482:...postwar U.S planners had to contend with a region uniquely constituted of potential rogue allies, through their aggressive behaviour, could potentially entrap the United States in an unwanted wider war in Asia... To avoid this outcome, the United States created a series of tight, deep bilateral alliances with Taiwan, South Korea, and Japan through which it could exercise maximum control and prevent unilateral aggression. Furthermore, it did not seek to make these bilateral alliances multilateral, because it wanted to amplify U.S. control and minimize any collusion among its partners.
361:, although these are not in themselves incompatible with larger accords. The original sponsor of post-war multilateralism in economic regimes, the United States, turned towards unilateral action and in trade and other negotiations as a result of dissatisfaction with the outcomes of multilateral fora. As the most powerful nation, the United States had the least to lose from abandoning multilateralism; the weakest nations have the most to lose, but the cost for all would be high. Aside from changes in the US,
342:
powers and maximize their leverage by forging a series of bilateral arrangements with allies, rather than see that leverage diluted in a multilateral forum. Arguably, the Bush administration favoured bilateralism over multilateralism, or even unilateralism, for similar reasons. Rather than going it alone or going it with others, the administration opted for intensive one-on-one relationships with handpicked countries that maximized the U.S. capacity to achieve its objectives.
134:. These multilateral institutions are not imposed on states but are created and accepted by them to increase their ability to seek their own interests through the coordination of their policies. Moreover, they serve as frameworks that constrain opportunistic behaviour and encourage coordination by facilitating the exchange of information about the actual behaviour of states regarding the standards to which they have consented.
169:
policy that flowed from our recent history and our national movement and its development and various ideals, we have proclaimed. (Nehru, 1961, p. 34). In fact, the foreign policy culture of India is an elite culture, meaning, in effect, that the writings and speeches of select leading figures of the Indian foreign policy elite provide an insight into the key ideas and norms constituting the foundation of
213:) in an attempt to prevent a similar conflict. Although the League of Nations failed in its security mission, it initiated a variety of specialized organizations that continue to operate today. Moreover, although the US did not join, it did provide a degree of support from individual Americans and American philanthropies that started a tradition of public and private participation.
95:
small powers rarely have the resources to exert control on their own. As such, power disparities are accommodated to the weaker states by having more predictable bigger states and means to achieve control through collective action. Powerful states also buy into multilateral agreements by writing the rules and having privileges such as veto power and special status.
341:
These challenges presented by the U.S. could be explained by a strong belief in bilateral alliances as instruments of control. Liberal institutionalists would argue, though, that great powers might still opt for a multilateral alliance. But great powers can amplify their capabilities to control small
94:
Embedding the target state in a multilateral alliance reduces the costs borne by the power-seeking control, but it also offers the same binding benefits of the
Lilliputian strategy. Furthermore, if a small power seeks control over another small power, multilateralism may be the only choice, because
345:
Another challenge in global governance through multilateralism involves national sovereignty. Regardless of the erosion of nation-states' legal and operational sovereignty in international relations, "nation-states remain the ultimate locus of authoritative decision making regarding most facets of
60:
strategy of small countries banding together to collectively bind a larger one can be effective. Similarly, multilateralism may allow one great power to influence another great power. For a great power to seek control through bilateral ties could be costly; it may require bargaining and compromise
168:
The foreign policy that India formulated after independence reflected its idiosyncratic culture and political traditions. Speaking in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the
Parliament of India, in March 1950, Nehru affirmed: “It should not be supposed that we are starting on a clean slate. It is a
86:
he defined it as "an institutional form which coordinates relations among three or more states based on 'generalized' principles of conduct ... which specify appropriate conduct for a class of actions, without regard to particularistic interests of the parties or the strategic exigencies that may
216:
After the Second World War the victors, drawing upon experience from the League's failure, created the United
Nations in 1945. Since then, the "breadth and diversity" of multilateral arrangements have escalated. Unlike the League, the UN had the active participation of the United States and the
43:
One of the key advantages of multilateralism is that it enables countries to solve problems that transcend national boundaries, such as climate change, terrorism, and pandemics, through shared responsibility and burden-sharing. However, multilateralism is not without its challenges. The rise of
457:
argued that: power asymmetries predict the type of structures, bilateral or multilateral, that offer the most control. If small powers try to control a larger one, then multilateralism is effective. But if great powers seek control over smaller ones, bilateral alliances are more effective.
752:
Keohane, Robert O. "Multilateralism: An Agenda for
Research." International Journal, 45 (Autumn 1990), 731.; see for a definition of the special features of "regional multilateralism" Michael, Arndt (2013). India's Foreign Policy and Regional Multilateralism (Palgrave Macmillan), pp.
129:
aside from participation in the United
Nations (by consolidating their UN vote in a voting bloc with other nations, for example.) Multilateralism may involve several nations acting together, as in the UN, or may involve regional or military alliances, pacts, or groupings, such as
200:
Industrial and colonial competition, combined with shifts in the balance of power after the creation - by diplomacy and conquest - of
Germany by Prussia meant cracks were appearing in this system by the turn of the 20th century. The concert system was utterly destroyed by the
461:
Thus, a country's decision to select bilateralism or multilateralism when enacting foreign policies is greatly affected by its size and power, as well as the size and power of the country over which it seeks to control. Take the example of
452:
Bilateralism means coordination with another single country. Multilateralism has attempted to find common ground based on generalized principles of conduct, in addition to details associated with a particular agreement.
149:
dates from the time of the earliest development of political communities, where economic and political relations naturally had a strong regionalist focus due to restrictions on technology, trade, and communications.
1722:
31:
of multiple countries pursuing a common goal. Multilateralism is based on the principles of inclusivity, equality, and cooperation, and aims to foster a more peaceful, prosperous, and sustainable world.
807:
87:
exist in any occurrence." He further clarified that multilateralism is 'a unique product of US global hegemony not necessarily a post-war
American invention', but a reflection of post-war 'American
294:, that the United States is more inclined to act unilaterally in situations with international implications. This trend began when the U.S. Senate, in October 1999, refused to ratify the
141:
and
Emirhan Yorulmazlar, suggesting that "contemporary problems can be better solved at the regional rather than the bilateral or global levels" and that bringing together the concept of
1727:
221:, the world's then greatest contemporary powers. Along with the political institutions of the UN, the post-war years also saw the development of organizations such as the
44:
populism, nationalism, and protectionism in some countries has raised concerns about the future of multilateralism and the effectiveness of international cooperation.
287:, which has led countries such as Iran, China and India to question the UN's relevance. Concurrently, a perception developed among internationalists such as former
466:. Many references discuss how the United States interacts with other nations. In particular, the United States chose multilateralism in Europe and decided to form
245:. Formation of these and other subsequent bodies under the United Nations made the new system more powerful than the old League system. Moreover, United Nations
1278:
718:
269:
165:. Other authors have used the term "minilateralism" to refer to the fewest states required to get the biggest results through this institutional form.
1763:
1737:
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72:
discriminatory arrangements that were believed to enhance the leverage of the powerful over the weak and to increase international conflict.";
1999:
1249:
56:, and gives small powers a voice and influence that they could not otherwise exercise. For a small power to influence a great power, the
1939:
1483:
350:
asserted that nation-states are "unlikely to embrace abstract obligations that clash with concrete calculations of national interest."
826:, "One world, many worlds: the place of regions in the study of international society," International Affairs, 83:1, 2007, pp 127-146.
1877:
82:
further elaborated the concept in his influential writings on multilateralism. Based on principles of "indivisibility" and "diffuse
265:
193:, as it became known, was a group of great and lesser powers that would meet to resolve issues peacefully. Conferences such as the
2049:
1809:
1462:
288:
1566:
910:
Adogame, Afe (2004). "The Berlin-Congo
Conference 1884: The Partition of Africa and Implications for Christian Mission Today".
222:
1085:
887:
792:
695:
668:
261:
146:
83:
606:
Efstathopoulos, Charalampos (March 4, 2023). "Global IR and the middle power concept: exploring different paths to agency".
1666:
1640:
765:
John Ruggie, "Multilateralism: the anatomy of an institution, "International
Organization, 46:3, summer 1992, pp 561-598.
548:
528:
463:
1804:
1747:
1520:
1037:
52:
Multilateralism, in the form of membership in international institutions, serves to bind powerful nations, discourage
1893:
1814:
1742:
1732:
1712:
1242:
1164:
988:
853:
687:
OECD Science, Technology and Innovation Outlook 2021 Times of Crisis and Opportunity: Times of Crisis and Opportunity
743:
Kahler, Miles. "Multilateralism with Small and Large Numbers." International Organization, 46, 3 (Summer 1992),681.
1195:
Multilateralism and the World Trade Organisation: The Architecture and Extension of International Trade Regulation
1129:
Cha, Victor D. "Powerplay: Origins of the US alliance system in Asia." International Security 34.3 (2010): 165-166
775:
Acharya, Amitava (2018-06-28), Weiss, Thomas G; Daws, Sam (eds.), "Multilateralism and the Changing World Order",
197:
in 1884 helped reduce power conflicts during this period, and the 19th century was one of Europe's most peaceful.
2054:
1691:
1686:
1656:
1258:
1052:
Cha, Victor D. "Powerplay: Origins of the US alliance system in Asia." International Security 34.3 (2010):166-167
1210:
963:
518:
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Global multilateralism is challenged, particularly with respect to trade, by regional arrangements such as the
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One modern instance of multilateralism occurred in the nineteenth century in Europe after the end of the
98:
37:
1903:
1500:
523:
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has proven to be problematic to multilateralism in recent years. Results from direct elections to the
1707:
1488:
1371:
936:"The United Nations: An Introduction for Students." UN News Center. UN, n.d. Web. 25 Sept. 2013. <
628:
242:
362:
1913:
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106:
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defined it as "the practice of coordinating national policies in groups of three or more states."
1934:
1819:
1530:
170:
126:
109:, are multilateral in nature. The main proponents of multilateralism have traditionally been the
20:
241:' institutions), and other technical institutions that were part of the UN system—including the
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2004:
1908:
1590:
685:
660:
57:
784:
1989:
1381:
869:
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The multilateral system has encountered mounting challenges since the end of the Cold War.
238:
194:
162:
142:
8:
1984:
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366:
319:
254:
1723:
Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC)
1147:
Does the UN Model Still Work? Challenges and Prospects for the Future of Multilateralism
1013:
Does the UN Model Still Work? Challenges and Prospects for the Future of Multilateralism
937:
581:
475:
186:
154:
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1203:
Swords into plowshares : the problems and progress of international organization
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994:
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474:, in East Asia. Although there are many arguments about the reasons for this, Cha's "
253:(NATO) was formed as a defensive alliance that used the multilateral form to promote
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65:
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stationed around the world became a visible symbol of multilateralism. Later, the
118:
619:
1431:
1419:
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538:
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When enacting foreign policies, governments face a choice between unilateralism,
182:
36:
play a crucial role in the international system by promoting multilateralism and
2020:
1959:
1944:
1840:
1783:
1778:
1424:
1366:
1361:
1313:
1308:
1303:
1283:
1064:
Stanley Hoffmann, “World governance: beyond utopia,” Daedalus, 132:1, pp 27-35.
981:
Swords into plowshares: the problems and progress of international organization
923:
823:
503:
354:
307:
303:
284:
210:
138:
102:
73:
2043:
1609:
1414:
1408:
1220:
719:"The future of multilateralism: three hard facts, three needs and one belief"
637:
585:
315:
260:
Multilateral institutions of varying scope and subject matter range from the
158:
122:
53:
33:
998:
575:
1356:
1028:
Hook, Steven & Spanier, John (2007). "Chapter 12: America Under Fire".
446:
299:
246:
218:
110:
69:
879:
1979:
1974:
1728:
Conference on Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia (CICA)
1630:
1396:
1376:
1351:
1330:
1325:
1319:
202:
79:
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give evidence to this claim, as Eurosceptic parties have made advances.
283:
The United States became increasingly dominant in terms of military and
1949:
1386:
1335:
1298:
1293:
454:
432:
291:
230:
64:
Miles Kahler defines multilateralism as "international governance" or
1676:
508:
88:
28:
114:
185:, where the great powers met to redraw the map of Europe at the
1173:(New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2014), pp. 96–101.
1145:
Kim Fontaine-Skronski, Valériane Thool & Norbert Eschborn,
1101:
1011:
Kim Fontaine-Skronski, Valériane Thool & Norbert Eschborn,
306:
the United States rejected such multilateral agreements as the
16:
Alliance between multiple countries in pursuit of a common goal
761:
759:
577:
Adjusting the Multilateral System to Safeguard Dutch Interests
1995:
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
1964:
1929:
1898:
1717:
1102:"Home | 2019 European election results | European Parliament"
808:
Regional multilateralism: The next paradigm in global affairs
493:
358:
322:
and a draft protocol to ensure compliance by States with the
1073:
1060:
1058:
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with that of multilateralism is necessary in today's world.
1994:
1899:
Australia–New Zealand–United States Security Treaty (ANZUS)
1845:
1681:
756:
467:
250:
131:
68:
of the "many," and its central principle was "opposition
1969:
1636:
Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (GCC)
1169:
Nicola Contessi, "Multilateralism" in Joel Krieger (ed.)
1055:
137:
The term "regional multilateralism" has been proposed by
1738:
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)
1672:
Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC)
574:
Wijk, Rob de; Thompson, Jack; Chavannes, Esther (2020).
1954:
1589:
651:
Laurence, Marion (October 18, 2023). "Middle Powers".
1125:
1123:
1121:
938:
http://www.un.org/cyberschoolbus/unintro/unintro3.htm
653:
Oxford Research Encyclopedia of International Studies
573:
125:, while smaller ones may have little direct power in
2000:
Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF)
1257:
270:
Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons
1074:Iain McLean; Alistair McMillan (26 February 2009).
871:
India's Foreign Policy and Regional Multilateralism
1764:Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation
1118:
1067:
951:
836:Brummer, Chris (2014), "Managing Minilateralism",
478:" theory provides one possible reason. He argued:
874:(1 ed.). London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan UK.
378:Powerplay: Bilateral versus Multilateral Control
205:. After that conflict, world leaders created the
2041:
840:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 165–198,
437:Powerplay: Bilateral versus Multilateral Control
1985:India–Brazil–South Africa Dialogue Forum (IBSA)
1200:
978:
554:World Federation of United Nations Associations
372:
1930:Brazil–Russia–India–China–South Africa (BRICS)
1810:Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO)
1718:Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
1185:The International Politics of the Asia-Pacific
1176:Edward Newman, Ramesh Rhakur and John Tirman,
605:
470:, while it formed bilateral alliances, or the
302:had signed in September 1996. Under President
113:, such as Canada, Australia, Switzerland, the
1243:
779:, Oxford University Press, pp. 780–796,
1171:Oxford Companion to International Relations
1159:(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2020).
1027:
608:Australian Journal of International Affairs
1940:Community of Portuguese Speaking Countries
1667:Central American Integration System (SICA)
1250:
1236:
1030:American Foreign Policy Since World War II
1878:South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone
1846:North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
1682:North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
1641:Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC)
1077:The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics
806:Harris Mylonas and Emirhan Yorulmazlar, "
777:The Oxford Handbook on the United Nations
629:2160/6266dc76-5168-4a2c-8e33-4bd207139ff0
627:
338:and the Soviet Union had signed in 1972.
1894:Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)
1805:Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)
1748:Trilateral Cooperation Secretariat (TCS)
1713:Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)
1692:Union of South American Nations (UNASUR)
949:
650:
266:World Intellectual Property Organization
1815:Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO)
1743:Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)
1733:Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO)
909:
835:
774:
2042:
1567:Composite Index of National Capability
661:10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.013.783
330:, the United States withdrew from the
223:General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
1687:Organization of American States (OAS)
1657:Association of Caribbean States (ACS)
1588:
1231:
1017:https://brill.com/display/title/61341
867:
785:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198803164.013.43
262:International Telecommunication Union
1180:(Tokyo: United Nations Press, 2006).
683:
1463:International relations (1814–1919)
711:
677:
644:
599:
580:(Technical report). p. 17–33.
567:
549:Polarity in international relations
529:North American Free Trade Agreement
464:Foreign Policy of the United States
209:(which became the precursor of the
13:
1774:European Political Community (EPC)
1139:
251:North Atlantic Treaty Organization
189:(November 1814 to June 1815). The
14:
2066:
1157:The Challenges of Multilateralism
1904:Melanesian Spearhead Group (MSG)
1259:Power in international relations
1708:Asia Cooperation Dialogue (ACD)
1178:Multilateralism Under Challenge
1094:
1046:
1021:
1005:
972:
943:
930:
903:
861:
829:
817:
800:
690:. OECD Publishing. p. 42.
2050:International relations theory
1914:Polynesian Leaders Group (PLG)
1820:Eurasian Economic Union (EaEU)
768:
746:
737:
519:Intergovernmental organization
47:
1:
1825:Organization of Turkic States
1662:Caribbean Community (CARICOM)
1453:List of medieval great powers
912:Journal of Religion in Africa
620:10.1080/10357718.2023.2191925
332:Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty
328:George W. Bush administration
324:Biological Weapons Convention
296:Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
275:
1572:Comprehensive National Power
1448:List of ancient great powers
1197:(New York: Routledge, 2000).
846:10.1017/cbo9781107281998.006
373:Comparison with bilateralism
312:International Criminal Court
61:with the other great power.
7:
1909:Pacific Islands Forum (PIF)
1862:Union for the Mediterranean
1615:Union for the Mediterranean
1458:List of modern great powers
1187:(New York: Routledge, 2011)
1080:. OUP Oxford. p. 519.
655:. Oxford University Press.
534:Open Government Partnership
514:Internationalism (politics)
486:
472:Hub and spokes architecture
414:Great power seeking control
235:International Monetary Fund
99:International organizations
10:
2071:
1990:Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)
1501:Hegemonic stability theory
958:. Avery Publishing Group.
950:Ostrower, Gary B. (1996).
924:10.1163/157006604323056778
524:New world order (politics)
346:public and private life".
176:
121:. Larger states often act
2013:
1922:
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1269:
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1032:. CQ Press. p. 305.
430:
320:anti-personnel land mines
243:World Health Organization
1591:Organizations and groups
1551:Superpower disengagement
1201:Claude, Inis L. (1984).
1106:www.election-results.eu/
979:Claude, Inis L. (1984).
560:
227:World Trade Organization
107:World Trade Organization
1935:Commonwealth of Nations
1769:Council of Europe (CoE)
1531:Power transition theory
1015:, Leiden, Brill, 2023,
868:Ardnt, Michael (2013).
21:international relations
2055:Multilateral relations
1151:ISBN 978-90-04-51648-9
484:
397:Small power(s) seeking
237:(IMF) (the so-called '
171:India's foreign policy
157:of multilateralism is
2005:Uniting for Consensus
954:The League of Nations
880:10.1057/9781137263124
480:
449:and multilateralism.
127:international affairs
1871:Africa–South America
1834:North America–Europe
1155:Kathryn C. Lavelle,
399:control over target
336:Nixon administration
334:, which the Richard
289:UN Secretary-General
257:in the postwar era.
195:Conference of Berlin
163:political philosophy
143:regional integration
2021:United Nations (UN)
1789:Visegrád Group (V4)
1779:European Union (EU)
1546:Superpower collapse
1541:Sphere of influence
1516:Philosophy of power
814:, January 14, 2012.
379:
367:European Parliament
255:collective security
1855:Africa–Asia–Europe
725:. October 11, 2023
377:
363:populism in Europe
298:, which President
187:Congress of Vienna
117:countries and the
2037:
2036:
2033:
2032:
2029:
2028:
1580:
1579:
1536:Second Superpower
1496:Deterrence theory
1087:978-0-19-101827-5
889:978-1-349-44245-4
794:978-0-19-880316-4
697:978-92-64-78432-1
670:978-0-19-084662-6
499:East Asian Summit
443:
442:
326:. Also under the
207:League of Nations
191:Concert of Europe
66:global governance
2062:
1600:
1599:
1586:
1585:
1526:Power projection
1511:Internationalism
1484:Balance of power
1479:American decline
1267:
1266:
1252:
1245:
1238:
1229:
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1205:. Random House.
1191:Rorden Wilkinson
1183:Michale Yahuda,
1130:
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983:. Random House.
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723:Banque de France
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675:
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592:
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544:Plurinationalism
426:multilateralism
409:multilateralism
404:multilateralism
380:
376:
225:(GATT) (now the
119:Nordic countries
38:internationalism
2070:
2069:
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2009:
1918:
1887:Oceania–Pacific
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1506:Multilateralism
1467:
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1256:
1213:
1149:, Brill, 2023,
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1140:Further reading
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