Middle English - Knowledge

969:(like "hence" and "together"), conjunctions, and prepositions show the most marked Danish influence. The best evidence of Scandinavian influence appears in extensive word borrowings, yet no texts exist in either Scandinavia or Northern England from this period to give certain evidence of an influence on syntax. However, at least one scholarly study of this influence shows that Old English may have been replaced entirely by Norse, by virtue of the change from the Old English syntax to Norse syntax. The effect of Old Norse on Old English was substantive, pervasive, and of a democratic character. Like close cousins, Old Norse and Old English resembled each other, and with some words in common, they roughly understood each other; in time, the inflections melted away and the analytic pattern emerged. It is most "important to recognise that in many words the English and Scandinavian language differed chiefly in their inflectional elements. The body of the word was so nearly the same in the two languages that only the endings would put obstacles in the way of mutual understanding. In the mixed population that existed in the Danelaw, these endings must have led to much confusion, tending gradually to become obscured and finally lost." This blending of peoples and languages resulted in "simplifying English grammar". 896: 988:, which were under Danish control, words in the spoken language emerged in the 10th and 11th centuries near the transition from Old to Middle English. Influence on the written languages only appeared from the beginning of the 13th century, this delay in Scandinavian lexical influence in English has been attributed to the lack of written evidence from the areas of Danish control, as the majority of written sources from Old English were produced in 1295:. It is also argued that Norse immigrants to England had a great impact on the loss of inflectional endings in Middle English. One argument is that, although Norse and English speakers were somewhat comprehensible to each other due to similar morphology, the Norse speakers' inability to reproduce the ending sounds of English words influenced Middle English's loss of inflectional endings. 799:. Writing conventions during the Middle English period varied widely. Examples of writing from this period that have survived show extensive regional variation. The more standardized Old English literary variety broke down and writing in English became fragmented and localized and was, for the most part, being improvised. By the end of the period (about 1470), and aided by the 377:. Writing conventions during the Middle English period varied widely. Examples of writing from this period that have survived show extensive regional variation. The more standardized Old English literary variety broke down and writing in English became fragmented and localized and was, for the most part, being improvised. By the end of the period (about 1470), and aided by the 4776: 485: 63: 1019:. The use of Norman as the preferred language of literature and polite discourse fundamentally altered the role of Old English in education and administration, even though many Normans of this period were illiterate and depended on the clergy for written communication and record-keeping. A significant number of words of 6602:

And it was done afterwards, that Jesus made a journey by cities and castles, preaching and evangelising the realm of God: and with him (the) Twelve; and some women that were healed of wicked spirits and sicknesses; Mary who is called Magdalene, from whom seven devils went out; and Joanna the wife of

6596:

And it was don aftirward, and Jhesus made iourney bi citees and castels, prechynge and euangelisynge þe rewme of God, and twelue wiþ hym; and sum wymmen þat weren heelid of wickid spiritis and sijknessis, Marie, þat is clepid Maudeleyn, of whom seuene deuelis wenten out, and Joone, þe wijf of Chuse,

6588:

And it was don aftirward, and Jhesu made iorney by citees and castelis, prechinge and euangelysinge þe rewme of God, and twelue wiþ him; and summe wymmen þat weren heelid of wickide spiritis and syknessis, Marie, þat is clepid Mawdeleyn, of whom seuene deuelis wenten out, and Jone, þe wyf of Chuse,

7751:

However, this delay in Scandinavian lexical influence in English has also been attributed to the lack of written evidence from the areas of Danish control (the north and east of England), as the majority of written sources from Old English were produced in Wessex, the heart of Anglo-Saxon political

957:

to communicate with their Anglo-Saxon neighbours resulted in the erosion of inflection in both languages. Old Norse may have had a more profound impact on Middle and Modern English development than any other language. Simeon Potter says, "No less far-reaching was the influence of Scandinavian upon

7215:

So we are taught what was written by them when they were alive. So it's good that we, in our times here on earth, write of new matters – Following the example of our forefathers – So that, in such a way, we may leave our knowledge to the world after we are dead and gone. But it's said, and it is

1419:

London dialect began to develop as a result of this clash of the different dialects, that was based chiefly on the speech of the East Midlands but also influenced by that of other regions. The writing of this period, however, continues to reflect a variety of regional forms of English. The

6547:

Man, come and see how all dead men shall lie: when that comes bad and bare,we have nothing when we away fare: all that we care for is worms:—except for that which we do for God's sake, we have nothing ready:under this grave lies John the smith, God give his soul heavenly peace

4563:

in the period prior to the Norman Conquest, Middle English came to be written in a wide variety of scribal forms, reflecting different regional dialects and orthographic conventions. Later in the Middle English period, however, and particularly with the development of the

2100:), or with a name or in a form of address. This derives from the Old English "weak" declension of adjectives. This inflexion continued to be used in writing even after final -e had ceased to be pronounced. In earlier texts, multisyllable adjectives also receive a final 807:

in 1439, a standard based on the London dialects (Chancery Standard) had become established. This largely formed the basis for Modern English spelling, although pronunciation has changed considerably since that time. Middle English was succeeded in England by

385:

6543:

Man, come and see how shall all dead lie: when thou comes bad and barenaught have we away fare: all is worms that we for care:—but that we do for God's love, we have nothing ready:under this grave lies John the smith, God give his soul heaven great

5209:. As explained above, single vowel letters had alternative pronunciations depending on whether they were in a position where their sounds had been subject to lengthening. Long vowel pronunciations were in flux due to the beginnings of the 1290:

that also occurred in other Germanic languages (though more slowly and to a lesser extent), and therefore, it cannot be attributed simply to the influence of French-speaking sections of the population: English did, after all, remain the

6537:

man com & se how schal alle dede li: wen þow comes bad & barenoth hab ven ve awaẏ fare: All ẏs wermēs þ ve for care:—bot þ ve do for godẏs luf ve haue nothyng yare:hundyr þis graue lẏs John þe smẏth god yif his soule heuen

2304:

The following table shows some of the various Middle English pronouns. Many other variations are noted in Middle English sources because of differences in spellings and pronunciations at different times and in different dialects.

2274:

forms were lost), but pronouns, unlike nouns, retained distinct nominative and accusative forms. Third person pronouns also retained a distinction between accusative and dative forms, but that was gradually lost: The masculine

4658:(i.e., had genuinely been "doubled" and would thus have regularly blocked the lengthening of the preceding vowel). In other cases, by analogy, the consonant was written double merely to indicate the lack of lengthening. 7216:

true, that if one only reads of wisdom all day long It often dulls one's brains. So, if it's alright with you, I'll take the middle route and write a book between the two – Somewhat of amusement, and somewhat of fact.

2025:

survived to a limited extent in early Middle English before being replaced by natural gender in the course of the Middle English period. Grammatical gender was indicated by agreement of articles and pronouns (e.g.,

1491:, influencing the forms they chose. The Chancery Standard, which was adopted slowly, was used in England by bureaucrats for most official purposes, excluding those of the Church and legalities, which used Latin and 4653:

A related convention involved the doubling of consonant letters to show that the preceding vowel was not to be lengthened. In some cases, the double consonant represented a sound that was (or had previously been)

6478:

Forrþrihht anan se time commþatt ure Drihhtin wolldeben borenn i þiss middellærdforr all mannkinne nedehe chæs himm sone kinnessmennall swillke summ he wolldeand whær he wollde borenn benhe chæs all att hiss

1356:

Some scholars have defined "Early Middle English" as encompassing English texts up to 1350. This longer time frame would extend the corpus to include many Middle English Romances (especially those of the

4634:, originally pronounced as two syllables, the /a/ in the first syllable (originally an open syllable) lengthened, the final weak vowel was later dropped, and the remaining long vowel was modified in the 4630:– originally pronounced but lost in normal speech by Chaucer's time. This letter, however, came to indicate a lengthened – and later also modified – pronunciation of a preceding vowel. For example, in 854:, due in part to Norman domination and the prestige that came with writing in French rather than English. During the 14th century, a new style of literature emerged with the works of writers including 432:, due in part to Norman domination and the prestige that came with writing in French rather than English. During the 14th century, a new style of literature emerged with the works of writers including 839:

vocabulary, especially in the areas of politics, law, the arts, and religion, as well as poetic and emotive diction. Conventional English vocabulary remained primarily Germanic in its sources, with

417:

vocabulary, especially in the areas of politics, law, the arts, and religion, as well as poetic and emotive diction. Conventional English vocabulary remained primarily Germanic in its sources, with

4650:. In fact, vowels could have this lengthened and modified pronunciation in various positions, particularly before a single consonant letter and another vowel or before certain pairs of consonants. 843:

influences becoming more apparent. Significant changes in pronunciation took place, particularly involving long vowels and diphthongs, which in the later Middle English period began to undergo the

421:

influences becoming more apparent. Significant changes in pronunciation took place, particularly involving long vowels and diphthongs, which in the later Middle English period began to undergo the

1145:. The role of Anglo-Norman as the language of government and law can be seen in the abundance of Modern English words for the mechanisms of government that are derived from Anglo-Norman, such as 6484:

Forthwith when the time camethat our Lord wantedbe born in this earthfor all mankind sake,He chose kinsmen for Himself,all just as he wanted,and where He would be bornHe chose all at His will.

2247:(the original Old English form clashed with the third person singular and was eventually dropped). Also, the nominative form of the feminine third person singular was replaced by a form of the 1210:(from French, which borrowed it from classical Latin). Later French appropriations were derived from standard, rather than Norman, French. Examples of resultant cognate pairs include the words 1483:, had normally been written in French. Like Chaucer's work, this new standard was based on the East Midlands-influenced speech of London. Clerks using this standard were usually familiar with 1225:

as they had before the Conquest. Once the writing of Old English came to an end, Middle English had no standard language, only dialects that evolved individually from Old English.

1436:, wrote in the second half of the 14th century in the emerging London dialect, although he also portrays some of his characters as speaking in northern dialects, as in the " 1903:-stem nouns in Old English, but joined the weak declension in Middle English. Nouns of the strong declension are inherited from the other Old English noun stem classes. 4568:

in the 15th century, orthography became relatively standardised in a form based on the East Midlands-influenced speech of London. Spelling at the time was mostly quite

1506:'s printing press, developed during the 1470s. The press stabilized English through a push towards standardization, led by Chancery Standard enthusiast and writer 4767:

in Old English. Eth fell out of use during the 13th century and was replaced by thorn. Thorn mostly fell out of use during the 14th century and was replaced by

5201:

Although Middle English spelling was never fully standardised, the following table shows the pronunciations most usually represented by particular letters and

9418: 6062: 5644: 5256: 5347: 2104:

in these situations, but this occurs less regularly in later Middle English texts. Otherwise, adjectives have no ending and adjectives already ending in

1388:) remained the dominant language of literature and law until the 14th century, even after the loss of the majority of the continental possessions of the 6308: 1928:

The distinct dative case was lost in early Middle English. The genitive survived, however, but by the end of the Middle English period, only the strong

784:

states the period when Middle English was spoken as being from 1150 to 1500. This stage of the development of the English language roughly followed the

362:

states the period when Middle English was spoken as being from 1150 to 1500. This stage of the development of the English language roughly followed the

8763: 8725: 8712: 8704: 4513:

ending. The past-tense forms, without their personal endings, also served as past participles with past-participle prefixes derived from Old English:

827:

During the Middle English period, many Old English grammatical features either became simplified or disappeared altogether. Noun, adjective, and verb

405:

During the Middle English period, many Old English grammatical features either became simplified or disappeared altogether. Noun, adjective, and verb

10851: 10836: 8720: 8740: 4936:, which had not normally been used by Old English scribes, came to be commonly used in the writing of Middle English. Also, the newer Latin letter 1635:(and in certain other positions). The resultant long vowels (and other preexisting long vowels) subsequently underwent changes of quality in the 1023:

origin began to appear in the English language alongside native English words of similar meaning, giving rise to such Modern English synonyms as

958:

the inflexional endings of English in hastening that wearing away and leveling of grammatical forms which gradually spread from north to south."

10846: 10841: 9793: 8871: 8580: 1932:

ending (variously spelt) was in use. Some formerly feminine nouns, as well as some weak nouns, continued to make their genitive forms with

1910:

in the nominative/accusative singular, like the weak declension, but otherwise strong endings. Often, these are the same nouns that had an

9591: 8755: 8730: 7252: 1498:

The Chancery Standard's influence on later forms of written English is disputed, but it did undoubtedly provide the core around which

8527: 10831: 1578:

to monophthongs and the emergence of new diphthongs due to vowel breaking in certain positions, change of Old English post-vocalic

1221:

The end of Anglo-Saxon rule did not result in immediate changes to the language. The general population would have spoken the same

7878: 8689: 6628:. The text was written in a dialect associated with London and spellings associated with the then-emergent Chancery Standard. 8828: 8809: 8789: 8438: 8370: 7888: 7842: 7527: 7335: 1003:

of England in 1066 saw the replacement of the top levels of the English-speaking political and ecclesiastical hierarchies by

9408: 8697: 6340: 7639: 6321: 6307:

in "lengthened" positions (although it had generally not gone through the same lengthening process as other vowels – see

6160: 5882: 744: 322: 10320: 8455: 776:

of 1066, until the late 15th century. The English language underwent distinct variations and developments following the

354:

of 1066, until the late 15th century. The English language underwent distinct variations and developments following the

7927: 7691:

Faarlund, Jan Terje, and Joseph E. Emonds. "English as North Germanic". Language Dynamics and Change 6.1 (2016): 1–17.

2129:

to all adjectives not in the nominative, here only inflecting adjectives in the weak declension (as described above).

2121:

inflects adjectives for the masculine accusative, genitive, and dative, the feminine dative, and the plural genitive.

8403: 8175: 7797: 7604: 7437: 7296: 1234: 8864: 8573: 7735:

THE OLD NORSE INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH, THE 'VIKING HYPOTHESIS', AND MIDDLE ENGLISH WORD ORDER PARALLELS WITH ICELANDIC

7237: 6224: 5411: 2313: 7741:(2 ed.). Newcastle University: English Language & Linguistics Dissertation Repository (ELLDR). p. 11 7325: 8677: 5657: 5597: 5533: 5462: 4837:

that had been used for Old English. However, because of the significant difference in appearance between the old

4577: 734: 312: 5834: 5622: 5582: 5548: 5507: 5481: 5285: 17: 10687: 5813: 5679: 4907:

was not available in their fonts; this led to new spellings (often giving rise to new pronunciations), as in

7707:"121028 Charlene Lohmeier "Evolution of the English Language" – 23:40 – 25:00; 30:20 – 30:45; 45:00 – 46:00" 677: 255: 10717: 9887: 9849: 9834: 8600: 7943: 6368: 6284: 6189: 6076: 5968: 5949: 5376: 5368: 1271:, but most of the other case endings disappeared in the Early Middle English period, including most of the 625: 203: 9161: 8714: 8706: 6360: 6298: 6203: 6152: 6121: 6106: 6088: 6073: 6052: 6037: 6015: 5965: 5955: 5831: 5801: 5634: 5619: 5594: 5579: 5545: 5530: 5504: 5478: 5468: 5339: 5306: 5282: 5267: 5248: 5238: 5051: 5024: 5000: 4918: 4864: 4807: 4753: 4726: 1618: 1614: 1608: 1604: 1598: 1594: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1556: 1552: 1548: 10826: 10697: 10557: 9907: 9866: 9856: 8857: 8566: 7517: 6442: 6301: 6124: 6091: 6045: 6040: 6018: 5795: 5759: 5736: 5720: 5637: 5275: 2151:. Adjectives with long vowels sometimes shortened these vowels in the comparative and superlative (e.g., 1705:

The combination of the last three processes listed above led to the spelling conventions associated with

1416: 1349: 1272: 9073: 6603:

Chuza, the procurator of Herod; and Susanna, and many others, who ministered to Him out of her riches.

6384: 6252: 6238: 6140: 5555: 5309: 5270: 5232: 4667: 8394:. Translated by Foster Hopper, Vincent (revised ed.). Barron's Educational Series. 1970. p. 7763: 941:

with a stricter word order. Both Old English and Old Norse (as well as the descendants of the latter,

10821: 10414: 7247: 7242: 6640: 6516: 6446: 6432: 6415: 6413: 6390: 6382: 6338: 6319: 6290: 6282: 6258: 6250: 6236: 6222: 6197: 6195: 6187: 6173: 6138: 5979: 5947: 5932: 5924: 5916: 5908: 5894: 5880: 5857: 5811: 5793: 5757: 5734: 5728: 5726: 5718: 5677: 5669: 5655: 5460: 5446: 5423: 5409: 5374: 5366: 5358: 5327: 5230: 4760: 2271: 1661:'s time, this vowel was silent in normal speech, although it was normally pronounced in verse as the 1298:

Important texts for the reconstruction of the evolution of Middle English out of Old English are the

1280: 851: 429: 7476: 7373: 10692: 10646: 10641: 10565: 10175: 10159: 10038: 9897: 9788: 9783: 8635: 6292: 6109: 6055: 5981: 5627: 5314: 5206: 1537: 1527: 7596: 10816: 10631: 10575: 10570: 10490: 10163: 10113: 9413: 9231: 8987: 8915: 8903: 8615: 8610: 8605: 6363: 6260: 6155: 5926: 5859: 5448: 5425: 5360: 5329: 4762: 4572:. (There was a fairly consistent correspondence between letters and sounds.) The irregularity of 4560: 1314:

in the second half of the 12th century, incorporating a unique phonetic spelling system; and the

630: 589: 579: 569: 208: 167: 157: 147: 10753: 10473: 9871: 10636: 10118: 10084: 9702: 9518: 9378: 9218: 9113: 7471: 7368: 6597:þe procuratoure of Eroude, and Susanne, and many oþir, þat mynystriden to hym of her ritchesse. 2854:

As a general rule, the indicative first person singular of verbs in the present tense ended in

1734: 1673:

was dropped when adjacent to only a single consonant on either side if there was another short

1331: 1300: 920:

wrote what are widely regarded as the oldest surviving texts in Middle English, now called the

781: 359: 8509:(1960) "A Middle English Syntax. 1. Parts of Speech". Helsinki : Société néophilologique. 8395: 8311: 8307: 1733:

Middle English retains only two distinct noun-ending patterns from the more complex system of

10794: 10758: 10026: 10019: 9971: 9741: 9712: 9681: 9644: 9569: 9326: 9239: 9100: 9062: 8647: 8534: 8506: 8430: 7733: 6589:

procuratour of Eroude, and Susanne, and manye oþere, whiche mynystriden to him of her riches.

6175: 5910: 5896: 5202: 4830: 2340: 1533: 1515: 1359: 1016: 836: 414: 10259: 9134: 7877:

Montgomery, Martin; Durant, Alan; Fabb, Nigel; Furniss, Tom; Mills, Sara (24 January 2007).

7588: 1518:, which made the new standard of English publicly recognizable and lasted until about 1650. 1334:

in the early 13th century. The language found in the last two works is sometimes called the

10763: 10743: 10712: 10585: 10445: 10191: 10009: 9601: 9428: 9390: 9385: 9259: 9206: 8964: 8796: 8657: 6620: 6392: 5934: 5671: 5292: 5109: 4734: 4581: 4528: 2240: 1499: 1462:(rather than via French). Examples are "absolute", "act", "demonstration", and "probable". 1448: 1283:

personal pronouns (denoting exactly two) also disappeared from English during this period.

1222: 864: 817: 809: 584: 539: 495: 442: 395: 387: 162: 117: 73: 10419: 1510:. Early Modern English began in the 1540s after the printing and wide distribution of the 8: 10702: 9938: 9892: 9826: 9579: 9226: 9139: 8937: 8625: 8131: 6560: 5205:

towards the end of the Middle English period, using the notation given in the article on

5061: 5048: 4996: 4908: 4573: 4486:

Plural forms vary strongly by dialect, with Southern dialects preserving the Old English

1914:

in the nominative/accusative singular of Old English (they, in turn, were inherited from

10249: 10094: 9341: 8538: 8257:

Merriam-Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged

8148: 7774: 7678: 1428:, a translation of a French confessional prose work, completed in 1340, is written in a 10748: 10672: 10600: 10590: 10545: 10307: 10234: 10131: 9976: 9951: 9946: 9839: 9667: 9552: 9373: 9151: 9146: 9125: 9086: 8890: 8880: 8745: 8640: 8589: 8388: 7640:"[BBC World News] BBC Documentary English Birth of a Language – 35:00 to 37:20" 7489: 7462: 7386: 7359: 7230: 6496: 6114: 6081: 6023: 5958: 5918: 5839: 5804: 5749:

is often retained in Chancery spellings even though the sound was starting to be lost.

5587: 5538: 5512: 5471: 5241: 5135: 2345: 2022: 1404: 1268: 993: 966: 946: 934: 804: 574: 382: 152: 9902: 8217: 4826:

in modern editions of Old and Middle English texts even when the manuscript has wynn.

795:

Middle English saw significant changes to its vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and

724: 373:

Middle English saw significant changes to its vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and

302: 10722: 10521: 10437: 10430: 10385: 10329: 10089: 10079: 10062: 10057: 9961: 9723: 9523: 9484: 9464: 9302: 9194: 9176: 9028: 8735: 8434: 8399: 8366: 8340: 8171: 8113: 7923: 7884: 7838: 7793: 7600: 7589: 7523: 7493: 7433: 7390: 7331: 7292: 6971: 6782: 6775: 6464: 5210: 5084:

elsewhere (as in "bridge"). It could also be written, mainly in French loanwords, as

4635: 2350: 2117: 1636: 1423: 1343: 1246: 1198:, usually through French transmission. This gave rise to various synonyms, including 977: 938: 844: 422: 7556:. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 110–130 (Danelaw), 131–132 (Normans). 7506:

The name "tales of Canterbury" appears within the surviving texts of Chaucer's work.

7403:

The name "tales of Canterbury" appears within the surviving texts of Chaucer's work.

2270:

As with nouns, there was some inflectional simplification (the distinct Old English

972:

While the Old Norse influence was strongest in the dialects of the southern part of

740: 318: 10677: 10468: 10402: 10358: 10353: 10313: 10302: 10294: 10099: 10067: 10014: 10003: 9916: 9625: 9564: 9354: 9336: 9171: 8932: 8924: 8801: 8552: 8544: 8519: 8268:

For certain details, see "Chancery Standard spelling" in Upward, C., Davidson, G.,

7481: 7378: 6868: 6858: 6625: 6615: 6502: 5563: 4646:, now silent, thus became the indicator of the longer and changed pronunciation of 4569: 2236: 1433: 1389: 1276: 973: 942: 913:

to Early Middle English had taken place by the 1150s to 1180s, the period when the

859: 832: 789: 785: 769: 594: 490: 437: 410: 367: 363: 347: 172: 68: 10514: 10707: 10667: 10500: 10407: 10390: 10375: 10370: 10363: 10072: 9981: 9966: 9921: 9773: 9736: 9728: 9707: 9694: 9674: 9660: 9423: 9400: 9331: 9321: 9313: 9093: 8630: 8325: 8165: 8119: 7787: 7427: 7286: 5398: 5190: 5089: 4988: 4556: 2836: 2825: 2330: 2212: 1666: 1484: 1480: 1437: 1429: 1323: 1020: 1000: 985: 773: 561: 484: 351: 139: 62: 8296: 7671: 10788: 10682: 10662: 10614: 10506: 10380: 10050: 9817: 9756: 9535: 9492: 9449: 9366: 9361: 9250: 9200: 9051: 9002: 8957: 8781: 8662: 7947: 6644: 6567: 6520: 6438: 6270: 5186: 5072:

in Old English. By the time of Modern English, the sound came to be written as

5004: 4834: 4685: 4585: 2886: 2335: 1915: 1507: 1503: 1459: 1452: 1286:

The loss of case endings was part of a general trend from inflections to fixed

1184: 813: 649: 391: 227: 8487:; 5. Auflage. Tübingen: M. Niemeyer (1st ed. Halle (Saale): M. Niemeyer, 1938) 7706: 7647: 6265:(which had previously been allophones of a single phoneme), replacing earlier 2070:

when modifying a noun in the plural and when used after the definite article (

10810: 10738: 10580: 10336: 10287: 10104: 10043: 9956: 9861: 9799: 9746: 9630: 9557: 8463: 8344: 6940: 6933: 5604: 5023:, etc. would have originally followed the Latin pronunciation beginning with 4845: 4592: 2840: 2574: 2531: 2248: 1968: 1713: 1662: 1632: 1625: 1511: 1408: 1381: 1317: 1049: 981: 855: 547: 433: 125: 7692: 1241:

system. The grammatical relations that were expressed in Old English by the

1233:

Early Middle English (1150–1350) has a largely Anglo-Saxon vocabulary (with

10607: 10031: 9995: 9928: 9751: 9574: 9547: 9530: 9474: 9433: 9015: 8994: 8123: 7880:

Ways of Reading: Advanced Reading Skills for Students of English Literature

7859: 4892: 4768: 4671: 4531:, by contrast, formed their past tense by changing their stem vowel (e.g., 2898:

in "that"). The following table illustrates a typical conjugation pattern:

2680: 2668: 2579: 2482: 2288: 1311: 914: 800: 656: 378: 234: 10254: 7460:

Carlson, David. (2004). "The Chronology of Lydgate's Chaucer References".

7357:

Carlson, David. (2004). "The Chronology of Lydgate's Chaucer References".

949:) were synthetic languages with complicated inflections. The eagerness of 895: 694: 272: 10424: 10397: 10215: 10123: 9805: 9766: 9349: 9044: 9008: 8943: 8821: 8816: 8620: 8422: 7485: 7382: 5122: 2821: 2366: 2132: 1749: 1458:

A large number of terms for abstract concepts were adopted directly from

1396: 1335: 1250: 910: 796: 777: 635: 374: 355: 213: 10269: 8192: 6862: 1218:(from later French; both share a common ancestor loaned from Germanic). 10264: 10244: 9609: 9279: 8980: 8773: 8385:

This Knowledge translation closely mirrors the translation found here:

6976: 6346: 5810:, which had started to be diphthongised by about 1500. As a consonant, 5065: 5036: 4952:

came into use but were still used interchangeably; the same applies to

4725:

Ash was no longer required in Middle English, as the Old English vowel

4655: 2894:

in "think", but under certain circumstances, it may be like the voiced

1643: 1492: 1385: 1292: 1287: 1238: 1171: 1012: 1008: 828: 543: 406: 121: 7833:

Burchfield, Robert W. (1987). "Ormulum". In Strayer, Joseph R. (ed.).

7785: 7425: 7284: 4871:

was normally used for . Instances of yogh were eventually replaced by

1883:

Nouns of the weak declension are primarily inherited from Old English

10450: 10198: 9844: 9761: 9542: 9497: 9469: 9295: 8849: 8558: 7919: 5175: 4838: 4757: 2244: 1754: 1575: 1568: 1564: 1545: 1327: 1188: 1180: 1176: 930: 840: 717: 703: 687: 669: 418: 295: 281: 265: 247: 10274: 7786:

Fuster-Márquez, Miguel; Calvo García de Leonardo, Juan José (2011).

7426:

Fuster-Márquez, Miguel; Calvo García de Leonardo, Juan José (2011).

7285:

Fuster-Márquez, Miguel; Calvo García de Leonardo, Juan José (2011).

831:

were simplified by the reduction (and eventual elimination) of most

409:

were simplified by the reduction (and eventual elimination) of most

10239: 9587: 8768: 7764:

https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/periodicals/TPRSNZ1901-34.2.8.1.9

6726: 5872:

at the start of words; here both consonants were still pronounced.

5113: 4624: 4601: 4544: 2319: 2227:. Other irregular forms were mostly the same as in modern English. 1706: 1444: 1412: 1254: 962: 821: 752: 520: 512: 399: 330: 98: 90: 6420:(in Scotland sometimes used as a substitute for yogh; see above). 2243:, with the exception of the third person plural, a borrowing from 10280: 9876: 9778: 6458: 5171: 4799: 1658: 1560: 1306: 1125: 1099: 1043: 1037: 1004: 954: 950: 922: 748: 551: 528: 508: 326: 129: 106: 86: 6948: 6925: 6910: 6895: 6876: 6850: 6835: 6820: 6805: 6790: 6767: 6752: 6737: 6718: 6703: 6684: 6669: 6654: 6594: 6586: 6006:

for legibility, i.e. to avoid a succession of vertical strokes.

4971: 4965: 4780: 4538: 4532: 4476: 4469: 4462: 4455: 4448: 4441: 4434: 4427: 4420: 4413: 4406: 4398: 4389: 4382: 4375: 4368: 4358: 4351: 4344: 4337: 4330: 4323: 4315: 4306: 4299: 4292: 4285: 4275: 4268: 4261: 4254: 4240: 4231: 4224: 4217: 4210: 4200: 4193: 4186: 4179: 4165: 4156: 4149: 4142: 4135: 4128: 4121: 4114: 4107: 4100: 4093: 4086: 4078: 4069: 4062: 4055: 4048: 4041: 4034: 4027: 4020: 4013: 4006: 4000: 3993: 3985: 3976: 3969: 3962: 3955: 3945: 3938: 3931: 3924: 3910: 3901: 3894: 3887: 3880: 3873: 3866: 3859: 3852: 3845: 3838: 3832: 3825: 3817: 3808: 3802: 3796: 3789: 3783: 3777: 3770: 3764: 3758: 3751: 3745: 3739: 3731: 3724: 3718: 3711: 3704: 3697: 3690: 3684: 3677: 3669: 3660: 3653: 3646: 3639: 3632: 3626: 3619: 3612: 3605: 3598: 3591: 3585: 3578: 3570: 3561: 3554: 3547: 3540: 3533: 3526: 3519: 3512: 3505: 3498: 3492: 3485: 3477: 3468: 3461: 3454: 3447: 3440: 3433: 3427: 3420: 3413: 3406: 3399: 3393: 3386: 3378: 3369: 3363: 3356: 3350: 3343: 3337: 3330: 3324: 3317: 3311: 3304: 3297: 3290: 3283: 3276: 3270: 3263: 3255: 3246: 3239: 3233: 3226: 3219: 3212: 3203: 3196: 3186: 3179: 3172: 3165: 3158: 3151: 3144: 3138: 3131: 3123: 3108: 3101: 3094: 3087: 3080: 3068: 3057: 3051: 3041: 3036: 3028: 3022: 3017: 3009: 3003: 2996: 2989: 2982: 2976: 2969: 2879: 2869: 2859: 2292: 2282: 2262: 2252: 2222: 2216: 2205: 2197: 2189: 2181: 2173: 2165: 2158: 2152: 2145: 2137: 2106: 2095: 2089: 2083: 2077: 2071: 2064: 2045: 2039: 2033: 2027: 1947: 1937: 1872: 1866: 1858: 1844: 1838: 1830: 1817: 1804: 1796: 1788: 1779: 1696: 1690: 1684: 1678: 1421: 1315: 1258: 474: 468: 462: 449:

Stage of development of English, from the 12th to 15th centuries

52: 46: 40: 27:

Stage of development of English, from the 12th to 15th centuries

9583: 8015:

Fischer, O., van Kemenade, A., Koopman, W., van der Wurff, W.,

7837:. Vol. 9. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 280. 7522:. Early English text society. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 6535: 6476: 6211: 5055: 4670:

consisted of 20 standard letters plus four additional letters:

2050:(strong shaft), with the masculine accusative adjective ending 1400: 1242: 1237:

in the northern parts of the country) but a greatly simplified

1165: 1089: 1079: 989: 835:

distinctions. Middle English also saw considerable adoption of

413:

distinctions. Middle English also saw considerable adoption of

7914:

Wright, L. (2012). "About the evolution of Standard English".

4855:), the former continued in use as a separate letter, known as 9501: 8522:

A Concise Dictionary of Middle English from A.D. 1150 to 1580

8133:

A Concise Dictionary of Middle English from A.D. 1150 to 1580

6884: 6845:

it is at these times that people desire to go on pilgrimages

5117: 4863:. This was adopted for use to represent a variety of sounds: 4818:

during the 13th century. Due to its similarity to the letter

2115:

Earlier texts sometimes inflect adjectives for case as well.

1650: 1488: 1341:

More literary sources of the 12th and 13th centuries include

1195: 1153: 1147: 1073: 524: 516: 102: 94: 8298:

The Ormulum: with the notes and glossary of Dr R. M. White.

5334:, but in later Middle English became silent in words ending 7876: 6389:(earlier this was one of the uses of yogh). Sometimes also 6327: 5742: 5008: 4992: 4976:

for "wife" and "paradise" can be found in Middle English.)

4940:

was introduced (replacing wynn). The distinct letter forms

4856: 4692: 2756: 2728: 2525: 2428: 2416: 1175:. There are also many Norman-derived terms relating to the 1159: 1067: 1055: 1031: 917: 8193:"The Cambridge History of English and American Literature" 6120:, which had started to be diphthongised by about 1500, or 1399:

of the 14th century, there was significant migration into

751:

characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see

329:

characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see

6692: 6266: 4775: 4678: 2674: 2423: 1206:(from French, which inherited it from Vulgar Latin), and 1061: 1025: 996:), the heart of Anglo-Saxon political power at the time. 1646:(double consonants came to be pronounced as single ones) 8460:

John Gower's 'Confessio Amantis' Modern English Version

7677:. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin. pp. 7212:

Of those who wrote before we were born, books survive,

6490: 2623: 1959:

plural form has survived into Modern English. The weak

1942:, horses' hooves), and nouns of relationship ending in 1451:. This would develop into what came to be known as the 1447:, an independent standard was developing, based on the 820:(prevalent in northern England and spoken in southeast 398:(prevalent in northern England and spoken in southeast 7595:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1899:-stem nouns, which did not inflect in the same way as 1502:

formed. Early Modern English emerged with the help of

868:

remains the most studied and read work of the period.

8533: 7775:

https://deaf-server.adw.uni-heidelberg.de/book/garder

7219:

In that way, somebody might, more or less, like that.

6991:

Translation into Modern English: (by Richard Brodie)

5697: 5394: 4959: 4953: 4947: 4941: 4813: 4792: 4501:

The past tense of weak verbs was formed by adding an

2890:(the letter "thorn") is pronounced like the unvoiced 2874:, "thou speakest"), and the third person singular in 1639:, which began during the later Middle English period. 1467: 446:

remains the most studied and read work of the period.

8497: 8365:(2nd ed.). Oxford: Robert Dugdale. p. 39. 6988:

Near word-for-word translation into Modern English:

6969:

The following is the beginning of the Prologue from

6405:

is often preferred beside letters with downstrokes.

4498:

in the third person singular as well as the plural.

961:

Viking influence on Old English is most apparent in

8549:

With grammatical introduction, notes, and glossary.

8494:; translated by Grahame Johnston. Oxford: Blackwell 8283:

The Origins and Development of the English Language

8064: 8043: 7860:"Making Early Middle English: About the Conference" 5080:at the start of words (like "joy"), and usually as 4785:, "the") has led to the modern mispronunciation of 1179:cultures that arose in the 12th century, an era of 8387: 8084: 8082: 8080: 8078: 8076: 8057: 8055: 8027: 8025: 7789:A Practical Introduction to the History of English 7670: 7591:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language 7576:. Leipzig, Germany: B. G. Teubner. pp. 58–82. 7516:Johannesson, Nils-Lennart; Cooper, Andrew (2023). 7429:A Practical Introduction to the History of English 7288:A Practical Introduction to the History of English 5196: 4773:. Anachronistic usage of the scribal abbreviation 7515: 2291:by the early 14th century, and the neuter dative 2276: 1472:The Chancery Standard of written English emerged 1304:, which continued to be compiled up to 1154; the 10808: 8070:Burrow & Turville-Petre 2005, pp. 28–29 8049:Burrow & Turville-Petre 2005, pp. 27–28 6950:That hem hath holpen, whan that they were seeke. 6029:(became commonly used in Early Modern English). 4710:, and Old English scribes did not generally use 2215:in their comparatives and superlatives, such as 8498:Burrow, J. A.; Turville-Petre, Thorlac (2005). 8073: 8052: 8034: 8022: 7459: 7356: 6890:and distant shrines venerated in other places. 4741:in many words of Greek or Latin origin, as did 2135:and superlatives were usually formed by adding 6710:From which goodness is engendered the flower; 4733:. The symbol nonetheless came to be used as a 890: 8865: 8574: 8231:The Cambridge History of the English Language 8190: 7978: 7976: 6887:), respected (couth, known) in sundry lands; 6747:has coaxed in every wood and dale, to sprout 6676:The drought of March has pierced to the root 5558:the latter vowel came to be commonly written 5438:(for the phenomenon of doubling, see above). 4917:replaced a yogh, which had the pronunciation 4895:, yogh became indistinguishable from cursive 1310:, a biblical commentary probably composed in 816:developed concurrently from a variant of the 394:developed concurrently from a variant of the 8088:Burrow & Turville-Petre 2005, p. 29 8061:Burrow & Turville-Petre 2005, p. 28 8040:Burrow & Turville-Petre 2005, p. 38 8031:Burrow & Turville-Petre 2005, p. 23 7574:Growth and Structure of the English Language 7509: 7323: 6955:That has helped them, when they were sick. 6698:filling every capillary with nourishing sap 6671:The droȝte of March hath perced to the roote 6463:This passage explains the background to the 4618: 1586:(sometimes resulting from the allophone of 515:), some localities in the eastern fringe of 93:), some localities in the eastern fringe of 8129: 6852:And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes 6827:(So Nature prompts them in their courage); 6679:has drenched March's drought to the roots, 6649:Translation into Modern U.K. English prose 6614:The following is the very beginning of the 6273:, although thorn was still sometimes used. 5776:, etc.). In some French loanwords, such as 2864:, "I hear"), the second person singular in 1432:. The best known writer of Middle English, 1249:were replaced in Early Middle English with 8872: 8858: 8581: 8567: 8356: 8354: 7973: 7916:Studies in English Language and Literature 7913: 7832: 7627:. London: Faber and Faber. pp. 70–71. 7253:A Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English 7207:Translation in Modern English: (by J. Dow) 5768:was used). Also used in several digraphs ( 5138:above an adjacent letter, so for example, 4494:from about 1200, and Northern forms using 2112:etymologically receive no ending as well. 1946:frequently have no genitive ending (e.g., 1380:Gradually, the wealthy and the government 937:with relatively free word order to a more 780:period. Scholarly opinion varies, but the 483: 358:period. Scholarly opinion varies, but the 61: 8184: 8111: 7909: 7907: 7792:. : Universitat de València. p. 21. 7693:https://doi.org/10.1163/22105832-00601002 7571: 7475: 7432:. : Universitat de València. p. 21. 7372: 7291:. : Universitat de València. p. 21. 6958:who has helped them when they were sick. 6878:To ferne halwes, kowthe in sondry londes; 6837:Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages 6762:the tender plants, as the springtime sun 6554: 4924:Under continental influence, the letters 2032:"the feminine owl") or using the pronoun 1979:. Some dialects still have forms such as 1590:) to offglides, and borrowing from French 1443:In the English-speaking areas of lowland 1384:again, although Norman (and subsequently 10852:15th-century disestablishments in Europe 10837:Languages attested from the 11th century 8676: 7948:"Mental furniture from the philosophers" 7942: 7704: 7189:Sometimes I'll write of things profound, 6732:and when Zephyrus with his sweet breath 6720:Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth 6656:Whan that Aprill, with his shoures soote 6452: 5185:Numbers were still always written using 4987:was sometimes used to transliterate the 4829:Under Norman influence, the continental 2267:remained in some areas for a long time. 933:aided the development of English from a 894: 8520:A. L. Mayhew and Walter William Skeat. 8360: 8351: 8323: 8163: 7586: 6912:Of Engelond, to Caunterbury they wende, 6822:(So priketh hem Nature in hir corages); 6769:Hath in the Ram his halfe cours yronne, 6754:The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne 6686:And bathed every veyne in swich licour, 6632:First 18 lines of the General Prologue 5864:, used particularly in positions where 5035:. In some words, however, notably from 4613:pronounced, the latter sounding as the 2311:Below each Middle English pronoun, the 1228: 745:question marks, boxes, or other symbols 323:question marks, boxes, or other symbols 14: 10809: 8879: 8588: 8453: 8326:"Medieval Inscriptions in Oxfordshire" 8223: 7904: 7731: 7705:Lohmeier, Charlene (28 October 2012). 7668: 7622: 7324:Horobin, Simon; Smith, Jeremy (2002). 7114:For that like cause, if that you read, 6830:their spirits thus aroused by Nature; 6705:Of which vertu engendred is the flour; 6281:Used interchangeably. As a consonant, 5741:(this was formerly one of the uses of 5189:, except for some rare occurrences of 5134:were often omitted and indicated by a 5112:were also used. It was common for the 4600: 4591:Middle English generally did not have 4565: 1906:Some nouns of the strong type have an 1479:in official documents that, since the 1375: 10847:Languages extinct in the 15th century 10842:11th-century establishments in Europe 10543: 10157: 8901: 8853: 8675: 8562: 8485:Abriss der mittelenglischen Grammatik 8427:First Middle English Primer (updated) 8421: 8236: 8150:The Principles of English Composition 8146: 7618: 7616: 7567: 7565: 7563: 7551: 7547: 7545: 7543: 7541: 7539: 7162:When we have left this mortal sphere, 7144:From what was written then, we learn, 7075:Been taught of that was written then: 6920:from England, they go to Canterbury, 6917:Of England, to Canterbury they went, 6902:And specially from every shire's end 6842:Then folk long to go on pilgrimages. 6807:That slepen al the nyght with open ye 6800:and small birds that chirp melodies, 6744:Inspired has in every holt and heath 6739:Inspired hath in every holt and heeth 5764:(except for the allophones for which 5247:, becoming by about 1500. Sometimes 2088:), after a possessive pronoun (e.g., 8492:An Outline of Middle English Grammar 8294: 8130:Mayhew, AL; Skeat, Walter W (1888). 7319: 7317: 7315: 7156:Like those we from these sages cite, 7111:To him that shall it every day read, 6927:The hooly blisful martir for to seke 6897:And specially from every shires ende 6815:sleep all night with half-open eyes 6812:That sleep all night with open eyes 6759:The tender crops; and the young sun 6491:Epitaph of John the smyth, died 1371 5998:spelling was often used rather than 4806:Wynn, which represented the phoneme 2038:to refer to masculine nouns such as 499:, published in the late 14th century 77:, published in the late 14th century 9434:Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German 8164:Horobin, Simon (9 September 2016). 8118:. London: Oxford University Press. 7982:cf. 'Sawles Warde' (The protection 7637: 7198:So all can something pleasing find. 7153:Do write anew some things of worth, 7138:Of those who wrote before our lives 7123:Somewhat of lust, somewhat of lore, 6781:passes halfway through the sign of 6661:When April with his showers sweet 5338:(while some words that never had a 1665:required (much as occurs in modern 1403:, of people to the counties of the 24: 10793:Languages between parentheses are 10158: 7613: 7560: 7536: 7192:And sometimes for amusement's sake 7177:Of wisdom all day long, one breeds 7159:So that such in like manner might, 7129:Some man may like of that I write: 7105:That who that all of wisdom writes 7054:Somwhat of lust, somewhat of lore, 7045:For thilke cause, if that ye rede, 6664:When April with its sweet showers 4964:. (For example, spellings such as 2211:. A few adjectives also displayed 1963:form is now rare and used only in 1468:Transition to Early Modern English 1015:, which developed in England into 25: 10863: 8513: 8229:Salmon, V., (in) Lass, R. (ed.), 8214:Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary 8112:Stratmann, Francis Henry (1891). 8099:An Introduction to Middle English 7554:A History of the English Language 7327:An Introduction to Middle English 7312: 7147:And so it's well that we in turn, 7120:And write a book between the two, 7072:The books dwell, and we therefore 7060:Som man mai lyke of that I wryte: 7051:And wryte a bok betwen the tweie, 7033:Bot for men sein, and soth it is, 7003:The bokes duelle, and we therfore 6609: 6505:in an Oxfordshire parish church: 6367: 6362: 6300: 6159: 6154: 6123: 6113: 6108: 6090: 6080: 6075: 6054: 6044: 6039: 6022: 6017: 5967: 5957: 5838: 5833: 5803: 5636: 5626: 5621: 5596: 5586: 5581: 5547: 5537: 5532: 5511: 5506: 5480: 5470: 5313: 5308: 5284: 5274: 5269: 5240: 2309:Middle English personal pronouns 2163:, greater). Adjectives ending in 2062:Single-syllable adjectives added 812:, which lasted until about 1650. 390:, which lasted until about 1650. 8285:, Cengage Learning 2013, p. 128. 8191:Ward, AW; Waller, AR (1907–21). 7238:Middle English creole hypothesis 7165:Remain for all the world to hear 7057:That of the lasse or of the more 7042:To him that schal it aldai rede, 7024:Whan we ben dede and elleswhere, 7021:So that it myhte in such a wyse, 7006:Ben tawht of that was write tho: 6792:And smale foweles maken melodye, 5868:would be softened. Also used in 5103: 5068:, which had been represented as 4774: 4555:With the discontinuation of the 2179:formed comparatives either with 1717: 1677:in an adjoining syllable. Thus, 10832:History of the English language 8447: 8415: 8379: 8317: 8288: 8275: 8270:The History of English Spelling 8262: 8249: 8207: 8157: 8140: 8104: 8101:, Broadview Press, 2012, p. 65. 8091: 8009: 7989: 7936: 7870: 7852: 7826: 7821:Our Magnificent Bastard Tongue, 7813: 7779: 7768: 7757: 7725: 7698: 7685: 7662: 7631: 7580: 7195:A lighter path of pleasure take 7174:To say that when one only reads 7171:But it is so that men are prone 7141:Their precious legacy survives; 7126:That of the less or of the more 7090:So that it might in such a way, 7036:That who that al of wisdom writ 6905:Particularly from every county 6797:And small birds make melodies, 6713:prompting the flowers to grow, 6426: 6202:(formerly was an allophone of 5197:Letter-to-sound correspondences 4752:Eth and thorn both represented 4698:. There was not yet a distinct 4623:). The major exception was the 4580:that have taken place over the 4574:present-day English orthography 2902:Middle English verb inflection 2830: 2815: 2044:("helmet"), or phrases such as 1253:constructions. The Old English 899:The dialects of Middle English 801:invention of the printing press 379:invention of the printing press 10797:of the language on their left. 8170:. Edinburgh University Press. 8167:Introduction to Middle English 7500: 7453: 7419: 7414:Introduction to Middle English 7406: 7397: 7350: 7278: 7273:Introduction to Middle English 7265: 7183:If you agree I'll choose to go 7102:But for men say, and so it is, 7093:When we be dead and elsewhere, 7000:Of hem that written ous tofore 6964: 6691:And bathed every vein in such 6087:, becoming by about 1500; or 6063:Late Middle English diphthongs 5645:Late Middle English diphthongs 5554:, becoming by about 1500. In 5544:, becoming by about 1500; or 5257:Late Middle English diphthongs 4822:, it is mostly represented by 4730: 4639: 4638:(for these sound changes, see 4550: 2301:in most dialects by the 15th. 1460:scholastic philosophical Latin 1326:, religious texts written for 1202:(inherited from Old English), 1007:rulers who spoke a dialect of 13: 1: 10688:Germanic substrate hypothesis 10544: 7835:Dictionary of the Middle Ages 7258: 7186:Along a kind of middle ground 7150:In our allotted time on earth 7015:Do wryte of newe som matiere, 5954:, or in lengthened positions 5800:, or in lengthened positions 5467:, or in lengthened positions 5237:, or in lengthened positions 5162:; the thorn here resembled a 5146:. A thorn with a superscript 5120:(as in Latin manuscripts) to 4899:, and printers tended to use 2538:heo / his / hie / hies / hire 2057: 1723: 1669:). Also, nonfinal unstressed 1574:Reduction of the Old English 1532:The main changes between the 1473: 1363: 900: 10718:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law 9409:Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch 8233:, Vol. III, CUP 2000, p. 39. 7069:Of them that wrote us before 7039:It dulleth ofte a mannes wit 7018:Essampled of these olde wyse 7012:In oure tyme among ous hiere 6443:sense-for-sense translations 2307: 1521: 1194:Words were often taken from 7: 10698:High German consonant shift 8553:Middle English encyclopedia 8530:(archived 22 February 2012) 8390:Canterbury Tales (selected) 8361:Utechin, Patricia (1990) . 8153:. Cochrane and Pickersgill. 8115:A Middle-English dictionary 8017:The Syntax of Early English 7223: 7078:For it is good that we also 7030:In tyme comende after this. 7009:Forthi good is that we also 6985:Original in Middle English 6729:even with his sweet breath 6637:Original in Middle English 5733:, post-vowel allophones of 5088:, with the adoption of the 4661: 4490:, Midland dialects showing 2239:were mostly developed from 2230: 2123:The Owl and the Nightingale 1649:Loss of weak final vowels ( 1350:The Owl and the Nightingale 891:Transition from Old English 10: 10868: 9236:Westlauwers–Terschellings 8889:According to contemporary 8304:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 8295:Holt, Robert, ed. (1878). 8244:Oxford English Dictionary, 8220:retrieved February 1, 2009 8136:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 7732:Wright, Mary Anne (2022). 7234:(collection of glossaries) 7168:In ages following our own. 7108:It dulls often a man's wit 7099:In time coming after this. 7096:Be left to the world's ear 7087:Exampled by these old ways 7048:I wolde go the middel weie 7027:Beleve to the worldes eere 6494: 6456: 6447:word-for-word translations 6430: 6397:. As a vowel, the same as 5915:, including its allophone 5818:((corresponding to modern 5281:(alternatively denoted by 5116:to abbreviate the name of 5064:. This was similar to the 4668:Old English Latin alphabet 3116: 2960: 2884:, "he cometh/he comes"). ( 2076:), after a demonstrative ( 1887:-stem nouns but also from 1873: 1867: 1859: 1845: 1839: 1831: 1818: 1805: 1789: 1780: 1683:began to be pronounced as 1603:Raising of the long vowel 1525: 885: 772:that was spoken after the 350:that was spoken after the 10780: 10731: 10655: 10624: 10556: 10552: 10539: 10488: 10461: 10415:Southern Schleswig Danish 10346: 10227: 10183: 10174: 10170: 10153: 9994: 9937: 9825: 9816: 9721: 9693: 9652: 9643: 9618: 9600: 9511: 9483: 9457: 9448: 9399: 9312: 9287: 9278: 9217: 9112: 9061: 9036: 9027: 8923: 8914: 8910: 8897: 8887: 8754: 8688: 8684: 8671: 8596: 8363:Epitaphs from Oxfordshire 8000:cf. 'Ancrene Wisse' (The 7416:, Edinburgh 2016, s. 1.1. 7275:, Edinburgh 2016, s. 1.1. 7248:Middle English literature 7243:Middle English Dictionary 7117:I would go the middle way 7084:Do write some new matter, 7081:In our time among us here 6641:Word-for-word translation 6536: 6517:Word-for-word translation 6477: 6433:Middle English literature 5193:during the 15th century. 4547:), as in Modern English. 3202: 3195: 3185: 3178: 3137: 3130: 3121: 3016: 3002: 2995: 2988: 2975: 2968: 2935: 2932: 2929: 2926: 2923: 2920: 2915: 2912: 2909: 2906: 2720: 2697:eower / ower / gur / our 2688:eow / ou / ȝow / gu / you 2663: 2619: 2614: 2475: 2411: 2361: 2356: 2326: 1815: 1802: 1786: 1777: 1753: 1748: 1745: 1735:inflection in Old English 1631:Lengthening of vowels in 909:The transition from Late 852:Middle English literature 850:Little survives of early 731: 715: 701: 685: 667: 662: 646: 618: 558: 534: 504: 482: 461: 456: 430:Middle English literature 428:Little survives of early 309: 293: 279: 263: 245: 240: 224: 196: 136: 112: 82: 60: 39: 34: 10693:West Germanic gemination 10647:Ancient Belgian language 10642:Germanic parent language 10586:Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic) 9708:Austrian Standard German 8902: 8713:Changes before historic 8705:Changes before historic 8543:. Macmillan – via 8502:(3 ed.). Blackwell. 8500:A Book of Middle English 8454:Brodie, Richard (2005). 8429:. Evolution Publishing: 8324:Bertram, Jerome (2003). 8281:Algeo, J., Butcher, C., 7638:BBC (27 December 2014). 7572:Jespersen, Otto (1919). 7180:A paucity of wit, and so 6441:translations are poetic 5207:Middle English phonology 5174:". Various forms of the 5060:(modern "joy"), used in 5027:, that is, the sound of 4867:, while the Carolingian 4729:that it represented had 2849: 2547:hio / heo / hire / heore 1728: 1624:Unrounding of the front 1621:in the southern dialects 1544:Emergence of the voiced 1534:Old English sound system 1528:Middle English phonology 1395:In the aftermath of the 965:, modals, comparatives, 8616:Anglo-Frisian languages 8540:A Middle English Reader 8528:Middle English Glossary 7669:Potter, Simeon (1950). 7623:McCrum, Robert (1987). 7587:Crystal, David (1995). 6949: 6926: 6911: 6896: 6877: 6851: 6836: 6821: 6806: 6791: 6768: 6753: 6738: 6719: 6704: 6685: 6670: 6655: 6595: 6587: 6065:; these later merged). 5647:; these later merged). 5434:as the doubled form of 5342:sound came to be spelt 5056: 5003:(and transliterated in 4972: 4966: 4781: 4539: 4533: 4477: 4470: 4463: 4456: 4449: 4442: 4435: 4428: 4421: 4414: 4407: 4399: 4390: 4383: 4376: 4369: 4359: 4352: 4345: 4338: 4331: 4324: 4316: 4307: 4300: 4293: 4286: 4276: 4269: 4262: 4255: 4241: 4232: 4225: 4218: 4211: 4201: 4194: 4187: 4180: 4166: 4157: 4150: 4143: 4136: 4129: 4122: 4115: 4108: 4101: 4094: 4087: 4079: 4070: 4063: 4056: 4049: 4042: 4035: 4028: 4021: 4014: 4007: 4001: 3994: 3986: 3977: 3970: 3963: 3956: 3946: 3939: 3932: 3925: 3911: 3902: 3895: 3888: 3881: 3874: 3867: 3860: 3853: 3846: 3839: 3833: 3826: 3818: 3809: 3803: 3797: 3790: 3784: 3778: 3771: 3765: 3759: 3752: 3746: 3740: 3732: 3725: 3719: 3712: 3705: 3698: 3691: 3685: 3678: 3670: 3661: 3654: 3647: 3640: 3633: 3627: 3620: 3613: 3606: 3599: 3592: 3586: 3579: 3571: 3562: 3555: 3548: 3541: 3534: 3527: 3520: 3513: 3506: 3499: 3493: 3486: 3478: 3469: 3462: 3455: 3448: 3441: 3434: 3428: 3421: 3414: 3407: 3400: 3394: 3387: 3379: 3370: 3364: 3357: 3351: 3344: 3338: 3331: 3325: 3318: 3312: 3305: 3298: 3291: 3284: 3277: 3271: 3264: 3256: 3247: 3240: 3234: 3227: 3220: 3213: 3204: 3197: 3187: 3180: 3173: 3166: 3159: 3152: 3145: 3139: 3132: 3124: 3109: 3102: 3095: 3088: 3081: 3069: 3058: 3052: 3042: 3037: 3029: 3023: 3018: 3010: 3004: 2997: 2990: 2983: 2977: 2970: 2880: 2870: 2860: 2640:ure / our / ures / urne 2293: 2283: 2277: 2263: 2261:), but the alternative 2253: 2223: 2217: 2206: 2198: 2190: 2182: 2174: 2166: 2159: 2153: 2146: 2138: 2107: 2096: 2090: 2084: 2078: 2072: 2065: 2046: 2040: 2034: 2028: 1948: 1938: 1797: 1697: 1691: 1685: 1679: 1593:Merging of Old English 1422: 1415:of England, and a new 1316: 1273:roughly one dozen forms 1259: 475: 469: 463: 53: 47: 41: 10754:Preterite-present verb 10637:Proto-Germanic grammar 10591:North Sea (Ingvaeonic) 9703:German Standard German 9379:East Frisian Low Saxon 7552:Baugh, Albert (1951). 7221: 6939:in order to visit the 6555:Wycliffe's Bible, 1384 6437:Most of the following 6326:(replaced Old English 5710:was still pronounced. 5574:Sometimes the same as 5222:Description and notes 4619: 4561:writing of Old English 4559:standard used for the 2322:forms in parentheses) 1538:that of Middle English 1301:Peterborough Chronicle 976:(which formed part of 906: 782:University of Valencia 733:This article contains 360:University of Valencia 311:This article contains 10759:Grammatischer Wechsel 9742:Namibian Black German 9713:Swiss Standard German 9682:Early New High German 9240:Mainland West Frisian 9101:Harlingerland Frisian 8648:Anglo-Norman language 8535:Oliver Farrar Emerson 8490:Brunner, Karl (1963) 8483:Brunner, Karl (1962) 8431:Bristol, Pennsylvania 8410:when april, with his. 8147:Booth, David (1831). 7646:. BBC. Archived from 7210: 6778:his half-course run, 6495:Further information: 6457:Further information: 6453:Ormulum, 12th century 5166:, giving rise to the 5110:scribal abbreviations 4831:Carolingian minuscule 4797:in this context; see 4578:pronunciation changes 2341:Possessive determiner 1741:Middle English nouns 1567:of the corresponding 1360:Auchinleck manuscript 1235:many Norse borrowings 898: 10764:Indo-European ablaut 10744:Germanic strong verb 10713:Germanic spirant law 9850:Southeast Limburgish 9346:Gelders-Overijssels 8975:Irish Middle English 8965:Early Modern English 8678:Phonological history 8658:Early Modern English 7625:The Story of English 7486:10.1353/cr.2004.0003 7383:10.1353/cr.2004.0003 6934:holy blissful martyr 6883:To far-off shrines ( 6621:The Canterbury Tales 6309:Development of /juː/ 6206:). Also appeared as 5556:Early Modern English 5142:could be written as 4642:, above). The final 4582:Early Modern English 2712:Ȝou self / ou selue 2655:us self / ous silue 2251:that developed into 2241:those of Old English 1952:, "father's bane"). 1936:or no ending (e.g., 1597:into a single vowel 1500:Early Modern English 1449:Northumbrian dialect 1405:southeast of England 1330:, apparently in the 1229:Early Middle English 818:Northumbrian dialect 810:Early Modern English 540:Early Modern English 496:The Canterbury Tales 396:Northumbrian dialect 388:Early Modern English 118:Early Modern English 74:The Canterbury Tales 10732:Synchronic features 10703:Germanic a-mutation 10656:Diachronic features 10006:in the broad sense 9939:East Central German 9893:Lorraine Franconian 9867:Transylvanian Saxon 9827:West Central German 9602:East Low Franconian 9512:West Low Franconian 8611:Proto-West-Germanic 8601:Proto-Indo-European 6941:holy blessed martyr 6633: 6571: 6529:by Patricia Utechin 5830:Used sometimes for 5430:, replaced earlier 5049:affricate consonant 4997:palatal approximant 4995:, representing the 4543:, a process called 2903: 2757:þa / þei / þeo / þo 2402:min one / mi seluen 2323: 2316:is shown in italics 1742: 1563:, rather than mere 1376:Late Middle English 768:) is a form of the 626:Proto-Indo-European 554:by the 15th century 346:) is a form of the 204:Proto-Indo-European 132:by the 15th century 10827:Medieval languages 10749:Germanic weak verb 10558:Language subgroups 9908:Pennsylvania Dutch 9857:Moselle Franconian 9835:Central Franconian 9668:Middle High German 9419:Central Pomeranian 9374:Northern Low Saxon 9087:Wangerooge Frisian 8881:Germanic languages 8746:Trisyllabic laxing 8726:Close front vowels 8590:History of English 8306:Internet Archive: 8246:2nd edition (1989) 8019:, CUP 2000, p. 72. 7752:power at the time. 7650:on 31 January 2016 7463:The Chaucer Review 7360:The Chaucer Review 7231:Medulla Grammatice 6871:) seek new shores 6631: 6566: 6501:An epitaph from a 6497:Brightwell Baldwin 6349:⟨wh⟩ 5870:⟨kn⟩ 5774:⟨th⟩ 5770:⟨ch⟩ 5766:⟨gh⟩ 5747:⟨gh⟩ 5702:for details). The 5576:⟨ai⟩ 5560:⟨ea⟩ 5432:⟨kk⟩ 5178:replaced the word 5154:could be used for 5082:⟨dg⟩ 5070:⟨cg⟩ 4881:⟨gh⟩ 4810:, was replaced by 4770:⟨th⟩ 4747:⟨oe⟩ 4739:⟨ae⟩ 4615:⟨ch⟩ 4611:⟨gh⟩ 4576:is largely due to 4332:willende, willynge 2901: 2498:his / hisse / hes 2465:þeself / þi seluen 2393:min / mire / minre 2346:Possessive pronoun 2308: 2023:Grammatical gender 1740: 1714:doubled consonants 1269:English possessive 1247:instrumental cases 1214:(from Norman) and 994:West Saxon dialect 967:pronominal adverbs 935:synthetic language 907: 805:Johannes Gutenberg 585:North Sea Germanic 383:Johannes Gutenberg 163:North Sea Germanic 10804: 10803: 10789:extinct languages 10776: 10775: 10772: 10771: 10723:Great Vowel Shift 10535: 10534: 10531: 10530: 10484: 10483: 10330:Greenlandic Norse 10149: 10148: 10145: 10144: 10141: 10140: 10080:Southern Bavarian 10063:Northern Bavarian 10039:Highest Alemannic 9990: 9989: 9724:standard variants 9639: 9638: 9485:Standard variants 9444: 9443: 9303:Middle Low German 9274: 9273: 9270: 9269: 9074:Saterland Frisian 8847: 8846: 8843: 8842: 8839: 8838: 8736:Great Vowel Shift 8721:Close back vowels 8440:978-1-889758-70-1 8372:978-0-946976-04-1 7890:978-1-134-28025-4 7844:978-0-684-18275-9 7823:2008, pp. 89–136. 7713:. Dutch Lichliter 7529:978-0-19-289043-6 7337:978-0-19-521950-0 7204: 7203: 6972:Confessio Amantis 6962: 6961: 6607: 6606: 6552: 6551: 6488: 6487: 6469: 6424: 6423: 6403:⟨y⟩ 6399:⟨i⟩ 6002:when adjacent to 6000:⟨u⟩ 5996:⟨o⟩ 5866:⟨c⟩ 5820:⟨j⟩ 5782:⟨h⟩ 5704:⟨g⟩ 5699:⟨g⟩ 5694:⟨y⟩ 5690:⟨i⟩ 5686:⟨e⟩ 5562:. The two vowels 5493:⟨e⟩ 5436:⟨k⟩ 5391:⟨y⟩ 5387:⟨i⟩ 5383:⟨e⟩ 5348:reduction of /mb/ 5253:⟨l⟩ 5211:Great Vowel Shift 5164:⟨Y⟩ 5152:⟨e⟩ 5148:⟨t⟩ 5132:⟨m⟩ 5128:⟨n⟩ 5086:⟨g⟩ 5078:⟨i⟩ 5074:⟨j⟩ 5047:was used for the 5045:⟨i⟩ 5041:⟨j⟩ 5029:⟨y⟩ 5013:⟨i⟩ 4985:⟨i⟩ 4981:⟨j⟩ 4961:⟨i⟩ 4955:⟨j⟩ 4949:⟨u⟩ 4943:⟨v⟩ 4938:⟨w⟩ 4934:⟨z⟩ 4930:⟨q⟩ 4926:⟨k⟩ 4915:⟨z⟩ 4901:⟨z⟩ 4877:⟨y⟩ 4873:⟨j⟩ 4861:⟨ȝ⟩ 4824:⟨w⟩ 4820:⟨p⟩ 4743:⟨œ⟩ 4696:⟨ƿ⟩ 4689:⟨þ⟩ 4682:⟨ð⟩ 4675:⟨æ⟩ 4648:⟨a⟩ 4644:⟨e⟩ 4636:Great Vowel Shift 4627:⟨e⟩ 4607:⟨k⟩ 4566:Chancery Standard 4484: 4483: 2907:Verbs inflection 2811: 2810: 2724:From Old English 2419:/ þu / tu / þeou 2237:personal pronouns 1967:and as part of a 1881: 1880: 1709:⟨e⟩ 1675:⟨e⟩ 1671:⟨e⟩ 1655:⟨e⟩ 1637:Great Vowel Shift 1424:Ayenbite of Inwyt 978:Scandinavian York 939:analytic language 929:The influence of 915:Augustinian canon 845:Great Vowel Shift 759: 758: 741:rendering support 737:phonetic symbols. 527:, to some extent 511:(except for west 423:Great Vowel Shift 337: 336: 319:rendering support 315:phonetic symbols. 105:, to some extent 89:(except for west 16:(Redirected from 10859: 10822:Anglic languages 10581:Elbe (Irminonic) 10554: 10553: 10541: 10540: 10469:Mainland Gutnish 10359:Swedish dialects 10321:Middle Icelandic 10295:Middle Norwegian 10184:Historical forms 10181: 10180: 10172: 10171: 10155: 10154: 10114:South Franconian 10100:Hutterite German 10068:Central Bavarian 9888:Rhine Franconian 9823: 9822: 9653:Historical forms 9650: 9649: 9565:Surinamese Dutch 9458:Historical forms 9455: 9454: 9288:Historical forms 9285: 9284: 9037:Historical forms 9034: 9033: 8921: 8920: 8912: 8911: 8899: 8898: 8874: 8867: 8860: 8851: 8850: 8741:Open back vowels 8716: 8708: 8686: 8685: 8673: 8672: 8583: 8576: 8569: 8560: 8559: 8548: 8545:Internet Archive 8507:Mustanoja, Tauno 8503: 8476: 8475: 8473: 8471: 8462:. Archived from 8451: 8445: 8444: 8419: 8413: 8412: 8393: 8383: 8377: 8376: 8358: 8349: 8348: 8330: 8321: 8315: 8305: 8292: 8286: 8279: 8273: 8266: 8260: 8253: 8247: 8240: 8234: 8227: 8221: 8211: 8205: 8204: 8202: 8200: 8188: 8182: 8181: 8161: 8155: 8154: 8144: 8138: 8137: 8127: 8108: 8102: 8095: 8089: 8086: 8071: 8068: 8062: 8059: 8050: 8047: 8041: 8038: 8032: 8029: 8020: 8013: 8001: 7996: 7987: 7980: 7971: 7970: 7968: 7966: 7952: 7940: 7934: 7933: 7922:. p. 99ff. 7911: 7902: 7901: 7899: 7897: 7874: 7868: 7867: 7856: 7850: 7848: 7830: 7824: 7817: 7811: 7810: 7808: 7806: 7783: 7777: 7772: 7766: 7761: 7755: 7754: 7748: 7746: 7740: 7729: 7723: 7722: 7720: 7718: 7702: 7696: 7689: 7683: 7682: 7676: 7666: 7660: 7659: 7657: 7655: 7635: 7629: 7628: 7620: 7611: 7610: 7594: 7584: 7578: 7577: 7569: 7558: 7557: 7549: 7534: 7533: 7513: 7507: 7504: 7498: 7497: 7479: 7457: 7451: 7450: 7448: 7446: 7423: 7417: 7410: 7404: 7401: 7395: 7394: 7376: 7354: 7348: 7347: 7345: 7344: 7321: 7310: 7309: 7307: 7305: 7282: 7276: 7269: 6982: 6981: 6952: 6929: 6914: 6899: 6880: 6854: 6839: 6824: 6809: 6794: 6771: 6756: 6741: 6722: 6707: 6688: 6673: 6658: 6634: 6630: 6626:Geoffrey Chaucer 6616:General Prologue 6599: 6591: 6572: 6565: 6561:Wycliffe's Bible 6508: 6507: 6503:monumental brass 6473: 6472: 6467: 6419: 6404: 6400: 6396: 6388: 6381:As a consonant, 6373: 6371: 6366: 6350: 6344: 6325: 6306: 6304: 6296: 6288: 6264: 6256: 6242: 6228: 6205: 6201: 6193: 6179: 6165: 6163: 6158: 6144: 6129: 6127: 6119: 6117: 6112: 6096: 6094: 6086: 6084: 6079: 6060: 6058: 6050: 6048: 6043: 6028: 6026: 6021: 6001: 5997: 5985: 5973: 5971: 5963: 5961: 5953: 5938: 5930: 5922: 5914: 5900: 5886: 5871: 5867: 5863: 5844: 5842: 5837: 5821: 5817: 5809: 5807: 5799: 5783: 5775: 5771: 5767: 5763: 5748: 5740: 5732: 5724: 5705: 5700: 5695: 5691: 5687: 5683: 5675: 5661: 5642: 5640: 5632: 5630: 5625: 5602: 5600: 5592: 5590: 5585: 5577: 5561: 5553: 5551: 5543: 5541: 5536: 5517: 5515: 5510: 5494: 5486: 5484: 5476: 5474: 5466: 5452: 5437: 5433: 5429: 5415: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5372: 5364: 5346:by analogy; see 5341: 5333: 5319: 5317: 5312: 5290: 5288: 5280: 5278: 5273: 5254: 5250: 5246: 5244: 5236: 5216: 5215: 5165: 5153: 5149: 5133: 5129: 5087: 5083: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5062:Wycliffe's Bible 5059: 5053: 5046: 5042: 5030: 5026: 5014: 5011:and in Latin by 5002: 4986: 4982: 4979:The consonantal 4975: 4969: 4962: 4956: 4950: 4944: 4939: 4935: 4931: 4927: 4920: 4916: 4902: 4882: 4878: 4874: 4866: 4862: 4825: 4821: 4817: 4809: 4796: 4784: 4778: 4771: 4766: 4755: 4748: 4744: 4740: 4737:for the digraph 4728: 4697: 4690: 4683: 4676: 4649: 4645: 4628: 4622: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4602:[ˈkniçt] 4542: 4536: 4521:, and sometimes 4480: 4473: 4466: 4459: 4452: 4445: 4438: 4431: 4424: 4417: 4415:witende, witynge 4410: 4402: 4393: 4386: 4379: 4372: 4362: 4355: 4348: 4341: 4334: 4327: 4319: 4310: 4303: 4296: 4289: 4279: 4272: 4265: 4258: 4244: 4235: 4228: 4221: 4214: 4204: 4197: 4190: 4183: 4169: 4160: 4153: 4146: 4139: 4132: 4125: 4118: 4111: 4104: 4097: 4090: 4082: 4073: 4066: 4059: 4052: 4045: 4038: 4031: 4024: 4017: 4010: 4004: 3997: 3989: 3980: 3973: 3966: 3959: 3949: 3942: 3935: 3928: 3914: 3905: 3898: 3891: 3884: 3877: 3870: 3863: 3856: 3849: 3842: 3836: 3829: 3821: 3812: 3806: 3800: 3793: 3787: 3781: 3774: 3768: 3762: 3755: 3749: 3743: 3735: 3728: 3722: 3715: 3708: 3701: 3694: 3688: 3681: 3673: 3664: 3657: 3650: 3643: 3636: 3630: 3623: 3616: 3609: 3602: 3595: 3589: 3582: 3574: 3565: 3558: 3551: 3544: 3537: 3530: 3523: 3516: 3509: 3502: 3496: 3489: 3481: 3472: 3465: 3458: 3451: 3444: 3437: 3431: 3424: 3417: 3410: 3403: 3397: 3390: 3382: 3373: 3367: 3360: 3354: 3347: 3341: 3334: 3328: 3321: 3315: 3308: 3301: 3294: 3287: 3280: 3274: 3267: 3259: 3250: 3243: 3237: 3230: 3223: 3216: 3207: 3200: 3190: 3183: 3176: 3169: 3162: 3155: 3148: 3142: 3135: 3127: 3117:Irregular verbs 3112: 3105: 3098: 3091: 3084: 3072: 3061: 3055: 3045: 3040: 3032: 3026: 3021: 3013: 3007: 3000: 2993: 2986: 2980: 2973: 2904: 2900: 2883: 2873: 2863: 2843: 2834: 2828: 2819: 2769: 2764: 2759: 2741: 2736: 2731: 2698: 2689: 2671: 2641: 2548: 2539: 2528: 2526:sche / sho / ȝho 2466: 2456: 2446: 2436: 2420: 2403: 2394: 2385: 2369: 2327:Person / gender 2324: 2296: 2286: 2281:was replaced by 2280: 2266: 2256: 2226: 2220: 2209: 2201: 2193: 2185: 2177: 2169: 2162: 2156: 2149: 2141: 2110: 2099: 2093: 2087: 2081: 2075: 2068: 2049: 2043: 2037: 2031: 1951: 1941: 1876: 1875: 1870: 1869: 1862: 1861: 1848: 1847: 1842: 1841: 1834: 1833: 1821: 1820: 1808: 1807: 1800: 1792: 1791: 1783: 1782: 1743: 1739: 1710: 1700: 1694: 1688: 1682: 1676: 1672: 1656: 1628:in most dialects 1620: 1616: 1610: 1606: 1600: 1596: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1478: 1475: 1434:Geoffrey Chaucer 1427: 1390:English monarchy 1368: 1365: 1321: 1277:definite article 1263:survives in the 1262: 905: 902: 865:Canterbury Tales 860:Geoffrey Chaucer 833:grammatical case 790:Late Middle Ages 770:English language 764:(abbreviated to 727: 711: 706: 697: 690: 681: 680: 672: 652: 564: 491:Geoffrey Chaucer 487: 478: 472: 466: 454: 453: 443:Canterbury Tales 438:Geoffrey Chaucer 411:grammatical case 368:Late Middle Ages 348:English language 342:(abbreviated to 305: 289: 284: 275: 268: 259: 258: 250: 230: 142: 69:Geoffrey Chaucer 65: 56: 50: 44: 32: 31: 21: 10867: 10866: 10862: 10861: 10860: 10858: 10857: 10856: 10807: 10806: 10805: 10800: 10768: 10727: 10708:Germanic umlaut 10673:Holtzmann's law 10651: 10620: 10548: 10527: 10480: 10457: 10391:South Jutlandic 10376:Danish dialects 10342: 10223: 10166: 10137: 10119:East Franconian 10073:Viennese German 9986: 9967:Silesian German 9933: 9922:Central Hessian 9812: 9737:Namibian German 9726: 9717: 9695:Standard German 9689: 9675:New High German 9661:Old High German 9635: 9614: 9596: 9507: 9479: 9440: 9424:East Pomeranian 9414:Brandenburgisch 9401:East Low German 9395: 9322:Dutch Low Saxon 9314:West Low German 9308: 9266: 9232:Schiermonnikoog 9213: 9108: 9094:Wursten Frisian 9057: 9023: 8906: 8893: 8883: 8878: 8848: 8835: 8805:-glottalization 8750: 8680: 8667: 8592: 8587: 8516: 8480: 8479: 8469: 8467: 8466:on Mar 29, 2013 8452: 8448: 8441: 8420: 8416: 8406: 8386: 8384: 8380: 8373: 8359: 8352: 8328: 8322: 8318: 8293: 8289: 8280: 8276: 8267: 8263: 8255:"J" and "jay", 8254: 8250: 8241: 8237: 8228: 8224: 8212: 8208: 8198: 8196: 8189: 8185: 8178: 8162: 8158: 8145: 8141: 8109: 8105: 8096: 8092: 8087: 8074: 8069: 8065: 8060: 8053: 8048: 8044: 8039: 8035: 8030: 8023: 8014: 8010: 7999: 7990: 7981: 7974: 7964: 7962: 7950: 7944:Franklin, James 7941: 7937: 7930: 7912: 7905: 7895: 7893: 7891: 7875: 7871: 7858: 7857: 7853: 7845: 7831: 7827: 7818: 7814: 7804: 7802: 7800: 7784: 7780: 7773: 7769: 7762: 7758: 7744: 7742: 7738: 7730: 7726: 7716: 7714: 7703: 7699: 7690: 7686: 7667: 7663: 7653: 7651: 7636: 7632: 7621: 7614: 7607: 7585: 7581: 7570: 7561: 7550: 7537: 7530: 7514: 7510: 7505: 7501: 7477:10.1.1.691.7778 7458: 7454: 7444: 7442: 7440: 7424: 7420: 7412:Simon Horobin, 7411: 7407: 7402: 7398: 7374:10.1.1.691.7778 7355: 7351: 7342: 7340: 7338: 7322: 7313: 7303: 7301: 7299: 7283: 7279: 7271:Simon Horobin, 7270: 7266: 7261: 7226: 6967: 6861:) to seek new 6612: 6578:Second version 6557: 6540: 6539: 6499: 6493: 6481: 6480: 6461: 6455: 6435: 6429: 6402: 6398: 6348: 5999: 5995: 5869: 5865: 5822:); see above). 5819: 5781: 5773: 5769: 5765: 5746: 5703: 5698: 5693: 5689: 5685: 5575: 5559: 5492: 5435: 5431: 5399:hard and soft C 5390: 5386: 5382: 5255:or nasals (see 5252: 5199: 5191:Arabic numerals 5163: 5151: 5147: 5131: 5127: 5106: 5085: 5081: 5077: 5073: 5069: 5044: 5040: 5028: 5012: 4984: 4980: 4960: 4954: 4948: 4942: 4937: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4914: 4900: 4880: 4876: 4872: 4860: 4823: 4819: 4811: 4790: 4769: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4731:merged into /a/ 4695: 4688: 4681: 4674: 4664: 4647: 4643: 4626: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4605:(with both the 4599:was pronounced 4595:. For example, 4557:Late West Saxon 4553: 2852: 2847: 2846: 2837:Accusative case 2835: 2831: 2826:indirect object 2820: 2816: 2767: 2762: 2755: 2752:From Old Norse 2739: 2734: 2727: 2713: 2706: 2699: 2696: 2690: 2687: 2672: 2667: 2656: 2649: 2642: 2639: 2633: 2626: 2607: 2600: 2593: 2586: 2577: 2563: 2556: 2549: 2546: 2540: 2537: 2529: 2524: 2513: 2506: 2499: 2492: 2485: 2467: 2464: 2457: 2454: 2447: 2444: 2437: 2434: 2421: 2415: 2404: 2401: 2395: 2392: 2386: 2383: 2377: 2370: 2365: 2310: 2235:Middle English 2233: 2213:Germanic umlaut 2060: 1731: 1726: 1708: 1674: 1670: 1654: 1530: 1524: 1481:Norman Conquest 1476: 1470: 1430:Kentish dialect 1378: 1372: 1366: 1324:Katherine Group 1231: 1011:, now known as 1001:Norman Conquest 986:East of England 903: 893: 888: 774:Norman Conquest 739:Without proper 723: 709: 702: 693: 686: 676: 675: 668: 653: 648: 642: 621: 614: 565: 562:Language family 560: 538:developed into 500: 473: 467: 450: 352:Norman Conquest 317:Without proper 301: 287: 280: 271: 264: 254: 253: 246: 231: 226: 220: 199: 192: 143: 140:Language family 138: 116:developed into 78: 51: 45: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10865: 10855: 10854: 10849: 10844: 10839: 10834: 10829: 10824: 10819: 10817:Middle English 10802: 10801: 10799: 10798: 10791: 10781: 10778: 10777: 10774: 10773: 10770: 10769: 10767: 10766: 10761: 10756: 10751: 10746: 10741: 10735: 10733: 10729: 10728: 10726: 10725: 10720: 10715: 10710: 10705: 10700: 10695: 10690: 10685: 10680: 10675: 10670: 10665: 10659: 10657: 10653: 10652: 10650: 10649: 10644: 10639: 10634: 10632:Proto-Germanic 10628: 10626: 10622: 10621: 10619: 10618: 10611: 10604: 10596: 10595: 10594: 10593: 10588: 10583: 10573: 10568: 10562: 10560: 10550: 10549: 10537: 10536: 10533: 10532: 10529: 10528: 10526: 10525: 10518: 10511: 10507:Crimean Gothic 10496: 10494: 10486: 10485: 10482: 10481: 10479: 10478: 10477: 10476: 10471: 10462: 10459: 10458: 10456: 10455: 10454: 10453: 10443: 10442: 10441: 10434: 10427: 10422: 10417: 10412: 10411: 10410: 10405: 10395: 10394: 10393: 10383: 10381:Insular Danish 10378: 10368: 10367: 10366: 10364:Rinkebysvenska 10361: 10350: 10348: 10344: 10343: 10341: 10340: 10333: 10326: 10325: 10324: 10317: 10305: 10300: 10299: 10298: 10291: 10284: 10278: 10272: 10267: 10262: 10257: 10252: 10247: 10242: 10231: 10229: 10225: 10224: 10222: 10221: 10220: 10219: 10212: 10210:Old East Norse 10207: 10205:Old West Norse 10195: 10187: 10185: 10178: 10168: 10167: 10151: 10150: 10147: 10146: 10143: 10142: 10139: 10138: 10136: 10135: 10128: 10127: 10126: 10116: 10111: 10110: 10109: 10108: 10107: 10102: 10097: 10092: 10087: 10085:South Tyrolean 10077: 10076: 10075: 10065: 10055: 10054: 10053: 10048: 10047: 10046: 10036: 10035: 10034: 10027:High Alemannic 10024: 10023: 10022: 10017: 10000: 9998: 9992: 9991: 9988: 9987: 9985: 9984: 9979: 9974: 9969: 9964: 9959: 9954: 9949: 9943: 9941: 9935: 9934: 9932: 9931: 9926: 9925: 9924: 9914: 9913: 9912: 9911: 9910: 9905: 9895: 9885: 9884: 9883: 9882: 9881: 9880: 9879: 9869: 9864: 9854: 9853: 9852: 9847: 9831: 9829: 9820: 9818:Central German 9814: 9813: 9811: 9810: 9809: 9808: 9803: 9796: 9791: 9786: 9776: 9771: 9770: 9769: 9759: 9757:Barossa German 9754: 9749: 9744: 9739: 9733: 9731: 9719: 9718: 9716: 9715: 9710: 9705: 9699: 9697: 9691: 9690: 9688: 9687: 9686: 9685: 9671: 9664: 9656: 9654: 9647: 9641: 9640: 9637: 9636: 9634: 9633: 9628: 9622: 9620: 9616: 9615: 9613: 9612: 9606: 9604: 9598: 9597: 9595: 9594: 9577: 9572: 9567: 9561: 9560: 9555: 9550: 9545: 9540: 9539: 9538: 9536:French Flemish 9528: 9527: 9526: 9515: 9513: 9509: 9508: 9506: 9505: 9495: 9489: 9487: 9481: 9480: 9478: 9477: 9472: 9467: 9461: 9459: 9452: 9450:Low Franconian 9446: 9445: 9442: 9441: 9439: 9438: 9437: 9436: 9426: 9421: 9416: 9411: 9405: 9403: 9397: 9396: 9394: 9393: 9388: 9383: 9382: 9381: 9371: 9370: 9369: 9364: 9359: 9358: 9357: 9352: 9344: 9339: 9334: 9329: 9318: 9316: 9310: 9309: 9307: 9306: 9299: 9291: 9289: 9282: 9276: 9275: 9272: 9271: 9268: 9267: 9265: 9264: 9263: 9262: 9257: 9256: 9255: 9254: 9253: 9251:Westereendersk 9245: 9234: 9229: 9223: 9221: 9215: 9214: 9212: 9211: 9210: 9209: 9204: 9197: 9192: 9191: 9190: 9185: 9182: 9174: 9169: 9168: 9167: 9156: 9155: 9154: 9149: 9144: 9143: 9142: 9137: 9129: 9118: 9116: 9110: 9109: 9107: 9106: 9105: 9104: 9097: 9090: 9078: 9077: 9076: 9067: 9065: 9059: 9058: 9056: 9055: 9052:Middle Frisian 9048: 9040: 9038: 9031: 9025: 9024: 9022: 9021: 9020: 9019: 9012: 9000: 8999: 8998: 8991: 8984: 8972: 8971: 8970: 8969: 8968: 8958:Modern English 8954: 8951:Middle English 8947: 8940: 8929: 8927: 8918: 8908: 8907: 8895: 8894: 8888: 8885: 8884: 8877: 8876: 8869: 8862: 8854: 8845: 8844: 8841: 8840: 8837: 8836: 8834: 8833: 8826: 8825: 8824: 8819: 8807: 8799: 8794: 8787: 8779: 8771: 8766: 8760: 8758: 8752: 8751: 8749: 8748: 8743: 8738: 8733: 8728: 8723: 8718: 8710: 8702: 8694: 8692: 8682: 8681: 8669: 8668: 8666: 8665: 8663:Modern English 8660: 8655: 8653:Middle English 8650: 8645: 8644: 8643: 8638: 8633: 8628: 8618: 8613: 8608: 8606:Proto-Germanic 8603: 8597: 8594: 8593: 8586: 8585: 8578: 8571: 8563: 8557: 8556: 8550: 8537:, ed. (1915). 8531: 8525: 8515: 8514:External links 8512: 8511: 8510: 8504: 8495: 8488: 8478: 8477: 8446: 8439: 8414: 8404: 8378: 8371: 8350: 8316: 8287: 8274: 8261: 8248: 8235: 8222: 8206: 8183: 8176: 8156: 8139: 8103: 8090: 8072: 8063: 8051: 8042: 8033: 8021: 8008: 7988: 7972: 7935: 7929:978-1138006935 7928: 7903: 7889: 7869: 7851: 7843: 7825: 7812: 7798: 7778: 7767: 7756: 7724: 7697: 7684: 7661: 7630: 7612: 7605: 7579: 7559: 7535: 7528: 7508: 7499: 7470:(3): 246–254. 7452: 7438: 7418: 7405: 7396: 7367:(3): 246–254. 7349: 7336: 7311: 7297: 7277: 7263: 7262: 7260: 7257: 7256: 7255: 7250: 7245: 7240: 7235: 7225: 7222: 7202: 7201: 7200: 7199: 7196: 7193: 7190: 7187: 7184: 7181: 7178: 7175: 7172: 7169: 7166: 7163: 7160: 7157: 7154: 7151: 7148: 7145: 7142: 7139: 7136: 7132: 7131: 7130: 7127: 7124: 7121: 7118: 7115: 7112: 7109: 7106: 7103: 7100: 7097: 7094: 7091: 7088: 7085: 7082: 7079: 7076: 7073: 7070: 7067: 7063: 7062: 7061: 7058: 7055: 7052: 7049: 7046: 7043: 7040: 7037: 7034: 7031: 7028: 7025: 7022: 7019: 7016: 7013: 7010: 7007: 7004: 7001: 6998: 6993: 6992: 6989: 6986: 6966: 6963: 6960: 6959: 6956: 6953: 6945: 6944: 6937: 6930: 6922: 6921: 6918: 6915: 6907: 6906: 6903: 6900: 6892: 6891: 6888: 6881: 6873: 6872: 6867:and pilgrims ( 6865: 6857:And pilgrims ( 6855: 6847: 6846: 6843: 6840: 6832: 6831: 6828: 6825: 6817: 6816: 6813: 6810: 6802: 6801: 6798: 6795: 6787: 6786: 6779: 6772: 6764: 6763: 6760: 6757: 6749: 6748: 6745: 6742: 6734: 6733: 6730: 6723: 6715: 6714: 6711: 6708: 6700: 6699: 6696: 6689: 6681: 6680: 6677: 6674: 6666: 6665: 6662: 6659: 6651: 6650: 6647: 6645:Modern English 6638: 6611: 6610:Chaucer, 1390s 6608: 6605: 6604: 6600: 6592: 6583: 6582: 6579: 6576: 6575:First version 6556: 6553: 6550: 6549: 6545: 6541: 6532: 6531: 6523: 6521:Modern English 6514: 6492: 6489: 6486: 6485: 6482: 6454: 6451: 6439:Modern English 6431:Main article: 6428: 6425: 6422: 6421: 6411: 6407: 6406: 6379: 6375: 6374: 6358: 6354: 6353: 6336: 6332: 6331: 6317: 6313: 6312: 6289:. As a vowel, 6279: 6275: 6274: 6248: 6244: 6243: 6234: 6230: 6229: 6220: 6216: 6215: 6185: 6181: 6180: 6171: 6167: 6166: 6150: 6146: 6145: 6136: 6132: 6131: 6103: 6099: 6098: 6071: 6067: 6066: 6035: 6031: 6030: 6012: 6008: 6007: 5945: 5941: 5940: 5906: 5902: 5901: 5892: 5888: 5887: 5878: 5874: 5873: 5855: 5851: 5850: 5828: 5824: 5823: 5790: 5786: 5785: 5755: 5751: 5750: 5716: 5712: 5711: 5667: 5663: 5662: 5653: 5649: 5648: 5616: 5612: 5611: 5572: 5568: 5567: 5528: 5524: 5523: 5501: 5497: 5496: 5491:). For silent 5458: 5454: 5453: 5444: 5440: 5439: 5421: 5417: 5416: 5407: 5403: 5402: 5401:for details). 5356: 5352: 5351: 5325: 5321: 5320: 5304: 5300: 5299: 5265: 5261: 5260: 5228: 5224: 5223: 5220: 5198: 5195: 5187:Roman numerals 5126:. The letters 5105: 5102: 5066:geminate sound 5015:); words like 4883:in words like 4835:insular script 4663: 4660: 4593:silent letters 4586:Modern English 4552: 4549: 4482: 4481: 4474: 4467: 4460: 4453: 4446: 4439: 4432: 4425: 4418: 4411: 4404: 4395: 4394: 4387: 4380: 4373: 4366: 4363: 4356: 4349: 4342: 4335: 4328: 4321: 4312: 4311: 4304: 4297: 4290: 4283: 4280: 4273: 4266: 4259: 4252: 4249: 4246: 4237: 4236: 4229: 4222: 4215: 4208: 4205: 4198: 4191: 4184: 4177: 4174: 4171: 4162: 4161: 4154: 4147: 4140: 4133: 4126: 4119: 4112: 4105: 4098: 4095:owende, owynge 4091: 4084: 4075: 4074: 4067: 4060: 4053: 4046: 4039: 4032: 4025: 4018: 4011: 3998: 3991: 3982: 3981: 3974: 3967: 3960: 3953: 3950: 3943: 3936: 3929: 3922: 3919: 3916: 3907: 3906: 3899: 3892: 3885: 3878: 3871: 3864: 3857: 3850: 3843: 3830: 3823: 3814: 3813: 3794: 3775: 3756: 3737: 3729: 3716: 3709: 3702: 3695: 3682: 3675: 3666: 3665: 3658: 3651: 3644: 3637: 3624: 3617: 3610: 3603: 3596: 3583: 3576: 3567: 3566: 3559: 3552: 3545: 3538: 3531: 3524: 3517: 3510: 3503: 3490: 3483: 3482:"be good for" 3474: 3473: 3466: 3459: 3452: 3445: 3438: 3425: 3418: 3411: 3404: 3391: 3384: 3375: 3374: 3361: 3348: 3335: 3322: 3309: 3302: 3295: 3288: 3281: 3268: 3261: 3252: 3251: 3244: 3231: 3224: 3217: 3209: 3208: 3201: 3194: 3191: 3184: 3177: 3170: 3163: 3156: 3149: 3136: 3129: 3119: 3118: 3114: 3113: 3106: 3099: 3092: 3085: 3078: 3074: 3073: 3066: 3063: 3049: 3046: 3034: 3015: 3001: 2994: 2987: 2974: 2967: 2963: 2962: 2961:Regular verbs 2958: 2957: 2954: 2951: 2948: 2945: 2942: 2938: 2937: 2934: 2931: 2928: 2925: 2922: 2918: 2917: 2914: 2911: 2908: 2851: 2848: 2845: 2844: 2829: 2813: 2812: 2809: 2808: 2803: 2798: 2793: 2788: 2783: 2777: 2776: 2773: 2770: 2765: 2760: 2753: 2749: 2748: 2745: 2742: 2737: 2732: 2725: 2722: 2718: 2717: 2710: 2703: 2694: 2685: 2665: 2661: 2660: 2653: 2646: 2637: 2630: 2621: 2617: 2616: 2612: 2611: 2604: 2597: 2590: 2583: 2572: 2568: 2567: 2560: 2553: 2544: 2535: 2522: 2518: 2517: 2510: 2503: 2496: 2489: 2480: 2477: 2473: 2472: 2462: 2452: 2442: 2432: 2413: 2409: 2408: 2399: 2390: 2381: 2374: 2363: 2359: 2358: 2354: 2353: 2348: 2343: 2338: 2333: 2328: 2314:Modern English 2297:was ousted by 2232: 2229: 2118:Layamon's Brut 2059: 2056: 1925:-stem nouns). 1916:Proto-Germanic 1879: 1878: 1863: 1855: 1851: 1850: 1835: 1827: 1823: 1822: 1814: 1810: 1809: 1801: 1793: 1785: 1776: 1772: 1771: 1768: 1765: 1762: 1758: 1757: 1752: 1747: 1730: 1727: 1725: 1722: 1703: 1702: 1647: 1640: 1633:open syllables 1629: 1626:rounded vowels 1622: 1611: 1601: 1591: 1572: 1526:Main article: 1523: 1520: 1508:Richard Pynson 1504:William Caxton 1495:respectively. 1469: 1466: 1453:Scots language 1377: 1374: 1344:Layamon's Brut 1267:of the modern 1230: 1227: 1185:seigneurialism 892: 889: 887: 884: 883: 882: 879: 878: 876: 873: 872: 762:Middle English 757: 756: 743:, you may see 729: 728: 721: 713: 712: 707: 699: 698: 691: 683: 682: 673: 665: 664: 663:Language codes 660: 659: 654: 650:Writing system 647: 644: 643: 641: 640: 639: 638: 631:Proto-Germanic 624: 622: 619: 616: 615: 613: 612: 611: 610: 609: 608: 607: 606: 605: 604: 603: 602: 600:Middle English 568: 566: 559: 556: 555: 536: 532: 531: 506: 502: 501: 488: 480: 479: 459: 458: 457:Middle English 448: 340:Middle English 335: 334: 321:, you may see 307: 306: 299: 291: 290: 285: 277: 276: 269: 261: 260: 251: 243: 242: 241:Language codes 238: 237: 232: 228:Writing system 225: 222: 221: 219: 218: 217: 216: 209:Proto-Germanic 202: 200: 197: 194: 193: 191: 190: 189: 188: 187: 186: 185: 184: 183: 182: 181: 180: 178:Middle English 146: 144: 137: 134: 133: 114: 110: 109: 84: 80: 79: 66: 58: 57: 37: 36: 35:Middle English 26: 18:Middle-English 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10864: 10853: 10850: 10848: 10845: 10843: 10840: 10838: 10835: 10833: 10830: 10828: 10825: 10823: 10820: 10818: 10815: 10814: 10812: 10796: 10792: 10790: 10786: 10783: 10782: 10779: 10765: 10762: 10760: 10757: 10755: 10752: 10750: 10747: 10745: 10742: 10740: 10739:Germanic verb 10737: 10736: 10734: 10730: 10724: 10721: 10719: 10716: 10714: 10711: 10709: 10706: 10704: 10701: 10699: 10696: 10694: 10691: 10689: 10686: 10684: 10681: 10679: 10678:Sievers's law 10676: 10674: 10671: 10669: 10666: 10664: 10661: 10660: 10658: 10654: 10648: 10645: 10643: 10640: 10638: 10635: 10633: 10630: 10629: 10627: 10625:Reconstructed 10623: 10617: 10616: 10612: 10610: 10609: 10605: 10603: 10602: 10598: 10597: 10592: 10589: 10587: 10584: 10582: 10579: 10578: 10577: 10574: 10572: 10569: 10567: 10564: 10563: 10561: 10559: 10555: 10551: 10547: 10542: 10538: 10524: 10523: 10519: 10517: 10516: 10512: 10509: 10508: 10503: 10502: 10498: 10497: 10495: 10493: 10492: 10487: 10475: 10472: 10470: 10467: 10466: 10464: 10463: 10460: 10452: 10449: 10448: 10447: 10444: 10440: 10439: 10438:Middle Danish 10435: 10433: 10432: 10428: 10426: 10423: 10421: 10418: 10416: 10413: 10409: 10406: 10404: 10401: 10400: 10399: 10396: 10392: 10389: 10388: 10387: 10384: 10382: 10379: 10377: 10374: 10373: 10372: 10369: 10365: 10362: 10360: 10357: 10356: 10355: 10352: 10351: 10349: 10345: 10339: 10338: 10334: 10332: 10331: 10327: 10323: 10322: 10318: 10316: 10315: 10314:Old Icelandic 10311: 10310: 10309: 10306: 10304: 10301: 10297: 10296: 10292: 10290: 10289: 10288:Old Norwegian 10285: 10282: 10279: 10276: 10273: 10271: 10268: 10266: 10263: 10261: 10258: 10256: 10253: 10251: 10248: 10246: 10243: 10241: 10238: 10237: 10236: 10233: 10232: 10230: 10226: 10218: 10217: 10213: 10211: 10208: 10206: 10203: 10202: 10201: 10200: 10196: 10194: 10193: 10189: 10188: 10186: 10182: 10179: 10177: 10173: 10169: 10165: 10161: 10156: 10152: 10134: 10133: 10129: 10125: 10122: 10121: 10120: 10117: 10115: 10112: 10106: 10105:Gottscheerish 10103: 10101: 10098: 10096: 10093: 10091: 10088: 10086: 10083: 10082: 10081: 10078: 10074: 10071: 10070: 10069: 10066: 10064: 10061: 10060: 10059: 10056: 10052: 10049: 10045: 10044:Walser German 10042: 10041: 10040: 10037: 10033: 10030: 10029: 10028: 10025: 10021: 10018: 10016: 10013: 10012: 10011: 10010:Low Alemannic 10008: 10007: 10005: 10002: 10001: 9999: 9997: 9993: 9983: 9980: 9978: 9975: 9973: 9972:High Prussian 9970: 9968: 9965: 9963: 9960: 9958: 9957:Erzgebirgisch 9955: 9953: 9950: 9948: 9945: 9944: 9942: 9940: 9936: 9930: 9927: 9923: 9920: 9919: 9918: 9915: 9909: 9906: 9904: 9901: 9900: 9899: 9896: 9894: 9891: 9890: 9889: 9886: 9878: 9875: 9874: 9873: 9870: 9868: 9865: 9863: 9862:Luxembourgish 9860: 9859: 9858: 9855: 9851: 9848: 9846: 9843: 9842: 9841: 9838: 9837: 9836: 9833: 9832: 9830: 9828: 9824: 9821: 9819: 9815: 9807: 9804: 9802: 9801: 9800:Klezmer-loshn 9797: 9795: 9794:Scots Yiddish 9792: 9790: 9787: 9785: 9782: 9781: 9780: 9777: 9775: 9772: 9768: 9765: 9764: 9763: 9760: 9758: 9755: 9753: 9750: 9748: 9745: 9743: 9740: 9738: 9735: 9734: 9732: 9730: 9725: 9720: 9714: 9711: 9709: 9706: 9704: 9701: 9700: 9698: 9696: 9692: 9684: 9683: 9679: 9678: 9677: 9676: 9672: 9670: 9669: 9665: 9663: 9662: 9658: 9657: 9655: 9651: 9648: 9646: 9642: 9632: 9631:Meuse-Rhenish 9629: 9627: 9624: 9623: 9621: 9617: 9611: 9608: 9607: 9605: 9603: 9599: 9593: 9589: 9585: 9581: 9578: 9576: 9573: 9571: 9568: 9566: 9563: 9562: 9559: 9558:Kleverlandish 9556: 9554: 9551: 9549: 9546: 9544: 9541: 9537: 9534: 9533: 9532: 9529: 9525: 9522: 9521: 9520: 9519:Central Dutch 9517: 9516: 9514: 9510: 9503: 9499: 9496: 9494: 9491: 9490: 9488: 9486: 9482: 9476: 9473: 9471: 9468: 9466: 9463: 9462: 9460: 9456: 9453: 9451: 9447: 9435: 9432: 9431: 9430: 9427: 9425: 9422: 9420: 9417: 9415: 9412: 9410: 9407: 9406: 9404: 9402: 9398: 9392: 9389: 9387: 9384: 9380: 9377: 9376: 9375: 9372: 9368: 9365: 9363: 9360: 9356: 9353: 9351: 9348: 9347: 9345: 9343: 9340: 9338: 9335: 9333: 9330: 9328: 9327:Stellingwarfs 9325: 9324: 9323: 9320: 9319: 9317: 9315: 9311: 9305: 9304: 9300: 9298: 9297: 9293: 9292: 9290: 9286: 9283: 9281: 9277: 9261: 9258: 9252: 9249: 9248: 9247:Wood Frisian 9246: 9243: 9242: 9241: 9238: 9237: 9235: 9233: 9230: 9228: 9225: 9224: 9222: 9220: 9216: 9208: 9205: 9203: 9202: 9198: 9196: 9193: 9189: 9186: 9183: 9180: 9179: 9178: 9175: 9173: 9170: 9165: 9164: 9163: 9160: 9159: 9157: 9153: 9150: 9148: 9145: 9141: 9138: 9136: 9133: 9132: 9130: 9128: 9127: 9123: 9122: 9120: 9119: 9117: 9115: 9114:North Frisian 9111: 9103: 9102: 9098: 9096: 9095: 9091: 9089: 9088: 9084: 9083: 9082: 9079: 9075: 9072: 9071: 9069: 9068: 9066: 9064: 9060: 9054: 9053: 9049: 9047: 9046: 9042: 9041: 9039: 9035: 9032: 9030: 9026: 9018: 9017: 9013: 9011: 9010: 9006: 9005: 9004: 9001: 8997: 8996: 8992: 8990: 8989: 8985: 8983: 8982: 8978: 8977: 8976: 8973: 8967: 8966: 8962: 8961: 8960: 8959: 8955: 8953: 8952: 8948: 8946: 8945: 8941: 8939: 8936: 8935: 8934: 8931: 8930: 8928: 8926: 8922: 8919: 8917: 8916:Anglo-Frisian 8913: 8909: 8905: 8900: 8896: 8892: 8886: 8882: 8875: 8870: 8868: 8863: 8861: 8856: 8855: 8852: 8832: 8831: 8827: 8823: 8820: 8818: 8815: 8814: 8813: 8812: 8808: 8806: 8804: 8800: 8798: 8795: 8793: 8792: 8788: 8786: 8785:-vocalization 8784: 8780: 8778: 8776: 8772: 8770: 8767: 8765: 8762: 8761: 8759: 8757: 8753: 8747: 8744: 8742: 8739: 8737: 8734: 8732: 8729: 8727: 8724: 8722: 8719: 8717: 8711: 8709: 8703: 8701: 8700: 8696: 8695: 8693: 8691: 8687: 8683: 8679: 8674: 8670: 8664: 8661: 8659: 8656: 8654: 8651: 8649: 8646: 8642: 8639: 8637: 8634: 8632: 8629: 8627: 8624: 8623: 8622: 8619: 8617: 8614: 8612: 8609: 8607: 8604: 8602: 8599: 8598: 8595: 8591: 8584: 8579: 8577: 8572: 8570: 8565: 8564: 8561: 8554: 8551: 8546: 8542: 8541: 8536: 8532: 8529: 8526: 8524: 8523: 8518: 8517: 8508: 8505: 8501: 8496: 8493: 8489: 8486: 8482: 8481: 8465: 8461: 8457: 8450: 8442: 8436: 8432: 8428: 8424: 8418: 8411: 8407: 8405:9780812000399 8401: 8397: 8392: 8391: 8382: 8374: 8368: 8364: 8357: 8355: 8346: 8342: 8338: 8334: 8327: 8320: 8313: 8309: 8303: 8302: 8299: 8291: 8284: 8278: 8272:, Wiley 2011. 8271: 8265: 8258: 8252: 8245: 8239: 8232: 8226: 8219: 8215: 8210: 8194: 8187: 8179: 8177:9781474408462 8173: 8169: 8168: 8160: 8152: 8151: 8143: 8135: 8134: 8125: 8121: 8117: 8116: 8107: 8100: 8094: 8085: 8083: 8081: 8079: 8077: 8067: 8058: 8056: 8046: 8037: 8028: 8026: 8018: 8012: 8006: 8003: 8002: 7995: 7994: 7985: 7979: 7977: 7960: 7956: 7949: 7945: 7939: 7931: 7925: 7921: 7917: 7910: 7908: 7892: 7886: 7883:. Routledge. 7882: 7881: 7873: 7865: 7861: 7855: 7846: 7840: 7836: 7829: 7822: 7816: 7801: 7799:9788437083216 7795: 7791: 7790: 7782: 7776: 7771: 7765: 7760: 7753: 7737: 7736: 7728: 7712: 7708: 7701: 7694: 7688: 7680: 7675: 7674: 7665: 7649: 7645: 7641: 7634: 7626: 7619: 7617: 7608: 7606:9780521401791 7602: 7598: 7593: 7592: 7583: 7575: 7568: 7566: 7564: 7555: 7548: 7546: 7544: 7542: 7540: 7531: 7525: 7521: 7520: 7512: 7503: 7495: 7491: 7487: 7483: 7478: 7473: 7469: 7465: 7464: 7456: 7441: 7439:9788437083216 7435: 7431: 7430: 7422: 7415: 7409: 7400: 7392: 7388: 7384: 7380: 7375: 7370: 7366: 7362: 7361: 7353: 7339: 7333: 7329: 7328: 7320: 7318: 7316: 7300: 7298:9788437083216 7294: 7290: 7289: 7281: 7274: 7268: 7264: 7254: 7251: 7249: 7246: 7244: 7241: 7239: 7236: 7233: 7232: 7228: 7227: 7220: 7217: 7213: 7209: 7208: 7197: 7194: 7191: 7188: 7185: 7182: 7179: 7176: 7173: 7170: 7167: 7164: 7161: 7158: 7155: 7152: 7149: 7146: 7143: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7134: 7133: 7128: 7125: 7122: 7119: 7116: 7113: 7110: 7107: 7104: 7101: 7098: 7095: 7092: 7089: 7086: 7083: 7080: 7077: 7074: 7071: 7068: 7066: 7065: 7064: 7059: 7056: 7053: 7050: 7047: 7044: 7041: 7038: 7035: 7032: 7029: 7026: 7023: 7020: 7017: 7014: 7011: 7008: 7005: 7002: 6999: 6997: 6996: 6995: 6994: 6990: 6987: 6984: 6983: 6980: 6978: 6974: 6973: 6957: 6954: 6951: 6947: 6946: 6942: 6938: 6935: 6931: 6928: 6924: 6923: 6919: 6916: 6913: 6909: 6908: 6904: 6901: 6898: 6894: 6893: 6889: 6886: 6882: 6879: 6875: 6874: 6870: 6866: 6864: 6860: 6856: 6853: 6849: 6848: 6844: 6841: 6838: 6834: 6833: 6829: 6826: 6823: 6819: 6818: 6814: 6811: 6808: 6804: 6803: 6799: 6796: 6793: 6789: 6788: 6784: 6780: 6777: 6773: 6770: 6766: 6765: 6761: 6758: 6755: 6751: 6750: 6746: 6743: 6740: 6736: 6735: 6731: 6728: 6724: 6721: 6717: 6716: 6712: 6709: 6706: 6702: 6701: 6697: 6694: 6690: 6687: 6683: 6682: 6678: 6675: 6672: 6668: 6667: 6663: 6660: 6657: 6653: 6652: 6648: 6646: 6642: 6639: 6636: 6635: 6629: 6627: 6623: 6622: 6617: 6601: 6598: 6593: 6590: 6585: 6584: 6580: 6577: 6574: 6573: 6569: 6564: 6562: 6546: 6542: 6534: 6533: 6530: 6527: 6524: 6522: 6518: 6515: 6513: 6512:Original text 6510: 6509: 6506: 6504: 6498: 6483: 6475: 6474: 6471: 6466: 6460: 6450: 6448: 6444: 6440: 6434: 6417: 6412: 6409: 6408: 6394: 6386: 6380: 6377: 6376: 6370: 6365: 6359: 6356: 6355: 6351: 6342: 6337: 6334: 6333: 6329: 6323: 6318: 6315: 6314: 6310: 6303: 6294: 6286: 6280: 6277: 6276: 6272: 6268: 6262: 6254: 6249: 6246: 6245: 6240: 6235: 6232: 6231: 6226: 6221: 6218: 6217: 6213: 6209: 6199: 6191: 6186: 6183: 6182: 6177: 6172: 6169: 6168: 6162: 6157: 6151: 6148: 6147: 6142: 6137: 6134: 6133: 6126: 6116: 6111: 6104: 6101: 6100: 6093: 6083: 6078: 6072: 6069: 6068: 6064: 6057: 6047: 6042: 6036: 6033: 6032: 6025: 6020: 6013: 6010: 6009: 6005: 6004:i, m, n, v, w 5993: 5989: 5983: 5978:). Sometimes 5977: 5970: 5964:or sometimes 5960: 5951: 5946: 5943: 5942: 5936: 5928: 5920: 5912: 5907: 5904: 5903: 5898: 5893: 5890: 5889: 5884: 5879: 5876: 5875: 5861: 5856: 5853: 5852: 5848: 5841: 5836: 5829: 5826: 5825: 5815: 5806: 5797: 5791: 5788: 5787: 5779: 5761: 5756: 5753: 5752: 5744: 5738: 5730: 5722: 5717: 5714: 5713: 5709: 5701: 5681: 5673: 5668: 5665: 5664: 5659: 5654: 5651: 5650: 5646: 5639: 5629: 5624: 5617: 5614: 5613: 5609: 5607: 5599: 5589: 5584: 5573: 5570: 5569: 5565: 5557: 5550: 5540: 5535: 5529: 5526: 5525: 5521: 5514: 5509: 5502: 5499: 5498: 5495:, see above. 5490: 5483: 5477:or sometimes 5473: 5464: 5459: 5456: 5455: 5450: 5445: 5442: 5441: 5427: 5422: 5419: 5418: 5413: 5408: 5405: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5378: 5370: 5362: 5357: 5354: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5337: 5331: 5326: 5323: 5322: 5316: 5311: 5305: 5302: 5301: 5297: 5295: 5287: 5277: 5272: 5266: 5263: 5262: 5258: 5243: 5234: 5229: 5226: 5225: 5221: 5218: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5208: 5204: 5194: 5192: 5188: 5183: 5181: 5177: 5173: 5169: 5161: 5157: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5125: 5124: 5119: 5115: 5111: 5104:Other symbols 5101: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5067: 5063: 5058: 5050: 5038: 5034: 5022: 5018: 5010: 5006: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4977: 4974: 4968: 4963: 4957: 4951: 4945: 4922: 4912: 4911: 4906: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4870: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4849: 4843: 4842: 4836: 4833:replaced the 4832: 4827: 4815: 4804: 4802: 4801: 4794: 4788: 4783: 4777: 4772: 4764: 4759: 4750: 4736: 4732: 4723: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4694: 4687: 4680: 4673: 4669: 4659: 4657: 4651: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4621: 4603: 4598: 4594: 4589: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4562: 4558: 4548: 4546: 4541: 4535: 4530: 4526: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4499: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4479: 4475: 4472: 4468: 4465: 4461: 4458: 4454: 4451: 4447: 4444: 4440: 4437: 4433: 4430: 4426: 4423: 4419: 4416: 4412: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4396: 4392: 4388: 4385: 4381: 4378: 4374: 4371: 4367: 4364: 4361: 4357: 4354: 4350: 4347: 4343: 4340: 4336: 4333: 4329: 4326: 4322: 4318: 4314: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4302: 4298: 4295: 4291: 4288: 4284: 4281: 4278: 4277:þurven, þaren 4274: 4271: 4267: 4264: 4260: 4257: 4253: 4250: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4227: 4223: 4220: 4216: 4213: 4209: 4206: 4203: 4199: 4196: 4192: 4189: 4185: 4182: 4178: 4175: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4152: 4148: 4145: 4141: 4138: 4134: 4131: 4127: 4124: 4120: 4117: 4113: 4110: 4106: 4103: 4099: 4096: 4092: 4089: 4085: 4083:"owe, ought" 4081: 4077: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4065: 4061: 4058: 4054: 4051: 4047: 4044: 4040: 4037: 4033: 4030: 4026: 4023: 4019: 4016: 4012: 4009: 4003: 3999: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3972: 3968: 3965: 3961: 3958: 3954: 3951: 3948: 3944: 3941: 3937: 3934: 3930: 3927: 3923: 3920: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3897: 3893: 3890: 3886: 3883: 3879: 3876: 3872: 3869: 3865: 3862: 3858: 3855: 3851: 3848: 3844: 3841: 3835: 3831: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3815: 3811: 3805: 3799: 3795: 3792: 3786: 3780: 3776: 3773: 3767: 3761: 3757: 3754: 3748: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3727: 3721: 3717: 3714: 3710: 3707: 3703: 3700: 3696: 3693: 3687: 3683: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3656: 3652: 3649: 3645: 3642: 3638: 3635: 3629: 3625: 3622: 3618: 3615: 3611: 3608: 3604: 3601: 3597: 3594: 3588: 3584: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3569: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3557: 3553: 3550: 3546: 3543: 3539: 3536: 3532: 3529: 3525: 3522: 3518: 3515: 3511: 3508: 3504: 3501: 3495: 3491: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3464: 3460: 3457: 3453: 3450: 3446: 3443: 3439: 3436: 3430: 3426: 3423: 3419: 3416: 3412: 3409: 3405: 3402: 3396: 3392: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3376: 3372: 3366: 3362: 3359: 3353: 3349: 3346: 3340: 3336: 3333: 3327: 3323: 3320: 3314: 3310: 3307: 3303: 3300: 3296: 3293: 3289: 3286: 3282: 3279: 3273: 3269: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3242: 3236: 3232: 3229: 3225: 3222: 3218: 3215: 3211: 3210: 3206: 3199: 3192: 3189: 3182: 3175: 3171: 3168: 3164: 3161: 3157: 3154: 3150: 3147: 3141: 3134: 3126: 3120: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3104: 3100: 3097: 3093: 3090: 3086: 3083: 3079: 3076: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3064: 3060: 3054: 3050: 3047: 3044: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3025: 3020: 3012: 3006: 2999: 2992: 2985: 2979: 2972: 2965: 2964: 2959: 2955: 2952: 2949: 2946: 2943: 2940: 2939: 2919: 2905: 2899: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2888: 2882: 2877: 2872: 2867: 2862: 2857: 2842: 2841:direct object 2838: 2833: 2827: 2823: 2818: 2814: 2807: 2804: 2802: 2799: 2797: 2794: 2792: 2789: 2787: 2784: 2782: 2779: 2778: 2774: 2771: 2766: 2761: 2758: 2754: 2751: 2750: 2746: 2743: 2738: 2733: 2730: 2726: 2723: 2719: 2716: 2711: 2709: 2704: 2702: 2695: 2693: 2686: 2683: 2682: 2677: 2676: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2659: 2654: 2652: 2647: 2645: 2638: 2636: 2631: 2629: 2625: 2622: 2618: 2613: 2610: 2605: 2603: 2598: 2596: 2591: 2589: 2584: 2582: 2581: 2576: 2573: 2570: 2569: 2566: 2561: 2559: 2554: 2552: 2545: 2543: 2536: 2534: 2533: 2527: 2523: 2520: 2519: 2516: 2511: 2509: 2504: 2502: 2497: 2495: 2490: 2488: 2484: 2481: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2463: 2460: 2453: 2450: 2443: 2440: 2433: 2430: 2426: 2425: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2407: 2400: 2398: 2391: 2389: 2384:min / minen 2382: 2380: 2375: 2373: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2355: 2352: 2349: 2347: 2344: 2342: 2339: 2337: 2334: 2332: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2315: 2306: 2302: 2300: 2295: 2290: 2287:south of the 2285: 2279: 2273: 2268: 2265: 2260: 2255: 2250: 2249:demonstrative 2246: 2242: 2238: 2228: 2225: 2219: 2214: 2210: 2208: 2202: 2200: 2194: 2192: 2186: 2184: 2178: 2176: 2170: 2168: 2161: 2155: 2150: 2148: 2142: 2140: 2134: 2130: 2128: 2125:adds a final 2124: 2120: 2119: 2113: 2111: 2109: 2103: 2098: 2092: 2086: 2080: 2074: 2069: 2067: 2055: 2053: 2048: 2047:scaft stærcne 2042: 2036: 2030: 2024: 2020: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1969:double plural 1966: 1962: 1958: 1953: 1950: 1945: 1940: 1935: 1931: 1926: 1924: 1920: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1904: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1864: 1856: 1853: 1852: 1836: 1828: 1825: 1824: 1812: 1811: 1799: 1794: 1774: 1773: 1769: 1766: 1763: 1760: 1759: 1756: 1751: 1744: 1738: 1736: 1721: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1699: 1693: 1687: 1681: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1652: 1648: 1645: 1641: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1627: 1623: 1612: 1602: 1592: 1577: 1573: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1547: 1543: 1542: 1541: 1539: 1535: 1529: 1519: 1517: 1513: 1512:English Bible 1509: 1505: 1501: 1496: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1465: 1463: 1461: 1456: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1441: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1426: 1425: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1407:and from the 1406: 1402: 1398: 1393: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1373: 1370: 1362: 1361: 1354: 1352: 1351: 1346: 1345: 1339: 1337: 1333: 1332:West Midlands 1329: 1325: 1320: 1319: 1318:Ancrene Wisse 1313: 1309: 1308: 1303: 1302: 1296: 1294: 1289: 1284: 1282: 1279:("the"). The 1278: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1261: 1256: 1252: 1251:prepositional 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1226: 1224: 1219: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1192: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1173: 1168: 1167: 1162: 1161: 1156: 1155: 1150: 1149: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1127: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1101: 1096: 1092: 1091: 1086: 1082: 1081: 1076: 1075: 1070: 1069: 1064: 1063: 1058: 1057: 1052: 1051: 1046: 1045: 1040: 1039: 1034: 1033: 1028: 1027: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 997: 995: 991: 987: 983: 982:East Midlands 979: 975: 970: 968: 964: 959: 956: 952: 948: 944: 940: 936: 932: 927: 925: 924: 919: 916: 912: 897: 881: 880: 877: 875: 874: 871: 870: 869: 867: 866: 861: 857: 856:John Wycliffe 853: 848: 846: 842: 838: 834: 830: 825: 823: 819: 815: 811: 806: 802: 798: 793: 791: 787: 783: 779: 775: 771: 767: 763: 754: 750: 746: 742: 738: 736: 730: 726: 722: 720: 719: 714: 708: 705: 700: 696: 692: 689: 684: 679: 674: 671: 666: 661: 658: 655: 651: 645: 637: 634: 633: 632: 629: 628: 627: 623: 617: 601: 598: 597: 596: 593: 592: 591: 590:Anglo-Frisian 588: 587: 586: 583: 582: 581: 580:West Germanic 578: 577: 576: 573: 572: 571: 570:Indo-European 567: 563: 557: 553: 549: 545: 541: 537: 533: 530: 526: 523:and Scottish 522: 519:, south east 518: 514: 510: 507: 503: 498: 497: 492: 486: 481: 477: 471: 465: 460: 455: 452: 447: 445: 444: 439: 435: 434:John Wycliffe 431: 426: 424: 420: 416: 412: 408: 403: 401: 397: 393: 389: 384: 380: 376: 371: 369: 365: 361: 357: 353: 349: 345: 341: 332: 328: 324: 320: 316: 314: 308: 304: 300: 298: 297: 292: 286: 283: 278: 274: 270: 267: 262: 257: 252: 249: 244: 239: 236: 233: 229: 223: 215: 212: 211: 210: 207: 206: 205: 201: 195: 179: 176: 175: 174: 171: 170: 169: 168:Anglo-Frisian 166: 165: 164: 161: 160: 159: 158:West Germanic 156: 155: 154: 151: 150: 149: 148:Indo-European 145: 141: 135: 131: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 108: 104: 101:and Scottish 100: 97:, south east 96: 92: 88: 85: 81: 76: 75: 70: 64: 59: 55: 49: 43: 38: 33: 30: 19: 10784: 10668:Verner's law 10613: 10608:Gotho-Nordic 10606: 10599: 10520: 10513: 10505: 10499: 10489: 10474:Fårö Gutnish 10436: 10429: 10335: 10328: 10319: 10312: 10293: 10286: 10214: 10209: 10204: 10197: 10190: 10130: 10032:Swiss German 9996:Upper German 9929:Amana German 9903:Volga German 9872:Hunsrückisch 9798: 9752:Unserdeutsch 9747:Berlinerisch 9680: 9673: 9666: 9659: 9619:Cover groups 9575:Mohawk Dutch 9570:Jersey Dutch 9548:East Flemish 9531:West Flemish 9475:Middle Dutch 9429:Low Prussian 9301: 9294: 9260:Terschelling 9244:Clay Frisian 9219:West Frisian 9207:Wiedingharde 9199: 9187: 9147:Heligolandic 9124: 9099: 9092: 9085: 9080: 9063:East Frisian 9050: 9043: 9016:Middle Scots 9014: 9007: 8993: 8986: 8979: 8974: 8963: 8956: 8950: 8949: 8942: 8829: 8810: 8802: 8790: 8782: 8774: 8698: 8652: 8636:Northumbrian 8539: 8521: 8499: 8491: 8484: 8468:. Retrieved 8464:the original 8459: 8449: 8426: 8423:Sweet, Henry 8417: 8409: 8389: 8381: 8362: 8336: 8332: 8319: 8301: 8297: 8290: 8282: 8277: 8269: 8264: 8256: 8251: 8243: 8238: 8230: 8225: 8213: 8209: 8197:. Retrieved 8186: 8166: 8159: 8149: 8142: 8132: 8114: 8106: 8098: 8097:Fulk, R.D., 8093: 8066: 8045: 8036: 8016: 8011: 8004: 7998: 7997: 7993: 7992: 7983: 7963:. Retrieved 7958: 7954: 7938: 7915: 7894:. Retrieved 7879: 7872: 7864:hcmc.uvic.ca 7863: 7854: 7834: 7828: 7820: 7815: 7803:. Retrieved 7788: 7781: 7770: 7759: 7750: 7743:. Retrieved 7734: 7727: 7715:. Retrieved 7710: 7700: 7687: 7673:Our Language 7672: 7664: 7652:. Retrieved 7648:the original 7643: 7633: 7624: 7590: 7582: 7573: 7553: 7518: 7511: 7502: 7467: 7461: 7455: 7443:. Retrieved 7428: 7421: 7413: 7408: 7399: 7364: 7358: 7352: 7341:. Retrieved 7326: 7302:. Retrieved 7287: 7280: 7272: 7267: 7229: 7218: 7214: 7211: 7206: 7205: 6970: 6968: 6619: 6613: 6581:Translation 6558: 6528: 6525: 6511: 6500: 6462: 6436: 6427:Sample texts 6207: 6194:, sometimes 6003: 5991: 5987: 5975: 5846: 5792:As a vowel, 5784:was silent. 5777: 5707: 5605: 5578:; sometimes 5564:later merged 5519: 5488: 5343: 5335: 5293: 5200: 5184: 5179: 5167: 5159: 5155: 5143: 5139: 5121: 5107: 5097: 5093: 5092:convention ( 5032: 5020: 5016: 4978: 4923: 4913:, where the 4909: 4904: 4896: 4893:Middle Scots 4888: 4884: 4868: 4852: 4847: 4846:Carolingian 4840: 4828: 4805: 4798: 4786: 4751: 4724: 4719: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4665: 4652: 4631: 4596: 4590: 4554: 4529:Strong verbs 4527: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4500: 4495: 4491: 4487: 4485: 4242:Þurven/Þaren 2895: 2891: 2885: 2875: 2865: 2855: 2853: 2832: 2817: 2805: 2800: 2795: 2790: 2785: 2780: 2714: 2707: 2700: 2691: 2679: 2673: 2657: 2650: 2643: 2634: 2627: 2608: 2601: 2594: 2587: 2578: 2564: 2557: 2550: 2541: 2530: 2514: 2507: 2505:his / hisse 2500: 2493: 2486: 2468: 2458: 2448: 2438: 2422: 2405: 2396: 2387: 2378: 2371: 2367:ic / ich / I 2312: 2303: 2298: 2289:River Thames 2269: 2258: 2234: 2204: 2196: 2188: 2180: 2172: 2164: 2144: 2136: 2133:Comparatives 2131: 2126: 2122: 2116: 2114: 2105: 2101: 2063: 2061: 2051: 2021: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1954: 1943: 1933: 1929: 1927: 1922: 1918: 1911: 1907: 1905: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1882: 1750:Strong nouns 1732: 1704: 1613:Rounding of 1559:as separate 1531: 1497: 1471: 1464: 1457: 1442: 1438:Reeve's Tale 1411:and central 1394: 1379: 1371: 1358: 1355: 1348: 1342: 1340: 1312:Lincolnshire 1305: 1299: 1297: 1285: 1264: 1239:inflectional 1232: 1220: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1193: 1170: 1164: 1158: 1152: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1098: 1094: 1088: 1084: 1078: 1072: 1066: 1060: 1054: 1048: 1042: 1036: 1030: 1024: 1017:Anglo-Norman 998: 971: 960: 928: 921: 908: 863: 849: 837:Anglo-Norman 826: 794: 765: 761: 760: 732: 716: 599: 494: 489:A page from 451: 441: 427: 415:Anglo-Norman 404: 372: 343: 339: 338: 310: 294: 177: 72: 67:A page from 29: 10683:Kluge's law 10663:Grimm's law 10446:Dalecarlian 10425:Perkerdansk 10398:East Danish 10216:Old Gutnish 10192:Proto-Norse 10132:Langobardic 10124:Vogtlandian 9952:Upper Saxon 9806:Lachoudisch 9767:Lotegorisch 9645:High German 9391:Westphalian 9386:Eastphalian 9350:Achterhooks 9227:Hindeloopen 9162:Bökingharde 9131:Föhr–Amrum 9045:Old Frisian 9009:Early Scots 8944:Old English 8621:Old English 8555:on Miraheze 8005:Anchoresses 7984:of the soul 7896:14 February 7819:McWhorter, 7805:19 December 7445:19 December 7330:. Oup USA. 7304:19 December 6965:Gower, 1390 6526:Translation 5706:in initial 4551:Orthography 2956:3rd person 2953:2nd person 2950:1st person 2947:3rd person 2944:2nd person 2941:1st person 2930:Participle 2921:Participle 2910:Infinitive 2871:þou spekest 2822:Dative case 2740:heore / her 2512:him-seluen 2491:him / hine 1955:The strong 1895:-stem, and 1813:Accusative 1775:Nominative 1718:Orthography 1716:(see under 1516:Prayer Book 1477: 1430 1397:Black Death 1367: 1330 1336:AB language 1328:anchoresses 911:Old English 904: 1300 829:inflections 797:orthography 778:Old English 747:instead of 636:Old English 620:Early forms 407:inflections 375:orthography 356:Old English 325:instead of 214:Old English 198:Early forms 10811:Categories 10515:Burgundian 10431:Old Danish 10420:Gøtudanskt 10403:Bornholmsk 10265:Vestlandsk 10245:Kebabnorsk 9982:Halcnovian 9947:Thuringian 9610:Limburgish 9580:Stadsfries 9553:Brabantian 9280:Low German 9126:Eiderstedt 8981:Fingallian 8756:Consonants 8731:Diphthongs 8641:West Saxon 8456:"Prologue" 8333:Oxoniensia 8195:. Bartleby 7745:August 24, 7717:12 January 7654:12 January 7343:2023-12-01 7259:References 6977:John Gower 6563:, (1384): 6468:(3494–501) 6014:Rare, for 5603:(see also 5503:Rare, for 5037:Old French 4859:, written 4666:The basic 4617:in German 2806:themselves 2775:þam-selue 2715:yourselves 2606:hit sulue 2585:hit / him 2562:heo-seolf 2479:Masculine 2471:(thyself) 2058:Adjectives 1949:fader bone 1939:fole hoves 1921:-stem and 1755:Weak nouns 1724:Morphology 1720:, below). 1653:, written 1644:gemination 1576:diphthongs 1571:fricatives 1565:allophones 1546:fricatives 1493:Law French 1382:Anglicised 1293:vernacular 1288:word order 1172:parliament 1117:courageous 1013:Old Norman 1009:Old French 544:Fingallian 122:Fingallian 10795:varieties 10787:indicate 10601:Northwest 10546:Philology 10451:Elfdalian 10386:Jutlandic 10308:Icelandic 10283:(written) 10277:(written) 10255:Trøndersk 10235:Norwegian 10199:Old Norse 10020:Coloniero 10004:Alemannic 9977:Wymysorys 9845:Colognian 9840:Ripuarian 9762:Rotwelsch 9592:Midslands 9543:Zeelandic 9524:Hollandic 9498:Afrikaans 9470:Old Dutch 9296:Old Saxon 9195:Karrharde 9177:Goesharde 9158:Mainland 8891:philology 8797:Rhoticity 8777:-dropping 8470:March 15, 8345:0308-5562 7961:: 177–191 7955:Et Cetera 7920:Routledge 7494:162332574 7472:CiteSeerX 7391:162332574 7369:CiteSeerX 6936:to seek, 6559:From the 5381:) before 5373:(earlier 5294:vein–vain 5176:ampersand 5017:Jerusalem 4758:allophone 4656:geminated 4640:Phonology 4219:scholdest 4170:"should" 3549:doughtest 2933:Singular 2924:Singular 2735:his / heo 2658:ourselves 2632:us / ous 2521:Feminine 2455:þin / þyn 2357:Singular 2351:Reflexive 2245:Old Norse 2157:, great; 1826:Genitive 1767:Singular 1761:Singular 1595:/æ/and/ɑ/ 1569:voiceless 1540:include: 1522:Phonology 1189:crusading 1181:feudalism 1177:chivalric 947:Icelandic 931:Old Norse 841:Old Norse 718:Glottolog 704:ISO 639-6 688:ISO 639-3 670:ISO 639-2 419:Old Norse 296:Glottolog 282:ISO 639-6 266:ISO 639-3 248:ISO 639-2 10522:Vandalic 10465:Gutnish 10270:Vikværsk 10250:Sognamål 10240:Bergensk 10090:Cimbrian 10058:Bavarian 10015:Alsatian 9962:Lusatian 9898:Palatine 9588:Amelands 9465:Frankish 9355:Sallaans 9337:Gronings 9188:Southern 9181:Northern 9172:Halligen 9121:Insular 8938:dialects 8822:stopping 8817:fronting 8769:Flapping 8764:Clusters 8425:(2005). 8312:Volume 2 8308:Volume 1 8300:Two vols 8124:7114246M 7946:(1983). 7849:, p. 280 7224:See also 6727:Zephyrus 6465:Nativity 6401:, where 6347:English 6219:sch, sh 5990:(modern 5986:, as in 5923:(before 5778:horrible 5203:digraphs 5114:Lollards 5100:, etc.) 5054:, as in 4973:paradijs 4910:McKenzie 4851:(modern 4844:and the 4839:insular 4816:⟩ 4812:⟨ 4795:⟩ 4791:⟨ 4735:ligature 4662:Alphabet 4609:and the 4545:apophony 4057:mightest 3648:durstest 3593:durrynge 3587:durrende 3563:doughten 3345:couthest 3278:cunnynge 3272:cunnende 2913:Present 2881:he comeþ 2861:ich here 2763:þem / þo 2729:heo / he 2469:yourself 2376:me / mi 2257:(modern 2231:Pronouns 1977:brethren 1973:children 1692:palmeres 1642:Loss of 1561:phonemes 1445:Scotland 1417:prestige 1413:Midlands 1322:and the 1255:genitive 1223:dialects 1216:guardian 1109:valuable 992:(in the 984:and the 963:pronouns 862:, whose 822:Scotland 753:Help:IPA 725:midd1317 575:Germanic 521:Scotland 513:Cornwall 464:Englisch 440:, whose 400:Scotland 331:Help:IPA 303:midd1317 153:Germanic 99:Scotland 91:Cornwall 42:Englisch 10785:Italics 10408:Scanian 10354:Swedish 10303:Faroese 10281:Nynorsk 10260:Valdris 10095:Mòcheno 10051:Swabian 9917:Hessian 9877:Hunsrik 9789:Western 9784:Eastern 9779:Yiddish 9729:creoles 9626:Bergish 9342:Drèents 9332:Tweants 9184:Central 9166:Mooring 9029:Frisian 8988:Kildare 8933:English 8631:Mercian 8626:Kentish 8337:LXVVIII 8007:Guide) 7965:29 June 7711:YouTube 7644:YouTube 7519:Ormulum 6885:hallows 6869:palmers 6863:strands 6859:palmers 6776:the Ram 6774:Has in 6459:Ormulum 6105:Either 6102:ou, ow 6034:oi, oy 5994:); the 5745:). The 5684:before 5618:Either 5571:ei, ey 5303:au, aw 5264:ai, ay 5251:before 5172:Ye Olde 4991:letter 4879:and by 4800:ye olde 4756:or its 4625:silent 4570:regular 4537:became 4464:wistest 4403:"know" 4377:woldest 4320:"want" 4308:þurften 4245:"need" 4233:scholde 4226:scholde 4212:scholde 4202:schulen 4167:Schulen 4071:mighten 4043:imought 4008:mowynge 4002:mowende 3964:mustest 3915:"must" 3889:haddest 3840:havynge 3834:havende 3822:"have" 3760:wendest 3662:dursten 3575:"dare" 3535:idought 3500:douynge 3494:douende 3371:couthen 3339:coudest 2966:Strong 2936:Plural 2927:Plural 2878:(e.g., 2868:(e.g., 2858:(e.g., 2705:youres 2669:ȝe / ye 2664:Second 2615:Plural 2571:Neuter 2565:herself 2515:himself 2461:(thine) 2445:þi / ti 2412:Second 2331:Subject 2320:archaic 2207:-lokest 2160:gretter 2011:), and 2001:hose(s) 1891:-stem, 1854:Dative 1770:Plural 1764:Plural 1707:silent 1698:palmers 1659:Chaucer 1307:Ormulum 1275:of the 1126:liberty 1121:freedom 1100:mansion 1044:poultry 1038:chicken 980:), the 955:Danelaw 953:in the 951:Vikings 943:Faroese 923:Ormulum 886:History 788:to the 749:Unicode 552:Ireland 529:Ireland 509:England 470:English 366:to the 327:Unicode 130:Ireland 107:Ireland 87:England 48:English 10501:Gothic 10371:Danish 10275:Bokmål 9774:Yenish 9584:Bildts 9367:Veluws 9362:Urkers 9201:Strand 8925:Anglic 8690:Vowels 8437: 8402: 8369: 8343: 8339:: 30. 8259:(1993) 8199:Oct 4, 8174: 8122: 7926: 7887: 7841: 7796: 7603: 7526: 7492: 7474: 7436: 7389: 7371: 7334: 7295: 6693:liquor 6570:8:1–3 6479:wille. 6445:, not 6212:long s 5780:, the 5608:merger 5606:fleece 5365:, but 5296:merger 5291:; see 5219:Symbol 5136:macron 5090:soft G 5021:Joseph 4999:sound 4989:Hebrew 4932:, and 4691:, and 4620:Knecht 4597:knight 4588:eras. 4534:binden 4503:-ed(e) 4478:wisten 4450:iwiten 4391:wolden 4360:wollen 4325:willen 4317:Willen 4188:schalt 4064:mighte 4050:mighte 4022:myghst 3990:"may" 3978:musten 3903:hadden 3798:wenden 3772:yodest 3766:yedest 3736:(gen) 3692:goynge 3686:goende 3621:durren 3580:durren 3572:Durren 3556:dought 3542:dought 3514:deight 3470:didden 3401:doynge 3395:doende 3365:couden 3358:couthe 3332:couthe 3313:cunned 3306:cunnen 3265:cunnen 3260:"can" 3257:Cunnen 3146:beynge 3140:beende 3122:Been " 3096:-edest 2866:-(e)st 2801:theirs 2781:modern 2721:Third 2648:oures 2620:First 2609:itself 2476:Third 2441:(thee) 2406:myself 2362:First 2336:Object 2318:(with 2224:lenger 2199:-loker 2191:-liest 2029:þo ule 1746:Nouns 1689:, and 1667:French 1657:). By 1485:French 1401:London 1386:French 1243:dative 1212:warden 1200:kingly 1187:, and 1169:, and 1166:appeal 1137:, and 1135:vision 1105:worthy 1090:forest 1080:mutton 1021:Norman 1005:Norman 990:Wessex 595:Anglic 542:, and 525:burghs 505:Region 476:Inglis 173:Anglic 120:, and 103:burghs 83:Region 54:Inglis 10615:South 10566:North 10176:North 10160:North 9502:Kaaps 9493:Dutch 9140:Amrum 9081:Weser 9003:Scots 8329:(PDF) 8242:"J", 7951:(PDF) 7739:(PDF) 7490:S2CID 7387:S2CID 6783:Aries 6725:When 6643:into 6618:from 6519:into 6345:(see 6297:, or 6278:u, v 6271:thorn 6061:(see 5974:(see 5921:] 5917:[ 5845:(see 5789:i, j 5731:] 5727:[ 5723:] 5719:[ 5696:(see 5676:, or 5643:(see 5518:(see 5487:(see 5393:(see 5118:Jesus 5108:Many 5005:Greek 4903:when 4891:. 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