: 9282: 9280: 9277: 9276: 9274: 9272: 9268: 9262: 9259: 9257: 9254: 9252: 9249: 9247: 9244: 9242: 9239: 9237: 9234: 9232: 9229: 9227: 9226:Scholasticism 9224: 9222: 9219: 9217: 9214: 9212: 9209: 9207: 9204: 9202: 9199: 9197: 9194: 9192: 9189: 9187: 9184: 9182: 9179: 9177: 9174: 9172: 9169: 9168: 9166: 9164: 9160: 9154: 9151: 9149: 9146: 9144: 9141: 9139: 9136: 9134: 9131: 9129: 9126: 9124: 9121: 9119: 9116: 9114: 9111: 9109: 9106: 9104: 9101: 9099: 9096: 9094: 9091: 9089: 9088:Rise of Islam 9086: 9082: 9079: 9078: 9077: 9074: 9072: 9069: 9067: 9064: 9062: 9059: 9057: 9054: 9052: 9049: 9048: 9046: 9044: 9040: 9036: 9029: 9024: 9022: 9017: 9015: 9010: 9009: 9006: 8999: 8995: 8993: 8989: 8985: 8982: 8978: 8974: 8972: 8971:online review 8968: 8964: 8961: 8957: 8954: 8950: 8947:Perry, Craig 8946: 8943: 8939: 8936: 8932: 8929: 8925: 8922: 8918: 8914: 8911: 8910: 8905: 8903: 8900: 8896: 8895: 8884: 8878: 8871: 8867: 8861: 8855: 8851: 8845: 8836: 8829: 8823: 8816: 8810: 8803: 8797: 8795: 8793: 8785: 8781: 8776: 8769: 8763: 8755: 8748: 8740: 8733: 8725: 8718: 8710: 8708:9780801436802 8704: 8700: 8695: 8694: 8685: 8677: 8675:9780801436802 8671: 8667: 8662: 8661: 8652: 8644: 8637: 8629: 8622: 8614: 8607: 8599: 8592: 8590: 8581: 8574: 8566: 8564:9780801436802 8560: 8556: 8551: 8550: 8541: 8533: 8531:9780801436802 8527: 8523: 8518: 8517: 8508: 8500: 8498:9781850657088 8494: 8490: 8489: 8481: 8473: 8469: 8465: 8461: 8454: 8452: 8443: 8439: 8435: 8431: 8424: 8416: 8414:9780801436802 8410: 8406: 8401: 8400: 8391: 8383: 8381:9780801436802 8377: 8373: 8368: 8367: 8358: 8349: 8341: 8337: 8333: 8329: 8325: 8318: 8310: 8308:9781315735863 8304: 8300: 8293: 8285: 8283:9781315646374 8279: 8275: 8268: 8266: 8264: 8262: 8253: 8249: 8244: 8239: 8235: 8231: 8227: 8220: 8212: 8210:9780429262210 8206: 8202: 8195: 8193: 8186: 8182: 8179: 8170: 8163: 8157: 8142: 8136: 8121: 8120: 8119:The Economist 8115: 8109: 8094: 8088: 8080: 8076: 8070: 8061: 8055: 8054:0-8014-9689-6 8051: 8047: 8041: 8035: 8034:0-8014-9689-6 8031: 8027: 8025: 8017: 8010: 8006: 8001: 7999: 7989: 7983: 7982:963-9241-84-9 7979: 7975: 7969: 7960: 7951: 7943: 7939: 7935: 7933:9780812296488 7929: 7925: 7921: 7917: 7916: 7908: 7900: 7896: 7892: 7886: 7878: 7874: 7870: 7864: 7860: 7853: 7851: 7849: 7847: 7840:Saunders p.29 7837: 7835: 7826: 7822: 7816: 7814: 7812: 7802: 7793: 7784: 7776: 7769: 7761: 7754: 7745: 7739:Phillips p.61 7736: 7730:Phillips p.17 7727: 7719: 7712: 7704: 7696: 7688: 7681: 7672: 7670: 7668: 7658: 7649: 7641: 7634: 7628:Phillips p.21 7625: 7617: 7610: 7602: 7600:9780801445026 7596: 7592: 7587: 7586: 7577: 7568: 7560: 7553: 7547:Phillips p.19 7544: 7542: 7533: 7526: 7518: 7511: 7503: 7496: 7489: 7481: 7477: 7473: 7469: 7462: 7454: 7447: 7440: 7431: 7422: 7413: 7405: 7401: 7397: 7393: 7389: 7385: 7382:(1): 62, 63. 7381: 7377: 7373: 7366: 7351: 7350:libro.uca.edu 7347: 7341: 7331: 7322: 7312: 7302: 7294: 7290: 7286: 7282: 7277: 7272: 7268: 7264: 7260: 7253: 7244: 7230: 7228:9789004346611 7224: 7220: 7216: 7212: 7208: 7201: 7193: 7189: 7185: 7181: 7177: 7173: 7166: 7158: 7152: 7144: 7140: 7136: 7130: 7126: 7125: 7117: 7110: 7106: 7105: 7100: 7094: 7087: 7081: 7079: 7071: 7065: 7057: 7053: 7048: 7041: 7037: 7036:Joshua Prawer 7033: 7029: 7025: 7019: 7012: 7006: 6991: 6985: 6969: 6965: 6959: 6944: 6940: 6934: 6919: 6915: 6909: 6907: 6898: 6892: 6888: 6887: 6879: 6870: 6861: 6852: 6845: 6839: 6837: 6827: 6818: 6816: 6814: 6812: 6805: 6800: 6794: 6789: 6780: 6778: 6776: 6774: 6767: 6762: 6755: 6749: 6740: 6731: 6722: 6713: 6704: 6695: 6688: 6682: 6673: 6664: 6655: 6646: 6638: 6632: 6628: 6627: 6619: 6611: 6605: 6601: 6600: 6592: 6590: 6574: 6568: 6553: 6549: 6543: 6528: 6524: 6517: 6502: 6498: 6491: 6483: 6479: 6472: 6464: 6460: 6456: 6452: 6448: 6444: 6440: 6436: 6432: 6425: 6417: 6411: 6407: 6406: 6398: 6391: 6385: 6370: 6368:9789004235397 6364: 6360: 6359: 6351: 6343: 6337: 6333: 6332: 6324: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6292: 6285: 6269: 6265: 6259: 6251: 6247: 6242: 6237: 6233: 6229: 6225: 6221: 6217: 6210: 6202: 6198: 6194: 6190: 6186: 6182: 6178: 6174: 6170: 6163: 6148: 6144: 6138: 6130: 6128:9781611861570 6124: 6120: 6113: 6105: 6104: 6096: 6089: 6084: 6082:9781465318695 6078: 6074: 6073: 6065: 6058: 6054: 6052:9780712664967 6048: 6044: 6039: 6038: 6032: 6028: 6021: 6006: 6000: 5996: 5995: 5987: 5981: 5976: 5961: 5955: 5939: 5935: 5929: 5914: 5910: 5904: 5896: 5890: 5882: 5875: 5869: 5864: 5858: 5854: 5851: 5846: 5838: 5832: 5816: 5812: 5806: 5797: 5788: 5779: 5771: 5765: 5758: 5752: 5745:(3): 209–227. 5744: 5737: 5729: 5725: 5721: 5720: 5712: 5704: 5697: 5689: 5682: 5668: 5666:9781526112736 5662: 5658: 5654: 5650: 5646: 5639: 5633: 5627: 5619: 5615: 5611: 5607: 5603: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5587: 5580: 5565: 5559: 5555: 5551: 5547: 5543: 5536: 5529:. OUP Oxford. 5528: 5521: 5519: 5517: 5515: 5513: 5504: 5498: 5490: 5486: 5482: 5476: 5472: 5465: 5463: 5461: 5459: 5450: 5443: 5435: 5433:9780874368857 5429: 5425: 5424: 5416: 5401: 5397: 5391: 5383: 5377: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5358: 5356: 5349: 5345: 5341: 5340: 5333: 5327: 5322: 5316: 5312: 5308: 5302: 5300: 5292: 5291:1-4039-4551-9 5288: 5284: 5283: 5277: 5269: 5265: 5261: 5255: 5251: 5250: 5242: 5240: 5238: 5230: 5224: 5218: 5215: 5209: 5194: 5193:newadvent.org 5190: 5184: 5178: 5174: 5168: 5160: 5156: 5149: 5147: 5131: 5127: 5121: 5102: 5095: 5089: 5082: 5078: 5072: 5070: 5053: 5049: 5043: 5041: 5025: 5019: 5017: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4997: 4995: 4993: 4991: 4989: 4987: 4985: 4983: 4974: 4967: 4951: 4947: 4946:Domesday Book 4943: 4937: 4929: 4927:0-7190-4791-9 4923: 4919: 4915: 4914: 4906: 4898: 4892: 4888: 4887: 4879: 4873: 4872:Forum judicum 4868: 4862: 4861:Forum judicum 4857: 4849: 4845: 4838: 4836: 4834: 4832: 4823: 4817: 4813: 4812: 4804: 4802: 4792: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4771: 4763: 4757: 4753: 4752: 4744: 4740: 4730: 4727: 4725: 4722: 4720: 4717: 4715: 4712: 4710: 4707: 4705: 4702: 4700: 4697: 4695: 4692: 4691: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4673: 4668: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4633: 4631: 4627: 4624:, the son of 4623: 4619: 4615: 4610: 4607: 4602: 4598: 4592: 4590: 4586: 4576: 4572: 4570: 4565: 4562:In addition, 4560: 4557: 4553: 4547: 4545: 4540: 4538: 4532: 4528: 4526: 4522: 4518: 4513: 4508: 4498: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4469: 4465: 4455: 4453: 4452: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4435: 4430: 4422: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4399: 4397: 4393: 4390: 4386: 4381: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4366: 4364: 4360: 4359:Piast dynasty 4356: 4348: 4344: 4339: 4335: 4325: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4272:In 1382, the 4270: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4259: 4252: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4222: 4217: 4215: 4210: 4208: 4203: 4202: 4200: 4199: 4193: 4190: 4189: 4185:(free tenant) 4183: 4180: 4179: 4173: 4170: 4169: 4163: 4159: 4156: 4155: 4149: 4146: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4136: 4133: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4112: 4102: 4100: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4078: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4051: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4028:Nicolae Iorga 4024: 4022: 4018: 4015: 4010: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3953: 3949: 3944: 3939: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3872: 3870: 3864: 3860: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3844: 3842: 3838: 3832: 3829: 3825: 3820: 3816: 3814: 3810: 3805: 3803: 3799: 3794: 3791: 3786: 3784: 3779: 3775: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3748: 3739: 3737: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3697:The medieval 3695: 3692: 3687: 3683: 3674: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3651: 3648: 3641: 3637: 3627: 3625: 3620: 3615: 3611: 3608: 3605:In 1120, the 3603: 3601: 3597: 3594: 3589: 3580: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3561:Valide Sultan 3558: 3557: 3552: 3547: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3528: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3505: 3499: 3497: 3496: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3471: 3467: 3466: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3448: 3438: 3434: 3432: 3427: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3412: 3408: 3403: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3388: 3383: 3377: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3344: 3339: 3335: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3312: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3297: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3274: 3265: 3255: 3245: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3223: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3196: 3194: 3190: 3185: 3180: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3149:North African 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3128: 3124: 3113: 3103: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3075: 3073: 3069: 3064: 3062: 3054: 3051: 3048: 3047: 3046: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3017: 3015: 3014:Christianized 3005: 3003: 2999: 2990: 2985: 2980: 2976: 2966: 2963: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2944: 2942: 2936: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2904: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2876: 2874: 2873:Crimean Tatar 2870: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2819:merchants in 2818: 2814: 2810: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2780: 2776: 2775:Mongol Empire 2772: 2767: 2757: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2738:Baltic states 2735: 2734:Volga Vikings 2731: 2727: 2723: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2696: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2674:Moorish Spain 2670: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2619: 2617: 2613: 2612:Laxdoela Saga 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2592: 2589: 2585: 2582:in Sweden to 2581: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2552: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2525:ambatt/ambott 2522: 2518: 2514: 2513: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2492: 2487: 2482: 2478: 2468: 2465: 2461: 2460:Roger Collins 2458:According to 2456: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2428: 2425: 2420: 2418: 2414: 2413:Umayyad Spain 2410: 2406: 2402: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2386: 2381: 2377: 2372: 2362: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2307: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2292: 2287: 2273: 2272: 2267: 2266:female slaves 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2210: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2185: 2180: 2178: 2173: 2171: 2166: 2165: 2163: 2162: 2155: 2152: 2148: 2145: 2143: 2140: 2138: 2135: 2131: 2128: 2127: 2126: 2123: 2121: 2118: 2116: 2113: 2111: 2108: 2106: 2103: 2101: 2098: 2097: 2096: 2093: 2091: 2088: 2086: 2085:Slave catcher 2083: 2081: 2078: 2074: 2071: 2069: 2066: 2065: 2064: 2061: 2059: 2056: 2052: 2049: 2047: 2044: 2043: 2042: 2039: 2035: 2032: 2030: 2027: 2025: 2022: 2021: 2020: 2017: 2015: 2014:Forced labour 2012: 2010: 2007: 2005: 2002: 2001: 1995: 1994: 1985: 1980: 1977: 1975: 1972: 1970: 1967: 1965: 1962: 1960: 1957: 1955: 1952: 1950: 1947: 1943: 1940: 1939: 1938: 1935: 1933: 1930: 1928: 1925: 1921: 1918: 1917: 1916: 1913: 1911: 1908: 1904: 1901: 1899: 1896: 1895: 1894: 1891: 1887: 1884: 1882: 1879: 1878: 1877: 1874: 1872: 1869: 1867: 1864: 1860: 1859:Abolitionists 1857: 1855: 1852: 1850: 1847: 1845: 1842: 1840: 1837: 1835: 1832: 1830: 1827: 1825: 1822: 1820: 1817: 1815: 1812: 1811: 1810: 1807: 1806: 1803: 1798: 1797: 1790: 1787: 1785: 1782: 1780: 1777: 1773: 1770: 1768: 1765: 1764: 1763: 1760: 1758: 1755: 1754: 1751: 1746: 1745: 1738: 1735: 1733: 1730: 1728: 1725: 1723: 1720: 1718: 1715: 1713: 1710: 1708: 1705: 1703: 1700: 1698: 1695: 1693: 1690: 1688: 1685: 1683: 1680: 1678: 1675: 1673: 1670: 1668: 1665: 1663: 1660: 1658: 1655: 1653: 1650: 1648: 1645: 1643: 1640: 1639: 1635: 1634: 1631: 1628: 1626: 1623: 1621: 1618: 1616: 1613: 1611: 1608: 1606: 1603: 1601: 1598: 1596: 1593: 1591: 1588: 1586: 1583: 1581: 1578: 1574: 1571: 1569: 1566: 1565: 1563: 1561: 1558: 1557: 1553: 1552: 1549: 1546: 1544: 1541: 1539: 1536: 1534: 1531: 1527: 1524: 1523: 1522: 1519: 1518: 1515: 1512: 1511: 1508: 1505: 1501: 1498: 1497: 1496: 1493: 1491: 1488: 1486: 1483: 1481: 1478: 1474: 1471: 1470: 1469: 1466: 1462: 1461:comfort women 1459: 1458: 1457: 1454: 1452: 1449: 1445: 1444:Chukri System 1442: 1440: 1437: 1436: 1435: 1432: 1428: 1425: 1423: 1420: 1418: 1415: 1414: 1413: 1410: 1408: 1405: 1403: 1400: 1398: 1395: 1394: 1391: 1388: 1387: 1384: 1381: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1367: 1365: 1362: 1361: 1360: 1357: 1355: 1352: 1350: 1347: 1343: 1340: 1339: 1338: 1335: 1333: 1332:Latin America 1330: 1326: 1323: 1321: 1318: 1316: 1313: 1311: 1308: 1307: 1306: 1303: 1301: 1298: 1296: 1293: 1289: 1286: 1284: 1283:interregional 1281: 1279: 1276: 1274: 1271: 1269: 1268:prison labour 1266: 1264: 1261: 1259: 1256: 1254: 1251: 1249: 1246: 1244: 1241: 1240: 1239: 1238:United States 1236: 1232: 1229: 1228: 1227: 1224: 1220: 1217: 1216: 1215: 1212: 1211: 1208: 1205: 1204: 1201: 1198: 1196: 1193: 1191: 1188: 1184: 1181: 1180: 1179: 1176: 1174: 1171: 1169: 1166: 1164: 1161: 1159: 1156: 1154: 1151: 1149: 1146: 1144: 1141: 1139: 1136: 1134: 1131: 1127: 1124: 1123: 1122: 1119: 1117: 1114: 1112: 1109: 1107: 1104: 1103: 1100: 1097: 1096: 1090: 1089: 1082: 1079: 1077: 1074: 1072: 1069: 1067: 1064: 1062: 1059: 1058: 1054: 1053: 1050: 1049:White slavery 1047: 1045: 1042: 1040: 1039:Slave raiding 1037: 1035: 1032: 1030: 1027: 1025: 1022: 1018: 1015: 1014: 1013: 1010: 1008: 1007:Corvée labour 1005: 1003: 1000: 998: 995: 991: 988: 986: 983: 981: 978: 977: 976: 973: 972: 968: 967: 964: 961: 959: 956: 954: 951: 949: 946: 944: 941: 939: 936: 934: 931: 929: 926: 924: 921: 919: 916: 914: 911: 910: 907: 904: 903: 900: 897: 895: 892: 890: 887: 885: 882: 880: 877: 875: 872: 868: 865: 863: 860: 858: 855: 853: 850: 848: 844: 841: 839: 836: 834: 831: 829: 826: 824: 823:Abbasid harem 821: 819: 816: 814: 811: 809: 806: 804: 801: 800: 799: 796: 792: 789: 787: 784: 782: 779: 777: 774: 772: 769: 768: 767: 766:Barbary Coast 764: 760: 757: 756: 755: 752: 750: 747: 745: 742: 740: 737: 735: 732: 730: 727: 725: 722: 719: 716: 714: 711: 710: 707: 704: 703: 698: 695: 694: 693: 690: 688: 685: 683: 680: 676: 673: 671: 668: 666: 663: 662: 661: 658: 656: 653: 651: 648: 646: 643: 641: 638: 636: 633: 632: 629: 626: 625: 622: 619: 617: 614: 612: 609: 607: 604: 603: 600: 597: 596: 593: 588: 587: 580: 577: 575: 572: 570: 567: 565: 562: 560: 557: 555: 552: 550: 547: 545: 542: 538: 535: 533: 530: 528: 525: 524: 523: 520: 518: 515: 513: 510: 508: 505: 503: 500: 499: 496: 491: 490: 486: 482: 481: 478: 474: 473:Forced labour 471: 470: 466: 462: 461: 457: 453: 443: 441: 437: 433: 429: 423: 421: 417: 413: 409: 405: 401: 400: 395: 391: 390:Islamic world 383: 382: 377: 373: 369: 368: 363: 359: 355: 350: 345: 341: 331: 329: 325: 321: 320:1066 conquest 317: 313: 312:Domesday Book 309: 305: 301: 297: 292: 290: 286: 282: 278: 274: 273:Christianized 269: 267: 263: 259: 255: 251: 247: 243: 239: 235: 226: 217: 215: 211: 207: 203: 199: 188: 183: 181: 176: 174: 169: 168: 166: 165: 162: 159: 158: 155: 151: 147: 143: 140: 139: 136: 133: 132: 129: 126: 125: 122: 119: 118: 115: 112: 111: 108: 104: 100: 96: 93: 92: 89: 88:Landed gentry 85: 81: 78: 77: 74: 70: 66: 62: 59: 58: 55: 52: 51: 48: 45: 44: 41: 37: 34: 33: 29: 25: 24: 21: 16: 9486: 9387:Architecture 9359:Great Famine 9349:Universities 9289:Hussite Wars 9206:Great Schism 9093:Papal States 8997: 8987: 8976: 8966: 8965:Rio, Alice. 8959: 8952: 8948: 8941: 8934: 8927: 8920: 8916: 8907: 8898: 8882: 8877: 8865: 8860: 8849: 8844: 8835: 8827: 8822: 8814: 8809: 8801: 8783: 8775: 8767: 8762: 8753: 8747: 8738: 8732: 8723: 8717: 8692: 8684: 8659: 8651: 8642: 8636: 8627: 8621: 8612: 8606: 8597: 8579: 8573: 8548: 8540: 8515: 8507: 8487: 8480: 8463: 8459: 8433: 8429: 8423: 8398: 8390: 8365: 8357: 8348: 8331: 8327: 8317: 8298: 8292: 8273: 8233: 8229: 8219: 8200: 8169: 8161: 8156: 8144:. Retrieved 8135: 8123:. Retrieved 8117: 8108: 8096:. Retrieved 8087: 8078: 8069: 8060: 8045: 8040: 8021: 8016: 8008: 7988: 7968: 7959: 7950: 7914: 7907: 7858: 7824: 7801: 7792: 7783: 7774: 7768: 7759: 7753: 7748:Broadman p.6 7744: 7735: 7726: 7717: 7711: 7702: 7695: 7686: 7680: 7657: 7648: 7639: 7633: 7624: 7615: 7609: 7584: 7576: 7567: 7558: 7552: 7531: 7525: 7516: 7510: 7501: 7493:Scott, S.P. 7488: 7471: 7467: 7461: 7452: 7444:Scott, S.P. 7439: 7430: 7421: 7412: 7379: 7375: 7365: 7353:. Retrieved 7349: 7340: 7330: 7321: 7311: 7301: 7266: 7262: 7252: 7243: 7232:, retrieved 7210: 7200: 7175: 7165: 7123: 7116: 7108: 7102: 7098: 7093: 7069: 7064: 7055: 7047: 7039: 7031: 7023: 7018: 7010: 7005: 6993:. Retrieved 6984: 6972:. Retrieved 6968:the original 6958: 6946:. Retrieved 6942: 6933: 6921:. Retrieved 6917: 6885: 6878: 6869: 6860: 6851: 6843: 6826: 6799: 6788: 6761: 6753: 6748: 6739: 6730: 6721: 6712: 6703: 6694: 6686: 6681: 6672: 6663: 6654: 6645: 6625: 6618: 6598: 6576:. 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Slavery in medieval Europe

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