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225:, and was the first occasion in history where, on a continental scale, national representatives and other stakeholders came together in one city at the same time to discuss and formulate the conditions and provisions of treaties. Before the Congress of Vienna the common method of diplomacy involved the exchange of notes sent back and forth among the several capitals and separate talks in different places, a cumbersome process that required much in the way of time and transportation. The format set at the Congress of Vienna would serve as inspiration for the 1856 peace conference brokered by France (the
249:. Lesser powers, like Spain, Sweden, and Portugal, were given few opportunities to advocate their interests and only occasionally partook in the meetings held between the great powers. However, because all representatives were gathered in one city it was relatively easy to communicate, to hear and spread news and gossip, and to present points of view for both powerful and less powerful nations. Also of great importance to the parties convened in Vienna were the opportunities presented at wine and dinner functions to establish formal relationships with one another and build-up diplomatic networks.
1333:
44:
2111:, on it and Paul Schroeder. Historian and jurist Mark Jarrett argues that the diplomatic congress format marked "the true beginning of our modern era". To his analyses the Congress organisation was deliberate conflict management and was the first genuine attempt to create an international order based upon consensus rather than conflict. "Europe was ready," Jarrett states, "to accept an unprecedented degree of international cooperation in response to the French Revolution." Historian Paul Schroeder argues that the old formulae for "
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1993:". Portugal ratified the Final Act in 1815 but Spain would not sign, and this became the most important hold-out against the Congress of Vienna. Deciding in the end that it was better to become part of Europe than to stand alone, Spain finally accepted the Treaty on 7 May 1817; however, Olivenza and its surroundings were never returned to Portuguese control and, to the present day, this issue remains unresolved.
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245:– Austria, Britain, Russia, Prussia and France. The first four of the five dominant peacemakers held sway simply because they brought to the table "negotiating power" that came of hard-won victory in the Napoleonic Wars; France enjoyed her advantageous position largely through the brilliant diplomatic maneuvering by senior statesman
759:, after Castlereagh's return to England in February 1815. The United Kingdom wanted to prevent the return of France as a superpower (and stop Russia from attaining that status). It also sought to promote the balance of power by protecting the rights of smaller nations. In the last weeks it was headed by the
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in 1814 had reaffirmed decisions that had been made already and that would be ratified by the more important
Congress of Vienna. They included the establishment of a confederated Germany, the division of Italy into independent states, the restoration of the Bourbon kings of Spain, and the enlargement
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The arrangements made by the Four Great Powers sought to ensure future disputes would be settled in a manner that would avoid the terrible wars of the previous 20 years. Although the
Congress of Vienna preserved the balance of power in Europe, it could not check the spread of revolutionary movements
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The most complex topic at the
Congress was the Polish-Saxon Crisis. Russia wanted most of Poland, and Prussia wanted all of Saxony, whose king had allied with Napoleon. The tsar would like to become king of Poland. Austria analysed, this could make Russia too powerful, a view which was supported by
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Talleyrand's policy, directed as much by national as personal ambitions, demanded the close but by no means amicable relationship he had with
Labrador, whom Talleyrand regarded with disdain. Labrador later remarked of Talleyrand: "that cripple, unfortunately, is going to Vienna." Talleyrand skirted
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Initially, the representatives of the four victorious powers hoped to exclude the French from serious participation in the negotiations, but
Talleyrand skillfully managed to insert himself into "her inner councils" in the first weeks of negotiations. He allied himself to a Committee of Eight lesser
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To reach amiable consensus among the many different nations holding great interest in the settlement proceedings, informal, face-to-face deliberative sessions were held where opinions and proposed solutions could be inventoried. The policy work on which the
Concert of Europe was built on came about
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Some letters of the Prince Regent, the
Emperor Alexander, Louis XVIII., Murat King of Naples, the Earl of Liverpool, Viscount Castlereagh, Earl Bathurst, and other distinguished persons, are given for the elucidation of diplomatic and public transactions in which the Duke of Wellington was engaged
217:, but rather the creation of a diplomatic organizational framework bringing together stakeholders of all flocks to enable the expression of opinions, interests and sentiments and facilitate discussion of general issues among them. The Congress format had been developed by Austrian Foreign Minister
184:
Some historians have criticised the outcomes of the
Congress for causing the subsequent suppression of national, democratic, and liberal movements, and it has been seen as a reactionary settlement for the benefit of traditional monarchs. Others have praised the Congress for protecting Europe from
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Before the opening of the Paris peace conference of 1918, the
British Foreign Office commissioned a history of the Congress of Vienna to serve as an example to its own delegates of how to achieve an equally successful peace. Besides, the main decisions of the Congress were made by the Four Great
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In the 20th century, however, historians and politicians looking backward came to praise the
Congress as well, because they saw it did prevent another widespread European war for nearly 100 years (1815–1914) and a significant step in the transition to a new international order in which peace was
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Virtually every state in Europe had a delegation in Vienna – more than 200 states and princely houses were represented at the Congress. In addition, there were representatives of cities, corporations, religious organizations (for instance, abbeys) and special interest groups – e.g., a delegation
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reported, "The intervention of Talleyrand and Labrador has hopelessly upset all our plans. Talleyrand protested against the procedure we have adopted and soundly rated us for two hours. It was a scene I shall never forget." The embarrassed representatives of the Allies replied that the document
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law and freedom of the press. With them came a host of courtiers, secretaries, civil servants and ladies to enjoy the magnificent social life of the Austrian court. The Congress was noted for its lavish entertainment: according to a famous joke of an attendee, it danced a lot but did not move
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The major Allies' indecision on how to conduct their affairs without provoking a united protest from the lesser powers led to the calling of a preliminary conference on the protocol, to which Talleyrand and the Marquess of Labrador, Spain's representative, were invited on 30 September 1814.
3130:(Badajoz: Imprenta Provincial, 1959), 14 (Letter IV, 10 July 1814). Labrador's letters are full of such pungent remarks, and include his opinions on bad diplomats, the state of the postal system, the weather, and his non-existent salary and coach and accompanying livery for the Congress.
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of 39 states, under the presidency of the Austrian Emperor, formed from the previous 300 states of the Holy Roman Empire. Only portions of the territories of Austria and Prussia were included in the Confederation (roughly the same portions that had been within the Holy Roman
2115:" were in fact highly destabilizing and predatory. He says the Congress of Vienna avoided them and instead set up rules that produced a stable and benign equilibrium. The Congress of Vienna was the first of a series of international meetings that came to be known as the
138:, over the previous two decades, and his recent defeat. In the settlement the parties did reach, France had to give up all recent conquests, while the other three main powers made major territorial gains around the world. Prussia added territory from smaller states:
237:, an international political doctrine that emphasized the maintaining of political boundaries, the balance of powers, and respecting spheres of influence and which guided foreign policy among the nations of Europe until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.
740:. The Austrians sought to maintain the balance of power, while protecting the interests of the Conservative nations and rebuilding Austria's position diplomatically in Germany and Italy. As the Congress's sessions were in Vienna, Emperor
173:, which brought an end to 23 years of nearly continuous war. Remarkably, negotiations continued unaffected despite the outbreak of fighting triggered by Napoleon's return from exile and resumption of power in France during the
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powers (including Spain, Sweden, and Portugal) to control the negotiations. Once Talleyrand was able to use this committee to make himself a part of the inner negotiations, he then left it, once again abandoning his allies.
418:
819:. He sought to ensure that France rejoined the group of Great Powers, and avoided being dismembered by the occupying powers. Louis XVIII, however, distrusted him and was also secretly negotiating with Metternich, by mail.
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of the General Treaty of the Final Act, which stated that "The Powers, recognizing the justice of the claims of ... Portugal and the Brazils, upon the town of Olivenza, and the other territories ceded to Spain by the
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was enlarged, and Swiss neutrality was established. Swiss mercenaries had played a significant role in European wars for several hundred years: the Congress intended to put a stop to these activities permanently.
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The Congress functioned through formal meetings such as working groups and official diplomatic functions; however, a large portion of the Congress was conducted informally at salons, banquets, and balls.
55:
of 1814–1815 was a series of international diplomatic meetings to discuss and agree upon a possible new layout of the European political and constitutional order after the downfall of the French Emperor
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Parere per l'ordine di San Giovanni di Gerusalemme intorno all'intelligenza ed agli effetti dei decreti del parlamento siciliano del 5 agosto 1848 e del dittatore Garibaldi del 17 e 19 maggio 1860
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Some authors have suggested that the Congress of Vienna may provide a model for settling multiple interlocking conflicts in Eastern Europe that arose after the break-up of the Soviet Union.
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778:. The tsar had two main goals, to gain control of Poland and to promote the peaceful coexistence of European nations, with Russia as the pre-eminent land power. He succeeded in forming the
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of the Netherlands to include what in 1830 became modern Belgium. The Treaty of Chaumont became the cornerstone of the European Alliance that formed the balance of power for decades.
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It can be learned from the diaries of the master of affairs Von Gentz that diplomatic tactics possibly included bribing. He notes that at the Congress he received ÂŁ22,000 through
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Powers and not all the countries of Europe could extend their rights at the Congress. The Italian peninsula became a mere "geographical expression" as divided into seven parts:
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to Spain and moved to have it restored. Portugal is historically Britain's oldest ally, and with British support succeeded in having the re-incorporation of Olivenza decreed in
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Britain. The result was a deadlock, for which Talleyrand proposed a solution: admit France to the inner circle, and France would support Austria and Britain. The three nations
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1826:) and Prussia, which acquired the district of Poznań, Swedish Pomerania, Westphalia and the northern Rhineland. The consolidation of Germany from the nearly 300 states of the
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The Congress of Vienna has been criticized by 19th century and more recent historians and politicians for ignoring national and liberal impulses, and for imposing a stifling
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The Congress's principal results, apart from its confirmation of France's loss of the territories annexed between 1795 and 1810, which had already been settled by the
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in 1817, also stipulating that, from the same date, the Duchy of Lucca would in turn be annexed by the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, as already provided in the Final Act).
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Schenk, Joep. "National interest versus common interest: The Netherlands and the liberalization of Rhine navigation at the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815)". in
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and the formerly Austrian-ruled territories in the Southern Netherlands, which gave way to the formation of a democratic state, formally headed by a monarch (
1156:, nor the bulk of the documents, paintings, pieces of fine art, and books that had been looted from the archives, palaces, churches and cathedrals of Spain.
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1169:, among only the three of them, agreeing to go to war against Russia and Prussia, if necessary, to prevent the Russo-Prussian plan from coming to fruition.
3143:, 61–62. Joseph had left Madrid with a huge baggage train containing pieces of art, tapestries, and mirrors. The most rapacious of the French was Marshal
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forward. On the other hand, the possibilities for informal gatherings created by this "side program" may have helped ensure the Congress's success.
1830:(dissolved in 1806) into a much less complex system of thirty-nine states (4 of which were free cities) was confirmed. These states formed a loose
3349:, p. 77, Articles 3 and 4 of the Treaty concluded in Paris on 10 June 1817 about the reversion of the Duchies of Parma, Piacenza e Guastalla.
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When the Tsar heard of the treaty he agreed to a compromise that satisfied all parties on 24 October 1815. Russia received most of the Napoleonic
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were restored to the Pope. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia was restored to its mainland possessions, and also gained control of the Republic of
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In viaggio per il Congresso di Vienna: Lettere di Daniello Berlinghieri a Anna Martini con un percorso tra le fonti archivistiche in appendice
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and that invitations would be issued to "all the Powers engaged on either side in the present war". The opening was scheduled for July 1814.
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Lane, Fernanda Bretones, Guilherme de Paula Costa Santos, and Alain El Youssef. "The Congress of Vienna and the making of second slavery".
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An Italian version of the Final Act was published in 1859 and is now accessible in Books.Google (albeit with some scanning imperfections):
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709:, a covenant of nations allied in the war against France. On the verge of Napoleon's defeat they had outlined their common position in the
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3031:, p. , it was Prince de Ligne, an attendee at the conference, who wryly quipped, ""Le congrès danse beaucoup, mais il ne marche pas."
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was established temporarily as compensation for the House of Bourbon-Parma, (with reversionary rights to Parma after the death of
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concerning the protocol they had arranged actually meant nothing. "If it means so little, why did you sign it?" snapped Labrador.
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With an agreement dated 20 December 1815, however, the Duchess ceded the former Lunigiana fiefs to her son, the Duke of Modena.
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as a shared protectorate of Austria, Prussia and Russia. Furthermore, the tsar was forbidden from uniting his new realm with
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The objective of the Congress was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the
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4234:. Vol. 9: South of France, Embassy to Paris and Congress of Vienna – April 1814 to March 1815. London: John Murray.
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Sluga, Glenda. "'Who Hold the Balance of the World?' Bankers at the Congress of Vienna, and in International History".
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154:. Russia added the central and eastern parts of the Duchy of Warsaw. All agreed upon ratifying the creation of the new
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158:, which had been created just months before from formerly Austrian territory, and would serve as a buffer between the
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through negotiation. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries, but to resize the main powers so they could
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782:(1815), based on monarchism and anti-secularism, and formed to combat any threat of revolution or republicanism.
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Gabriëls, Jos. "Cutting the cake: the Congress of Vienna in British, French and German political caricature".
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2338:"A Priceless Grace? The Congress of Vienna of 1815, the Ottoman Empire and Historicising the Eastern Question"
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Leopold von Plessen und die Verfassungspolitik der deutschen Kleinstaaten auf dem Wiener Kongress 1814/15.
1609:. Former Austrian territory in Southwest Germany remained under the control of WĂĽrttemberg and Baden; the
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1508:. The Congress also suggested a number of compromises for resolving territorial disputes between cantons.
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España en el Congreso de Viena según la correspondencia de D. Pedro Gómez Labrador, Marqués de Labrador
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did not send a delegation. Thus, the country was the only power in Europe to abstain from the Congress.
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of March to July 1815. The Congress's agreement was signed nine days before Napoleon's final defeat at
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Kohler, Max James. "Jewish Rights at the Congresses of Vienna (1814–1815) and Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)"
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Marquis of Labrador, Spanish Ambassador to the Congress of Vienna – Painting by Vicente López Portaña
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1367:(which it had annexed from Sweden in 1809 and would hold until 1917, as the Grand Duchy of Finland).
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The Final Act, embodying all the separate treaties, was signed on 9 June 1815 (nine days before the
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Kwan, Jonathan. "The Congress of Vienna, 1814–1815: diplomacy, political culture and sociability".
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remained partitioned between Russia, Prussia and Austria, with the largest part, the newly created
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in Northern Italy, while much of the rest of North-Central Italy went to Habsburg dynasties (the
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Vienna, 1814: How the Conquerors of Napoleon Made Love, War, and Peace at the Congress of Vienna
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Gulick, E. V. "The final coalition and the Congress of Vienna, 1813–15" in C. W. Crawley, ed.,
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to actively participate in the Congress on topics such as the Russo–Turkish conflicts, Sultan
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and remain at peace, being at the same time shepherds for the smaller powers. More generally,
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Italian states after the Congress of Vienna with Austrian-annexed territories shown in yellow
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Forrest, Alan. "The Hundred Days, the Congress of Vienna and the Atlantic Slave Trade". in
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Treaty between Great Britain and Austria, Prussia and Russia, respecting the Ionian Islands
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1570:. Hesse-Darmstadt, in exchange for giving up the Duchy of Westphalia to Prussia, received
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additional articles suggested by Labrador: he had no intention of handing over the 12,000
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in a contemporary engraving by Jean Godefroy after the painting by Jean-Baptiste Isabey:
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British diplomacy, 1813–1815: Select Documents Dealing with the Reconstruction of Europe
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controlled the Russian delegation which was formally led by the foreign minister, Count
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under the House of Orange-Nassau, with Luxembourg (but not the Netherlands) inside the
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The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1812–1815, Britain and the Reconstruction of Europe
3860:(1979). "The Congress of Vienna, 1814–1815 and its Antecedents". In Sked, Alan (ed.).
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Zawadzki, W.H. (1985). "Russia and the Re-Opening of the Polish Question, 1801–1814".
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Representatives at the Congress agreed to numerous other territorial changes. By the
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The Congress of Vienna and its Legacy: War and Great Power Diplomacy after Napoleon
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The Congress of Vienna and Its Legacy: War and Great Power Diplomacy after Napoleon
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at the expense of the Netherlands and Spain and kept the former Dutch colonies of
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Langhorne, Richard. "Reflections on the Significance of the Congress of Vienna".
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At the negotiation table, the position of France was weak in relation to that of
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2439:"Affect, practice, and change: Dancing world politics at the Congress of Vienna"
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The Reconstruction of Europe; Talleyrand and the Congress of Vienna, 1814–1815
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Blinn, Harold E. (1935). "New Light on Talleyrand at the Congress of Vienna".
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1849:. This sparked the nationalist movement which led to the establishment of the
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1212:. Prussia received 60 percent of Saxony, much of which became part of the new
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RĂ©inventer la tradition. Alexandre Stourdza et l'Europe de la Sainte-Alliance
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A World Restored; Metternich, Castlereagh and the Problems of Peace, 1812–22
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26:"Vienna peace congress" redirects here. For the 2015 congress on Syria, see
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Peterson, Genevieve. "II. Political inequality at the Congress of Vienna".
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39:
The national boundaries within Europe agreed upon by the Congress of Vienna
3774:(1913). "England and the Polish-Saxon problem at the Congress of Vienna".
2359:
823:
4187:
4107:
2723:" induced the Dutch to leave their interests entirely in British hands" (
2078:
2025:
2005:
1997:
1969:
1945:
1671:
1528:
1497:
894:
278:
242:
230:
3970:
2749:
Baron von Gagern – one of the two plenipotentiaries for the Netherlands.
4042:
3950:
3795:
3763:
2584:
2549:
2037:
2013:
1687:
1479:
1304: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1210:
the parts of Poland that had been incorporated into Russia in the 1790s
246:
104:
100:
4231:
Supplementary despatches and memoranda of the Duke of Wellington, K. G
2928:"Ruffo, Fabrizio, principe di Castelcicala in 'Dizionario Biografico'"
2081:
on the Continent. It was an integral part in what became known as the
3977:
Metternich's German Policy. Vol. 2: The Congress of Vienna, 1814–1815
2286:
2033:
1957:
1948:
from Prussia and various other territories in Northwest Germany) and
1645:
1095:
293:
35:
3942:
3755:
3647:"Congress of Vienna Redux: How the OSCE Can Foster Peace in Ukraine"
2576:
2123:
in Europe. It served as a model for later organizations such as the
1379:
1279:
1201:
1197:
1192:, were given to Prussia and mostly included within the newly formed
1152:– Spanish fugitives, sympathetic to France, who had sworn fealty to
1062:, until the results of the Congress were concluded establishing the
1981:
1977:
1698:
1606:
1594:
1586:
1336:
In pink: territories left to France in 1814, but removed after the
57:
4049:
Shaping the International Relations of the Netherlands, 1815–2000
3742:(1992). "Did the Vienna Settlement Rest on a Balance of Power?".
3482:
Portugal and Africa, 1815–1910: a study in uneconomic imperialism
3328:
2663:. Translated by Hansen, Harry. New York: The Century Co. p.
2073:
A contemporary caricature of the leading figures at the congress.
1660:
1535:
1433:(approximately modern-day Belgium) became a united monarchy, the
1185:
880:
3385:
The Encyclopedia of world history: ancient, medieval, and modern
3295:
2990:
Eutin: Ivens 1933; Hochschulschrift: Rostock, Univ., Diss., 1933
1523:
to the Kingdom of Denmark, but gained former territories of the
1470:, given to Denmark in January 1814 in return for the Kingdom of
1088:
213:
The name "Congress of Vienna" was not meant to suggest a formal
3816:
Rites of Peace; the Fall of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna
2882:
Innocenti, Barbara; Lombardi, Marco; Tourres, Josianne (2020).
2164:
2097:
largely maintained through diplomatic dialogue. Among these is
2021:
2001:
1862:
1846:
1679:
1675:
1475:
1471:
1266:" ("the wildest promises"); his diary is full of such entries.
919:
864:
800:
363:
282:
73:
3113:
Wenceslao RamĂrez de Villa-Urrutia, MarquĂ©s de Villa-Urrutia,
1760:
Freedom of navigation was guaranteed for many rivers, notably
1343:
803:, the "fifth" power, was represented by its foreign minister,
4114:. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 392–521.
3071:"The Congress of Vienna | History of Western Civilization II"
2009:
1964:
was transferred from Hanover to Denmark, and Prussia annexed
1889:
1791:, the king installed by Bonaparte, supported Napoleon in the
1706:
1702:
1648:, which were not re-established, were also bestowed upon her.
1575:
1543:
805:
Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-PĂ©rigord, 1st Duke of Benevento
550:
95:
leaders like Metternich also sought to restrain or eliminate
3592:
History Volume I: The Ancient World to the Age of Revolution
3513:
3405:
1822:, were the enlargement of Russia, (which gained most of the
1659:
were restored to their former extent, with the exception of
1496:
and a federal pact was recommended to them in strong terms.
2627:
Treaty between Great Britain and Portugal, January 22, 1815
1656:
700:
107:
movements which, from their point of view, had upended the
4112:
The Cambridge history of British foreign policy, 1783–1919
4018:
The Congress of Vienna: a Study in Allied Unity, 1812–1822
3590:
Willner, Mark; Hero, George; Weiner, Jerry Global (2006).
3192:
The Congress of Vienna: A Study in Allied Unity: 1812–1822
2740:
The Congress of Vienna; a Study in Allied Unity, 1812–1822
2473:
2085:, in which democracy and civil rights associated with the
4106:(1922). "IV. The pacification of Europe". In Ward, A.W.;
4085:
The Congress of Vienna. Power and Politics after Napoleon
3212:
2497:
2485:
2881:
1709:(putting an end to the brief proclamation of a restored
705:
Four great powers had previously formed the core of the
201:, chancellor of the Austrian Empire from 1821 until the
3967:
Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society,
3891:
European Review of History: Revue européenne d'histoire
2754:
2509:
901:, the British Ambassador at the Dutch court, and Baron
824:
The lesser powers, parties to the Treaty of Paris, 1814
797:
was also in Vienna, playing his role behind the scenes.
3884:
Napoleon's Hundred Days and the Politics of Legitimacy
3252:. Alphen aan den Rijn: N. Samsom nv. pp. 127–130.
2713:. Alphen aan den Rijn: N. Samsom nv. pp. 123–124.
1783:, the Bourbon King of Sicily, regained control of the
1054:
in 1806 and maintained a separate diplomatic staff as
265:
Other partial settlements had already occurred at the
233:. The Congress of Vienna settlement gave birth to the
64:) and other stakeholders. The Congress was chaired by
4030:
The Great European Treaties of the Nineteenth Century
3285:
3283:
134:, partly due to the military strategy of its leader,
4457:
Treaties of the United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway
3536:(1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. p.
2804:, "The Pope's envoy to Vienna, Cardinal Consalvi .".
1558:
were recognized. Bavaria also gained control of the
1042:, then in a personal union with the British crown –
763:, after Wellington left to face Napoleon during the
16:
1814–1815 meetings to create a peace plan for Europe
3387:(6th ed.). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p.
3383:Stearns, Peter N.; Langer, William Leonard (2001).
2699:, " the Danish plenipotentiary Count Rosenkrantz.".
1814:
considered himself a guarantor of European security
1232:by 1825); the remainder of Saxony returned to King
4227:
4186:
4060:The Transformation of European Politics, 1763–1848
3898:The New Cambridge Modern History, vol 9, 1793–1830
3886:(Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2018) pp. 163–181.
3316:
3280:
3268:
3247:
2908:
2674:
1119:proved an able negotiator for the defeated French.
47:Frontispiece of the Acts of the Congress of Vienna
3929:(1956). "The Congress of Vienna: A Reappraisal".
3589:
3531:
2993:
1058:to conduct the affairs of the family estate, the
855:AntĂłnio de Saldanha da Gama, Count of Porto Santo
845:Pedro GĂłmez de Labrador, 1st Marquess of Labrador
351:AntĂłnio de Saldanha da Gama, Count of Porto Santo
4333:
3638:
1892:. In Southern Italy, Napoleon's brother-in-law,
1220:and some other areas instead became part of the
1050:had refused to recognize the dissolution of the
747:The United Kingdom was represented first by its
185:large and widespread wars for almost a century.
4027:
2708:
1484:yearly installments payable to the Swedish king
809:Emmerich Joseph de Dalberg, 1st Duke of Dalberg
789:, the Chancellor, and the diplomat and scholar
3621:"When Great-Power Politics Isn't Great Enough"
3376:
2528:Simon, Walter M. (1956). "Prince Hardenberg".
2373:
2371:
2369:
555:Pedro GĂłmez Labrador, 1st Marquess of Labrador
4189:The Congress of Vienna; an Eyewitness Account
3411:
3382:
2380:Historical Dictionary of European Imperialism
2055:
1089:Other stakeholders, entertaining side program
572:Richard Le Poer Trench, 2nd Earl of Clancarty
453:Pedro de Sousa Holstein, 1st Count of Palmela
3776:Transactions of the Royal Historical Society
3361:, pp. 67–68, Art. 118, paragraph n. 15.
2958:"Maresca, Nicola in 'Dizionario Biografico'"
2813:
2378:Olson, James Stuart; Shadle, Robert (1991).
1261:
1094:representing German publishers, demanding a
419:Frédéric-Séraphin de La Tour du Pin Gouverne
241:through closed-doors dealing among the five
3370:
3358:
3346:
3334:
3301:
3231:
2377:
2366:
2119:, which was an attempt to forge a peaceful
2048:, Britain obtained a protectorate over the
807:, as well as the Minister Plenipotentiary,
736:, the Foreign Minister, and by his deputy,
4462:Treaties of the United Kingdom (1801–1922)
4276:Animated map Europe and nations, 1815–1914
3908:. London: I.B. Tauris & Company, Ltd.
2772:
334:Joaquim Lobo Silveira, 7th Count of Oriola
4054:
3925:
3738:
3712:
3532:Ragsdale, Hugh; Ponomarev, V. N. (1993).
3519:
2814:Berlinghieri, Umberto Castagnino (2006).
2503:
2491:
2456:
1996:The United Kingdom received parts of the
1320:Learn how and when to remove this message
1159:
851:Pedro de Sousa Holstein, Count of Palmela
4034:("Chapter II The restoration of Europe")
4007:
3810:
3560:
3484:. Stanford University Press. p. 2.
3183:
3160:
3011:
2852:
2797:
2760:
2736:
2724:
2692:
2515:
2479:
2059:
2020:France ceded to Britain the islands of "
1910:
1806:
1718:Duchies of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla
1642:Duchess of Massa and Princess of Carrara
1342:
1331:
1122:
1111:
811:. Talleyrand had already negotiated the
701:The four great powers and Bourbon France
317:Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington
292:
192:
42:
34:
4249:
4143:
4129:
4102:
3903:
3847:
3770:
3618:
3594:. Barron's Educational Series. p.
3504:
3498:
3479:
3423:
3373:, pp. 64 ff, Articles 108 et seq..
3218:
2775:Dizionario Biografico dell'Armata Sarda
2773:Ilari, Virgilio; ShamĂ , Davide (2008).
2163:under the control of different powers.
1896:, was originally allowed to retain his
1841:, Norway had been ceded by the king of
1690:, reverted to their previous overlords.
828:These parties had not been part of the
4357:Treaties involving territorial changes
4334:
4200:
3612:
3265:Prussian payment for Swedish Pomerania
2656:
2335:
1904:led to the restoration of the Bourbon
1107:
930:Filippo Antonio Asinari di San Marzano
671:Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-PĂ©rigord
385:Louis Joseph Alexis, Comte de Noailles
188:
4184:
4062:. Clarendon Press. pp. 517–582.
3856:
3644:
3094:
2968:from the original on 14 November 2021
2938:from the original on 14 November 2021
2859:(in Italian). tipogr. V. Vercellino.
2562:
2527:
2436:
1918:- painting by Jan Adam Kruseman 1840)
1900:, but his support of Napoleon in the
1632:Duchy of Modena, Reggio and Mirandola
1630:was acknowledged as the ruler of the
1597:district (from Russia); and received
1216:from 1816 (the now-Prussian parts of
1102:
402:Klemens Wenzel, Prince von Metternich
277:that covered issues raised regarding
146:, and the western part of the former
4028:Oaks, Augustus; R. B. Mowat (1918).
3674:
3028:
2999:
2853:Cassinis, Giovanni Battista (1862).
2709:Couvée, D.H.; Pikkemaat, G. (1963).
2420:
2315:Reaction & Revolution: 1814–1832
2312:
2308:
2306:
2197:Precedence among European monarchies
1768:Representatives of Austria, France,
1489:The neutrality of the 22 cantons of
1302:adding citations to reliable sources
1273:
521:Prince Andrey Kirillovich Razumovsky
470:Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh
4442:Treaties of the Kingdom of Portugal
4437:Treaties of the Bourbon Restoration
4347:19th-century diplomatic conferences
4281:Final Act of the Congress of Vienna
3862:Europe's Balance of Power 1815–1848
3565:. Vol. I. BiblioLife. p.
3322:
3289:
3274:
3248:Couvée, D.H.; G. Pikkemaat (1963).
3237:(in Italian). Milan: Sanvito. 1859.
3202:Grove Press; Rep. Ed. pp. 140–164.
3040:William, Sir Ward Adolphus (2009).
2914:
2896:from the original on 7 January 2022
2743:. Constable & Company. p.
2680:
2597:
2217:International relations (1814–1919)
2171:, remaining under Russian control.
2050:United States of the Ionian Islands
2016:. Under the Treaty of Paris (1814)
1916:William II, King of the Netherlands
1028:Georg Ernst Levin von Wintzingerode
637:William Cathcart, 1st Earl Cathcart
298:Delegates of the Congress of Vienna
21:Congress of Vienna (disambiguation)
13:
4447:Treaties of the Kingdom of Prussia
4243:
4170:
3841:
3619:Gutbrod, Hans (25 November 2020).
2227:Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)
1739:, which were attributed through a
1269:
1176:as a "Kingdom of Poland" – called
952:Secretary of State of His Holiness
785:Prussia was represented by Prince
688:Count Gustav Ernst von Stackelberg
538:Charles Stewart, 1st Baron Stewart
197:Architect of the Congress System,
76:from September 1814 to June 1815.
14:
4483:
4342:Diplomatic conferences in Austria
4269:
4135:The Congress of Vienna, 1814–1815
4051:(Routledge, 2018) pp. 13–31.
3893:24.1 (2017): 131–157. illustrated
2863:from the original on 8 April 2022
2834:from the original on 8 April 2022
2777:. Widerholdt Frères. p. 36.
2604:. New York: Putnam. p. 371.
2303:
2032:and its dependencies, especially
1924:United Kingdom of the Netherlands
1834:under the leadership of Austria.
1534:Most of the territorial gains of
1450:United Kingdom of the Netherlands
1435:United Kingdom of the Netherlands
1167:signed a treaty on 3 January 1815
713:(March 1814), and negotiated the
654:Prince Karl August von Hardenberg
4228:Duke of Wellington, ed. (1862).
3850:The Congress of Vienna 1814–1815
3461:from the original on 8 June 2020
3126:Antonio RodrĂguez-Moñino (ed.),
2634:from the original on 2 June 2021
2437:Rösch, Felix (26 October 2020).
1802:
1670:Britain retained control of the
1667:, which remained part of France.
1581:Austria regained control of the
1406:, itself a merger of the former
1278:
1003:Antonio Maresca di Serracapriola
874:
795:Frederick William III of Prussia
676:
659:
642:
625:
608:
590:
560:
543:
526:
509:
492:
487:Emmerich Joseph, Duke of Dalberg
475:
458:
441:
424:
407:
390:
373:
356:
339:
322:
305:
252:
4432:Treaties of the Austrian Empire
4377:1815 in international relations
4362:1814 in international relations
4002:Review of International Studies
3969:No. 26 (1918), pp. 33–125
3583:
3554:
3534:Imperial Russian Foreign Policy
3525:
3480:Hammond, Richard James (1966).
3473:
3443:
3429:
3307:
3256:
3250:1813–15, ons koninkrijk geboren
3241:
3224:
3154:
3133:
3120:
3107:
3088:
3063:
3034:
3021:
2980:
2950:
2920:
2875:
2846:
2820:(in Italian). Vita e Pensiero.
2807:
2766:
2730:
2717:
2711:1813–15, ons koninkrijk geboren
2702:
2650:
2618:
2591:
2556:
2521:
1562:and of parts of the Napoleonic
1289:needs additional citations for
1260:gave him ÂŁ600, accompanied by "
288:
4467:Treaties of the Spanish Empire
4452:Treaties of the Russian Empire
4291:Congress of Vienna (1814–1815)
3744:The American Historical Review
3668:
3141:España en el Congreso de Viena
2430:
2400:
2329:
2267:
2244:
1404:Province of JĂĽlich-Cleves-Berg
1384:Grand Duchy of the Lower Rhine
1007:Fabrizio Ruffo di Castelcicala
849:Portugal – Plenipotentiaries:
1:
3189:Nicolson, Sir Harold (2001).
3177:10.1080/07075332.1985.9640368
2343:The English Historical Review
2296:
1019:Maximilian Graf von Montgelas
165:The immediate background was
3645:Marks, Ramon (4 June 2022).
3164:International History Review
2660:A peace congress of intrigue
2192:Diplomatic timeline for 1815
1857:and the subsequent personal
1644:, and the Imperial fiefs in
1359:Russia received most of the
1355:). Its provisions included:
1243:
999:Luigi de' Medici di Ottajano
436:Count Karl Robert Nesselrode
28:Vienna peace talks for Syria
7:
4382:1815 in the Austrian Empire
4372:1814 in the Austrian Empire
4039:Political Science Quarterly
2382:. Greenwood Press. p.
2313:Artz, Frederick B. (1934).
2185:
1556:mediatizations of 1801–1806
1060:Duchy of Brunswick-LĂĽneburg
995:Alvaro Ruffo della Scaletta
916:Charles Pictet de Rochemont
891:was also present in Vienna.
738:Baron Johann von Wessenberg
504:Baron Johann von Wessenberg
10:
4488:
4422:European political history
4254:. Paris: Honoré Champion.
4201:Walker, Mack, ed. (1968).
4078:American Historical Review
4032:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
3563:A History of the Great War
3561:Benedict, Bertram (2008).
3103:, Publishers. p. 120.
3095:Alsop, Susan Mary (1984).
2657:Freksa, Frederick (1919).
2277:was officially invited by
2056:Later criticism and praise
970:, Senator of the Republic.
958:Order of St. John of Malta
787:Karl August von Hardenberg
744:was kept closely informed.
620:Baron Wilhelm von Humboldt
156:Kingdom of the Netherlands
25:
18:
4010:The Peacemakers 1814–1815
3995:Journal of global slavery
3788:10.1017/S0080440100014468
3509:. pp. 353, xiv, 187.
3412:Stearns & Langer 2001
3075:courses.lumenlearning.com
2737:Nicolson, Harold (1946).
2565:Pacific Historical Review
2542:10.1017/S0034670500023597
2232:Ghent government in exile
2207:European balance of power
1991:Treaty of Badajoz of 1801
1930:, including both the old
1502:Prince-Bishopric of Basel
1454:Grand Duchy of Luxembourg
1263:les plus folles promesses
887:, foreign minister. King
150:. Austria gained much of
81:French Revolutionary Wars
4250:Ghervas, Stella (2008).
4089:Harvard University Press
4080:122.5 (2017): 1403–1430.
4008:Lockhart, J. G. (1932).
3900:(1965) pp. 639–667.
3043:The Period of Congresses
2890:Firenze University Press
2458:10.1177/0010836720954467
2444:Cooperation and Conflict
2237:
2101:, who in 1954 wrote his
1613:were also not recovered.
1568:Grand Duchy of Frankfurt
1443:Eight Articles of London
1441:providing the king (the
1429:The Netherlands and the
948:Ercole Cardinal Consalvi
922:played a prominent role.
914:had its own delegation.
859:Joaquim Lobo da Silveira
4427:Modern history of Italy
3455:Encyclopedia Britannica
3337:, p. 61, Art. 101.
2986:Fritz Apian-Bennewitz:
2669:the congress of vienna.
2601:Talleyrand: A Biography
2352:Oxford University Press
1937:constitutional monarchy
1726:Marie Louise of Austria
1222:Province of Brandenburg
269:between France and the
4412:19th century in Vienna
4041:60.4 (1945): 532–554.
3904:Jarrett, Mark (2013).
3505:Jarrett, Mark (2013).
3451:"Seychelles – History"
3436:Treaty of Paris (1814)
3304:, p. 59, Art. 98.
3149:Juan Antonio Gaya Nuño
2598:Bernard, J.F. (1973).
2407:Treaty of Paris (1814)
2283:Klemens von Metternich
2262:
2254:
2222:Treaty of Paris (1814)
2074:
1919:
1871:Grand Duchy of Tuscany
1815:
1799:by attacking Austria.
1722:House of Bourbon-Parma
1655:under the rule of the
1527:and formerly Prussian
1439:House of Orange-Nassau
1386:(merger of the former
1372:three-fifths of Saxony
1363:(Poland) and retained
1348:
1340:
1262:
1160:Polish-Saxon questions
1128:
1120:
974:Grand Duchy of Tuscany
834:Treaty of Paris (1814)
813:Treaty of Paris (1814)
776:Karl Robert Nesselrode
715:Treaty of Paris (1814)
693:
219:Klemens von Metternich
210:
70:Klemens von Metternich
48:
40:
4286:Map of Europe in 1815
4207:Palgrave Macmillan UK
4185:Spiel, Hilde (1968).
4004:12.4 (1986): 313–324.
3848:Chapman, Tim (1998).
3457:. 27 September 2016.
3198:22 March 2015 at the
3053:, BiblioLife, p. 13.
3049:22 March 2015 at the
2336:Ozavci, Ozan (2022).
2175:across the continent
2103:doctoral dissertation
2063:
2046:Peace of Paris (1815)
1980:had lost its town of
1914:
1812:Alexander I of Russia
1810:
1795:and started the 1815
1638:Maria Beatrice d'Este
1621:Grand Duke of Tuscany
1513:Electorate of Hanover
1474:was sold to Prussia.
1412:Principality of Moers
1346:
1335:
1228:becoming part of the
1126:
1115:
1044:Graf Ernst zu MĂĽnster
832:, but had joined the
817:Louis XVIII of France
734:Prince von Metternich
368:Count Carl Löwenhielm
296:
199:Prince von Metternich
196:
171:surrender in May 1814
46:
38:
3997:4.2 (2019): 162–195.
3872:Ferraro, Guglielmo.
2093:were de-emphasized.
1832:German Confederation
1720:were taken from the
1705:, gained control of
1697:, re-established in
1674:in Southern Africa;
1611:Austrian Netherlands
1574:with its capital at
1462:German Confederation
1431:Southern Netherlands
1423:German Confederation
1376:Grand Duchy of Posen
1298:improve this article
1234:Frederick Augustus I
1194:Grand Duchy of Posen
1070:Mecklenburg-Schwerin
791:Wilhelm von Humboldt
753:Viscount Castlereagh
604:(Congress Secretary)
160:German Confederation
109:constitutional order
19:For other uses, see
4407:1815 in Switzerland
4318:48.2085°N 16.3638°E
4314: /
4203:Metternich's Europe
3927:Kissinger, Henry A.
3714:Kissinger, Henry A.
3522:, pp. 683–706.
3097:The Congress Dances
2482:, pp. 118–133.
2360:10.1093/ehr/ceab356
2177:some 30 years later
1956:and territories in
1926:was formed for the
1772:, Prussia, Russia,
1504:became part of the
1416:Grand Duchy of Berg
1230:Province of Silesia
1141:Friedrich von Gentz
1139:Congress Secretary
1108:Talleyrand (France)
1074:Leopold von Plessen
926:Kingdom of Sardinia
732:was represented by
602:Friedrich von Gentz
577:Nikolaus von Wacken
229:) that settled the
223:Friedrich von Gentz
189:The Congress format
167:Napoleonic France's
4472:Congress of Vienna
4293:Search Results at
4128:also published as
4056:Schroeder, Paul W.
4016:Nicolson, Harold.
3984:Historical Journal
3740:Schroeder, Paul W.
3221:, pp. 49–101.
2530:Review of Politics
2212:Battle of Waterloo
2091:French Revolutions
2083:Conservative Order
2075:
1962:Duchy of Lauenburg
1954:Rhenish Palatinate
1952:(which gained the
1920:
1816:
1591:Illyrian Provinces
1560:Rhenish Palatinate
1521:Duchy of Lauenburg
1482:from Sweden, with
1388:French departments
1353:Battle of Waterloo
1349:
1341:
1214:Province of Saxony
1129:
1121:
1103:Diplomatic tactics
1064:Kingdom of Hanover
1056:Elector of Hanover
1011:On German issues:
830:Chaumont agreement
757:Duke of Wellington
711:Treaty of Chaumont
694:
259:Treaty of Chaumont
211:
203:Revolution in 1848
136:Napoleon Bonaparte
89:balance each other
72:, and was held in
58:Napoleon Bonaparte
53:Congress of Vienna
49:
41:
4261:978-2-7453-1669-1
4220:978-0-8027-2014-6
4121:978-1-108-04015-0
4097:978-0-674-72971-1
4069:978-0-1982-0654-5
3915:978-1-78076-116-9
3868:. pp. 14–33.
3825:978-0-0607-7518-6
3818:. HarperCollins.
3731:978-1-62654-978-4
3689:978-0-307-33716-0
3682:. Harmony Books.
3651:National Interest
3576:978-0-5544-1246-7
2827:978-88-343-1422-7
2784:978-88-902817-9-2
2255:Congrès de Vienne
2202:Concert of Europe
2169:Kingdom of Poland
2153:Piedmont–Sardinia
2125:League of Nations
2117:Concert of Europe
2071:George Cruikshank
2040:", and under the
1976:During the wars,
1966:Swedish Pomerania
1898:Kingdom of Naples
1865:. Austria gained
1851:Kingdom of Norway
1828:Holy Roman Empire
1785:Kingdom of Naples
1741:collateral treaty
1728:for her lifetime.
1711:Republic of Genoa
1684:Dutch East Indies
1564:Duchy of WĂĽrzburg
1525:Bishop of MĂĽnster
1519:. It gave up the
1468:Swedish Pomerania
1408:Prussian Guelders
1370:Prussia received
1330:
1329:
1322:
1238:Kingdom of Saxony
1188:, as well as the
1052:Holy Roman Empire
991:Kingdom of Sicily
964:Republic of Genoa
899:Earl of Clancarty
885:Niels Rosenkrantz
761:Earl of Clancarty
749:Foreign Secretary
723:their restoration
235:Concert of Europe
227:Congress of Paris
181:on 18 June 1815.
144:Kingdom of Saxony
140:Swedish Pomerania
4479:
4392:1815 conferences
4329:
4328:
4326:
4325:
4324:
4323:48.2085; 16.3638
4319:
4315:
4312:
4311:
4310:
4307:
4295:Internet Archive
4265:
4239:
4224:
4197:
4195:Chilton Book Co.
4193:. Philadelphia:
4192:
4181:
4166:
4164:
4162:
4153:. Archived from
4145:Webster, Charles
4138:
4131:Webster, Charles
4125:
4104:Webster, Charles
4073:
4033:
4013:
3975:Kraehe, Enno E.
3962:
3919:
3869:
3853:
3837:
3807:
3772:Webster, Charles
3767:
3735:
3722:Houghton Mifflin
3709:
3662:
3661:
3659:
3657:
3642:
3636:
3635:
3633:
3631:
3616:
3610:
3609:
3587:
3581:
3580:
3558:
3552:
3551:
3529:
3523:
3517:
3511:
3510:
3502:
3496:
3495:
3477:
3471:
3470:
3468:
3466:
3447:
3441:
3433:
3427:
3421:
3415:
3409:
3403:
3402:
3380:
3374:
3371:Atto Finale 1859
3368:
3362:
3359:Atto Finale 1859
3356:
3350:
3347:Atto Finale 1859
3344:
3338:
3335:Atto Finale 1859
3332:
3326:
3320:
3314:
3311:
3305:
3302:Atto Finale 1859
3299:
3293:
3287:
3278:
3272:
3266:
3260:
3254:
3253:
3245:
3239:
3238:
3228:
3222:
3216:
3210:
3187:
3181:
3180:
3158:
3152:
3137:
3131:
3128:Cartas PolĂticas
3124:
3118:
3111:
3105:
3104:
3101:Harper & Row
3092:
3086:
3085:
3083:
3081:
3067:
3061:
3038:
3032:
3025:
3019:
3009:
3003:
2997:
2991:
2984:
2978:
2977:
2975:
2973:
2954:
2948:
2947:
2945:
2943:
2924:
2918:
2912:
2906:
2905:
2903:
2901:
2879:
2873:
2872:
2870:
2868:
2850:
2844:
2843:
2841:
2839:
2811:
2805:
2795:
2789:
2788:
2770:
2764:
2758:
2752:
2751:
2734:
2728:
2721:
2715:
2714:
2706:
2700:
2690:
2684:
2678:
2672:
2671:
2654:
2648:
2647:
2641:
2639:
2622:
2616:
2615:
2595:
2589:
2588:
2560:
2554:
2553:
2525:
2519:
2513:
2507:
2506:, pp. 9–36.
2501:
2495:
2494:, pp. 7–28.
2489:
2483:
2477:
2471:
2470:
2460:
2434:
2428:
2418:
2412:
2404:
2398:
2397:
2375:
2364:
2363:
2333:
2327:
2326:
2310:
2290:
2271:
2265:
2248:
2137:Lombardy–Venetia
2127:in 1919 and the
2121:balance of power
2113:balance of power
2108:A World Restored
1932:United Provinces
1928:Prince of Orange
1867:Lombardy–Venetia
1749:
1695:King of Sardinia
1665:Comtat Venaissin
1640:was restored as
1619:was restored as
1599:Lombardy–Venetia
1589:; of the former
1515:was expanded to
1325:
1318:
1314:
1311:
1305:
1282:
1274:
1265:
1224:, with Prussian
1154:Joseph Bonaparte
1082:
1036:
986:
938:
682:
680:
679:
665:
663:
662:
648:
646:
645:
631:
629:
628:
614:
612:
611:
596:
594:
593:
585:
566:
564:
563:
549:
547:
546:
532:
530:
529:
515:
513:
512:
498:
496:
495:
481:
479:
478:
464:
462:
461:
447:
445:
444:
430:
428:
427:
413:
411:
410:
396:
394:
393:
379:
377:
376:
362:
360:
359:
345:
343:
342:
328:
326:
325:
311:
309:
308:
111:of the European
4487:
4486:
4482:
4481:
4480:
4478:
4477:
4476:
4332:
4331:
4322:
4320:
4316:
4313:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4301:
4300:
4272:
4262:
4246:
4244:Other languages
4221:
4176:
4173:
4171:Primary sources
4160:
4158:
4157:on 24 July 2020
4122:
4070:
3943:10.2307/2008974
3916:
3844:
3842:Further reading
3826:
3756:10.2307/2164774
3732:
3690:
3671:
3666:
3665:
3655:
3653:
3643:
3639:
3629:
3627:
3617:
3613:
3606:
3588:
3584:
3577:
3559:
3555:
3548:
3530:
3526:
3518:
3514:
3503:
3499:
3492:
3478:
3474:
3464:
3462:
3449:
3448:
3444:
3434:
3430:
3422:
3418:
3410:
3406:
3399:
3381:
3377:
3369:
3365:
3357:
3353:
3345:
3341:
3333:
3329:
3321:
3317:
3312:
3308:
3300:
3296:
3288:
3281:
3273:
3269:
3261:
3257:
3246:
3242:
3229:
3225:
3217:
3213:
3200:Wayback Machine
3188:
3184:
3159:
3155:
3139:Villa-Urrutia,
3138:
3134:
3125:
3121:
3112:
3108:
3093:
3089:
3079:
3077:
3069:
3068:
3064:
3051:Wayback Machine
3039:
3035:
3026:
3022:
3010:
3006:
2998:
2994:
2985:
2981:
2971:
2969:
2962:www.treccani.it
2956:
2955:
2951:
2941:
2939:
2932:www.treccani.it
2926:
2925:
2921:
2913:
2909:
2899:
2897:
2880:
2876:
2866:
2864:
2851:
2847:
2837:
2835:
2828:
2812:
2808:
2796:
2792:
2785:
2771:
2767:
2759:
2755:
2735:
2731:
2722:
2718:
2707:
2703:
2691:
2687:
2679:
2675:
2655:
2651:
2637:
2635:
2624:
2623:
2619:
2612:
2596:
2592:
2577:10.2307/3633726
2561:
2557:
2526:
2522:
2514:
2510:
2502:
2498:
2490:
2486:
2478:
2474:
2435:
2431:
2419:
2415:
2405:
2401:
2394:
2376:
2367:
2334:
2330:
2317:. p. 110.
2311:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2293:
2272:
2268:
2263:Wiener Kongress
2249:
2245:
2240:
2188:
2099:Henry Kissinger
2058:
1908:to the throne.
1875:Duchy of Modena
1845:to the king of
1824:Duchy of Warsaw
1820:Treaty of Paris
1805:
1764:and the Danube.
1743:
1548:Hesse-Darmstadt
1456:were to form a
1392:Rhin-et-Moselle
1361:Duchy of Warsaw
1338:Treaty of Paris
1326:
1315:
1309:
1306:
1295:
1283:
1272:
1270:Final agreement
1246:
1178:Congress Poland
1174:Duchy of Warsaw
1162:
1110:
1105:
1091:
1076:
1030:
980:
968:Agostino Pareto
932:
903:Hans von Gagern
877:
869:Carl Löwenhielm
826:
707:Sixth Coalition
703:
692:
677:
675:
660:
658:
643:
641:
626:
624:
609:
607:
591:
589:
579:
561:
559:
544:
542:
527:
525:
510:
508:
493:
491:
476:
474:
459:
457:
442:
440:
425:
423:
408:
406:
391:
389:
374:
372:
357:
355:
340:
338:
323:
321:
306:
304:
291:
271:Sixth Coalition
267:Treaty of Paris
255:
215:plenary session
191:
148:Duchy of Warsaw
85:Napoleonic Wars
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4485:
4475:
4474:
4469:
4464:
4459:
4454:
4449:
4444:
4439:
4434:
4429:
4424:
4419:
4414:
4409:
4404:
4402:1815 in Europe
4399:
4394:
4389:
4384:
4379:
4374:
4369:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4352:Peace treaties
4349:
4344:
4298:
4297:
4288:
4283:
4278:
4271:
4270:External links
4268:
4267:
4266:
4260:
4245:
4242:
4241:
4240:
4225:
4219:
4198:
4182:
4172:
4169:
4168:
4167:
4141:
4140:
4139:
4120:
4100:
4081:
4074:
4068:
4052:
4045:
4035:
4025:
4014:
4005:
3998:
3991:
3980:
3973:
3963:
3937:(2): 264–280.
3931:World Politics
3923:
3914:
3901:
3894:
3887:
3880:
3870:
3858:Dakin, Douglas
3854:
3843:
3840:
3839:
3838:
3824:
3812:Zamoyski, Adam
3808:
3768:
3750:(3): 683–706.
3736:
3730:
3710:
3688:
3670:
3667:
3664:
3663:
3637:
3625:Foreign Policy
3611:
3604:
3582:
3575:
3553:
3546:
3524:
3520:Schroeder 1992
3512:
3497:
3490:
3472:
3442:
3428:
3416:
3414:, p. 440.
3404:
3397:
3375:
3363:
3351:
3339:
3327:
3325:, p. 411.
3315:
3306:
3294:
3292:, p. 417.
3279:
3277:, p. 415.
3267:
3263:grosstuchen.de
3255:
3240:
3223:
3211:
3182:
3153:
3132:
3119:
3106:
3087:
3062:
3033:
3020:
3004:
2992:
2979:
2964:(in Italian).
2949:
2934:(in Italian).
2919:
2917:, p. 409.
2907:
2874:
2845:
2826:
2806:
2790:
2783:
2765:
2763:, p. 195.
2753:
2729:
2716:
2701:
2685:
2683:, p. 381.
2673:
2649:
2617:
2610:
2590:
2571:(2): 143–160.
2555:
2520:
2518:, p. 158.
2508:
2504:Kissinger 1957
2496:
2492:Kissinger 1957
2484:
2472:
2451:(2): 123–140.
2429:
2413:
2399:
2392:
2365:
2328:
2301:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2292:
2291:
2275:Ottoman Empire
2266:
2242:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2235:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2187:
2184:
2129:United Nations
2057:
2054:
2030:Isle of France
1944:(which gained
1879:Duchy of Parma
1843:Denmark-Norway
1839:Treaty of Kiel
1804:
1801:
1797:Neapolitan War
1779:Subsequently,
1766:
1765:
1758:
1757:was condemned.
1751:
1733:Duchy of Lucca
1729:
1714:
1691:
1668:
1649:
1635:
1624:
1614:
1579:
1532:
1509:
1506:Canton of Bern
1494:was guaranteed
1487:
1478:received back
1465:
1458:personal union
1446:
1427:
1419:
1382:(Danzig), the
1368:
1328:
1327:
1286:
1284:
1277:
1271:
1268:
1245:
1242:
1182:Greater Poland
1161:
1158:
1109:
1106:
1104:
1101:
1090:
1087:
1086:
1085:
1084:
1083:
1067:
1037:
1021:
1009:
988:
971:
961:
954:
940:
923:
905:
892:
876:
873:
872:
871:
862:
847:
825:
822:
821:
820:
798:
783:
768:
755:; then by the
745:
702:
699:
691:
690:
673:
656:
639:
622:
605:
587:
574:
557:
540:
523:
506:
489:
472:
455:
438:
421:
404:
387:
370:
353:
336:
319:
301:
290:
287:
275:Treaty of Kiel
254:
251:
221:, assisted by
205:. Painting by
190:
187:
152:northern Italy
142:, most of the
62:Ottoman Empire
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4484:
4473:
4470:
4468:
4465:
4463:
4460:
4458:
4455:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4445:
4443:
4440:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4418:
4415:
4413:
4410:
4408:
4405:
4403:
4400:
4398:
4397:1815 treaties
4395:
4393:
4390:
4388:
4385:
4383:
4380:
4378:
4375:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4339:
4337:
4330:
4327:
4296:
4292:
4289:
4287:
4284:
4282:
4279:
4277:
4274:
4273:
4263:
4257:
4253:
4248:
4247:
4238:
4233:
4232:
4226:
4222:
4216:
4212:
4208:
4204:
4199:
4196:
4191:
4190:
4183:
4179:
4175:
4174:
4156:
4152:
4151:
4146:
4142:
4136:
4132:
4127:
4126:
4123:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4098:
4094:
4090:
4086:
4083:Vick, Brian.
4082:
4079:
4075:
4071:
4065:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4050:
4046:
4044:
4040:
4036:
4031:
4026:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4011:
4006:
4003:
3999:
3996:
3992:
3989:
3985:
3981:
3978:
3974:
3972:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3948:
3944:
3940:
3936:
3932:
3928:
3924:
3922:
3921:online review
3917:
3911:
3907:
3902:
3899:
3895:
3892:
3888:
3885:
3881:
3879:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3863:
3859:
3855:
3851:
3846:
3845:
3835:
3831:
3827:
3821:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3805:
3801:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3782:(7): 49–101.
3781:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3757:
3753:
3749:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3727:
3723:
3719:
3715:
3711:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3672:
3652:
3648:
3641:
3626:
3622:
3615:
3607:
3605:0-7641-5811-2
3601:
3597:
3593:
3586:
3578:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3557:
3549:
3547:0-5214-4229-X
3543:
3539:
3535:
3528:
3521:
3516:
3508:
3501:
3493:
3491:0-8047-0296-9
3487:
3483:
3476:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3446:
3440:
3437:
3432:
3425:
3420:
3413:
3408:
3400:
3398:0-395-65237-5
3394:
3390:
3386:
3379:
3372:
3367:
3360:
3355:
3348:
3343:
3336:
3331:
3324:
3319:
3310:
3303:
3298:
3291:
3286:
3284:
3276:
3271:
3264:
3259:
3251:
3244:
3236:
3235:
3227:
3220:
3215:
3209:
3208:0-8021-3744-X
3205:
3201:
3197:
3194:
3193:
3186:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3165:
3157:
3150:
3146:
3145:Nicolas Soult
3142:
3136:
3129:
3123:
3116:
3110:
3102:
3098:
3091:
3076:
3072:
3066:
3060:
3059:1-113-44924-1
3056:
3052:
3048:
3045:
3044:
3037:
3030:
3027:According to
3024:
3017:
3013:
3012:Zamoyski 2007
3008:
3001:
2996:
2989:
2983:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2953:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2923:
2916:
2911:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2886:
2878:
2862:
2858:
2857:
2849:
2833:
2829:
2823:
2819:
2818:
2810:
2803:
2799:
2798:Zamoyski 2007
2794:
2786:
2780:
2776:
2769:
2762:
2761:Nicolson 1946
2757:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2741:
2733:
2727:, p. 65)
2726:
2725:Nicolson 1946
2720:
2712:
2705:
2698:
2694:
2693:Zamoyski 2007
2689:
2682:
2677:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2661:
2653:
2645:
2633:
2629:
2628:
2621:
2613:
2611:0-399-11022-4
2607:
2603:
2602:
2594:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2559:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2524:
2517:
2516:Nicolson 1946
2512:
2505:
2500:
2493:
2488:
2481:
2480:Nicolson 1946
2476:
2468:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2445:
2440:
2433:
2426:
2422:
2417:
2411:
2410:Article XXXII
2408:
2403:
2395:
2393:0-313-26257-8
2389:
2385:
2381:
2374:
2372:
2370:
2361:
2357:
2354:: 1459–1461.
2353:
2349:
2345:
2344:
2339:
2332:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2309:
2307:
2302:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2279:Robert Liston
2276:
2273:Although the
2270:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2247:
2243:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2198:
2195:
2193:
2190:
2189:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2172:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2145:Naples–Sicily
2142:
2138:
2132:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2109:
2104:
2100:
2094:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2072:
2068:
2067:
2066:Twelfth Night
2062:
2053:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2028:, and of the
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1994:
1992:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1974:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1938:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1894:Joachim Murat
1891:
1887:
1882:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1835:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1813:
1809:
1803:Other changes
1800:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1789:Joachim Murat
1786:
1782:
1777:
1775:
1774:Sweden-Norway
1771:
1763:
1759:
1756:
1752:
1747:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1727:
1724:and given to
1723:
1719:
1715:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1636:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1622:
1618:
1617:Ferdinand III
1615:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1601:in Italy and
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1577:
1573:
1572:Rhenish Hesse
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1492:
1488:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1466:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1357:
1356:
1354:
1345:
1339:
1334:
1324:
1321:
1313:
1303:
1299:
1293:
1292:
1287:This section
1285:
1281:
1276:
1275:
1267:
1264:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1241:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1226:Upper Lusatia
1223:
1219:
1218:Lower Lusatia
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1170:
1168:
1157:
1155:
1151:
1145:
1142:
1137:
1133:
1125:
1118:
1114:
1100:
1097:
1080:
1075:
1071:
1068:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1038:
1034:
1029:
1025:
1022:
1020:
1016:
1013:
1012:
1010:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
989:
984:
979:
975:
972:
969:
965:
962:
959:
955:
953:
949:
945:
941:
936:
931:
927:
924:
921:
917:
913:
909:
906:
904:
900:
896:
893:
890:
886:
882:
879:
878:
875:Other nations
870:
866:
863:
860:
856:
852:
848:
846:
844:
839:
838:
837:
835:
831:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
799:
796:
792:
788:
784:
781:
780:Holy Alliance
777:
773:
769:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
743:
739:
735:
731:
728:
727:
726:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
698:
689:
685:
674:
672:
668:
657:
655:
651:
640:
638:
634:
623:
621:
617:
606:
603:
599:
588:
583:
578:
575:
573:
569:
558:
556:
552:
541:
539:
535:
524:
522:
518:
507:
505:
501:
490:
488:
484:
473:
471:
467:
456:
454:
450:
439:
437:
433:
422:
420:
416:
405:
403:
399:
388:
386:
382:
371:
369:
365:
354:
352:
348:
337:
335:
331:
320:
318:
314:
303:
302:
299:
295:
286:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
263:
260:
253:Preliminaries
250:
248:
244:
238:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
208:
204:
200:
195:
186:
182:
180:
176:
172:
168:
163:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
116:
114:
113:ancien régime
110:
106:
105:revolutionary
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
77:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
54:
45:
37:
33:
29:
22:
4299:
4251:
4235:
4230:
4202:
4188:
4177:
4159:. Retrieved
4155:the original
4149:
4134:
4111:
4108:Gooch, G. P.
4084:
4077:
4059:
4048:
4038:
4029:
4017:
4012:. Duckworth.
4009:
4001:
3994:
3986:60.4 (2020)
3983:
3976:
3966:
3934:
3930:
3905:
3897:
3890:
3883:
3873:
3861:
3852:. Routledge.
3849:
3815:
3779:
3775:
3747:
3743:
3717:
3679:
3654:. Retrieved
3650:
3640:
3628:. Retrieved
3624:
3614:
3591:
3585:
3562:
3556:
3533:
3527:
3515:
3506:
3500:
3481:
3475:
3463:. Retrieved
3454:
3445:
3439:Article VIII
3431:
3424:Hammond 1966
3419:
3407:
3384:
3378:
3366:
3354:
3342:
3330:
3318:
3309:
3297:
3270:
3258:
3249:
3243:
3233:
3226:
3219:Webster 1913
3214:
3191:
3185:
3171:(1): 19–44.
3168:
3162:
3156:
3140:
3135:
3127:
3122:
3114:
3109:
3099:. New York:
3096:
3090:
3078:. Retrieved
3074:
3065:
3042:
3036:
3023:
3007:
3002:, p. 2.
2995:
2987:
2982:
2970:. Retrieved
2961:
2952:
2940:. Retrieved
2931:
2922:
2910:
2898:. Retrieved
2888:. Florence:
2884:
2877:
2865:. Retrieved
2855:
2848:
2836:. Retrieved
2816:
2809:
2793:
2774:
2768:
2756:
2748:
2739:
2732:
2719:
2710:
2704:
2688:
2676:
2668:
2659:
2652:
2644:Google Books
2642:– via
2636:. Retrieved
2626:
2620:
2600:
2593:
2568:
2564:
2558:
2536:(1): 88–99.
2533:
2529:
2523:
2511:
2499:
2487:
2475:
2448:
2442:
2432:
2416:
2402:
2379:
2347:
2341:
2331:
2314:
2269:
2246:
2181:
2173:
2161:Papal States
2133:
2106:
2095:
2076:
2064:
2018:Article VIII
1995:
1975:
1935:
1921:
1906:Ferdinand IV
1902:Hundred Days
1886:Papal States
1883:
1836:
1817:
1793:Hundred Days
1781:Ferdinand IV
1778:
1767:
1737:Marie Louise
1701:, Nice, and
1653:Papal States
1350:
1316:
1307:
1296:Please help
1291:verification
1288:
1247:
1190:Chełmno Land
1171:
1163:
1150:afrancesados
1149:
1146:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1092:
978:Neri Corsini
944:Papal States
889:Frederick VI
842:
827:
765:Hundred Days
704:
695:
297:
289:Participants
264:
256:
243:Great Powers
239:
212:
183:
175:Hundred Days
164:
162:and France.
117:
93:conservative
78:
52:
50:
32:
4417:Reactionary
4387:1815 in law
4367:1814 in law
4321: /
3676:King, David
3669:Works cited
3426:, p. .
3080:13 February
3014:, pp.
2972:14 November
2942:14 November
2900:14 November
2867:16 November
2838:16 November
2026:Saint Lucia
2008:as well as
2006:Cape Colony
1998:West Indies
1970:Switzerland
1946:East Frisia
1855:17 May 1814
1755:slave trade
1744: [
1672:Cape Colony
1540:WĂĽrttemberg
1529:East Frisia
1511:The former
1491:Switzerland
1437:, with the
1258:Castlereagh
1254:Louis XVIII
1077: [
1031: [
1024:WĂĽrttemberg
981: [
966:– Marquise
933: [
908:Switzerland
895:Netherlands
772:Alexander I
580: [
279:Scandinavia
231:Crimean War
169:defeat and
4336:Categories
4309:16°21′50″E
4306:48°12′31″N
4209:. p.
3864:. London:
3720:. Boston:
3656:9 November
3630:9 November
2800:, p.
2695:, p.
2423:, p.
2297:References
2159:, and the
2038:Seychelles
2014:Heligoland
1986:Article CV
1877:, and the
1688:Martinique
1628:Francis IV
1554:under the
1480:Guadeloupe
1414:, and the
1250:Talleyrand
1117:Talleyrand
1048:George III
928:– Marquis
586:(Recorder)
273:, and the
247:Talleyrand
97:republican
68:statesman
4161:26 August
3959:153666035
3866:Macmillan
3804:153829065
3706:10353114M
3698:144548388
3465:1 January
3029:King 2008
3000:King 2008
2467:0010-8367
2421:King 2008
2323:45710678M
2287:Mahmud II
2131:in 1945.
2034:Rodrigues
1958:Franconia
1762:the Rhine
1646:Lunigiana
1626:Archduke
1517:a kingdom
1310:June 2022
1244:Subsidies
1206:free city
1204:became a
1200:), while
1096:copyright
717:with the
4147:(1931).
4133:(1919).
4110:(eds.).
4091:, 2014.
4058:(1994).
3834:7281494M
3814:(2007).
3716:(1957).
3678:(2008).
3459:Archived
3196:Archived
3047:Archived
3016:258, 295
2966:Archived
2936:Archived
2894:Archived
2861:Archived
2832:Archived
2632:Archived
2186:See also
2087:American
2079:reaction
2036:and Les
2004:and the
1982:Olivenza
1978:Portugal
1922:A large
1770:Portugal
1699:Piedmont
1663:and the
1607:Dalmatia
1595:Tarnopol
1587:Salzburg
1500:and the
1452:and the
1426:Empire).
1256:, while
1046:. (King
910:– Every
883:– Count
867:– Count
840:Spain –
719:Bourbons
449:Portugal
347:Portugal
330:Portugal
207:Lawrence
179:Waterloo
83:and the
66:Austrian
4180:. 1921.
4020:(1946)
3951:2008974
3876:(1941)
3796:3678416
3764:2164774
3323:Bernard
3290:Bernard
3275:Bernard
2915:Bernard
2681:Bernard
2585:3633726
2550:1404942
2350:(583).
2157:Tuscany
1960:). The
1950:Bavaria
1942:Hanover
1661:Avignon
1536:Bavaria
1365:Finland
1236:as his
1186:Kuyavia
1040:Hanover
1015:Bavaria
881:Denmark
742:Francis
730:Austria
721:during
650:Prussia
633:Britain
616:Prussia
598:Austria
568:Britain
534:Britain
500:Austria
466:Britain
398:Austria
313:Britain
128:Austria
124:Prussia
120:Britain
101:liberal
4258:
4217:
4118:
4095:
4066:
4043:online
4022:online
3988:online
3979:(1984)
3971:online
3957:
3949:
3912:
3878:online
3832:
3822:
3802:
3794:
3762:
3728:
3704:
3696:
3686:
3602:
3573:
3544:
3488:
3395:
3206:
3057:
2824:
2781:
2638:29 May
2608:
2583:
2548:
2465:
2390:
2321:
2259:German
2251:French
2165:Poland
2141:Modena
2022:Tobago
2002:Ceylon
1873:, the
1863:Sweden
1847:Sweden
1787:after
1680:Ceylon
1676:Tobago
1603:Ragusa
1552:Nassau
1550:, and
1498:Bienne
1476:France
1472:Norway
1398:, and
1380:Gdańsk
1202:KrakĂłw
1198:Poznań
920:Geneva
912:canton
865:Sweden
801:France
684:Russia
681:
667:France
664:
647:
630:
613:
595:
565:
548:
531:
517:Russia
514:
497:
483:France
480:
463:
446:
432:Russia
429:
415:France
412:
395:
381:France
378:
364:Sweden
361:
344:
327:
310:
283:Vienna
209:(1815)
132:Russia
130:, and
103:, and
74:Vienna
3955:S2CID
3947:JSTOR
3800:S2CID
3792:JSTOR
3760:JSTOR
2581:JSTOR
2546:JSTOR
2238:Notes
2149:Parma
2010:Malta
1890:Genoa
1861:with
1859:Union
1748:]
1707:Genoa
1703:Savoy
1593:; of
1583:Tyrol
1576:Mainz
1544:Baden
1396:Sarre
1252:from
1081:]
1035:]
985:]
937:]
918:from
770:Tsar
584:]
551:Spain
4256:ISBN
4215:ISBN
4163:2017
4116:ISBN
4093:ISBN
4064:ISBN
3910:ISBN
3820:ISBN
3726:ISBN
3694:OCLC
3684:ISBN
3658:2022
3632:2022
3600:ISBN
3571:ISBN
3542:ISBN
3486:ISBN
3467:2020
3393:ISBN
3204:ISBN
3082:2024
3055:ISBN
2974:2021
2944:2021
2902:2021
2869:2021
2840:2021
2822:ISBN
2779:ISBN
2640:2021
2606:ISBN
2463:ISSN
2388:ISBN
2281:and
2089:and
2024:and
2012:and
1884:The
1753:The
1731:The
1716:The
1693:The
1686:and
1657:Pope
1651:The
1585:and
1566:and
1400:Roer
1184:and
1005:and
956:The
942:The
815:for
257:The
51:The
4211:352
3939:doi
3784:doi
3752:doi
3596:520
3538:413
3389:440
3173:doi
2802:257
2745:197
2697:297
2665:116
2573:doi
2538:doi
2453:doi
2425:334
2384:149
2356:doi
2348:136
2069:by
1881:).
1853:on
1605:in
1390:of
1378:),
1300:by
843:Don
4338::
4213:.
4205:.
4087:.
3953:.
3945:.
3933:.
3830:OL
3828:.
3798:.
3790:.
3778:.
3758:.
3748:97
3746:.
3724:.
3702:OL
3700:.
3692:.
3649:.
3623:.
3598:.
3569:.
3540:.
3453:.
3391:.
3282:^
3167:.
3073:.
2960:.
2930:.
2892:.
2830:.
2747:.
2667:.
2579:.
2567:.
2544:.
2534:18
2532:.
2461:.
2449:56
2447:.
2441:.
2386:.
2368:^
2346:.
2340:.
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2305:^
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2257:,
2253::
2179:.
2155:,
2151:,
2147:,
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2052:.
1968:.
1746:it
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1542:,
1538:,
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1421:A
1418:).
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1072:–
1066:.)
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1017:–
1001:,
997:,
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853:;
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4124:.
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4072:.
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3836:.
3806:.
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3766:.
3754::
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2871:.
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2646:.
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