Theravada - Knowledge

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others more complex. Little research has been done to assess their variety. One difficulty is that meditation manuals as such are often in a mixture of a classical language, that is, Pali, and a vernacular that may or may not be a currently used language. Also, actual manuals often contain prompts or reminders rather than an in-depth explanation. In recent years it has emerged that there is still extant a relatively high number of manuals and related texts pertaining to a system of meditation called – among other things – borān kammaṭṭhāna or yogāvacara. Its core text, the Mūla-kammaṭṭhāna "original, fundamental or basic meditation practice," circulated under a number of different titles, or without a title, throughout the Tai–Lao–Khmer and Sri Lankan Buddhist worlds. Some versions of this text are simple lists of kammaṭṭhāna and from that perspective look entirely in accord with the Visuddhimagga or Theravada Abhidhamma texts. Other versions contain extensive narratives, explanations of symbolism, and of the somatic locations involved in the practice that make it clear that we are dealing with techniques of practice not described in the Canon or Visuddhimagga.

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countries must do so by taking eight or ten precepts. Neither laywomen nor formally ordained, these women do not receive the recognition, education, financial support or status enjoyed by Buddhist men in their countries. These "precept-holders" live in Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Nepal, and Thailand. In particular, the governing council of Burmese Buddhism has ruled that there can be no valid ordination of women in modern times, though some Burmese monks disagree. Japan is a special case as, although it has neither the bhikkhuni nor novice ordinations, the precept-holding nuns who live there do enjoy a higher status and better education than their precept-holder sisters elsewhere, and can even become Zen priests. In Tibet there is currently no bhikkhuni ordination, but the

5854:). These teachings have inspired individuals in modern society to embark on journeys of self-discovery, self-improvement, and personal growth. The teachings on mindfulness and the impermanence of life have provided individuals with effective tools for coping with stress and life's challenges. In today's fast-paced and often stressful world, these teachings offer valuable strategies for maintaining balance and emotional stability. This journey of mindfulness and mental health has been strengthened by top institutions encouraging the idea of mindfulness and the effects it has on people. The mindfulness classes/courses/programs provided by many top universities and institutions such as Yale, Stanford, etc. to their students, staff, and general public have benefited them 2063: 3869: 4837: 4738:

symbols, somatic methods and visualizations which included "the physical internalisation or manifestation of aspects of the Theravada path by incorporating them at points in the body between the nostril and navel." In spite of the novel elements in this meditation tradition, close study of borān kammaṭṭhāna texts reveals that they are closely connected to Theravada Abhidhamma and the works of Buddhaghosa. Modernist reforms which emphasized Pali Canon study, a shift in state support to other traditions and modern wars in Indochina led to this tradition's decline, and it now only survives in a few Cambodian and Thai temples.

3605: 2622: 2506: 1744: 3478:, a dhammas ("principles" or "elements") are "those items that result when the process of analysis is taken to its ultimate limits". However, this does not mean that they have an independent existence, for it is "only for the purposes of description" that they are postulated. Noa Ronkin defines dhammas as "the constituents of sentient experience; the irreducible 'building blocks' that make up one's world, albeit they are not static mental contents and certainly not substances." Thus, while in Theravāda Abhidhamma, dhammas are the ultimate constituents of experience, they are not seen as 5338:, the three-month monsoon season, though shorter or longer periods of ordination are not rare. Traditionally, temporary ordination was even more flexible among Laotians. Once they had undergone their initial ordination as young men, Laotian men were permitted to temporarily ordain again at any time, though married men were expected to seek their wife's permission. Throughout Southeast Asia, there is little stigma attached to leaving the monastic life. Monks regularly leave the robes after acquiring an education, or when compelled by family obligations or ill health. 4104: 1623: 5082: 5014:, building roads and bridges, charity to the needy and providing drinking water to strangers along roadside. Some lay practitioners have always chosen to take a more active role in religious affairs, while still maintaining their lay status. Dedicated lay men and women sometimes act as trustees or custodians for their temples, taking part in the financial planning and management of the temple. Others may volunteer significant time in tending to the mundane needs of local monks (by cooking, cleaning, maintaining temple facilities, etc.). 3617: 5616:, formerly known as Chatsumarn Kabilsingh, became the first Thai woman to receive bhikkhuni ordination as a Theravāda nun. Dhammananda Bhikkhuni was ordained in Sri Lanka. The Thai Senate has reviewed and revoked the secular law passed in 1928 banning women's full ordination in Buddhism as unconstitutional for being counter to laws protecting freedom of religion. However, Thailand's two main Theravāda Buddhist orders, the Mahanikaya and Dhammayutika Nikaya, have yet to officially accept fully ordained women into their ranks. 5838:

conduct and compassion continue to inspire individuals and organizations to prioritize moral values and social responsibility in their actions and decision-making. The emphasis on ethical conduct in Theravada Buddhism encourages individuals to lead virtuous lives. This includes refraining from actions that harm others, such as lying, stealing, and harming living beings. These principles promote personal integrity and honesty in modern society. Buddhism encourages the cultivation of compassion and loving-kindness (

5331:). Novices shave their heads, wear the yellow robes, and observe the Ten Precepts. While there is no explicit minimum age for novices prescribed in the scriptures, it is traditionally accepted that boys as young as seven can be accepted for ordination. This tradition echoes the story of the Buddha's son, Rahula, who was allowed to become a novice at the age of seven. Both monks and nuns are expected to adhere to a specific code of discipline, of which monks follow 227 rules, and nuns follow 311. 5650: 5159: 1850: 5354:

Thailand. In countries where Buddhism is deeply rooted, it can often be easier to adhere to the lifestyle of a monk or nun, as it requires considerable discipline to successfully live by the non-secular rules and regulations for which Buddhist practices are known. For instance, Theravāda monastics are typically required to abstain from activities such as working, handling money, listening to music and cooking. Such obligations can be especially challenging in non-Buddhist societies.

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well-being. Thai men who have ordained as a monk may be seen as more mature and suitable husbands by Thai women, who refer to men who have served as monks with a colloquial term meaning "ripe" to indicate that they are more mature and ready for marriage. Particularly in rural areas, temporary ordination of boys and young men traditionally offered peasant boys an opportunity to receive free education in temple schools with sponsorship and accommodation.

5984: 13532: 18508: 4645: 6026: 5900: 5822: 1732: 5026: 5942: 10930: 10917: 5470: 5682:, or Supreme Patriarch of the Sangha, as the highest ranking or seniormost monk in a particular area, or from a particular nikaya. The demise of monarchies has resulted in the suspension of these posts in some countries, but patriarchs have continued to be appointed in Thailand. Myanmar and Cambodia ended the practice of appointing a sangharaja for some time, but the position was later restored, though in Cambodia it lapsed again. 1643: 2007: 1284: 6103: 6068: 4742: 10907: 5842:) towards all sentient beings. In contemporary society, these teachings inspire individuals and organizations to prioritize social responsibility, charitable activities, and humanitarian efforts aimed at alleviating suffering and promoting the welfare of others. Theravada Buddhism places significant emphasis on self-awareness and self-transformation. Practitioners are encouraged to explore the nature of the self ( 5536: 5675:, variously referred to as monastic orders or fraternities. These different orders do not typically develop separate doctrines, but may differ in the manner in which they observe monastic rules. These monastic orders represent lineages of ordination, typically tracing their origin to a particular group of monks that established a new ordination tradition within a particular country or geographic area. 4935: 2261: 3540:

recognizes the extra-mental existence of matter and, the external world is clearly suggested by the texts. Throughout the discourses it is the language of realism that one encounters. The whole Buddhist practical doctrine and discipline, which has the attainment of Nibbana as its final goal, is based on the recognition of the material world and the conscious living beings living therein.

4304:. In Theravāda, one's previous intentional actions strongly influence one's present experience. Whatever intended actions are carried out will have future consequences, whether in this life or subsequent lives. Intention is central to the idea of kamma. Actions done with good intentions, even if they have bad results, will not have negative kammic consequences. 5138:) promoted meditation as part of a laypersons daily routine. According to Donald K Swearer, another development in modern Theravāda is "the formation of lay Buddhist associations that have partially assumed the social service responsibilities formerly associated with the monastery". These include social service and activist organizations such as the 4604:, noting or naming physical and mental phenomena ("breathing, breathing"), without engaging the phenomenon with conceptual thinking. By noticing the arising of physical and mental phenomena the meditator becomes aware of how sense impressions arise from the contact between the senses and physical and mental phenomena, as described in the five 4820:

in their old age, when they have more free time to spend at the temple. Buddhist modernists tend to present Buddhism as rational and scientific, and this has also affected how Vipassana meditation has been taught and presented. This has led in some quarters to a playing down of older non-empirical elements of Theravāda, associated with '

2368:. Of these, the Abhidhamma Pitaka is believed to be a later addition to the collection, its composition dating from around the 3rd century BCE onwards. The Pāli Abhidhamma was not recognized outside the Theravāda school. There are also some texts which were late additions that are included in the fifth Nikaya, the 4972:

Buddhism without monastic communities of fully ordained monks and nuns are relatively recent and atypical developments, usually based on cultural and historical considerations rather than differences in fundamental doctrine. Both Mahāyāna and Theravāda also provided a clear and important place for lay followers.

2298:, which saw a period of Buddhist missionary activity. After being orally transmitted (as was the custom for religious texts in those days) for some centuries, the texts were finally committed to writing in the 1st century BCE. Theravāda is one of the first Buddhist schools to commit its Tipiṭaka to writing. The 5824: 5829: 5827: 5823: 4636:

there are two kinds of individuals. Those of a passionate disposition (or those who enter the path by faith) attain Arahatship through vipassanā preceded by samatha. Those of a skeptical disposition (or those who enter by way of wisdom or the intellect) achieve it through samatha preceded by vipassanā.

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and a female devotee is Upasika. One of the duties of the lay followers, as taught by the Buddha, is to look after the needs of the monk/nuns. They are to see that the monk/nuns do not suffer from lack of the four requisites: food, clothing, shelter and medicine. As neither monks nor nuns are allowed

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Some Western scholars have erroneously tried to claim that Mahāyāna is primarily a religion for laymen and Theravāda is a primarily monastic religion. Both Mahāyāna and Theravāda have as their foundation strong monastic communities, which are almost identical in their regulations. Schools of Mahāyāna

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has popularised meditation both in traditional Theravāda countries among the laity, and in western countries, "meditation plays a minor if not negligible role in the lives of the majority of Theravāda monks." Meditation is especially popular laypersons, especially during special religious holidays or

4804:, such as the Thai forest tradition and Dhammakaya meditation. These traditions are influenced by the older borān kammaṭṭhāna forms. Thailand and Cambodia also saw attempts to preserve and revive the ancient "borān kammaṭṭhāna" tradition of meditation. In Sri Lanka, the new Buddhist traditions of the 4732:

In the period between the Visuddhimagga and the present, there have been numerous meditation texts, both manuals and descriptive treatises. Many of the texts found in manuscript collections relate to meditation, some on a single, simple subject such as the recollection of the qualities of the Buddha,

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If we base ourselves on the Pali Nikayas, then we should be compelled to conclude that Buddhism is realistic. There is no explicit denial anywhere of the external world. Nor is there any positive evidence to show that the world is mind-made or simply a projection of subjective thoughts. That Buddhism

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The Abhidhamma-pitaka contains "a restatement of the doctrine of the Buddha in strictly formalized language." Its texts present a new method, the Abhidhamma method, which attempts to build a single consistent philosophical system (in contrast with the suttas, which present numerous teachings given by

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Nikaya, which kept a stricter monastic discipline than the rest of the Thai sangha (this included not using money, not storing up food and not taking milk in the evening). The Dhammayuttika movement was characterized by an emphasis on the original Pali Canon and a rejection of Thai folk beliefs which

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Buddhaghosa & Nanamoli (1999), pp. 90–91 (II, 27–28, "Development in Brief"), 110ff. (starting with III, 104, "enumeration"). It can also be found sprinkled earlier in this text as on p. 18 (I, 39, v. 2) and p. 39 (I, 107). Throughout Nanamoli translates this term as "meditation

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In a typical daily routine at the monastery during the 3-month vassa period, the monk will wake up before dawn and will begin the day with group chanting and meditation. At dawn the monks will go out to surrounding villages bare-footed on alms-round and will have the only meal of the day before noon

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While Pāli texts are symbolically and ritually important for many Theravādins, most people are likely to access Buddhist teachings through vernacular literature, oral teachings, sermons, art and performance as well as films and Internet media. According to Kate Crosby, "there is a far greater volume

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are only available from the 17th Century onwards. However, fragments of the Tipiṭaka have been found in inscriptions from Southeast Asia, the earliest of which have been dated to the 3rd or 4th century. According to Alexander Wynne, "they agree almost exactly with extant Pāli manuscripts. This means

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from about the 5th century CE onwards. The oldest surviving Buddhist texts in the Pāli language are gold plates found at Sri Ksetra dated circa the 5th to 6th century. Before the Theravāda tradition became the dominant religion in Southeast Asia, Mahāyāna, Vajrayana and Hinduism were also prominent.

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John Bullit: "In the last century, however, the West has begun to take notice of Theravāda's unique spiritual legacy and teachings of Awakening. In recent decades, this interest has swelled, with the monastic Sangha from the schools within Theravāda, establishing dozens of monasteries across Europe

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After the end of the Vassa period, many of the monks will go out far away from the monastery to find a remote place (usually in the forest) where they can hang their umbrella tents and where it is suitable for the work of self-development. When they go wandering, they walk barefoot, and go wherever

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The monks do not fix their times for walking and sitting meditation, for as soon as they are free, they just start doing it; nor do they determine for how long they will go on to meditate. Some of them sometimes walk from dusk to dawn whereas at other times they may walk from between two and seven

5010:(falling under Spiro's category of kammatic Buddhism). Merit-making activities include offering food and other basic necessities to monks, making donations to temples and monasteries, burning incense or lighting candles before images of the Buddha, chanting protective or scriptural verses from the 4984:

This distinction between ordained monks and laypeople – as well as the distinction between those practices advocated by the Pāli Canon, and the folk religious elements embraced by many monks – have motivated some scholars to consider Theravāda Buddhism to be composed of multiple separate

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Theravāda Buddhism's emphasis on mindfulness and meditation practices has influenced modern society by promoting mental well-being and stress reduction techniques leading to the integration of mindfulness in various therapeutic and self-improvement programs. Additionally, its teachings on ethical

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The practices usually vary in different sub-schools and monasteries within Theravāda. But in the most orthodox forest monastery, the monk usually models his practice and lifestyle on that of the Buddha and his first generation of disciples by living close to nature in forest, mountains and caves.

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For those born in Western countries who wish to become Buddhist monks or nuns, it is possible to undertake the lifestyle in their home countries, among other Buddhist monastics in Western countries, or to travel and take up residence in a Buddhist monastery in Asian countries such as Sri Lanka or

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plays a role in the taboo against temporary or permanent ordination as a bhikkhu in some orders. Though Sri Lankan orders are often organized along caste lines, men who ordain as monks temporarily pass outside of the conventional caste system, and as such during their time as monks may act (or be

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and as protectors of the Theravāda faith. They promoted the building of new temples, patronized scholarship, monastic ordinations and missionary works as well as attempted to eliminate certain non-Buddhist practices like animal sacrifices. During the 15th and 16th centuries, Theravāda also became

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The nun's order subsequently died out in Sri Lanka in the 11th century and in Burma in the 13th century. It had already died out around the 10th century in other Theravādin areas. Novice ordination has also disappeared in those countries. Therefore, women who wish to live as renunciates in those

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with a picture or statue of the Buddha for devotional practice in one's home, mirroring the larger shrines at temples. It is common to offer candles, incense, flowers and other objects to these shrine. Gestures of respect are also done in front of Buddha images and shrines, mainly the respectful

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According to Vajiranāṇa Mahathera, writing from a traditional and text-based point of view, in the Pāli Canon whether one begins the practice by way of samatha or by way of vipassanā is generally seen as depending on one's temperament. According to Vajiranāṇa Mahathera, it is generally held that

7578:

Skilling, Peter. "Reflections on the Pali Literature of Siam". From Birch Bark to Digital Data: Recent Advances in Buddhist Manuscript Research: Papers Presented at the Conference Indic Buddhist Manuscripts: The State of the Field. Stanford, 15–19 June 2009, edited by Paul Harrison and Jens-Uwe

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in Sri Lanka also carried out a nun's ordination at this time, specifically stating their ordination process was a valid Theravādin process where the other ordination session was not. This chapter has carried out ordination ceremonies for hundreds of nuns since then. This has been criticized by

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In Myanmar and Thailand, the monastery was and is still regarded as a seat of learning. Theravādin monasteries have been providing free education to many children since ancient times. In fact, today about half of the primary schools in Thailand are located in monasteries. Religious rituals and

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In 2009 in Australia four women received bhikkhuni ordination as Theravāda nuns, the first time such ordination had occurred in Australia. It was performed in Perth, Australia, on 22 October 2009 at Bodhinyana Monastery. Abbess Vayama together with Venerables Nirodha, Seri, and Hasapanna were

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According to Crosby, the esoteric borān kammaṭṭhāna or yogāvacara meditation tradition was the dominant form of meditation in the Theravāda world during the 18th century, and may date as far back as the 16th century. Crosby notes that this tradition of meditation involved a rich collection of

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The Theravāda school has traditionally held the doctrinal position that the canonical Abhidhamma Pitaka was actually taught by the Buddha himself. Modern scholarship in contrast, has generally held that the Abhidhamma texts date from the 3rd century BCE onwards. However some scholars, such as

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Ordaining as a monk, even for a short period, is seen as having many virtues. In many Southeast Asian cultures, it is seen as a means for a young man to "repay his gratitude" to his parents for their work and effort in raising him, because the merit from his ordination is dedicated for their

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notes, "The Suttas and commentaries do record a few cases of lay disciples attaining the final goal of Nirvana. However, such disciples either attain Arahantship on the brink of death or enter the monastic order soon after their attainment. They do not continue to dwell at home as Arahant

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sought to make use of the sangha for political ends by imposing direct state control. During the late 1980s and 1990s, the official attitudes toward Buddhism began to liberalise in Laos and there was a resurgence of traditional Buddhist activities such as merit-making and doctrinal study.

3430:. In the Pāli Nikayas, the Buddha teaches through an analytical method in which experience is explained using various conceptual groupings of physical and mental processes, which are called "dhammas". Examples of lists of dhammas taught by the Buddha include the twelve sense 'spheres' or 1873:(Myanmar), Buddhist institutions lost their traditional role as the prime providers of education (a role that was often filled by Christian schools). In response to this, Buddhist organizations were founded which sought to preserve Buddhist scholarship and provide a Buddhist education. 5506:

they feel inclined. Only those requisites which are necessary will be carried along. These generally consist of the bowl, the three robes, a bathing cloth, an umbrella tent, a mosquito net, a kettle of water, a water filter, razor, sandals, some small candles, and a candle lantern.

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ceremonies held in a monastery are always accompanied by social activities. In times of crisis, it is to the monks that people bring their problems for counsel and monks often took up the role of mediators in most disputes. Traditionally, a ranking monk will deliver a sermon

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is a sentient being who has discovered the path out of samsara by themselves, has reached Nibbana and then makes the path available to others by teaching (known as "turning the wheel of the Dhamma"). A Buddha is also believed to have extraordinary powers and abilities

9885: 5270:) and meditative praxis. They view themselves as living closer to the ideal set forth by the Buddha, and are often perceived as such by lay folk, while at the same time often being on the margins of the Buddhist establishment and on the periphery of the social order. 5641:. Those ordained included Vajiradevi Sadhika Bhikkhuni from Indonesia, Medha Bhikkhuni from Sri Lanka, Anula Bhikkhuni from Japan, Santasukha Santamana Bhikkhuni from Vietnam, Sukhi Bhikkhuni and Sumangala Bhikkhuni from Malaysia, and Jenti Bhikkhuni from Australia. 2053:

While the Khmer Rouge effectively destroyed Cambodia's Buddhist institutions, after the end of the communist regime the Cambodian Sangha was re-established by monks who had returned from exile. In contrast, communist rule in Laos was less destructive since the

2907:, which is seen as having two major facets. First, it is a middle path between extreme asceticism and sensual indulgence. It is also seen as a middle view between the idea that at death beings are annihilated and the idea that there is an eternal self (Pali: 1936:, which was then published by the government in 40 volumes. The Vipassana movement continued to grow after independence, becoming an international movement with centers around the world. Influential meditation teachers of the post-independence era include 4595:

as going into the forest and sitting beneath a tree and then simply to watch the breath. If the breath is long, to notice that the breath is long, if the breath is short, to notice that the breath is short. In the "New Burmese Method" the practitioner

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Commentary mentions another split based on the "duty of study" and the "duty of contemplation". This second division has traditionally been seen as corresponding with the city – forest split, with the city monks focusing on the vocation of books

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The historically later parts of the canon, mainly the Abhidhamma and some parts of the Vinaya, contain some distinctive elements and teachings which are unique to the Theravāda school and often differ from the Abhidharmas or Vinayas of other

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has an "incorruptible nature" and are thus morally perfect. They have no ignorance or doubts. According to Theravāda doctrine, arahants (as well as the other three lesser ariyas: stream enterers etc.) cannot fall back or regress from their

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by eating from the bowl by hand. Most of the time is spent on Dhamma study and meditation. Sometimes the abbot or a senior monk will give a Dhamma talk to the visitors. Laity who stay at the monastery will have to abide by the traditional

3267:). Also, for Theravāda, a Buddha does not have the power to stop something that has arisen from ceasing, they cannot stop a being from getting old, sick or dying, and they cannot create a permanent thing (like a flower that does not die). 4955:(in ancient times, there was a separate body of practices for nuns). While the possibility of significant attainment by laymen is not entirely disregarded by the Theravāda, it generally occupies a position of less prominence than in the 2449:) has a total of 253 rules for bhikkhus (though the overall structure is the same). These differences arose from the systematization and historical development of doctrines and monasticism in the centuries after the death of the Buddha. 2158:

missionary efforts among English-speaking Chinese communities. In addition, the establishment of the Indonesian Theravāda Saṅgha in 1976 and the Malaysian Theravāda Buddhist Council in 2011 also signaled the revival of Theravāda in both

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the Buddha to particular individuals according to their needs). Because the Abhidhamma focuses on analyzing the internal lived experience of beings and the intentional structure of consciousness, it has often been compared to a kind of

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Although monastic education is still grounded in the study of Buddhist texts, doctrine, and the Pali language, the curricula of monastic colleges and universities also reflect subject matter and disciplines associated with Western

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The life of the monk or nun in a community is much more complex than the life of the forest monk. In the Buddhist society of Sri Lanka, most monks spend hours every day in taking care of the needs of lay people such as preaching

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There have also been several modern Theravāda scholars which have taken a historical critical perspective on Theravāda literature and doctrine, attempting to understand its historical development. Some of these figures, such as

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tradition. Paul Williams also notes that the Abhidhamma remains focused on the practicalities of insight meditation and leaves ontology "relatively unexplored". Ronkin does note however that later Theravāda sub-commentaries

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A 55-year-old Thai Buddhist 8-precept white-robed maechee nun, Varanggana Vanavichayen, became the first woman to receive the going-forth ceremony of a novice (and the gold robe) in Thailand, in 2002. On 28 February 2003,

4193:, became the orthodox account of the Theravāda path to liberation in Sri Lanka after the 12th century and this influence spread to other Theravāda nations. It gives the sequence of seven purifications, in three sections: 2073:

The modern era also saw the spread of Theravāda Buddhism around the world and the revival of the religion in places where it remains a minority faith. Some of the major events of the spread of modern Theravāda include:

1720:. The Pali Canon, which contains the main scriptures of the Theravāda, was committed to writing in the first century BCE. Throughout the history of ancient and medieval Sri Lanka, Theravāda was the main religion of the 2549:

also wrote Theravāda commentaries and other works in Pali during the time of Buddhaghosa. While these texts do not have the same scriptural authority in Theravāda as the Tipiṭaka, they remain influential works for the

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There are numerous Theravāda works which are important for the tradition even though they are not part of the Tipiṭaka. Perhaps the most important texts apart from the Tipiṭaka are the works of the influential scholar

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In the modern era, it is now common for lay disciples to practice meditation, attend lay meditation centers and even aim for awakening. The impetus for this trend began in Myanmar and was supported by prime minister

5001:, as described in the Tipitaka). He stresses that all three are firmly rooted in the Pāli Canon. These categories are not accepted by all scholars, and are usually considered non-exclusive by those who employ them. 2557:

An important genre of Theravādin literature is shorter handbooks and summaries, which serve as introductions and study guides for the larger commentaries. Two of the more influential summaries are Sariputta Thera's

5569:, which is different from the prātimokṣa of the current Theravāda school; the specific ordination of the early Sangha in Sri Lanka not known, although the Dharmaguptaka sect originated with the Sthāvirīya as well. 2424:

Much of the material in the earlier portions is not specifically "Theravādan", but the collection of teachings that this school's adherents preserved from the early, non-sectarian body of teachings. According to

4721:("Bases of mindfulness discourse"), as well as the source text itself, are also another important source for meditation in this tradition. Buddhaghosa's work drew heavily on the Pali suttas as well as the Pali 7565:

Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia, edited by Sheldon Pollock, University of California Press, 2003, pp. 649–688. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt1ppqxk.19. Accessed 6 May

8776: 5825: 4274:(actions and consequences). Applying knowledge acquired through direct experience and personal realization is more heavily emphasized than beliefs about the nature of reality as revealed by the Buddha. 2041:

Theravāda Buddhism in Cambodia and Laos went through similar experiences in the modern era. Both had to endure French colonialism, destructive civil wars and oppressive communist governments. Under

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In 1996, 11 selected Sri Lankan women were ordained fully as Theravāda bhikkhunis by a team of Theravāda monks in concert with a team of Korean nuns in India. There is disagreement among Theravāda

3726:), which are born, expand, contract and are destroyed in a cyclical nature across vast expanses of time (measures in kappas). This cosmology is similar to other ancient Indian systems, such as the 2272:, also known as the Pāli Canon is "the highest authority on what constitutes the Dhamma (the truth or teaching of the Buddha) and the organization of the Sangha (the community of monks and nuns)." 4148:

The Blessed One said, "Now what, monks, is the Noble Eightfold Path? Right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration."

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and never exist in isolation. Much of Abhidhamma philosophy deals with categorizing the different consciousnesses and their accompanying mental factors as well as their conditioned relationships (

1794:(1153–1186) saw an extensive reform of the Sri Lankan sangha after years of warfare on the island. Parākramabāhu created a single unified sangha which came to be dominated by the Mahāvihāra sect. 9654:

Kawanami, Hiroko (2007), "The bhikkhunī ordination debate: global aspirations, local concerns, with special emphasis on the views of the monastic community in Myanmar. Kawanami, H. 11/2007 In",

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Frauwallner, Erich. Kidd, Sophie Francis (translator). Steinkellner, Ernst (editor). Studies in Abhidharma Literature and the Origins of Buddhist Philosophical Systems. SUNY Press. pp. 18, 100.

3234:) of a transcendental being, and thus, that his birth and death a mere show and unreal. Also, the Theravāda school rejects the view that there are currently numerous Buddhas in all directions. 2283:

which is the main religious and scholarly language in Theravāda. This language may have evolved out of various Indian dialects, and is related to, but not the same as, the ancient language of

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During the 19th and 20th centuries, the Theravāda world saw a modernist revival and reinvention of meditation practice, as exemplified by the Burmese Vipassana movement. According to Buswell

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Generosity (Dāna); This typically involves providing monks with "the four requisites"; food, clothing, shelter, and medicine; however, giving to charity and the needy is also considered dāna.

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In the 19th and 20th centuries, Theravāda Buddhists came into direct contact with western ideologies, religions and modern science. The various responses to this encounter have been called "

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in Boston was founded by Ven. Gotami of Thailand, then a 10 precept nun; when she received full ordination in 2000, her dwelling became America's first Theravāda Buddhist bhikkhuni vihara.

5334:

In most Theravāda countries, it is a common practice for young men to ordain as monks for a fixed period of time. In Thailand and Myanmar, young men typically ordain for the retreat during

3638:) into which sentient beings may be reborn depending on their past actions. Good actions lead one to the higher realms, bad actions lead to the lower realms. However, even for the gods ( 1889:(one of the first American western converts to Buddhism) were some of the main figures of the Sri Lankan Buddhist revival. Two new monastic orders were formed in the 19th century, the 5482:

Forest monasteries still keep alive the ancient traditions through following the Buddhist monastic code of discipline in all its detail and developing meditation in secluded forests.

7387: 5273:

While this divide seems to have been in existence for some time in the Theravāda school, only in the 10th century is a specifically forest monk monastery, mentioned as existing near

4616:. The practitioner also becomes aware of the perpetual changes involved in breathing, and the arising and passing away of mindfulness. This noticing is accompanied by reflections on 3162:) have defended the idea of an intermediate state and it is also a very common belief among some monks and laypersons in the Theravāda world (where it is commonly referred to as the 10095: 8468: 2348:

The structure of the books considered canonical within the Pali Tripitaka. The Theravāda school generally only recognizes the Pali Tripitaka and rejects the authenticity of other

4632:. When the three characteristics have been comprehended, reflection subdues and the process of noticing accelerates, noting phenomena in general without necessarily naming them. 3662:, that is: infinite space, infinite consciousness, infinite nothingness and neither perception nor non-perception. Beings in these realms live extremely long lives (thousands of 3535:

On the other hand, Y. Karunadasa contends that the tradition of realism goes back to the earliest discourses, as opposed to developing only in later Theravada sub-commentaries:

2049:

became involved in the reform of Buddhism, setting up institutions for the training of Cambodian and Lao monks, such as the Ecole de Pali which was founded in Phnom Penh in 1914

4812:

developed their own meditation forms based on the Pali Suttas, the Visuddhimagga, and other manuals, while borān kammaṭṭhāna mostly disappeared by the end of the 19th century.

4755:"appears to have fallen out of practice" by the 10th century, due to the belief that Buddhism had degenerated, and that liberation was no longer attainable until the coming of 4423:

Theravāda Buddhist meditation practice varies considerably in technique and objects. Currently, there are also various traditions of Theravāda meditation practice, such as the

5513:

Those monks who have been able to achieve a high level of attainment will be able to guide the junior monks and lay Buddhists toward the four degrees of spiritual attainment.

5245:). However this opposition is not consistent, and urban monasteries have often promoted meditation while forest communities have also produced excellent scholars, such as the 4909:

which are based on a lunar calendar. Laypersons commonly take the eight precepts while visiting a temple or monastery and commit to focusing on Buddhist practice for the day.

9759: 2162:

The return of Western Theravādin monks trained in the Thai Forest Tradition to western countries and the subsequent founding of monasteries led by western monastics, such as

2748:), the highest good and final goal in Theravāda Buddhism. It is the complete and final end of suffering, a state of perfection. It is also the end of all rebirth, but it is 8622: 7588:

Anālayo. "The Historical Value of the Pāli Discourses". Indo-Iranian Journal, vol. 55, no. 3, 2012, pp. 223–253. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/24665100. Accessed 7 May 2020.

1809:

Starting at around the 11th century, Sinhalese Theravāda monks and Southeast Asian elites led a widespread conversion of most of mainland Southeast Asia to the Theravādin

5553:, who is also believed to have been the daughter of Ashoka, came to Sri Lanka. She ordained the first nuns in Sri Lanka. In 429, by request of China's emperor, nuns from 3330:

is suitable only for a few exceptional people (like Sakyamuni and Metteya). Theravāda also defines a bodhisatta as someone who has made a vow in front of a living Buddha.

2647: 4356:

Honoring others; showing appropriate deference, particularly to the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha, and to seniors and parents. Usually done by placing the hands together in

2602:, stories of the Buddha's past lives. They are very popular among all classes and are rendered in a wide variety of media formats, from cartoons to high literature. The 2026:

The 20th century also saw the growth of "forest traditions" which focused on forest living and strict monastic discipline. The main forest movements of this era are the

8691: 6573:

state) held some 100 years after the Buddha's death. Employing Pāli as their sacred language, the Theravadins preserved their version of the Buddha's teaching in the

4048:, have criticized traditional Theravāda commentators like Buddhaghosa for their doctrinal innovations which differ in significant ways from the early Buddhist texts. 4993:

separated Burmese Theravāda into three groups: Apotropaic Buddhism (concerned with providing protection from evil spirits), Kammatic Buddhism (concerned with making

3451:"teaching of analysis" and as the heirs to the Buddha's analytical method. Expanding this model, Theravāda Abhidhamma scholasticism concerned itself with analyzing " 9071: 5320:

The minimum age for ordaining as a Buddhist monk is 20 years, which is calculated from conception. Those under this age can perform traditional ceremonies such as

5022:

are less common among the lay community in the past, though in the 20th century these areas have become more popular to the lay community, especially in Thailand.

8137: 2429:, while the Theravādans may have added texts to their Tipiṭaka (such as the Abhidhamma texts and so on), they generally did not tamper with the earlier material. 2069:, Maharashtra, India. S.N. Goenka laid the foundation for the structure in 2000 and the pagoda opened in 2009. Regular meditation courses are held at the complex. 2535:(which were based on older Sri Lankan commentaries of the Mahavihara tradition). He is also the author of a very important compendium of Theravāda doctrine, the 8773: 4270:

Theravādins believe that every individual is personally responsible for achieving their own self-awakening and liberation, each being responsible for their own

6789:

Tambiah, Stanley Jeyaraja, The Buddhist Saints of the Forest and the Cult of Amulets (Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology), 1984, pp. 53, 58.

5605: 5110:: when the moon waxes and wanes and the day before the new and full moons. The laity also have a chance to learn meditation from the monks during these times. 9856: 5623:

In 2010, in the US, four novice nuns were given the full bhikkhuni ordination in the Thai Theravāda tradition, which included the double ordination ceremony.

4725:. Kate Crosby notes that Buddhaghosa's work also "explicitly refers to the contemporaneous existence of secret meditation manuals but not to their content." 2305:

The oldest manuscripts of the Tipiṭaka from Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia date to the 15th Century, and they are incomplete. Complete manuscripts of the four

1982:(1868–1910) were especially involved in centralizing sangha reforms. Under these kings, the sangha was organized into a hierarchical bureaucracy led by the 6978: 3467:". "Dhamma" has been translated as "factors" (Collett Cox), "psychic characteristics" (Bronkhorst), "psycho-physical events" (Noa Ronkin) and "phenomena" ( 11671: 9521:

Tambiah, Stanley Jeyaraja, The Buddhist Saints of the Forest and the Cult of Amulets (Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology), 1984, p. 55.

5633:

In Indonesia, the first Theravāda ordination of bhikkhunis in Indonesia after more than a thousand years occurred in 2015 at Wisma Kusalayani in Lembang,

4660:. The development of this insight leads to four supramundane paths and fruits, these experiences consist a direct apprehension of Nibbana. Supramundane ( 14965: 12586: 11061: 10018: 5102:

to have an occupation, they depend entirely on the laity for their sustenance. In return for this charity, they are expected to lead exemplary lives.

3880:

Regarding the question of how a sentient being becomes a Buddha, the Theravāda school also includes a presentation of this path. Indeed, according to

1966:

Meanwhile, in Thailand (the only Theravāda nation to retain its independence throughout the colonial era), the religion became much more centralized,

5345:

In Sri Lanka, temporary ordination is not practised, and a monk leaving the order is frowned upon but not condemned. The continuing influence of the

10483: 3150:) between rebirths, they hold that rebirth happens instantaneously (in one mind moment). However, as has been noted by various modern scholars like 17451: 4824:'. Strains of older, traditional Theravāda meditation known as "borān kammaṭṭhāna" still exist, but this tradition has mostly been eclipsed by the 3087:

Traditionally, the Theravāda maintains the following key doctrinal positions, though not all Theravādins agree with the traditional point of view:

10410: 9408: 6995:

in Buddhism Across Asia, Networks of Material, Intellectual and Cultural Exchange, Volume 1 – Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (2014), p. 347.

6754: 17300: 12590: 7827:

Ronkin, Noa, Early Buddhist Metaphysics: The Making of a Philosophical Tradition (Routledge curzon Critical Studies in Buddhism) 2011, pp. 27–30.

7579:

Hartmann, 1st ed., Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, Wien, 2014, pp. 347–366. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1vw0q4q.25. Accessed 7 May 2020.

5070: 3299:), is seen as a constructed dhamma in Theravāda. Even the four noble truths are not unconstructed phenomena, neither is the domain of cessation ( 10537: 10510: 9708: 18357: 12814: 8860: 2672:. The type of realm one will be reborn in is determined by the being's past karma. This cyclical universe filled with birth and death is named 765: 9681: 2921:

The eight factors are: Right View, Right Intention, Right Speech, Right Conduct, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right

2417:(i.e. the Nikayas and parts of the Vinaya) are generally believed to be some of the oldest and most authoritative sources on the doctrines of 8018:, Quote: "All phenomenal existence is said to have three interlocking characteristics: impermanence, suffering and lack of soul or essence." 10433: 8485:

Ronkin, Noa, Early Buddhist Metaphysics: The Making of a Philosophical Tradition (Routledge curzon Critical Studies in Buddhism) 2011, p. 2.

7800:

Ronkin, Noa, Early Buddhist Metaphysics: The Making of a Philosophical Tradition (Routledge curzon Critical Studies in Buddhism) 2011, p. 5.

4509:, Jhānas are described as preceding the awakening insight of the Buddha, which turned him into an awakened being. Yet the interpretation of 18309: 15662: 11031: 10216: 7384: 669: 2571:

Throughout the history of Theravāda, Theravāda monks also produced other works of Pāli literature such as historical chronicles (like the

9240:

The Ancient Theravāda Meditation System, Borān Kammaṭṭhāna: Ānāpānasati or 'Mindfulness of The Breath' in Kammatthan Majjima Baeb Lamdub.

8465: 8031: 3913:) to become a Buddha in front of a living Buddha, and has also received a confirmation from that Buddha that they will reach Buddhahood. 7443: 6288: 4282:

Giving (Dana) is an important Buddhist virtue. The community of monastics is seen as the most meritorious field of karmic fruitfulness.

3191:, there can be no dividing line separating the unconditioned element and there is no superiority or inferiority in the unity of nibbana. 17345: 17272: 14490: 13591: 11139: 10650: 4197:

The first section (part 1) explains the rules of discipline, and the method for finding a correct temple to practice, or how to meet a

4025: 3899:

However, unlike in Mahayana Buddhism, the Theravāda holds that the Buddha path is not for everyone and that beings on the Buddha path (

3625: 1782:

texts, as well as the Theravāda canon, the Mahāvihāra tradition did not accept these new scriptures. Instead, Mahāvihāra scholars like

10874: 3865:. Traditionally, the Theravāda school also rejects the idea that there can be numerous Buddhas active in the world at the same time. 2842:), which are obstacles to meditation: (1) sense desire, (2) hostility, (3) sloth and torpor, (4) restlessness and worry and (5) doubt. 17150: 13569: 10896: 7497: 5630:

The first bhikkhuni ordination in Germany, the ordination of German woman Samaneri Dhira, occurred on 21 June 2015 at Anenja Vihara.

4656:

Traditionally, the ultimate goal of the practice is to achieve mundane and supramundane wisdom. Mundane wisdom is the insight in the

3384:(word of the Buddha), and do not study or see these texts (or Mahayana doctrines) as reliable sources. They reject the view that the 17596: 9786: 4523:("insight", "clear seeing") refers to practices that aim to develop an inner understanding or knowledge of the nature of phenomena ( 3861:

as being the most recent Buddha in a line of previous Buddhas stretching back for aeons. They also mention the future Buddha, named

17436: 17310: 17295: 9765: 5510:

hours. Some may decide to fast for days or stay at dangerous places where ferocious animals live in order to aid their meditation.

3943:

The modern era saw new developments in Theravāda scholarship due to the influence of Western thought. As Donald K. Swearer writes:

1909: 5065:

in Hertfordshire, which has a retreat center specifically for lay retreats. Sumedho extended this to Harnham in Northumberland as

3070:, i.e. blue/black) skin. He was one of the two most senior disciples of the Buddha and regarded as the foremost in psychic powers. 2668:

which holds that after death, sentient beings which are not fully awakened will transmigrate to another body, possibly in another

13406: 12858: 9817: 10360: 8619: 7334:. In: Jerryson, Michael (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Contemporary Buddhism, New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 274-296. 13061: 11041: 4071:

and Padmasiri de Silva have written on these topics. Modern scholarship in western languages by western Buddhist monks such as

3981:

is seen by scholars as an introduction to modernist Buddhist thought and the book continues to be widely used in universities.

3106:

The arahant is never a layperson, for they have abandoned the fetters of a layperson, including married life, using money, etc.

10715: 5312: 3175:

Theravāda also does not accept the Mahayana notion that there are two forms of nibbana, an inferior "localized" or "abiding" (

17456: 10206: 10028: 8675: 8273: 8247: 8012: 7986: 7661: 7318: 7157: 7049: 6926: 6858: 6501: 2827:), since they are impermanent and not always under our control. Therefore, there is no unchanging substance, permanent self, 2248: 10131:

Purifying Gold: The Metaphor of Effort and Intuition in Buddhist Thought and Practice. In: Peter N. Gregory (editor)(1991),

8700: 3515:

According to Ronkin, the canonical Pāli Abhidhamma remains pragmatic and psychological, and "does not take much interest in

1797:

Epigraphical evidence has established that Theravāda Buddhism became a dominant religion in the Southeast Asian kingdoms of

18552: 17921: 14960: 11224: 11066: 6283:

Today, Theravādins number over 150 million worldwide, and during the past few decades Theravāda Buddhism has begun to

5135: 3353:), the Pali Canon itself is silent on this issue. Some modern Theravāda scholars propose alternative notions. For example, 1825:. late 13th century) was instrumental in the rise of Theravāda Buddhism as the predominant religion of Burma and Thailand. 10617: 5601:

has declared that there can be no valid ordination of nuns in modern times, though some Burmese monks disagree with this.

4480:("calm") consists of meditation techniques in which the mind is focused on a single object, thought, or gatha, leading to 18039: 17320: 16921: 13401: 9886:"The Theravāda Buddhist Engagement with Modernity in Southeast Asia: Whither the Social Paradigm of the Galactic Polity?" 9066: 5678:

In Sri Lanka caste plays a major role in the division into nikayas. Some Theravāda Buddhist countries appoint or elect a

5139: 4967:. The view that Theravāda, unlike other Buddhist schools, is primarily a monastic tradition has, however, been disputed. 4464:

bhavana (investigation, insight). Originally these referred to effects or qualities of meditation, but after the time of

8134: 7098:

Text, Lineage and Tradition in Burma. The Struggle for Norms and Religious Legitimacy Under King Bodawphaya (1782-1819).

4569:. It is the primary focus of the modernist Burmese Vipassana movement. In western countries it is complemented with the 1833:

established as the state religion in Cambodia and Laos. In Cambodia, numerous Hindu and Mahāyāna temples, most famously

18249: 17979: 17861: 17315: 15900: 13854: 13298: 12848: 10943: 10698: 10274: 8329:"The Bodhisattva Ideal in Theravāda Buddhist Theory and Practice: A Reevaluation of the Bodhisattva-Śrāvaka Opposition" 7017: 6955: 4505:-practice. The eighth and final step of the Eightfold Path, Right Samadhi, is often defined as the four jhanas. In the 4347:

Dedication of merit; doing good deeds in the name of someone who has passed away or in the name of all sentient beings.

3357:

proposes that the basis for consciousness is the entire physical organism, which he ties with the canonical concept of

3230:

found in Mahayana, which says that the Buddha's physical body was a mere manifestation, emanation or magical creation (

1912:(still the world's largest book) with the intention of preserving the Buddha Dhamma. Burma also saw the growth of the " 1707:(the ancient Sri Lankan capital). According to Theravāda sources, another one of the Ashokan missions was also sent to 1314: 760: 717: 10840: 8304:

The Eastern Buddhist, vol. 41, no. 2, 2010, pp. 1–47. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/44362554. Accessed 25 February 2020.

144: 18299: 17125: 14375: 11144: 10168: 8848: 8081: 7682: 7536: 7506: 7427: 5884: 4715:. This text has remained central for the study and practice of Theravāda meditation. Buddhaghosa's commentary on the 4319:(whether for life or for a limited time) in the presence of Sangha. Laypeople also sometimes take an extended set of 3194:

Theravāda exegetical works consider nibbana to be a real existent, instead of just a conceptual or nominal existent (

13391: 4330:

Performing good deeds is another important feature of Theravādin Buddhist ethics. Doing so is said to make "merit" (

18352: 15910: 13076: 12821: 3544:

The Theravāda Abhidhamma holds that there is a total of 82 possible types of dhammas, 81 of these are conditioned (

2179: 1670:

in the Indian Buddhist community. Theravāda sources trace their tradition to the Third Buddhist council when elder

662: 5577:

has authorized followers of the Tibetan tradition to be ordained as nuns in traditions that have such ordination.

2401:, the parallel collections used by non-Theravāda schools in India which are preserved in Chinese and partially in 1735:

Gold Plates containing fragments of the Pali Tipitaka (5th century) found in Maunggan (a village near the city of

1612: 192: 18542: 18314: 18209: 17335: 17330: 17286: 16916: 15760: 15019: 14009: 13468: 13458: 11287: 5526: 5288:

as well as lesser known forest based traditions in Burma and Laos, such as the Burmese forest based monasteries (

4028:) and doctrinal works written in defense of Buddhism or attacking Christian ideas, such as Gunapala Dharmasiri's 3159: 3100: 2042: 10489: 8027:

Siderits, Mark, "Buddha", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2015 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),

6993:

The Theravaada Buddhist Ecumene in the Fifteenth Century: Intellectual Foundations and Material Representations"

5620:

ordained as Bhikkhunis by a dual Sangha act of Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis in full accordance with the Pāli Vinaya.

4703:, who systematized the classic Theravāda meditation, dividing them into samatha and vipassana types and listing 2588: 154: 18169: 17994: 17267: 16286: 16227: 16114: 15993: 15925: 14353: 13991: 13910: 13413: 13066: 12868: 12759: 12704: 11277: 7818:"Abhidhamma Pitaka." Encyclopædia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008. 6713: 6434: 5530: 2621: 16406: 16281: 9455: 6591: 5627:

and other monks and nuns were in attendance. It was the first such ordination ever in the Western hemisphere.

5277:, called "Tapavana". This division was then carried over into the rest of Southeast Asia as Theravāda spread. 3103:

view of the Sarvāstivādin tradition, which held that dhammas exist in all three times – past, present, future.

2264:

A full modern set of the Tipiṭaka can fill many volumes (from 40 to over 50 volumes depending on the edition).

18319: 17734: 17471: 17135: 16984: 16906: 16328: 15370: 14923: 13562: 13383: 13081: 12764: 11056: 10889: 8494:

Potter, Buswell, Jaini; Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Volume VII Abhidharma Buddhism to 150 AD, p. 121.

5833:

Theravada monks meditating and practicing mindfulness over simple things like the meal they are about to have

5769: 5143: 2163: 2046: 1882: 1243: 938: 466: 10543: 10516: 9836: 3909:, Theravāda (like other early Buddhist schools), defines a bodhisatta as someone who has made a resolution ( 3212:) consisting in non-arising and exists separately from the mere destruction of passion, hatred and delusion. 3180: 18377: 18179: 15392: 14142: 12966: 12838: 12809: 12511: 10862: 8866: 7928:

See, for example, the content of introductory texts from Theravada authors such as Rahula, Walpola (1974).

7809:

James P. McDermott, Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume VII: Abhidharma Buddhism to 150 A.D. p. 80.

5062: 4874:

is also widely practiced by both monks and laypersons, who may recite famous phrases such as the taking of

4137: 3827:

and are free from all defilements. They have abandoned all ignorance, craving for existence, restlessness (

3771: 3252:("person" or "personal entity") as being more than a conceptual designation imputed on the five aggregates. 2918: 2688: 2175: 2167: 1878: 1188: 963: 923: 378: 16416: 9425: 9220:

The Sutta on Understanding Death in the Transmission of Bora ̄n Meditation From Siam to the Kandyan Court.

7505:

Proceedings of 10th National Conference on Buddhist Studies of Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences,

5004:

The role of lay people has traditionally been primarily occupied with activities that are commonly termed

4905:

Another important religious practice for the devout is the keeping of special religious holidays known as

4168: 4051:

The modern era also saw new Buddhist works on topics which pre-modern Buddhists avoided, such as socially

3274:. This is now being questioned by some modern Theravādins in light of modern Buddhist studies scholarship. 18387: 18099: 18094: 17866: 16389: 16350: 15905: 15819: 15387: 13759: 12657: 12566: 12036: 11681: 11194: 11089: 5281: 3144:

Theravāda Abhidhamma traditionally rejects the view that there is an intermediate or transitional state (

2280: 2113: 2062: 2027: 1725: 655: 272: 16421: 16411: 12201: 10868: 7042:

Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830, Volume 1: Integration on the Mainland.

5442: 5293: 4293: 3868: 3805:: Those who have destroyed the first three fetters and have weakened the fetters of desire and ill-will; 2638:

The core of Theravāda Buddhist doctrine is contained in the Pāli Canon, the only complete collection of

1790:. These Theravāda sub-sects often came into conflict with each other over royal patronage. The reign of 1492:

from the 3rd century BCE onwards. It was in India that the Pāli Canon was written down and the school's

79: 17165: 17110: 16806: 15546: 15063: 13754: 13696: 13506: 12986: 12462: 11948: 11071: 10904: 10591: 9405: 6751: 6330: 5118:

householders, for dwelling at home is incompatible with the state of one who has severed all craving."

4513:

as single-pointed concentration and calm may be a later re-interpretation in which the original aim of

4446: 2948: 2454: 2310:

that the Pāli Tipiṭaka has been transmitted with a high degree of accuracy for well over 1,500 years."

1700: 1497: 353: 277: 224: 17: 15144: 12396: 10466: 10404: 5177:

show that monastic roles in the tradition were often seen as being in a polarity between urban monks (

4675:, there are various reasons why traditional Theravāda Buddhism advocates meditation, including a good 4240: 3439: 2695:

by bathing are considered useless and spiritually corrupted. The Pāli texts also reject the idea that

18412: 18201: 18059: 17511: 16399: 16178: 15809: 15439: 15004: 14136: 13888: 13725: 13680: 13396: 13209: 13199: 13071: 12054: 11634: 11395: 11370: 10060: 9714: 8805:

McMahan, David L. 2008. The Making of Buddhist Modernism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 91–97.

6489: 5346: 5173:

Theravāda sources dating back to medieval Sri Lanka (2nd century BCE to 10th century CE) such as the

4080: 3776: 3581: 3563: 2680: 2206: 1063: 16517: 11420: 10817: 9512:

Taylor, J.L. Forest Monks and the Nation-state: An Anthropological and Historical Study, pp. 12, 15.

5350:

treated) in a way that would not be in line with the expected duties and privileges of their caste.

4836: 3044: 873: 179: 17916: 17876: 17831: 17621: 17611: 17416: 17170: 16995: 16931: 16901: 16791: 16556: 16465: 16433: 16394: 16306: 15213: 14470: 14406: 13876: 13861: 13555: 13501: 12853: 12667: 12645: 12638: 12541: 12074: 11694: 11510: 11455: 11076: 10882: 10308: 9687: 6960:, IIAS Newsletter Online, No 25, Theme Burmese Heritage, archived from the original on 8 April 2016 6544: 6536: 6320: 4657: 4377: 4252: 4198: 3745: 3714:, the plane of form. The realms in this plane are associated with the four meditative absorptions ( 3354: 3096: 2704: 2087: 2083: 1994:), the highest body of the Thai sangha. Mongkut also led the creation of a new monastic order, the 1894: 1068: 1018: 536: 343: 114: 14913: 9736: 9557:

Taylor, J.L. Forest Monks and the Nation-state: An Anthropological and Historical Study, pp. 9–13.

4947:

Traditionally, Theravāda Buddhism has observed a distinction between the practices suitable for a

4334:), which results in a better rebirth. The "ten wholesome actions" is a common list of good deeds: 3984:

Another modern phenomenon is Buddhist philosophers who received an education in the West, such as

3311: 2376: 18537: 18367: 18304: 18254: 18214: 18159: 17794: 17789: 17679: 17626: 17516: 17446: 17242: 17053: 16968: 16173: 16151: 15950: 15772: 15297: 14955: 14882: 14566: 13937: 13737: 13646: 13438: 13418: 12749: 12729: 12486: 12216: 11460: 7225: 6944:, Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies. Volume 20, Number 1, Summer 1997. 6566: 6236: 5557:

were sent to China to establish the order there, which subsequently spread across East Asia. The

5546: 5446: 4683:, combating fear and preventing danger. Recent modernist Theravādins have tended to focus on the 4001: 3993: 2505: 2426: 2091: 2066: 1716:

By the first century BCE, Theravāda Buddhism was well established in the main settlements of the

1692: 1667: 1228: 616: 541: 416: 10427: 4617: 4612: 3813:: Those who have destroyed the five lower fetters, which bind beings to the world of the senses; 3422:

was one of the great Abhidhamma scholars of the 20th century as well as a teacher of meditation.

3410: 18234: 18129: 18089: 18069: 17926: 17901: 17806: 17779: 17729: 17699: 17689: 17606: 17571: 17556: 17541: 17496: 17431: 17105: 17036: 16941: 16936: 16677: 16600: 16362: 16244: 16168: 15965: 15955: 15814: 15782: 15720: 15691: 15208: 15203: 14900: 14860: 14645: 13986: 13981: 13961: 13957: 13448: 13288: 12956: 12926: 12699: 12650: 12491: 12439: 12434: 12196: 12017: 11914: 11666: 11661: 11410: 10377: 9530:

Taylor, J.L. Forest Monks and the Nation-state: An Anthropological and Historical Study, p. 12.

8648:, in "History of Religions" Vol. 36, No. 3 (Feb. 1997), pp. 183-217. The University of Chicago. 6554: 6180: 6176: 4948: 4861: 4684: 4554: 4232: 4161: 3977: 3075: 2957: 2889: 2564: 2434: 2418: 2171: 2106: 2102: 1983: 1925: 1905: 1595:

westward to places such as India and Nepal, along with Buddhist immigrants and converts in the

1459: 1307: 1043: 1028: 1008: 933: 928: 843: 750: 204: 199: 174: 69: 11778: 10196: 9548:

Taylor, J.L. Forest Monks and the Nation-state: An Anthropological and Historical Study, p. 9.

9539:

Prapod Assavavirulhakarn, The Ascendency of Theravada Buddhism in Southeast Asia 1990, p. 258.

7219: 6557:, traditionally numbered at 18, of early Buddhism. The Theravadins trace their lineage to the 4704: 4251:

This basic outline is based on the threefold discipline. The emphasis is on understanding the

4209: 3674:, the spiritual plane of desires. This includes numerous realms of existence such as: various 3604: 2135:

which focused on the conservation and restoration of important Indian Buddhist sites, such as

1924:(1846–1923) was one of the key figures in this movement. After independence, Myanmar held the 320: 18475: 18420: 18337: 18289: 18264: 18064: 17886: 17881: 17749: 17739: 17561: 17237: 17180: 17000: 16946: 16367: 16345: 16264: 16205: 15871: 15310: 15171: 14333: 13932: 13844: 13453: 13423: 13004: 12936: 12769: 12684: 12679: 12603: 12598: 12516: 11046: 10767: 10664: 8028: 6562: 6355: 6248: 6217: 6200: 5613: 5539: 5394: 5386: 5285: 4649: 4442: 4428: 3997: 3699: 3529: 3084:("Points of Controversy"), as well as in other works by later commentators like Buddhaghosa. 2788:), which holds that all physical and mental phenomena are transient, unstable and inconstant. 2696: 2469: 2095: 2031: 1870: 1743: 1588: 1248: 1238: 1193: 621: 267: 104: 15191: 15139: 12069: 9596:

Tiyavanich, Kamala, nForest Recollections: Wandering Monks in Twentieth-Century Thailand p1.

8239: 6305: 4497: 4415:

literally "causing to become" or cultivation) means the positive cultivation of one's mind.

3659: 3463:

dhammas and their relationships. The central theory of the Abhidhamma is thus known as the "

3426:

Theravāda scholastics developed a systematic exposition of the Buddhist doctrine called the

3263:(including all speech, defecation and urination, etc.) were supramundane or transcendental ( 3154:, there are canonical passages which support the idea of an intermediate state (such as the 2990: 2718: 2712: 2598:

An important genre of Theravādin literature, in both Pāli and vernacular languages, are the

315: 18465: 18455: 18440: 18347: 18274: 18244: 18219: 18184: 18144: 18139: 18114: 17984: 17906: 17856: 17836: 17826: 17714: 17661: 17636: 17486: 17481: 17461: 17426: 17411: 17355: 17130: 17063: 17031: 16911: 16846: 16712: 16590: 16443: 16323: 16222: 16134: 16102: 16097: 15945: 15677: 14972: 14556: 14316: 13927: 13871: 13822: 13807: 13660: 13476: 13443: 13428: 12946: 12843: 12789: 12674: 12613: 12581: 12576: 12561: 12546: 12536: 12501: 12414: 12106: 12029: 11332: 11272: 11021: 10988: 10938: 6276: 6253: 6228: 6211: 5803: 5658: 5434: 4929: 4141: 4112: 4068: 3972: 3956: 2914: 2643: 2639: 2414: 2313:

There are numerous editions of the Tipiṭaka, some of the major modern editions include the

2253: 2183: 2132: 2101:

The establishment of some of the first Theravāda Viharas in the Western world, such as the

1995: 1874: 1857:. The widespread practice of meditation by laypersons is a modern development in Theravāda. 1717: 1413: 1258: 1218: 1213: 1178: 1023: 903: 811: 796: 740: 712: 561: 471: 363: 119: 109: 74: 14169: 13316: 11931: 11800: 11726: 11602: 11340: 10741: 8302:"Scriptural Authenticity and the Śrāvaka Schools: An Essay towards an Indian Perspective." 7494: 3572:). Since no dhamma exists independently, every single dhamma of consciousness, known as a 3127:

Theravāda Abhidhamma holds that insight into the four noble truths happens in one moment (

2897: 2512:(right) (c. 5th century), shown here presenting three copies of his influential doctrinal 1763: 8: 18470: 18445: 18425: 18402: 18329: 18279: 18259: 18174: 18164: 18119: 18079: 18034: 18029: 18019: 18009: 18004: 17999: 17989: 17974: 17969: 17964: 17959: 17954: 17931: 17841: 17816: 17694: 17684: 17646: 17616: 17601: 17586: 17576: 17566: 17531: 17526: 17476: 17421: 17396: 17340: 17197: 17185: 17073: 17068: 17058: 16926: 16727: 16640: 16585: 16561: 16448: 16333: 16291: 16086: 15935: 15563: 15355: 15240: 15036: 14838: 14723: 14651: 14541: 14462: 14289: 13942: 13766: 13612: 13283: 13162: 12996: 12971: 12961: 12921: 12898: 12781: 12754: 12714: 12633: 12623: 12551: 12478: 11909: 11766: 11547: 11525: 11477: 11297: 11097: 10953: 10933: 10793: 9792: 6528: 6493: 6335: 6259: 6242: 6190: 6107: 5879: 5874: 5624: 5598: 5562: 5438: 5260:. Forest monks tend to be the minority among Theravāda sanghas and also tend to focus on 5019: 4895: 4390: 4341:

Moral conduct (Sīla); Keeping the five precepts and generally refraining from doing harm.

4244: 4024:). The modern encounter with Christian missionaries also led to new debates (such as the 4021: 4017: 4005: 3989: 3905:) are quite rare. While in Mahayana, bodhisattas refers to beings who have developed the 3631: 3452: 3204:) of the defilements or non-existence of the five aggregates, as was held by some in the 2692: 2446: 1268: 1223: 1161: 1101: 1038: 983: 978: 733: 722: 94: 54: 18547: 11257: 11184: 10449: 9406:

Bhikkhu Khantipalo, Lay Buddhist Practice The Shrine Room, Uposatha Day, Rains Residence

4243:

emerging because of the practice. This part shows a great analytical effort specific to

3873: 3493: 3367:" is not meant literally (it can also mean "essence", "core"), but refers to the entire 2823: 2398: 1890: 1568:

of all of these groups, as well as converts around the world, also embrace and practice

18532: 18450: 18430: 18397: 18294: 18284: 18229: 18224: 18154: 18134: 18124: 18109: 18104: 18084: 18054: 18049: 18024: 18014: 17946: 17911: 17896: 17801: 17774: 17764: 17724: 17709: 17704: 17656: 17651: 17591: 17546: 17506: 17401: 17388: 17175: 17100: 16973: 16796: 16470: 16428: 16269: 16237: 16212: 16139: 16119: 15940: 15888: 15876: 15854: 15446: 15404: 15277: 15112: 15107: 15102: 14933: 14717: 14693: 14072: 13996: 13744: 13690: 13346: 13251: 13093: 13056: 13051: 12981: 12931: 12878: 12873: 12744: 12739: 12734: 12724: 12709: 12694: 12689: 12628: 12608: 12571: 12496: 12301: 12002: 11926: 11804: 11746: 11587: 11487: 11415: 11390: 11036: 10966: 9999: 9952: 9913: 9037: 8348: 8155:

Buddhist Rituals of Death and Rebirth: Contemporary Sri Lankan Practice and Its Origins

6702: 6284: 5694: 5662: 5654: 5454: 5450: 5430: 5328: 4997:

for a future birth), and Nibbanic Buddhism (concerned with attaining the liberation of

4847:

Laypersons and monks also perform various types of religious practices daily or during

4825: 4794: 4777: 4716: 4676: 4672: 4592: 4424: 4350:

Rejoicing in merit of good deeds done by others, this is common in communal activities.

4264: 4056: 3952: 3823: 3736: 3551: 3278: 3196: 3137: 3092: 2669: 2665: 2228:

The Vietnamese Theravāda movement, led by figures such as Ven. Hộ-Tông (Vansarakkhita).

2202: 2194: 2155: 2128: 2000: 1913: 1886: 1862: 1798: 1736: 1671: 1580: 1576: 1253: 1233: 1173: 1168: 1056: 958: 951: 878: 868: 775: 546: 481: 411: 334: 325: 262: 257: 36: 15558: 15117: 14745: 14475: 13145: 10327:

Mindful America: The Mutual Transformation of Buddhist Meditation and American Culture

6558: 5053:, have begun teaching meditation retreats outside of the monastery for lay disciples. 3215:

Theravāda exegetical works, mental phenomena last for a very short moment or instant (

2370: 1663: 1622: 1485: 451: 18507: 18501: 18435: 18392: 18382: 18372: 18362: 18269: 18189: 18149: 18074: 18044: 17936: 17891: 17871: 17846: 17821: 17784: 17769: 17744: 17719: 17631: 17581: 17536: 17521: 17501: 17491: 17466: 17406: 17350: 17115: 16891: 16487: 16458: 16382: 16377: 16338: 16276: 16232: 16217: 16200: 16195: 16190: 16129: 15864: 15750: 15516: 15486: 15466: 15287: 15092: 15073: 15068: 15014: 14977: 14698: 14613: 14536: 14434: 14424: 14392: 14380: 14348: 14325: 14307: 14203: 14058: 13966: 13952: 13915: 13903: 13732: 13651: 13603: 13524: 13486: 13182: 13167: 13130: 13115: 12888: 12804: 12719: 12556: 12521: 12506: 12233: 12223: 11904: 11751: 11736: 11607: 11530: 11450: 11385: 11317: 11204: 10961: 10644: 10596: 10354: 10302: 10259: 10202: 10164: 10024: 9991: 9944: 9917: 9905: 8970: 8844: 8671: 8328: 8269: 8243: 8110:(Ecole Fransaise d'Extreme-Orient, 1955), Chapitre I 'Les Mahasanghika', pp. 212-240. 8077: 8008: 7982: 7678: 7657: 7532: 7423: 7314: 7221:

The Many Lives of Insight: The Abhidhamma and transformations in Theravada meditation

7153: 7045: 7013: 6972: 6922: 6854: 6719: 6709: 6497: 6325: 6300: 6232: 6231:(in peninsular Malaysia especially north-western parts of Malaysia, primarily by the 6195: 6186: 5522: 5406: 5390: 5374: 4985:

traditions, overlapping though still distinct. Most prominently, the anthropologist

4886:

in front of their shrine. Chanting may also be part of the practice of recollection (

4875: 4848: 4585:, morality, giving up worldly thoughts and desires. The practitioner then engages in 4566: 4433: 4373: 4357: 4312: 4301: 4271: 4260: 4228: 4076: 3985: 3790: 3679: 3556:. The 81 conditioned dhammas are divided into three broad categories: consciousness ( 3499: 3468: 3341:) and is the material support for consciousness. Some later Theravāda works like the 3208:

school for example. In Theravāda scholasticism, nibbana is defined as the cessation (

2941: 2937: 2929: 2860: 2655: 2603: 2477: 2461: 2437:. For example, while the Theravāda Vinaya contains a total of 227 monastic rules for 2410: 2365: 2318: 2314: 2256:, most of which have not survived the humid climate of South Asia and Southeast Asia. 1957: 1949: 1829: 1401: 1300: 1198: 1183: 988: 863: 806: 770: 755: 686: 591: 566: 426: 383: 373: 239: 214: 99: 84: 15970: 15568: 15228: 14982: 12468: 11262: 11162: 10097:

Insight Meditation in the United States: Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness

10054: 6617: 6549:

Theravada (Pali: "Way of the Elders"; Sanskrit, Sthaviravada) emerged as one of the

6126:

Theravāda Buddhism is practiced in the following countries and by people worldwide:

5558: 2078:

The 20th-century Nepalese Theravāda movement which introduced Theravāda Buddhism to

1970:

and controlled by the state after a series of reforms promoted by Thai kings of the

18460: 18342: 18239: 17851: 17811: 17759: 17754: 17671: 17641: 17551: 17441: 17305: 17257: 17252: 16816: 16781: 16754: 16512: 16497: 16372: 16296: 16146: 16124: 16032: 15893: 15672: 15635: 15491: 15476: 15424: 15218: 15198: 15166: 15161: 15132: 15127: 15051: 15041: 14870: 14834: 14826: 14797: 14710: 14630: 14625: 14588: 14578: 14504: 14442: 14284: 14121: 13971: 13629: 13172: 13125: 13120: 12976: 12941: 12916: 12911: 12662: 12618: 12531: 12206: 11862: 11855: 11639: 11629: 11515: 11179: 11051: 10724: 10249: 10241: 10237: 9983: 9897: 9813: 9663: 9223: 8340: 7946:"Brahamanism and Buddhism: Two Antithetic Conceptions of Society in Ancient India." 7710: 6657: 6387: 6379: 6222: 6133: 5744: 5729: 5719: 5699: 5594: 5473:

A Buddhist Monk chants evening prayers inside a monastery located near the town of

5280:

Today there are forest based traditions in most Theravāda countries, including the

5246: 5192: 5178: 5066: 5006: 4994: 4840: 4805: 4699:

The practice of Theravāda meditation can be traced back to the 5th century exegete

4331: 4297: 4052: 4037: 3872:

A Burmese illustrated manuscript depicting Sumedha (the future Buddha Gautama) and

3479: 2900:

and ending in birth, old age and death) and how suffering can be brought to an end.

2322: 1721: 1335: 1263: 1208: 1138: 1128: 993: 586: 571: 556: 551: 169: 89: 16109: 12251: 10188:

Reexamining Jhana: Towards a Critical Reconstruction of Early Buddhist Soteriology

8699:, Department of Continuing Education, Oxford University, p. 8, archived from 8233: 5502:

to adults and children in addition to providing social services to the community.

5256:

Scholar monks generally undertake the path of studying and preserving Theravāda's

5081: 4152:

The Noble Eightfold Path can also be summarized as the Three Noble Disciplines of

3256: 18511: 17140: 17120: 16610: 16502: 16492: 16161: 15829: 15620: 15600: 15531: 15496: 15429: 15149: 15122: 15097: 15046: 15024: 14817: 14760: 14531: 14048: 13849: 13775: 13715: 13670: 13639: 13536: 13481: 13433: 13361: 13231: 13029: 13009: 12951: 12863: 12526: 12424: 12271: 12007: 11990: 11975: 11953: 11505: 11375: 11209: 11189: 10702: 10564: 10437: 10414: 10364: 10224: 9840: 9412: 9075: 8780: 8626: 8472: 8263: 8141: 8035: 8002: 7972: 7501: 7391: 6916: 6758: 6524: 6483: 6479: 5724: 5458: 5257: 5167: 5147: 4899: 4890:), which refers to contemplating various topics such as the sublime qualities of 4852: 4597: 4285: 4088: 4064: 4060: 3794: 3695: 3375: 3030: 2835: 2810: 2802: 2727: 2500: 2382: 2214: 1810: 1791: 1467: 1421: 1288: 1203: 1003: 913: 858: 626: 526: 446: 431: 358: 132: 12281: 11435: 11425: 9580: 9490:

Swearer, Donald K. The Buddhist World of Southeast Asia: Second Edition, p. 178.

8796:

Swearer, Donald K. The Buddhist World of Southeast Asia: Second Edition, p. 164.

8074:

The Middle-Length Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Majjhima Nikāya

4212:

for the list of the forty traditional objects). It mentions different stages of

3616: 3487: 3446: 3359: 2814: 2302:

of the Tipiṭaka which survives today is that of the Sri Lankan Mahavihara sect.

1659: 853: 17262: 17155: 17095: 16811: 16786: 16571: 16475: 16357: 16301: 16254: 15667: 15615: 15511: 15481: 15461: 15456: 15451: 15434: 15330: 15250: 15233: 15186: 15176: 14220: 13883: 13866: 13685: 13665: 13634: 13491: 13194: 13044: 12826: 12406: 12386: 12306: 11995: 11985: 11919: 11756: 11242: 11105: 10626: 8095:

Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume VII: Abhidharma Buddhism to 150 A.D

6802: 6532: 6421: 6403: 6267: 5761: 5487: 5426: 5382: 5050: 5042: 4871: 4809: 4768: 4745: 4545:, which are seen as being universally applicable to all constructed phenomena ( 4320: 4103: 4020:

is another modern Theravāda scholar who studied philosophy in the west (at the

3858: 3727: 3589: 3368: 3260: 2933: 2626: 2609:

Most Theravāda Buddhists generally consider Mahāyāna Buddhist scriptures to be

2488:

work which made use of doctrinal lists which can be seen in the suttas, called

2210: 2187: 2146:

The introduction of Theravāda to other Southeast Asian nations like Singapore,

1971: 1941: 1866: 1767: 1596: 1396: 1148: 1078: 1033: 891: 516: 501: 15223: 14485: 9901: 9857:"First Theravada Ordination of Bhikkhunis in Indonesia After a Thousand Years" 9227: 8973:, The Heart of Buddhist meditation, Buddhist publication Society, 2005, p. 40. 6957:

Historical Geography of Burma: Creation of enduring patterns in the Pyu period

4963:

traditions, with monastic life being hailed as a superior method of achieving

4665: 3731: 3588:. In Abhidhamma, all awareness events are thus seen as being characterized by 3205: 2673: 18526: 17190: 16744: 16625: 16017: 16012: 15960: 15797: 15735: 15630: 15521: 15419: 15350: 15282: 15272: 15245: 15181: 15078: 15056: 14994: 14890: 14853: 14772: 14680: 14131: 14082: 13787: 13261: 13110: 12419: 12321: 12179: 11980: 11958: 11894: 11565: 11360: 11355: 11247: 10916: 10263: 10245: 9995: 9948: 9909: 9159:

Gethin, Rupert, The Foundations of Buddhism, Oxford University Press, p. 234.

8784:, Paper presented at the XVIII the IABS Congress, Toronto 2017, Updated 2019. 8368:, Paper presented at the XVIII the IABS Congress, Toronto 2017, Updated 2019. 7347:

Buddhist Studies Review, UK Association for Buddhist Studies, 18 (I): 73–106.

7005: 6438: 6395: 6157: 5649: 5566: 5422: 5414: 5402: 5114: 5054: 5046: 4986: 4883: 4783: 4728:

Regarding post Visuddhimagga Theravāda meditation, according to Kate Crosby,

4712: 4316: 4179: 4173: 4084: 4045: 3475: 3464: 3151: 3063: 2963: 2735: 2537: 2518: 2465: 2442: 2357: 2349: 2269: 2109:

in Berlin (1957) and the Washington Buddhist Vihara in Washington, DC (1965).

2019: 2015: 1987: 1979: 1818: 1751: 1647: 1600: 1432: 1426: 973: 968: 908: 601: 596: 461: 310: 164: 15859: 11719: 11709: 11081: 10695: 5158: 4125: 3914: 3270:

Theravāda traditionally defends the idea that the Buddha himself taught the

3053: 2646:. These basic Buddhist ideas are shared by the other Early Buddhist schools 1933: 1849: 1406: 1113: 918: 441: 17325: 17227: 17088: 16776: 16771: 16749: 16739: 16620: 16052: 15987: 15930: 15915: 15881: 15506: 15414: 14452: 14343: 14338: 14189: 14159: 14033: 14001: 13749: 13720: 13707: 13351: 13336: 13306: 13256: 13246: 13088: 12883: 12376: 12211: 12089: 11877: 11872: 11699: 11570: 11445: 10906: 10113:

Theravāda Buddhism. A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo

9667: 9433: 8061:

Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo

7859:

Theravada Buddhism, a social history from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo

6825:

Theravada Buddhism, a social history from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo

6723: 6662:

Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo

6426: 6350: 6161: 5714: 5554: 5370: 5366: 5274: 4821: 4789: 4764: 4570: 4289: 4108: 3924: 3919: 3849: 3722:

These various planes of existence can be found in countless world systems (

3718:) and those who attain these meditations are reborn in these divine realms. 3684:) which are devoid of happiness, the realms of animals, the hungry ghosts ( 3663: 3630:

The Pāli Tipiṭaka outlines a hierarchical cosmological system with various

3520: 3419: 3380: 3305: 3286: 3038: 3021: 2846: 2818: 2784: 2599: 2361: 2334: 2222: 2198: 1961: 1953: 1921: 1708: 1704: 1696: 1013: 898: 816: 702: 576: 511: 486: 388: 368: 219: 209: 159: 15553: 14240: 12134: 12119: 12079: 11776: 11440: 11016: 10356:

Meditation en masse. How colonialism sparked the global Vipassana movement

10294:

The Society and Its Environment. (Religion: Historical Background section)

10292: 9568:

Forest Monks and the Nation-state: An Anthropological and Historical Study

4461: 4395: 4236: 3099:, the view that only present moment phenomena (dhamma) exist, against the 3058: 2871: 1438: 335: 326: 17247: 17222: 17046: 17014: 17005: 16951: 16881: 16866: 16759: 16650: 16311: 16259: 16047: 15765: 15745: 15585: 15526: 15264: 15260: 15083: 14603: 14551: 14521: 14358: 14212: 14104: 14028: 13893: 13829: 13780: 13321: 13150: 12291: 12276: 12059: 11867: 11795: 11575: 11405: 11307: 11154: 11026: 10254: 8382:

The Whole Body, Not Heart, as 'Seat of Consciousness': The Buddha's View.

6256:(by 90% of the population, 94% of the population that practices religion) 6149: 6141: 6137: 5808: 5777: 5589: 5550: 5474: 5418: 5410: 5250: 4917: 4879: 4775:-meditation and developed simplified meditation techniques, based on the 4700: 4587: 4465: 4363: 4190: 4072: 3968: 3931: 3900: 3881: 3327: 3245: 3237:

Theravāda holds that there is a ground level of consciousness called the

3080: 2754: 2584: 2546: 2528: 2509: 2330: 2326: 1967: 1838: 1783: 1676: 1627: 1549: 1541: 1083: 636: 606: 581: 436: 421: 16566: 16507: 15610: 15031: 14865: 14414: 13311: 11771: 10179:

Het hart van boeddhistische meditatie (The heart of Buddhist Meditation)

9028:

Majjhima Nikaya, Sutta No. 118, Section No. 2, translated from the Pali.

6851:

Sacred Sites of Burma: Myth and Folklore in an Evolving Spiritual Realm,

5316:

Candidates for the Buddhist monkhood being ordained as monks in Thailand

4644: 4366:; the gift of Dhamma is seen as a form of highest gift. (Dhammapada 354) 3923:

is a Theravāda text which focuses on the path of the Buddhas, while the

3730:. This entire cyclical multiverse of constant birth and death is called 3415: 3319:) and is different from the five aggregates which are 'with condition' ( 2711:

Descriptions of various meditative practices or states, namely the four

2003:, a new education and examination system was introduced for Thai monks. 1937: 1762:

Over time, two other sects split off from the Mahāvihāra tradition, the

1680:, an important work which lays out the Vibhajjavāda doctrinal position. 496: 17213: 17208: 17083: 17078: 17041: 17019: 16876: 16856: 16851: 16692: 16682: 16645: 16249: 16027: 15975: 15715: 15360: 15340: 14918: 14843: 14782: 14546: 14526: 14447: 14099: 14067: 14038: 13817: 13812: 13797: 13266: 13224: 13100: 12906: 12831: 12445: 12429: 12391: 12371: 12266: 12241: 12149: 12084: 12064: 11810: 11741: 11612: 11495: 11465: 11400: 11350: 11008: 10998: 10971: 10198:

Buddhist Nuns and Gendered Practice: In Search of the Female Renunciant

10003: 9971: 9956: 9932: 8949:

Henepola Gunaratana, The Jhanas in Theravada Buddhist Meditation, 1995.

8352: 7970: 7371:

Rebuilding Buddhism: The Theravada Movement in Twentieth-Century Nepal,

6360: 6345: 6263: 6145: 5851: 5687: 5679: 5574: 5378: 5362: 5261: 5225: 5221: 5058: 5038: 5030: 5011: 4891: 4722: 4688: 4041: 3906: 3844: 3801: 3427: 3187:. Such a dual nirvana theory is absent in the suttas. According to the 2904: 2864: 2542: 2532: 2513: 2485: 2457: 2344: 2338: 2243: 2121: 2055: 2011: 1901: 1834: 1787: 1771: 1651: 1529: 1496:

literature developed. From India, the Theravāda tradition subsequently

1493: 1385: 1088: 848: 745: 631: 531: 521: 348: 295: 149: 139: 16057: 14938: 12286: 11282: 7934:

In the Buddha's Words: An Anthology of Discourses from the Pali Canon.

4771:

during the 19th and 20th centuries. These Burmese figures re-invented

4482: 3884:, there are three main soteriological paths: the path of the Buddhas ( 3003: 2687:

are a divine authority. Any form of sacrifices to the gods (including

17160: 16956: 16871: 16861: 16732: 16687: 16672: 16605: 16453: 15920: 15842: 15802: 15792: 15755: 15730: 15710: 15605: 15471: 15325: 15315: 15087: 14945: 14755: 14740: 14705: 14688: 14583: 14363: 14279: 14258: 14253: 14230: 14225: 14184: 14179: 14116: 14053: 13976: 13947: 13898: 13839: 13792: 13241: 13214: 12381: 12256: 11968: 11884: 11761: 11624: 11617: 11580: 11537: 11500: 11267: 11232: 11199: 11174: 11129: 9683:

Socially Engaged Buddhism in Thailand: Ordination of Thai Women Monks

9619: 9091: 8830:, pp. 206-216. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited. 8315:

Metaphor and Literalism in Buddhism: The Doctrinal History of Nirvana

8207:

Metaphor and Literalism in Buddhism: The Doctrinal History of Nirvana

8194:

Metaphor and Literalism in Buddhism: The Doctrinal History of Nirvana

8181:

Metaphor and Literalism in Buddhism: The Doctrinal History of Nirvana

7468: 6485:

In the Buddha's Words: An Anthology of Discourses from the Pali Canon

6153: 6119: 5989: 5737: 5638: 5398: 5358: 5174: 5126:

who himself established the International Meditation Center (IMC) in

5090: 5037:

A number of senior monastics in the Thai Forest Tradition, including

5025: 5015: 4960: 4759:. The practice was revived in Myanmar (Burma) in the 18th century by 4680: 4581: 4400: 4153: 3971:

and science, and opposed to superstition and certain folk practices.

3785: 3164: 2985: 2869:(suffering, unease); (2) There is a cause of dukkha, mainly craving ( 2610: 2579: 2573: 2413:, as well as the various non-Theravāda Vinayas. On this basis, these 2299: 2291: 2147: 2136: 2035: 1945: 1917: 1814: 1802: 1779: 1731: 1688: 1635: 1553: 1505: 1448: 1133: 506: 456: 234: 229: 14635: 14164: 13014: 11850: 11704: 11470: 11252: 11121: 11113: 9987: 8344: 7707:

Tse-Fu Kuan. Mindfulness in similes in Early Buddhist literature in

7385:

The Revival of Buddhism in Indo-Bangla Territory: A New Perspective.

7197:

Rescued from the Nation: Anagarika Dharmapala and the Buddhist World

5843: 5839: 5469: 4793:

and bare insight. These techniques were globally popularized by the

4506: 4492: 4315:

in the Triple Gems, lay Theravādin Buddhists traditionally take the

3015: 2806: 2793: 2660: 2124:

Mahasthavir, which were key events in the Bengali Theravāda revival.

300: 16963: 16707: 16697: 16552: 16042: 16022: 15849: 15725: 15580: 15154: 14908: 14848: 14767: 14675: 14662: 14640: 14620: 14598: 14593: 14573: 14513: 14480: 14419: 14263: 14248: 14126: 14087: 14043: 13834: 13771: 13675: 13578: 13531: 13371: 13326: 13271: 13236: 13140: 12799: 12366: 12361: 12311: 12246: 12164: 12129: 12124: 11785: 11656: 11644: 11555: 11214: 10911: 10284:

Forest Recollections: Wandering Monks in Twentieth-Century Thailand

8566:

Early Buddhist Metaphysics: The Making of a Philosophical Tradition

8518:

Early Buddhist Metaphysics: The Making of a Philosophical Tradition

8449:

Early Buddhist Metaphysics: The Making of a Philosophical Tradition

6575: 6550: 6111: 6031: 5905: 5585: 5266: 5107: 5085:

The ceremony walks with lighted candles in hand around a temple on

4956: 4906: 4887: 4801: 4606: 4324: 4323:, which includes chastity during sacred days of observance such as 3862: 3829: 3817: 3658:, the formless or incorporeal plane. These are associated with the 3609: 3546: 3516: 3505: 3389: 3238: 3227: 2551: 2481: 2402: 2151: 1775: 1642: 1565: 1557: 1521: 1513: 1375: 1143: 1123: 1118: 998: 694: 12356: 12346: 12331: 12154: 12024: 11292: 10856: 10133:

Sudden and Gradual. Approaches to Enlightenment in Chinese Thought

10122:

How Buddhism Began. The Conditioned Genesis of the Early Teachings

6618:"Pali word for "Theravada Buddhist" - Dhamma Wheel Buddhist Forum" 5209:) on the other. The ascetic focused monks were known by the names 2969: 2797:), which holds that all the constituents of a person, namely, the 2390: 2006: 1638:, dating back to the reign of King Devanampiya Tissa (247–207 BCE) 1412:

The Pāli Canon is the most complete Buddhist canon surviving in a

17232: 16836: 16801: 16722: 16635: 16576: 16480: 16183: 16037: 15787: 15740: 15625: 15501: 15320: 14787: 14750: 14561: 14111: 14077: 13920: 13621: 13276: 13219: 13204: 12351: 12341: 12316: 12191: 12186: 12144: 12114: 12046: 12012: 11899: 11840: 11835: 11689: 11592: 11430: 11380: 11167: 10993: 9833: 8936:

Vajiranāṇa Mahathera (author), Allan R. Bomhard (editor) (20100,

6315: 6310: 6102: 5947: 5707: 5634: 5322: 5131: 5113:

It is also possible for a lay disciple to become enlightened. As

5098: 4998: 4964: 4952: 4741: 4562: 4558: 4476: 4457: 4453: 4224: 4220: 4213: 4205: 4157: 3960: 3809: 3703: 3483: 3435: 3431: 3371:(including the brain), which is dependent on the heart and blood. 2995: 2922: 2877: 2798: 2741: 2438: 2406: 2284: 2218: 2140: 2117: 1975: 1854: 1822: 1754:. Between the 11th and 13th centuries, more than 10,000 temples, 1545: 1509: 823: 641: 611: 476: 11963: 11731: 8646:

Cosmology and Meditation: From the Aggañña-Sutta to the Mahāyāna

5535: 4843:

around a temple or a stupa is also a common devotional practice.

4468:, they also referred to two distinct meditation types or paths ( 4456:(mental cultivation) are categorized into two broad categories: 3835: 2975: 1417: 17145: 17024: 17009: 16828: 16717: 16702: 16660: 16438: 16316: 15590: 15345: 15335: 14989: 14950: 14792: 14400: 14370: 14094: 13356: 13341: 13177: 13039: 13019: 12794: 12456: 12336: 12326: 12261: 11889: 11845: 11830: 11820: 11790: 11714: 11597: 11365: 11237: 10981: 10976: 10278:(from author website at Dept. of Buddhist Studies, UC Berkeley) 10233: 6411: 6340: 6165: 5847: 5671: 5581: 5127: 4760: 4629: 4625: 4621: 4601: 4541: 4535: 4529: 4487:. In traditional Theravāda it is considered to be the base for 4438: 4256: 3750: 3691: 3295: 2595:

of Theravāda literature in vernacular languages than in Pāli."

2394: 2306: 2295: 1755: 1684: 1561: 1454: 1283: 838: 833: 828: 791: 393: 15536: 10217:"Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience" 8072:Ñāṇamoli, Bhikkhu (trans.) & Bodhi, Bhikkhu (ed.) (2001). 6918:

A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna

6885:

A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna

5791:

Waturawila (or Mahavihara Vamshika Shyamopali Vanavasa Nikaya)

3854:), such as the ability to read minds and fly through the air. 3766:

According to Theravāda doctrine, release from suffering (i.e.

3315:, nibbana, the unconstructed element, is 'without condition' ( 1374:'School of the Elders') is the most commonly accepted name of 1344: 16841: 16615: 16595: 16580: 16156: 15982: 15777: 15640: 15595: 15575: 14777: 14174: 14020: 13802: 13496: 13331: 13189: 13155: 13135: 13105: 13034: 12451: 12296: 12174: 12169: 12139: 12094: 11941: 11936: 11815: 11520: 11345: 11312: 11302: 10430:

Into the Stream A Study Guide on the First Stage of Awakening

9761:

Thai monks oppose West Australian ordination of Buddhist nuns

8792: 8790: 8466:

The Dhamma Theory Philosophical Cornerstone of the Abhidhamma

6570: 6522: 6115: 5335: 5086: 4977:

Ron Epstein, "Clearing Up Some Misconceptions about Buddhism"

4934: 4404: 4185: 4140:, one of the most widely used frameworks in Theravāda is the 3685: 3643: 3558: 3396: 3346: 3290: 3145: 3074:

The orthodox standpoints of Theravāda in comparison to other

3011: 2763: 2684: 2562:

a summary of Buddhaghosa's Vinaya commentary and Anuruddha's

2480:, also hold that the early Abhidhamma texts developed out of 2079: 1929: 1747: 1631: 1537: 1533: 1525: 1489: 1356: 1073: 305: 10843:– See the citations under 'Theravāda Buddhism – World'. 9607:

Popularizing Buddhism: Preaching as Performance in Sri Lanka

8630:

The Wheel Publication No. 462. Buddhist Publication Society.

6942:

The Advent of Theravada Buddhism to Mainland South-east Asia

6838:

Sinhalese Monastic Architecture: The Viháras of Anurádhapura

4942: 4579:

practice begins with the preparatory stage, the practice of

3967:. They promoted a form of Buddhism that was compatible with 3797:

of self, doubt/indecision, and clinging to ethics and vows);

3222:

Theravāda holds that the Buddha resided in the human realm (

2260: 16766: 16655: 14608: 13547: 13366: 12159: 11825: 11322: 9635: 6998: 6073: 5123: 4652:, is widely considered to have been an Arahant in Thailand. 4353:

Rendering service to others; looking after others or needy.

4239:(insight) through the development of wisdom. It emphasizes 4219:

The third section (parts 3–7) is a description of the five

3964: 3675: 2828: 2613:, meaning that they are not authentic words of the Buddha. 2290:

An early form of the Tipiṭaka may have been transmitted to

2276: 1813:

school. The patronage of monarchs such as the Burmese king

1517: 1389: 1362: 1347: 491: 9281: 9279: 9266: 9264: 8787: 8029:

http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2015/entries/buddha/

7641:

History, Buddhism, and New Religious Movements in Cambodia

7398: 7311:

The Buddhist Saints of the Forest and the Cult of Amulets,

5584:

authorities as to whether such ordinations are valid. The

5237:) while the forest monks leaning more towards meditation ( 4600:

to any arising mental or physical phenomenon, engaging in

3821:(lit. "honorable" or "worthies"): Those who have realized 3363:

or life faculty. W. F. Jayasuriya meanwhile, argues that "

1786:

focused on the exegesis of the Pali scriptures and on the

1378:'s oldest existing school. The school's adherents, termed 16665: 16630: 15305: 14684: 13024: 11560: 9359: 9357: 7010:

Sects & Sectarianism: The Origins of Buddhist Schools

6864: 6565:

was the other) that supposedly formed in the wake of the

4491:("insight"). In the Theravāda-tradition, as early as the 3740:(lit. "vanishing, quenching, blowing out"), a deathless ( 3113:) of a Buddha is unique and not common to the disciples ( 3054:

Main doctrinal differences with other Buddhist traditions

2325:, 1954–56) and the Thai Tipiṭaka edited and published in 1634:

after Theravada Buddhism became the official religion in

9337: