Slavery in Saudi Arabia

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I know, Saudi Arabia and Yemen are the only States in the world where chattel slavery is still a legal institution. Only a year or so ago a French Deputy—the person, I assume, to whom my hon. Friend referred—investigated the situation and found that every year ignorant Africans are lured on by agents to make a pilgrimage to Mecca. They are not told, of course, that they need a Saudi Arabian visa. When they arrive in Saudi Arabia without a visa they are arrested and put into prison for a few days and then handed over to licensed slave dealers. In addition, raids are made in Baluchistan and the Sheikdoms of the Persian Gulf and people are captured and carried off by land and sea, taken to small Saudi Arabian ports and sold in slave markets.

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harbours of the Somali coast, Berberah, Tajoura and Zayla. As many as 2000 slaves from the former place, and 4000 from the later, are annually shipped off to Mocha, Jeddah, Suez and Maskat. It is a large street roofed with matting and full of coffee-houses. The merchandise sat in rows parallel with the walls. The prettiest girls occupied the highest benches. Below were the plainer sort and lowest of all the boys. They were all gaily dressed in pink and other light-colored muslins with transparent veiles over their heads; and whether from the effect of such unusual splendor or from the re-action succeeding to their terrible land-journey and sea-voyage, they appeared perfectly happy.

43: 2957: 1790: 1826: 4689: 2839:, "an employer assumes responsibility for a hired migrant worker and must grant explicit permission before the worker can enter Saudi Arabia, transfer employment, or leave the country. The kafala system gives the employer immense control over the worker." HRW stated that "some abusive employers exploit the kafala system and force domestic workers to continue working against their will and forbid them from returning to their countries of origin" and that this is "incompatible with Article 13 of the 1753: 5764: 5774: 1818: 1761: 2465:

and only the Dutch were as willing to use this right as much as Britain. The right for manumission by seeking asylum could be used by any slave who managed to reach the consul office or a ship belonging to a foreign power. Most slaves who used this right were citizens of these nations' colonies, who had travelled to Arabia without being aware that they would be sold as slaves upon arrival. The

4257: 2626:(Djibouti) to Mecca in 1952, an investigation of the French Assembly performed by Pastor La Graviere issued a report to that effect in 1955, and the British agent in Jeddah confirmed the report and noted that the prices of humans where high in the Saudi slave market and that a young pregnant woman could be sold for five hundred gold sovereigns or twenty thousand riyals. 2427:

age of 20, he became Faisal's executioner. In 1963, Said el Feisal was interviewed by the British journalist John Osman and related about his first execution: “I cut through the man's torso by mistake and went mad when I saw the blood, and I could not get the sword out”, and that after having severed 150 heads, he was consumed by “bad dreams.”

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allegations". The NGOs, concerned over the threat, expressed their appreciation over the emancipation edict of 1962, but did ask if any countries would be helped to find their own nationals in Saudi harems who might want to return home; this was a very sensitive issue, since there was an awareness that many women were enslaved as

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who are not covered by the labour law are still vulnerable to multifold abuses, including passport confiscation, delayed wages and even forced labour. Although migrant workers are allowed to request an exit permit without their employer's permission, the need to have an exit permit in order to leave the country is a

2699:. President Kennedy wished to strengthen the UN, which in turn also strengthened the long going abolition campaign of the British Anti Slavery Society within the UN and gave it gravitas. The Kennedy administration also experienced international pressure from influential secular Middle East regional leaders like 2554:

the authorities. They could not remember exactly where they had come from or where their family lived, could no longer speak any language other than Arabic, and thus had difficulty supporting themselves after repatriation, all of which in the 1930s had caused a reluctance from the authorities to receive them.

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agricultural laborers, herdsmen, camel drivers, water carriers, porters, washer women, cooks, shop assistants, business managers, retainers and officials of Emirs. Slaves were seen as a good investment and were popular as servants, because they lacked loyalty ties to other clans in the strict clan system.

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HRW stated that "the combination of the high recruitment fees paid by Saudi employers and the power granted them by the kafala system to control whether a worker can change employers or exit the country made some employers feel entitled to exert 'ownership' over a domestic worker" and that the "sense

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In 1951 the British informed the US State Department that there were at least 50,000 slaves in Saudi Arabia, a number increasing because of oil wealth, and that the US should participate in ending the slavery in Saudi, which at the time were used in Soviet propaganda, who pointed out that slavery was

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Since Britain banned the slave trade in its colonies, 19th century British ruled Aden was no longer a recipient of slaves and the slaves sent from Ethiopia to Arabia were shipped to Hejaz instead. Eunuchs, female concubines and male labourers were the occupations of slaves sent from Ethiopia to Jidda

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The shipping of slaves occurs in only one particular area of the world, in the seas around Arabia. The warships most likely to search such slavers would be British, and I feel sure that there would not be any abuse of the right to search. I am sorry that we gave up the fight for that right. As far as

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enforce in practice, and pilgrims continued to cross the Red Sea by dhow to land at places difficult to control. In 1933, Nigeria introduced a new passport system that required Hajj pilgrims to deposit funds to cover the expenses and return fares in order to prevent their enslavement during the Hajj.

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In a similar fashion, parents entrusted their children to slave traders under the impression that the slave traders were taking their children on Hajj, as servants, or as students. This category of trafficking victims came from all over the Muslim world, as far away as the East Indies and China. Some

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In March 2021, Saudi Arabia introduced new labour reforms, allowing some migrant workers to change jobs without their employer's consent. HRW claimed that the reforms did not dismantle the abuses of the kafala system, "leaving migrant workers at high risk of abuse". Many domestic workers and farmers

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officially expressed his willing cooperation with the anti -slavery policy of the British, but in 1940, the British were well aware that the king imported concubines from Syria, had received a gift of twenty slaves from Qatar and that British subjects from Baluchistan were trafficked to Saudi Arabia

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Between 1928 and 1931, the British consulate in Jeddah helped 81 people to be manumitted, 46 of whom were repatriated to Sudan and 25 to Massawa in Ethiopia. The vast majority of slaves originated from Africa, but the fact that the majority of them had been trafficked as children posed a problem for

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Upper class Arab children, such as the royal princes, were gifted their own personal child slaves who grew up with them and became their bodyguards or servants as adults. One case was that of Said el Feisal, who was enslaved at the age of eight and given to the young Crown Prince Faisal, and at the

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Black African women were primarily used as domestic house slaves rather than exclusively for sexual services, while white Caucasian women (normally Circassian or Georgian) were preferred as concubines (sex slaves); when the main slave route of white slave girls became harder to access after Russia's

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that 2,000 slaves annually were trafficked from West Africa to Buraimi via three aircraft per month. These flights arrived unofficially during nighttime and officially claimed to transport exclusively military supplies and military personnel, and when questioned about civilian passengers they stated

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During the 1957 US state visit of King Saud, Eisenhower conditioned the construction of an American military base in Dhahran in Saudi Arabia in exchange for an alliance against communism; abolition of slavery was never part of the discussion. During the Saudi King's US state visit in the winter of

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the slaves escaping to the British Consulate to ask for asylum. Royal slaves were exempted from this right. The French, Italian and Dutch Consulate also used their right to manumit the slaves who reached their consulate to ask for asylum. However, the activity of France and Italy was very limited,

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The British fought the slave trade by patrolling the Red Sea. However, these controls were not effective, since the slave traders would inform the European Colonial authorities that the slaves were their wives, children, servants or fellow Hajj pilgrims, and the victims themselves were convinced of

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Writing about the Arabia he visited in 1862, the English traveler W. G. Palgrave met large numbers of slaves. The effects of slave concubinage were apparent in the number of persons of mixed race and in the emancipation of slaves he found to be common. Charles Doughty, writing about 25 years later,

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In order to combat the Red Sea slave trade, which was strongly connected to the Hajj pilgrimage, the Inter-Sanitary Conference in Alexandria of 1927 declared that pilgrims were to travel only by steamers or motorboats in order to avoid the dhow slave boats. This regulation proved to be difficult to

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Slave traders trafficked primarily women and children in the guise of wives, servants and pilgrims to Hejaz, where they were sold after arrival. The victims of this trafficking route were sometimes tricked, and taken on Hajj under false pretenses. Slave traders trafficked women to Hejaz by marrying

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took office, the issue of slavery within the US ally Saudi Arabia had caused growing domestic and international attention and caused damage to the Kennedy administration's liberal world-order rhetoric and the US-Saudi partnership, and Kennedy pressed Saudi leaders to “modernize and reform” if they

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The king himself was estimated to be the biggest slave owner with a number of around 3,000 slaves, among them the royal bodyguard who they described as "arrogant, well provided with food, clothes and even money", who formed a "striking contrast" to the free Arab citizens; the king normally did not

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In the 1950s there were diplomatic difficulties due to slaves fleeing across the borders from Saudi Arabia to Kuwait and the Trucial States, since there was uncertainty in how runaway slaves were to be handled diplomatically without upsetting the Saudis, who wished to retrieve them. Saudi Arabia

2197:. It was reported that some Baluchis sold themselves or their children to slave traders to escape poverty. In 1943, it was reported that Baluchi girls were shipped via Oman to Mecca, where they were popular as concubines since Caucasian girls were no longer available, and were sold for $ 350–450. 2037:

The slave trade had two major routes to Hejaz. African slaves were trafficked primarily from Sudan and Ethiopia. Primarily children and young women were bought or given as tribute by their parents to Ethiopian chiefs, who sold them to slave traders. The parents were told that their children were

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Syrian girls were trafficked from Syria to Saudi Arabia right before World War II and married to legally bring them across the border but then divorced and given to other men. A Syrian Dr. Midhat and Shaikh Yusuf were accused of engaging in this traffic of Syrian girls to supply them to Saudis.

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The bazar at Al-Madinah is poor and as almost all the slaves are brought from Meccah by the Jallabs or drivers after exporting the best to Egypt the town receives only the refuse.... some of these slaves come from Abyssinia: the greater part are driven from the Galla country and exported at the

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Eunuchs, female concubines and male labourers were the occupations of slaves sent from Ethiopia to Jidda and other parts of Hejaz. The southwest and southern parts of Ethiopia supplied most of the girls being exported by Ethiopian slave traders to India and Arabia. Female and male slaves from

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Saudi Arabia is a destination for men and women from South and East Asia and East Africa trafficked for the purpose of labor exploitation, and for children from Yemen, Afghanistan, and Africa trafficked for forced begging. Hundreds of thousands of low-skilled workers from India, Indonesia, the

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The Kingdom of Hejaz had many slaves, since free wage laborers were rare: in 1930, ten percent of the population of Mecca were estimated to have been slaves. Many slaves were used as domestic servants and harem eunuchs, but they could also be used as craftsmen, seamen, pearl divers, fishermen,

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informed the UN that there were still slave trade to Saudi Arabia despite the emancipation edict of 1962, Saudi Arabia threatened to call a debate questioning the prerogatives status of the NGOs since such "wild accusations" risked turning the UN to a center "for vindictive, and acrimonious

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1957 as “gigantic Nubian slaves toting jeweled daggers and machine guns” protected Saud. The open display of slavery during the state visit caused a highwater mark for domestic protests against the US–Saudi partnership, including condemnations from both the African-American press and the

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In the 1960s, the institution of slavery had become an international embarrassment for Saudi Arabia. It was used as a platform of Egyptian propaganda, as an issue of complaint from the United Nations, as well as by progressive internal opposition. In Januari 1961 the Egyptian newspaper

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In June 1962, the king issued a decree prohibiting the sale and purchase of humans. This did not abolish slavery itself however, as was evident when the king's son Prince Talal stated in August 1962 that he had decided to free his 32 slaves and fifty slave concubines. In November 1962,

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activity of the foreign consuls was met with formal cooperation by the Arabian authorities but greatly disliked by the local population, and it was common for slaves seeking asylum to disappear between seeking asylum and the moment the consul could arrange a place for them on a boat.

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normally denied any involvement in such affairs when they were questioned by the British, but one British report in the Foreign Office noted that twelve Baluchi slaves who had been returned to Ibn Saud had been executed, three of whom were beheaded in front of the Royal Palace. The

2090:

Egypt and Hejaz were also the recipients of Indian women trafficked via Aden and Goa. Since Britain banned the slave trade in its colonies, 19th century British-ruled Aden was no longer a recipient of slaves and the slaves sent from Ethiopia to Arabia were shipped to Hejaz instead.

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In the UN debate against slavery in 1957, Saudi Arabia was at the center of the debate since it was the hub of the slave trade network of the Arabian Peninsula, which kidnapped and enslaved people from Africa, the Aden Protectorate, the Trucial States, Baluchistan, and further away.

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A former Royal Air Force pilot, who trafficked slaves from Africa into Arabia in the 1950s, stated: “That's where all roads end … Arabia”, since Saudi Arabia was the center and end station of modern chattel slavery at the time, and drove the expanding slave trade market after WWII.

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and having sex with his entire harem of Circassian and Georgian women. The chief black eunuch was not castrated correctly so he was still able to impregnate and the women were drowned as punishment. 12 Georgian women were shipped to replace the drowned concubines.

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Emancipating “The Unfortunates”: The Anti-slavery Society, the United States, the United Nations, and the Decades-Long Fight to Abolish the Saudi Arabian Slave Trade. DeAntonis, Nicholas J. Fordham University ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2021. 28499257. p.

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and other parts of Hejaz. The southwest and southern parts of Ethiopia supplied most of the girls being exported by Ethiopian slave traders to India and Arabia. Female and male slaves from Ethiopia made up the main supply of slaves to India and the Middle East.

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in the 1920s stated that Arab men viewed buying concubines on the slave market as a cheaper alternative to marriage, and girls where sold for different prices depending on race; with African Ethiopian girls being sold for 100$ , while Christian Chinese girls

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Slave labor is described in the territory of modern Saudi Arabia for centuries. In the 8th-century, slave labor was used in the mines of Asir, and in the 11th-century, slaves performed manual labor in the oasis of Al-Ahsa. During the Middle Ages, the first

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formally banned the Red Sea slave trade, but it was not enforced in the Ottoman Provinces in the Arabian Peninsula. In 1908, the Ottoman Empire nominally abolished slavery, but this law was not enforced in the Arabian Peninsula by the Ottoman authorities.

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The English traveler Charles M. Doughty, who visited Central Arabia in the 1880s, noted that African slaves were brought up to Arabia every year during the hajj, and that "there are bondsmen and bondwomen and free negro families in every tribe and town".

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The biggest domestic protests came from the African American press, who cited the report of the Anti-Slavery Society's report at the Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery in Geneva in 1956, that there were 500,000 slaves in Saudi Arabia.

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since antiquity. While in Pre-Islamic Arabia, Arab war captives were common targets of slavery, and it appears that slaves were also imported from Ethiopia across the Red Sea. The red sea slave trade appears to have been established by at least the

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lived like beasts, that they were much better off as slaves, and that if he had his way he would take all (West African) pilgrims as his slaves, raising them thus out of their depraved state and turning them into happy, prosperous and civilised

2681:“We deplore sorrowfully the circumstances that made it necessary to coddle in our bosom a heartless, unsympathetic, unjust , the immoral monarch who is the antithesis of every single ideal for which American blood has been copiously spilled.” 2221:

that these were residents of Buraimi, arriving to visiting relatives. In practice, however, these people were trafficked from Buraimi to the slave markets in Saudi Arabia until the air flight slave trade was banned by Prince Feisal in 1962.

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covered the case of an African chief who fled to Libya from Mali in 1960 after having been wanted by the colonial French police for selling a large number of men, women and children on the Hajj to Saudi Arabia. In 1961-1962, the British

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2610:'s internal reports noted an upswing in the slave trade to Saudi Arabia after WWII, but preferred to turn a blind eye to it to avoid international exposure of their own Gulf Sheikh allies’ complicity in the slave trade. 2130:

died out, Muslim-African Hajj pilgrims across the Sahara were duped or given low-cost travel expenses by tribal leaders. When they arrived at the East Coast, they were trafficked over the Red Sea in the dhows of the

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The anti - Husayn position was also taken by Idaran Zaman who reported that twenty beautiful young Javanese girls were found in the palace of his son, Sharif ' Ali in Jeddah. These girls were used as his concubines

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HISTORY OF CIRCUMCISION FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT. Moral and Physical Reasons for its Performance, with a HISTORY OF EUNUCHISM, HERMAPHRODISM, ETC., AND OF THE DIFFERENT OPERATIONS PRACTICED UPON THE

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Royal slaves, in the form of bodyguards and servants were present during official meetings between the Saudi monarch and foreign dignitaries, such as the meeting between the Saudi King and the American President

3650: 2070:; from Aceh, the Mui Tsai girls could be exported further for sale to Arabia. This slave trade were officially called adoptions in order to avoid scrutiny from the authorities, since the colonial powers in the 1878:, in which foreign workers are tied to a single employer for the duration of their time in Saudi Arabia, and often have their passports confiscated, has been described by human-rights organizations as a form of 5729: 4894: 2703:, as well as from the newly decolonized African states, whose own citizens were the most common victims of the slave trade to the Arabian Peninsula, and whose good will was necessary for Kennedy's anti Soviet 2660:

The Eisenhower Administration did not wish to acknowledge the ongoing slavery in Saudi Arabia, but domestic American criticism came not only from the African-American press but from the national press, the

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actively campaigned against the slavery and slave trade in the Arabian Peninsula from the conclusion of World War II until the 1970s, and particularly publicized Saudi Arabia's central role in 20th-century

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and non-consensual contract alterations. The Government of Saudi Arabia does not comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking and is not making significant efforts to do so.

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Female slaves were also given as gifts between rulers: in November 1948, for example, the ruler of Dubai gifted a number of female slaves to King Ibn Saud and his sons for a car and 10,000 ryals.

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and other online social networks by kafala system employers, "kafils", to "sell" domestic workers to other kafils, in violation of Saudi law. ALQST described the online trading as "slavery 2.0".

1882:. The labor performed by Kafala workers is similar to labor previously performed by slaves, and the workers often come from similar parts of the world from which slaves were previously imported. 2828:, also attracted media attention. Both had been promised jobs as hospital cleaning staff but were tricked into becoming household servants. Begum died in Saudi Arabia of an untreated illness. 1955:

in regard to the slavery and slave trade. Ottoman anti slavery laws where not enforced in practice, particularly not in Hejaz; the first attempt to ban the Red Sea slave trade in 1857, the

2018:, one of the arenas comprising what has been called the "Islamic slave trade", "Oriental slave trade", or "Arab slave trade" of enslaved people from sub-Saharan Africa to the Muslim world. 2543:

that Britain (for reasons of diplomacy) could not interfere in slavery in Muslim states, and France criticized Britain for "allowing" (by refusing to interfere in), the slavery in Arabia.

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Dropping the stipulation of sponsor consent for exit visas, final exit visas, re-entry visas, and change of sponsor, so long as they are to be applied for after the end of a contractual

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agenda in the Global South. The Kennedy administration therefore put pressure on Saudi Arabia to introduce "modernization reforms", a request which was heavily directed against slavery.

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conquest of the Caucasus and Central Asia in the mid 19th-century, after which Baluchi and "Red" Ethiopian (Oromo and Sidamo) women became the preferred targets for sexual slavery.

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The Buraimi Oasis was a staging post in a neutral border zone, mutually administered by Britain and Saudi Arabia and manned by Trucial Scouts, an Arab force with British officers.

2527:. In the 1932, the League of Nations asked all member countries to include anti-slavery commitment in any treaties they made with all Arab states. In 1932 the League formed the 2531:(CES) to review the result and enforcement of the 1926 Slavery Convention, which resulted in a new international investigation under the first permanent slavery committee, the 5488: 2574:, there was growing international pressure from the United Nations to end the slave trade. In 1948, the United Nations declared slavery to be a crime against humanity in the 5734: 5693: 3482:

Zdanowski J. Slavery in the Gulf in the First Half of the 20th Century : A Study Based on Records from the British Archives. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Askon; 2008

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in response to the case of Sumi Akter, who claimed "merciless sexual assaults", being locked up for 15 days, and having her hands burnt by hot oil by her Saudi employers.

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A British report from 1934 described the price of a "town-trained" marriageble girl at the Saudi market as 150 in gold 1931, but 50 in 1934 because of the depression.

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In 1936, Saudi Arabia formally banned the import of slaves who were not already slaves prior to entering the kingdom, a reform which was however on paper only. King

2002:(1916–1925). Hejaz did not consider itself obliged to obey the laws and treaties signed by the Ottoman Empire in regard to slavery and the slave trade. During the 2956: 5658: 5633: 5548: 5528: 5478: 5448: 5438: 4174: 5744: 5623: 2038:

going to be given a better life as slaves in Arabia. The slaves were delivered to Arabian slave traders by the coast and shipped across the Red Sea to Jeddah.

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Some of those freed slaves continued working for their former slave-owners, particularly those whose former owners were members of the royal family. When the

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In 1933, Saudi Arabia asked Britain to support their application for membership in the League of Nations, but despite their normal policy to avoid upsetting

4428: 5578: 5433: 2646: 2591: 2159: 1411: 783: 520: 1867:, growing international pressure eventually resulted in the formal abolition of the practice. Slavery was formally abolished in 1962. Many members of the 1847:(the western region of modern day Saudi Arabia), which encompasses approximately 12% of the total land area of Saudi Arabia, was under the control of the 5708: 5513: 5473: 4465: 3473:

Meillassoux, C. (1991). The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold. Storbritannien: University of Chicago Press. p45

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or on small passenger planes, and discovered upon arrival in Saudi Arabia that they were to be sold on the slave market rather than to perform the Hajj.

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Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. s. 88–90

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Mirzai, B. A. (2017). A History of Slavery and Emancipation in Iran, 1800-1929. USA: University of Texas Press. p. 56-57

2489:, was a turning point in banning global slavery. The Red Sea slave trade and the slavery in the Hejaz attracted attention during this point in time. 5154: 3951:

Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: Alta Mira Press. 254

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Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: Alta Mira Press. 254

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Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: Alta Mira Press. 255

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Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. 255

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Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. 262

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Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. 262

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was murdered by the underground prostitution mafia she used to work for after running away from her employer's home and buried without a coffin in

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Similar to the defenders of slavery in the American South, slavery in Islamic societies has been described as a benevolent institution, and King

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to Saudi Arabia were still very much active in the 1950s; the French consul in Ethiopia reported of a shipment of ninety Africans exported from

2021:

By the 20th-century, slaves were primarily trafficked from West Africa, East Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, the Levant, and South-Western Asia.

835: 4604: 2535:(ACE) in 1934-1939. In the 1930s, Saudi Arabia and the rest of the Arabian Peninsula was the main center of legal chattel slavery. In 1932, 4294: 3381:

Clarence-Smith, W. G. (2007). Eunuchs and Concubines in the History of Islamic Southeast Asia. Manusya: Journal of Humanities, 10(4), 8-19.

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Clarence-Smith, W. G. (2007). Eunuchs and Concubines in the History of Islamic Southeast Asia. Manusya: Journal of Humanities, 10(4), 8-19.

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United Nations Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery

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find it difficult to return home after perceived mistreatment by their employers. The women often end up falling into prostitution.

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The slavery and slave trade in the Arabian Peninsula, and particular in Saudi Arabia (Kingdom of Hejaz), attracted attention by the

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them and then taking them on the Hajj, where they were, with their families later told that the women had died during the journey.

1581: 1401: 574: 5678: 5007: 1739: 2404:, eunuchs of Indian, Byzantine (Greek) and African heritage are noted as the guards of the grave of Prophet Muhammed in Medina. 3164:

Miran, J. (2022, April 20). Red Sea Slave Trade. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History. Retrieved 21 Aug. 2023, from

3040: 2230: 1891: 1801: 845: 263: 4576: 4552: 3975:

Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: Alta Mira Press. p. 326

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Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: Alta Mira Press. p. 216

3622: 3424: 2550:, Britain was unable to grant the request to support Saudi membership, since chattel slavery was still legal in Saudi Arabia. 4789: 4560: 3915:

Miers, Suzanne (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. USA: Alta Mira Press, pp. 100-121

3264: 2840: 2594:. The Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery filed a report on the chattel slavery in Saudi Arabia during the 1950-1951 investigation. 2575: 1423: 1100: 872: 4196: 3586:

Women and Slavery: Africa, the Indian Ocean world, and the medieval north Atlantic. (2007). Grekland: Ohio University Press.

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Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 17

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Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 17

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In the 1930s and 1940s, it was reported that Baluchi slaves from Baluchistan were shipped to Saudi Arabia via Oman and the

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from 1517 to 1918, and as such nominally obeyed the Ottoman laws. When the area became an independent nation first as the

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previously specified in the contract. Other requirements may still apply in case of applying within a contractual term.

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Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. USA: AltaMira Press. p. 348-349

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Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. USA: AltaMira Press. p. 348-349

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Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. USA: AltaMira Press. p. 348-349

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The Arabian Seas: The Indian Ocean World of the Seventeenth Century: The Indian Ocean World of the Seventeenth Century

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within the United Nations, but their efforts was long opposed by the lack of support from London and Washington. The

1917: 1916:

Historically, the institution of slavery in the region of the later Saudi Arabia was reflected in the institution of

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The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery Throughout History. (2023). Tyskland: Springer International Publishing. 143

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The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery Throughout History. (2023). Tyskland: Springer International Publishing. 144

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Sawyer, R. (n.d.). Slavery in the Twentieth Century. Storbritannien: Taylor & Francis.

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Sawyer, R. (n.d.). Slavery in the Twentieth Century. Storbritannien: Taylor & Francis.

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Sawyer, R. (n.d.). Slavery in the Twentieth Century. Storbritannien: Taylor & Francis.

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Sawyer, R. (n.d.). Slavery in the Twentieth Century. Storbritannien: Taylor & Francis.

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Sawyer, R. (n.d.). Slavery in the Twentieth Century. Storbritannien: Taylor & Francis.

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in April 2021 documented abuses of female migrant workers in Saudi Arabia. A 22-year-old woman migrant worker from

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Since the British Consulate had opened in Jeddah in the 1870s, the British had used their diplomatic privileges to

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Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. USA: AltaMira Press. p. 362

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Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. USA: AltaMira Press. p. 362

1346: 5833: 5310: 5258: 5034: 4966: 4824: 2804: 2540: 2528: 2242: 1937: 1929: 1907: 1625: 1396: 202: 4568: 4544: 4536: 4214: 5084: 4829: 4678: 4116: 4020: 4002: 3962: 3942:

Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. USA: AltaMira Press. 204

3768: 3734: 3704: 3677:"Margins Of The Market: Trafficking And Capitalism Across The Arabian Sea [PDF] [4ss44p0ar0h0]" 3324: 2359: 1095: 1083: 663: 475: 121: 4461: 3822:

History of circumcision, from the earliest times to the present Moral and physical reasons for its performance

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History of Circumcision from the Earliest Times to the Present: Moral and Physical Reasons for its Performance

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https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-868

2775:, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Kenya migrate voluntarily to Saudi Arabia; some fall into conditions of 2246: 2143:

travelers sold their servants or poor travel companions in the Hajj, in order to pay for their travel costs.

1952: 1933: 1911: 1667: 1450: 311: 2744:

in the harems and that there were no information as to whether the abolition of slavery had affected them.

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pointed out that there was about one million slaves in the Arabian Peninsula, which was a crime against the

5181: 5127: 5022: 4971: 4951: 4867: 4839: 4809: 4590: 4518: 3881: 2901: 2478: 2419: 2299: 2277: 1672: 1516: 1386: 1047: 815: 795: 355: 323: 3451:. Vol. 74 of Social, Economic and Political Studies of the Middle East and Asia. BRILL. p. 152. 2665:, average citizens, and the United States Senate, who denounced the US partnership with the “Slave King.” 42: 5803: 5221: 5161: 4997: 4904: 4872: 4673: 2927:. Due to the practice of some sponsors who confiscate the passports of migrant workers, young women from 2587: 2520: 2166:

described Saudi Arabia and Yemen as the only remaining states were slavery was still a legal institution:

2155: 1732: 1682: 1406: 1324: 451: 232: 52: 4359: 2481:(TSC), and a convention was drawn up to hasten the total abolition of slavery and the slave trade. The 5823: 5598: 5246: 5117: 5039: 2732: 2657:. King Saud's “toleration of slavery” caused city-wide protests during his visit to New York in 1957. 2598: 2579: 2217: 1591: 1443: 1428: 1319: 515: 185: 4429:"Ministry of Human Resources and Social Development Launches Labor Reforms for Private Sector Workers" 2783:, non-payment or delayed payment of wages, the withholding of travel documents, restrictions on their 2728:, who himself personally did not own slaves, finally prohibited the owning of slaves in Saudi Arabia. 5186: 5149: 5144: 5079: 4889: 4857: 4847: 4739: 4697: 2759:

In 1962, Saudi Arabia abolished slavery officially; however, unofficial slavery is rumored to exist.

2630: 2194: 2127: 2011: 1771: 1687: 1586: 1117: 1105: 695: 668: 173: 2324:, Armenian girls flooded the Syrian slave market and many ended up in the harems of central Arabia. 5808: 5420: 5396: 5292: 5280: 5263: 5176: 5112: 4961: 4918: 4763: 4749: 3655:. Vol. 24 of California World History Library. University of California Press. pp. 71–2. 3030: 2817:

women went to Saudi Arabia under the kafala system. In early November 2019, protests took place in

2662: 2654: 2216:, slaves started to be imported by aircraft. A report by a British officer in Buraimi informed the 2213: 2015: 1821:

Jubail, 1935. The Pearling industry in the region at the time was dominated by African slave labor.

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market were kidnapped not only from Africa and Baluchistan, but also from the Trucial States, the

343: 5648: 5568: 5349: 5287: 5208: 5171: 5074: 4985: 4941: 4719: 4625: 3020: 2825: 2583: 2504: 2497: 2482: 1652: 1391: 1341: 1042: 820: 764: 747: 178: 2418:

being brought to Constantinople for trial for impregnating a Circassian concubine of the Sharif

5538: 5533: 5428: 5320: 5226: 5017: 4688: 2909: 2725: 2607: 2251: 1725: 1694: 1199: 940: 852: 700: 424: 390: 385: 4324: 4239: 5365: 5275: 5268: 5253: 5241: 5231: 5132: 5122: 4936: 3085: 2776: 2763: 2696: 2436: 1561: 1416: 1329: 1314: 996: 984: 730: 715: 500: 275: 197: 168: 3802: 2870:. Effective on 14 March 2021, the new measures are meant to curb the kafala system through: 2103:

pilgrimage. Already in the middle ages, the Hajj played a role in the slave trade; in 1416,

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between 1517 and 1918, and as such it nominally adhered to the same laws as the rest of the

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published a series depicting slave auctions of Sudanese slaves in Jeddah in Saudi Arabia.

8: 5718: 5638: 5593: 5573: 5563: 5463: 5389: 5370: 4488:"Crude burial of 22-year-old highlights plight of female migrant workers in Saudi Arabia" 2784: 2638: 2619: 2524: 2209: 2208:

When the British patrolling against slave ships on sea became more effective against the

2132: 2007: 1977: 1187: 1167: 1052: 1037: 906: 877: 867: 757: 705: 673: 470: 328: 296: 291: 244: 101: 5663: 5558: 5443: 5054: 4926: 4779: 4658: 4643: 4638: 4633: 3035: 2832: 2700: 2006:, the Kingdom of Hejaz was internationally known as a regional slave trade center. The 1856: 1433: 1279: 1254: 1244: 1209: 1204: 1172: 1137: 1130: 1071: 1064: 921: 740: 735: 725: 495: 348: 306: 301: 254: 222: 212: 149: 4360:"'As If I Am Not Human' — Abuses against Asian Domestic Workers in Saudi Arabia (pdf)" 2414:

was traveling down the Red Sea in the 1860s when he saw the chief black eunuch of the

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Egypt and Hejaz were also the recipients of Indian women trafficked via Aden and Goa.

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THE BLACK EUNUCHS OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE: Networks of Power in the Court of the Sultan

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The Black Eunuchs of the Ottoman Empire: Networks of Power in the Court of the Sultan

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An African Indian Community in Hyderabad: Siddi Identity, Its Maintenance and Change

5668: 5628: 5603: 5583: 5518: 5493: 5483: 5468: 4931: 4668: 3090: 3075: 2885: 2717: 2674: 2586:, and demanded that the UN form a committee to handle the issue. The UN formed the 2375: 2351: 1999: 1852: 1829:

Said el Feisal (back-right) with Prince Faisal (centre) and delegation at Versaille

1711: 1289: 1284: 1274: 1249: 1214: 1182: 1152: 1025: 1013: 991: 969: 916: 752: 720: 22: 1991:, when enslaved Africans were trafficked across the Red Sea to Arabia and Yemen. 5588: 5553: 5508: 5503: 5412: 4663: 3530: 3080: 3070: 3065: 2691: 2603: 2415: 2411: 2363: 2079: 2003: 1960: 1940:(1916–1925), realms which all included the region later to become Saudi Arabia. 1860: 1620: 1511: 1506: 1259: 1229: 1224: 947: 911: 710: 628: 333: 79: 4325:"'As If I Am Not Human' — Abuses against Asian Domestic Workers in Saudi Arabia" 4899: 2645:. The British Anti Slavery Society failed to pass stricter enforcements at the 2163: 1956: 1948: 1879: 1848: 1704: 1598: 490: 131: 89: 4521:

was the Sharif of Mecca during Raoul du Bisson's time in the Red Sea in 1863-5

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was founded, they conducted an international investigation of slavery via the

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remarked to the British legation officer Munshi Ihsanullah that West Africans:

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After the abolition of slavery, poor migrant workers were employed under the

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Camel Caravan to Mecca, 1910, when the Hajj was a part of the slave trade.

2836: 2780: 2704: 2673:, described King Saud as “the world's foremost patron of slavery”, and the 2571: 2536: 2508: 1864: 1838: 1776: 1647: 1484: 1460: 1366: 1359: 1090: 618: 591: 554: 532: 419: 136: 116: 94: 84: 74: 69: 59: 3639:

Clarence-Smith, W. (2020). Islam and the Abolition of Slavery. USA: Hurst.

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Islam in Nineteenth-Century Wallo, Ethiopia: Revival, Reform and Reaction

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General view of Medina in 1908, when it was a center of the slave trade.

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Ethiopia made up the main supply of slaves to India and the Middle East.

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Margins of the Market: Trafficking and Capitalism across the Arabian Sea

3137: 3135: 4396:"En Arabie saoudite, des employées de maison sont vendues sur Internet" 3286:

The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century

2920: 2814: 2104: 1983: 1637: 934: 638: 505: 4398:[In Saudi Arabia, domestic workers are sold on the Internet]. 3763:(illustrated, reprint ed.). The Minerva Group, Inc. p. 101. 1959:, resulted in Hejaz being explictitly exempted from the ban after the 3132: 2916: 2867: 2848: 2772: 2637:

by a retreat from the UN, and made Saudi Arabia a cornerstone of the

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Female slaves were primarily used as either domestic servants, or as

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