533:(like "hence" and "together"), conjunctions, and prepositions show the most marked Danish influence. The best evidence of Scandinavian influence appears in extensive word borrowings, yet no texts exist in either Scandinavia or Northern England from this period to give certain evidence of an influence on syntax. However, at least one scholarly study of this influence shows that Old English may have been replaced entirely by Norse, by virtue of the change from the Old English syntax to Norse syntax. The effect of Old Norse on Old English was substantive, pervasive, and of a democratic character. Like close cousins, Old Norse and Old English resembled each other, and with some words in common, they roughly understood each other; in time, the inflections melted away and the analytic pattern emerged. It is most "important to recognise that in many words the English and Scandinavian language differed chiefly in their inflectional elements. The body of the word was so nearly the same in the two languages that only the endings would put obstacles in the way of mutual understanding. In the mixed population that existed in the Danelaw, these endings must have led to much confusion, tending gradually to become obscured and finally lost." This blending of peoples and languages resulted in "simplifying English grammar".
460:
552:, which were under Danish control, words in the spoken language emerged in the 10th and 11th centuries near the transition from Old to Middle English. Influence on the written languages only appeared from the beginning of the 13th century, this delay in Scandinavian lexical influence in English has been attributed to the lack of written evidence from the areas of Danish control, as the majority of written sources from Old English were produced in
859:. It is also argued that Norse immigrants to England had a great impact on the loss of inflectional endings in Middle English. One argument is that, although Norse and English speakers were somewhat comprehensible to each other due to similar morphology, the Norse speakers' inability to reproduce the ending sounds of English words influenced Middle English's loss of inflectional endings.
377:. Writing conventions during the Middle English period varied widely. Examples of writing from this period that have survived show extensive regional variation. The more standardized Old English literary variety broke down and writing in English became fragmented and localized and was, for the most part, being improvised. By the end of the period (about 1470), and aided by the
4340:
63:
583:. The use of Norman as the preferred language of literature and polite discourse fundamentally altered the role of Old English in education and administration, even though many Normans of this period were illiterate and depended on the clergy for written communication and record-keeping. A significant number of words of
6166:
And it was done afterwards, that Jesus made a journey by cities and castles, preaching and evangelising the realm of God: and with him (the) Twelve; and some women that were healed of wicked spirits and sicknesses; Mary who is called
Magdalene, from whom seven devils went out; and Joanna the wife of
6160:
And it was don aftirward, and Jhesus made iourney bi citees and castels, prechynge and euangelisynge þe rewme of God, and twelue wiþ hym; and sum wymmen þat weren heelid of wickid spiritis and sijknessis, Marie, þat is clepid
Maudeleyn, of whom seuene deuelis wenten out, and Joone, þe wijf of Chuse,
6152:
And it was don aftirward, and Jhesu made iorney by citees and castelis, prechinge and euangelysinge þe rewme of God, and twelue wiþ him; and summe wymmen þat weren heelid of wickide spiritis and syknessis, Marie, þat is clepid
Mawdeleyn, of whom seuene deuelis wenten out, and Jone, þe wyf of Chuse,
7210:
However, this delay in
Scandinavian lexical influence in English has also been attributed to the lack of written evidence from the areas of Danish control (the north and east of England), as the majority of written sources from Old English were produced in Wessex, the heart of Anglo-Saxon political
521:
to communicate with their Anglo-Saxon neighbours resulted in the erosion of inflection in both languages. Old Norse may have had a more profound impact on Middle and Modern
English development than any other language. Simeon Potter says, "No less far-reaching was the influence of Scandinavian upon
6779:
So we are taught what was written by them when they were alive. So it's good that we, in our times here on earth, write of new matters – Following the example of our forefathers – So that, in such a way, we may leave our knowledge to the world after we are dead and gone. But it's said, and it is
983:
London dialect began to develop as a result of this clash of the different dialects, that was based chiefly on the speech of the East
Midlands but also influenced by that of other regions. The writing of this period, however, continues to reflect a variety of regional forms of English. The
6111:
Man, come and see how all dead men shall lie: when that comes bad and bare,we have nothing when we away fare: all that we care for is worms:—except for that which we do for God's sake, we have nothing ready:under this grave lies John the smith, God give his soul heavenly peace
4127:
in the period prior to the Norman
Conquest, Middle English came to be written in a wide variety of scribal forms, reflecting different regional dialects and orthographic conventions. Later in the Middle English period, however, and particularly with the development of the
1664:), or with a name or in a form of address. This derives from the Old English "weak" declension of adjectives. This inflexion continued to be used in writing even after final -e had ceased to be pronounced. In earlier texts, multisyllable adjectives also receive a final
385:
in 1439, a standard based on the London dialects (Chancery
Standard) had become established. This largely formed the basis for Modern English spelling, although pronunciation has changed considerably since that time. Middle English was succeeded in England by
6107:
Man, come and see how shall all dead lie: when thou comes bad and barenaught have we away fare: all is worms that we for care:—but that we do for God's love, we have nothing ready:under this grave lies John the smith, God give his soul heaven great
4773:. As explained above, single vowel letters had alternative pronunciations depending on whether they were in a position where their sounds had been subject to lengthening. Long vowel pronunciations were in flux due to the beginnings of the
854:
that also occurred in other
Germanic languages (though more slowly and to a lesser extent), and therefore, it cannot be attributed simply to the influence of French-speaking sections of the population: English did, after all, remain the
6101:
man com & se how schal alle dede li: wen þow comes bad & barenoth hab ven ve awaẏ fare: All ẏs wermēs þ ve for care:—bot þ ve do for godẏs luf ve haue nothyng yare:hundyr þis graue lẏs John þe smẏth god yif his soule heuen
1868:
The following table shows some of the various Middle
English pronouns. Many other variations are noted in Middle English sources because of differences in spellings and pronunciations at different times and in different dialects.
1838:
forms were lost), but pronouns, unlike nouns, retained distinct nominative and accusative forms. Third person pronouns also retained a distinction between accusative and dative forms, but that was gradually lost: The masculine
4222:(i.e., had genuinely been "doubled" and would thus have regularly blocked the lengthening of the preceding vowel). In other cases, by analogy, the consonant was written double merely to indicate the lack of lengthening.
6780:
true, that if one only reads of wisdom all day long It often dulls one's brains. So, if it's alright with you, I'll take the middle route and write a book between the two – Somewhat of amusement, and somewhat of fact.
1589:
survived to a limited extent in early Middle English before being replaced by natural gender in the course of the Middle English period. Grammatical gender was indicated by agreement of articles and pronouns (e.g.,
1055:, influencing the forms they chose. The Chancery Standard, which was adopted slowly, was used in England by bureaucrats for most official purposes, excluding those of the Church and legalities, which used Latin and
4217:
A related convention involved the doubling of consonant letters to show that the preceding vowel was not to be lengthened. In some cases, the double consonant represented a sound that was (or had previously been)
6042:
Forrþrihht anan se time commþatt ure Drihhtin wolldeben borenn i þiss middellærdforr all mannkinne nedehe chæs himm sone kinnessmennall swillke summ he wolldeand whær he wollde borenn benhe chæs all att hiss
920:
Some scholars have defined "Early Middle English" as encompassing English texts up to 1350. This longer time frame would extend the corpus to include many Middle English Romances (especially those of the
4198:, originally pronounced as two syllables, the /a/ in the first syllable (originally an open syllable) lengthened, the final weak vowel was later dropped, and the remaining long vowel was modified in the
4194:– originally pronounced but lost in normal speech by Chaucer's time. This letter, however, came to indicate a lengthened – and later also modified – pronunciation of a preceding vowel. For example, in
432:, due in part to Norman domination and the prestige that came with writing in French rather than English. During the 14th century, a new style of literature emerged with the works of writers including
417:
vocabulary, especially in the areas of politics, law, the arts, and religion, as well as poetic and emotive diction. Conventional English vocabulary remained primarily Germanic in its sources, with
4214:. In fact, vowels could have this lengthened and modified pronunciation in various positions, particularly before a single consonant letter and another vowel or before certain pairs of consonants.
421:
influences becoming more apparent. Significant changes in pronunciation took place, particularly involving long vowels and diphthongs, which in the later Middle English period began to undergo the
709:. The role of Anglo-Norman as the language of government and law can be seen in the abundance of Modern English words for the mechanisms of government that are derived from Anglo-Norman, such as
6048:
Forthwith when the time camethat our Lord wantedbe born in this earthfor all mankind sake,He chose kinsmen for Himself,all just as he wanted,and where He would be bornHe chose all at His will.
1811:(the original Old English form clashed with the third person singular and was eventually dropped). Also, the nominative form of the feminine third person singular was replaced by a form of the
774:(from French, which borrowed it from classical Latin). Later French appropriations were derived from standard, rather than Norman, French. Examples of resultant cognate pairs include the words
1047:, had normally been written in French. Like Chaucer's work, this new standard was based on the East Midlands-influenced speech of London. Clerks using this standard were usually familiar with
789:
as they had before the Conquest. Once the writing of Old English came to an end, Middle English had no standard language, only dialects that evolved individually from Old English.
1000:, wrote in the second half of the 14th century in the emerging London dialect, although he also portrays some of his characters as speaking in northern dialects, as in the "
1467:-stem nouns in Old English, but joined the weak declension in Middle English. Nouns of the strong declension are inherited from the other Old English noun stem classes.
4132:
in the 15th century, orthography became relatively standardised in a form based on the East Midlands-influenced speech of London. Spelling at the time was mostly quite
1070:'s printing press, developed during the 1470s. The press stabilized English through a push towards standardization, led by Chancery Standard enthusiast and writer
4331:
in Old English. Eth fell out of use during the 13th century and was replaced by thorn. Thorn mostly fell out of use during the 14th century and was replaced by
4765:
Although Middle English spelling was never fully standardised, the following table shows the pronunciations most usually represented by particular letters and
8877:
5626:
5208:
4820:
4911:
1668:
in these situations, but this occurs less regularly in later Middle English texts. Otherwise, adjectives have no ending and adjectives already ending in
952:) remained the dominant language of literature and law until the 14th century, even after the loss of the majority of the continental possessions of the
5872:
1492:
The distinct dative case was lost in early Middle English. The genitive survived, however, but by the end of the Middle English period, only the strong
362:
states the period when Middle English was spoken as being from 1150 to 1500. This stage of the development of the English language roughly followed the
8222:
8184:
8171:
8163:
4077:
ending. The past-tense forms, without their personal endings, also served as past participles with past-participle prefixes derived from Old English:
405:
During the Middle English period, many Old English grammatical features either became simplified or disappeared altogether. Noun, adjective, and verb
10310:
10295:
8179:
8199:
4500:, which had not normally been used by Old English scribes, came to be commonly used in the writing of Middle English. Also, the newer Latin letter
1199:(and in certain other positions). The resultant long vowels (and other preexisting long vowels) subsequently underwent changes of quality in the
587:
origin began to appear in the English language alongside native English words of similar meaning, giving rise to such Modern English synonyms as
522:
the inflexional endings of English in hastening that wearing away and leveling of grammatical forms which gradually spread from north to south."
10305:
10300:
9252:
8330:
8039:
1496:
ending (variously spelt) was in use. Some formerly feminine nouns, as well as some weak nouns, continued to make their genitive forms with
1474:
in the nominative/accusative singular, like the weak declension, but otherwise strong endings. Often, these are the same nouns that had an
9050:
8214:
8189:
6816:
1062:
The Chancery Standard's influence on later forms of written English is disputed, but it did undoubtedly provide the core around which
7986:
10290:
1142:
to monophthongs and the emergence of new diphthongs due to vowel breaking in certain positions, change of Old English post-vocalic
785:
The end of Anglo-Saxon rule did not result in immediate changes to the language. The general population would have spoken the same
7337:
8148:
6192:. The text was written in a dialect associated with London and spellings associated with the then-emergent Chancery Standard.
8287:
8268:
8248:
7897:
7829:
7347:
7301:
6986:
6897:
567:
of England in 1066 saw the replacement of the top levels of the English-speaking political and ecclesiastical hierarchies by
8867:
8156:
5904:
7098:
5885:
5871:
in "lengthened" positions (although it had generally not gone through the same lengthening process as other vowels – see
5724:
5446:
322:
17:
9779:
7914:
354:
of 1066, until the late 15th century. The English language underwent distinct variations and developments following the
7386:
7150:
Faarlund, Jan Terje, and Joseph E. Emonds. "English as North Germanic". Language Dynamics and Change 6.1 (2016): 1–17.
1693:
to all adjectives not in the nominative, here only inflecting adjectives in the weak declension (as described above).
1685:
inflects adjectives for the masculine accusative, genitive, and dative, the feminine dative, and the plural genitive.
7862:
7634:
7256:
7063:
6860:
798:
8323:
8032:
7194:
THE OLD NORSE INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH, THE 'VIKING HYPOTHESIS', AND MIDDLE ENGLISH WORD ORDER PARALLELS WITH ICELANDIC
6801:
5788:
4975:
1877:
7200:(2 ed.). Newcastle University: English Language & Linguistics Dissertation Repository (ELLDR). p. 11
6887:
8136:
5221:
5161:
5097:
5026:
4401:
that had been used for Old English. However, because of the significant difference in appearance between the old
4141:
312:
5398:
5186:
5146:
5112:
5071:
5045:
4849:
10146:
5377:
5243:
4471:
was not available in their fonts; this led to new spellings (often giving rise to new pronunciations), as in
7166:"121028 Charlene Lohmeier "Evolution of the English Language" – 23:40 – 25:00; 30:20 – 30:45; 45:00 – 46:00"
255:
10176:
9346:
9308:
9293:
8059:
7402:
5932:
5848:
5753:
5640:
5532:
5513:
4940:
4932:
835:, but most of the other case endings disappeared in the Early Middle English period, including most of the
203:
8620:
8173:
8165:
5924:
5862:
5767:
5716:
5685:
5670:
5652:
5637:
5616:
5601:
5579:
5529:
5519:
5395:
5365:
5198:
5183:
5158:
5143:
5109:
5094:
5068:
5042:
5032:
4903:
4870:
4846:
4831:
4812:
4802:
4615:
4588:
4564:
4482:
4428:
4371:
4317:
4290:
1182:
1178:
1172:
1168:
1162:
1158:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1120:
1116:
1112:
10285:
10156:
10016:
9366:
9325:
9315:
8316:
8025:
6976:
6006:
5865:
5688:
5655:
5609:
5604:
5582:
5359:
5323:
5300:
5284:
5201:
4839:
1715:. Adjectives with long vowels sometimes shortened these vowels in the comparative and superlative (e.g.,
1269:
The combination of the last three processes listed above led to the spelling conventions associated with
980:
913:
836:
8532:
6167:
Chuza, the procurator of Herod; and Susanna, and many others, who ministered to Him out of her riches.
5948:
5816:
5802:
5704:
5119:
4873:
4834:
4796:
4231:
7853:. Translated by Foster Hopper, Vincent (revised ed.). Barron's Educational Series. 1970. p.
7222:
505:
with a stricter word order. Both Old English and Old Norse (as well as the descendants of the latter,
10280:
9873:
6811:
6806:
6204:
6080:
6010:
5996:
5979:
5977:
5954:
5946:
5902:
5883:
5854:
5846:
5822:
5814:
5800:
5786:
5761:
5759:
5751:
5737:
5702:
5543:
5511:
5496:
5488:
5480:
5472:
5458:
5444:
5421:
5375:
5357:
5321:
5298:
5292:
5290:
5282:
5241:
5233:
5219:
5024:
5010:
4987:
4973:
4938:
4930:
4922:
4891:
4794:
4324:
1835:
1225:'s time, this vowel was silent in normal speech, although it was normally pronounced in verse as the
862:
Important texts for the reconstruction of the evolution of Middle English out of Old English are the
844:
429:
6935:
10151:
10105:
10100:
10024:
9634:
9618:
9497:
9356:
9247:
9242:
8094:
5856:
5673:
5619:
5545:
5191:
4878:
4770:
1101:
1091:
7055:
10275:
10090:
10034:
10029:
9949:
9622:
9572:
8872:
8690:
8446:
8374:
8362:
8074:
8069:
8064:
5927:
5824:
5719:
5490:
5423:
5012:
4989:
4924:
4893:
4326:
4136:. (There was a fairly consistent correspondence between letters and sounds.) The irregularity of
4124:
878:
in the second half of the 12th century, incorporating a unique phonetic spelling system; and the
208:
167:
157:
147:
10212:
9932:
9330:
10095:
9577:
9543:
9161:
8977:
8837:
8677:
8572:
6930:
6161:þe procuratoure of Eroude, and Susanne, and many oþir, þat mynystriden to hym of her ritchesse.
2418:
As a general rule, the indicative first person singular of verbs in the present tense ended in
1298:
1237:
was dropped when adjacent to only a single consonant on either side if there was another short
895:
864:
484:
wrote what are widely regarded as the oldest surviving texts in Middle English, now called the
359:
7968:(1960) "A Middle English Syntax. 1. Parts of Speech". Helsinki : Société néophilologique.
7854:
7770:
7766:
1297:
Middle English retains only two distinct noun-ending patterns from the more complex system of
10253:
10217:
9485:
9478:
9430:
9200:
9171:
9140:
9103:
9028:
8785:
8698:
8559:
8521:
8106:
7993:
7965:
7889:
7192:
6153:
procuratour of Eroude, and Susanne, and manye oþere, whiche mynystriden to him of her riches.
5739:
5474:
5460:
4766:
4394:
1904:
1097:
1079:
923:
580:
414:
9718:
8593:
7336:
Montgomery, Martin; Durant, Alan; Fabb, Nigel; Furniss, Tom; Mills, Sara (24 January 2007).
7047:
1082:, which made the new standard of English publicly recognizable and lasted until about 1650.
898:
in the early 13th century. The language found in the last two works is sometimes called the
10222:
10202:
10171:
10044:
9904:
9650:
9468:
9060:
8887:
8849:
8844:
8718:
8665:
8423:
8255:
8116:
6184:
5956:
5498:
5235:
4856:
4673:
4298:
4145:
4092:
1804:
1063:
1026:(rather than via French). Examples are "absolute", "act", "demonstration", and "probable".
1012:
847:
personal pronouns (denoting exactly two) also disappeared from English during this period.
786:
442:
395:
387:
162:
117:
73:
9878:
1074:. Early Modern English began in the 1540s after the printing and wide distribution of the
8:
10161:
9397:
9351:
9285:
9038:
8685:
8598:
8396:
8084:
7590:
6124:
4769:
towards the end of the Middle English period, using the notation given in the article on
4625:
4612:
4560:
4472:
4137:
4050:
Plural forms vary strongly by dialect, with Southern dialects preserving the Old English
1478:
in the nominative/accusative singular of Old English (they, in turn, were inherited from
9708:
9553:
8800:
7997:
7716:
Merriam-Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged
7607:
7233:
7137:
992:, a translation of a French confessional prose work, completed in 1340, is written in a
10207:
10131:
10059:
10049:
10004:
9766:
9693:
9590:
9435:
9410:
9405:
9298:
9126:
9011:
8832:
8610:
8605:
8584:
8545:
8349:
8339:
8204:
8099:
8048:
7847:
7099:"[BBC World News] BBC Documentary English Birth of a Language – 35:00 to 37:20"
6948:
6921:
6794:
6060:
5678:
5645:
5587:
5522:
5482:
5403:
5368:
5313:
is often retained in Chancery spellings even though the sound was starting to be lost.
5151:
5102:
5076:
5035:
4805:
4699:
1909:
1586:
968:
832:
557:
530:
510:
498:
382:
152:
9361:
7676:
4390:
in modern editions of Old and Middle English texts even when the manuscript has wynn.
373:
Middle English saw significant changes to its vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and
302:
10181:
9980:
9896:
9889:
9844:
9788:
9548:
9538:
9521:
9516:
9420:
9182:
8982:
8943:
8923:
8761:
8653:
8635:
8487:
8194:
7893:
7858:
7825:
7799:
7630:
7572:
7382:
7343:
7297:
7252:
7059:
7048:
6982:
6952:
6893:
6856:
6535:
6346:
6339:
6028:
4774:
4648:
elsewhere (as in "bridge"). It could also be written, mainly in French loanwords, as
4199:
1914:
1681:
1200:
987:
907:
810:
762:, usually through French transmission. This gave rise to various synonyms, including
541:
502:
422:
7015:. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 110–130 (Danelaw), 131–132 (Normans).
6965:
The name "tales of Canterbury" appears within the surviving texts of Chaucer's work.
1834:
As with nouns, there was some inflectional simplification (the distinct Old English
536:
While the Old Norse influence was strongest in the dialects of the southern part of
318:
10136:
9927:
9861:
9817:
9812:
9772:
9761:
9753:
9558:
9526:
9473:
9462:
9375:
9084:
9023:
8813:
8795:
8630:
8391:
8383:
8260:
8011:
8003:
7978:
7727:
For certain details, see "Chancery Standard spelling" in Upward, C., Davidson, G.,
6940:
6432:
6422:
6189:
6179:
6066:
5127:
4210:, now silent, thus became the indicator of the longer and changed pronunciation of
4133:
1800:
997:
953:
840:
537:
506:
477:
to Early Middle English had taken place by the 1150s to 1180s, the period when the
437:
410:
367:
363:
347:
172:
68:
9973:
10166:
10126:
9959:
9866:
9849:
9834:
9829:
9822:
9531:
9440:
9425:
9380:
9232:
9195:
9187:
9166:
9153:
9133:
9119:
8882:
8859:
8790:
8780:
8772:
8552:
8089:
7784:
7624:
7578:
7246:
6850:
4962:
4754:
4653:
4552:
4120:
2400:
2389:
1894:
1776:
1230:
1048:
1044:
1001:
993:
887:
584:
564:
549:
351:
139:
62:
7755:
7130:
10247:
10141:
10121:
10073:
9965:
9839:
9509:
9276:
9215:
8994:
8951:
8908:
8825:
8820:
8709:
8659:
8510:
8461:
8416:
8240:
8121:
7406:
6208:
6131:
6084:
6002:
5834:
4750:
4636:
in Old English. By the time of Modern English, the sound came to be written as
4568:
4398:
4249:
4149:
2450:
1899:
1479:
1071:
1067:
1023:
1016:
850:
The loss of case endings was part of a general trend from inflections to fixed
748:
391:
227:
7946:; 5. Auflage. Tübingen: M. Niemeyer (1st ed. Halle (Saale): M. Niemeyer, 1938)
7165:
7106:
5829:(which had previously been allophones of a single phoneme), replacing earlier
1634:
when modifying a noun in the plural and when used after the definite article (
10269:
10197:
10039:
9795:
9746:
9563:
9502:
9415:
9320:
9258:
9205:
9089:
9016:
7922:
7803:
6504:
6497:
5168:
4587:, etc. would have originally followed the Latin pronunciation beginning with
4409:
4156:
2404:
2138:
2095:
1812:
1532:
1277:
1226:
1196:
1189:
1075:
972:
945:
881:
613:
545:
433:
125:
7151:
805:
system. The grammatical relations that were expressed in Old English by the
797:
Early Middle English (1150–1350) has a largely Anglo-Saxon vocabulary (with
10066:
9490:
9454:
9387:
9210:
9033:
9006:
8989:
8933:
8892:
8474:
8453:
7582:
7339:
Ways of Reading: Advanced Reading Skills for Students of English Literature
7318:
4456:
4332:
4235:
4095:, by contrast, formed their past tense by changing their stem vowel (e.g.,
2462:
in "that"). The following table illustrates a typical conjugation pattern:
2244:
2232:
2143:
2046:
1852:
875:
478:
378:
234:
9713:
6919:
Carlson, David. (2004). "The Chronology of Lydgate's Chaucer References".
513:) were synthetic languages with complicated inflections. The eagerness of
459:
272:
9883:
9856:
9674:
9582:
9264:
9225:
8808:
8503:
8467:
8402:
8280:
8275:
8079:
7881:
6944:
4686:
2385:
1930:
1696:
1313:
1022:
A large number of terms for abstract concepts were adopted directly from
960:
899:
814:
474:
374:
355:
213:
9728:
7651:
6426:
782:(from later French; both share a common ancestor loaned from Germanic).
9723:
9703:
9068:
8738:
8439:
8232:
7844:
This Knowledge translation closely mirrors the translation found here:
6540:
5910:
5374:, which had started to be diphthongised by about 1500. As a consonant,
4629:
4600:
4516:
came into use but were still used interchangeably; the same applies to
4289:
Ash was no longer required in Middle English, as the Old English vowel
4219:
2458:
in "think", but under certain circumstances, it may be like the voiced
1207:
1056:
949:
856:
851:
802:
735:
576:
572:
406:
121:
7292:
Burchfield, Robert W. (1987). "Ormulum". In Strayer, Joseph R. (ed.).
7244:
6848:
4435:
was normally used for . Instances of yogh were eventually replaced by
1447:
Nouns of the weak declension are primarily inherited from Old English
9909:
9657:
9303:
9220:
9001:
8956:
8928:
8754:
8308:
8017:
7378:
4739:
4402:
4321:
1808:
1318:
1139:
1132:
1128:
1109:
891:
752:
744:
740:
494:
418:
295:
281:
265:
247:
9733:
7245:
Fuster-Márquez, Miguel; Calvo García de Leonardo, Juan José (2011).
6849:
Fuster-Márquez, Miguel; Calvo García de Leonardo, Juan José (2011).
409:
were simplified by the reduction (and eventual elimination) of most
9698:
9046:
8227:
7223:
https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/periodicals/TPRSNZ1901-34.2.8.1.9
6290:
5436:
at the start of words; here both consonants were still pronounced.
4677:
4188:
4165:
4108:
1883:
1791:. Other irregular forms were mostly the same as in modern English.
1270:
1008:
976:
818:
526:
399:
330:
98:
90:
5984:(in Scotland sometimes used as a substitute for yogh; see above).
1807:, with the exception of the third person plural, a borrowing from
9739:
9335:
9237:
6022:
4735:
4363:
1222:
1124:
870:
689:
663:
607:
601:
568:
518:
514:
486:
326:
129:
106:
86:
6512:
6489:
6474:
6459:
6440:
6414:
6399:
6384:
6369:
6354:
6331:
6316:
6301:
6282:
6267:
6248:
6233:
6218:
6158:
6150:
5570:
for legibility, i.e. to avoid a succession of vertical strokes.
4535:
4529:
4344:
4102:
4096:
4040:
4033:
4026:
4019:
4012:
4005:
3998:
3991:
3984:
3977:
3970:
3962:
3953:
3946:
3939:
3932:
3922:
3915:
3908:
3901:
3894:
3887:
3879:
3870:
3863:
3856:
3849:
3839:
3832:
3825:
3818:
3804:
3795:
3788:
3781:
3774:
3764:
3757:
3750:
3743:
3729:
3720:
3713:
3706:
3699:
3692:
3685:
3678:
3671:
3664:
3657:
3650:
3642:
3633:
3626:
3619:
3612:
3605:
3598:
3591:
3584:
3577:
3570:
3564:
3557:
3549:
3540:
3533:
3526:
3519:
3509:
3502:
3495:
3488:
3474:
3465:
3458:
3451:
3444:
3437:
3430:
3423:
3416:
3409:
3402:
3396:
3389:
3381:
3372:
3366:
3360:
3353:
3347:
3341:
3334:
3328:
3322:
3315:
3309:
3303:
3295:
3288:
3282:
3275:
3268:
3261:
3254:
3248:
3241:
3233:
3224:
3217:
3210:
3203:
3196:
3190:
3183:
3176:
3169:
3162:
3155:
3149:
3142:
3134:
3125:
3118:
3111:
3104:
3097:
3090:
3083:
3076:
3069:
3062:
3056:
3049:
3041:
3032:
3025:
3018:
3011:
3004:
2997:
2991:
2984:
2977:
2970:
2963:
2957:
2950:
2942:
2933:
2927:
2920:
2914:
2907:
2901:
2894:
2888:
2881:
2875:
2868:
2861:
2854:
2847:
2840:
2834:
2827:
2819:
2810:
2803:
2797:
2790:
2783:
2776:
2767:
2760:
2750:
2743:
2736:
2729:
2722:
2715:
2708:
2702:
2695:
2687:
2672:
2665:
2658:
2651:
2644:
2632:
2621:
2615:
2605:
2600:
2592:
2586:
2581:
2573:
2567:
2560:
2553:
2546:
2540:
2533:
2443:
2433:
2423:
1856:
1846:
1826:
1816:
1786:
1780:
1769:
1761:
1753:
1745:
1737:
1729:
1722:
1716:
1709:
1701:
1670:
1659:
1653:
1647:
1641:
1635:
1628:
1609:
1603:
1597:
1591:
1511:
1501:
1436:
1430:
1422:
1408:
1402:
1394:
1381:
1368:
1360:
1352:
1343:
1260:
1254:
1248:
1242:
985:
879:
822:
52:
46:
40:
27:
Stage of development of English, from the 12th to 15th centuries
9042:
7474:
Fischer, O., van Kemenade, A., Koopman, W., van der Wurff, W.,
7296:. Vol. 9. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 280.
6981:. Early English text society. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
6099:
6040:
5775:
4619:
4234:
consisted of 20 standard letters plus four additional letters:
1614:(strong shaft), with the masculine accusative adjective ending
964:
806:
801:
in the northern parts of the country) but a greatly simplified
729:
653:
643:
553:
413:
distinctions. Middle English also saw considerable adoption of
7373:
Wright, L. (2012). "About the evolution of Standard English".
4419:), the former continued in use as a separate letter, known as
8960:
7981:
A Concise Dictionary of Middle English from A.D. 1150 to 1580
7592:
A Concise Dictionary of Middle English from A.D. 1150 to 1580
6448:
6409:
it is at these times that people desire to go on pilgrimages
4681:
4427:. This was adopted for use to represent a variety of sounds:
4382:
during the 13th century. Due to its similarity to the letter
1679:
Earlier texts sometimes inflect adjectives for case as well.
1214:
1052:
905:
More literary sources of the 12th and 13th centuries include
759:
717:
711:
637:
102:
94:
7757:
The Ormulum: with the notes and glossary of Dr R. M. White.
4898:, but in later Middle English became silent in words ending
7335:
5953:(earlier this was one of the uses of yogh). Sometimes also
5891:
5306:
4572:
4556:
4540:
for "wife" and "paradise" can be found in Middle English.)
4504:
was introduced (replacing wynn). The distinct letter forms
4420:
4256:
2320:
2292:
2089:
1992:
1980:
739:. There are also many Norman-derived terms relating to the
723:
631:
619:
595:
481:
7652:"The Cambridge History of English and American Literature"
5684:, which had started to be diphthongised by about 1500, or
963:
of the 14th century, there was significant migration into
329:
characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
6256:
5830:
4339:
4242:
2238:
1987:
770:(from French, which inherited it from Vulgar Latin), and
625:
589:
560:), the heart of Anglo-Saxon political power at the time.
1210:(double consonants came to be pronounced as single ones)
7919:
John Gower's 'Confessio Amantis' Modern English Version
7136:. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin. pp.
6776:
Of those who wrote before we were born, books survive,
6054:
2187:
1523:
plural form has survived into Modern English. The weak
1506:, horses' hooves), and nouns of relationship ending in
1015:. This would develop into what came to be known as the
1011:, an independent standard was developing, based on the
398:(prevalent in northern England and spoken in southeast
7054:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp.
1463:-stem nouns, which did not inflect in the same way as
1066:
formed. Early Modern English emerged with the help of
446:
remains the most studied and read work of the period.
7992:
7234:
https://deaf-server.adw.uni-heidelberg.de/book/garder
6783:
In that way, somebody might, more or less, like that.
6555:
Translation into Modern English: (by Richard Brodie)
5261:
4958:
4523:
4517:
4511:
4505:
4377:
4356:
4065:
The past tense of weak verbs was formed by adding an
2454:(the letter "thorn") is pronounced like the unvoiced
2438:, "thou speakest"), and the third person singular in
1203:, which began during the later Middle English period.
1031:
7956:
7824:(2nd ed.). Oxford: Robert Dugdale. p. 39.
6552:
Near word-for-word translation into Modern English:
6533:
The following is the beginning of the Prologue from
5969:
is often preferred beside letters with downstrokes.
4062:
in the third person singular as well as the plural.
525:
Viking influence on Old English is most apparent in
8008:
With grammatical introduction, notes, and glossary.
7953:; translated by Grahame Johnston. Oxford: Blackwell
7742:
The Origins and Development of the English Language
7523:
7502:
7319:"Making Early Middle English: About the Conference"
4644:at the start of words (like "joy"), and usually as
4349:, "the") has led to the modern mispronunciation of
743:cultures that arose in the 12th century, an era of
7846:
7543:
7541:
7539:
7537:
7535:
7516:
7514:
7486:
7484:
7248:A Practical Introduction to the History of English
7129:
7050:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language
7035:. Leipzig, Germany: B. G. Teubner. pp. 58–82.
6975:Johannesson, Nils-Lennart; Cooper, Andrew (2023).
6852:A Practical Introduction to the History of English
4760:
4337:. Anachronistic usage of the scribal abbreviation
6974:
1855:by the early 14th century, and the neuter dative
1840:
1036:The Chancery Standard of written English emerged
868:, which continued to be compiled up to 1154; the
10267:
7529:Burrow & Turville-Petre 2005, pp. 28–29
7508:Burrow & Turville-Petre 2005, pp. 27–28
6514:That hem hath holpen, whan that they were seeke.
5593:(became commonly used in Early Modern English).
4274:, and Old English scribes did not generally use
1779:in their comparatives and superlatives, such as
7957:Burrow, J. A.; Turville-Petre, Thorlac (2005).
7532:
7511:
7493:
7481:
6918:
6454:and distant shrines venerated in other places.
4305:in many words of Greek or Latin origin, as did
1699:and superlatives were usually formed by adding
6274:From which goodness is engendered the flower;
4297:. The symbol nonetheless came to be used as a
454:
8324:
8033:
7690:The Cambridge History of the English Language
7649:
7437:
7435:
6451:), respected (couth, known) in sundry lands;
6311:has coaxed in every wood and dale, to sprout
6240:The drought of March has pierced to the root
5122:the latter vowel came to be commonly written
5002:(for the phenomenon of doubling, see above).
4481:replaced a yogh, which had the pronunciation
4459:, yogh became indistinguishable from cursive
874:, a biblical commentary probably composed in
394:developed concurrently from a variant of the
7547:Burrow & Turville-Petre 2005, p. 29
7520:Burrow & Turville-Petre 2005, p. 28
7499:Burrow & Turville-Petre 2005, p. 38
7490:Burrow & Turville-Petre 2005, p. 23
7033:Growth and Structure of the English Language
6885:
6519:That has helped them, when they were sick.
6262:filling every capillary with nourishing sap
6235:The droȝte of March hath perced to the roote
6027:This passage explains the background to the
4182:
1150:(sometimes resulting from the allophone of
93:), some localities in the eastern fringe of
7588:
6968:
6416:And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes
6391:(So Nature prompts them in their courage);
6243:has drenched March's drought to the roots,
6213:Translation into Modern U.K. English prose
6178:The following is the very beginning of the
5837:, although thorn was still sometimes used.
5340:, etc.). In some French loanwords, such as
2428:, "I hear"), the second person singular in
996:. The best known writer of Middle English,
813:were replaced in Early Middle English with
8331:
8317:
8040:
8026:
7815:
7813:
7432:
7375:Studies in English Language and Literature
7372:
7291:
7086:. London: Faber and Faber. pp. 70–71.
6817:A Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English
6771:Translation in Modern English: (by J. Dow)
5332:was used). Also used in several digraphs (
4702:above an adjacent letter, so for example,
4058:from about 1200, and Northern forms using
1676:etymologically receive no ending as well.
1510:frequently have no genitive ending (e.g.,
944:Gradually, the wealthy and the government
501:with relatively free word order to a more
358:period. Scholarly opinion varies, but the
61:
7643:
7570:
7368:
7366:
7251:. : Universitat de València. p. 21.
7152:https://doi.org/10.1163/22105832-00601002
7030:
6934:
6855:. : Universitat de València. p. 21.
6522:who has helped them when they were sick.
6442:To ferne halwes, kowthe in sondry londes;
6401:Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages
6326:the tender plants, as the springtime sun
6118:
4488:Under continental influence, the letters
1596:"the feminine owl") or using the pronoun
1543:. Some dialects still have forms such as
1154:) to offglides, and borrowing from French
1007:In the English-speaking areas of lowland
948:again, although Norman (and subsequently
10311:15th-century disestablishments in Europe
10296:Languages attested from the 11th century
8135:
7407:"Mental furniture from the philosophers"
7401:
7163:
6753:Sometimes I'll write of things profound,
6296:and when Zephyrus with his sweet breath
6284:Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth
6220:Whan that Aprill, with his shoures soote
6016:
4749:Numbers were still always written using
4551:was sometimes used to transliterate the
4393:Under Norman influence, the continental
1831:remained in some areas for a long time.
497:aided the development of English from a
458:
7979:A. L. Mayhew and Walter William Skeat.
7819:
7810:
7782:
7622:
7045:
6476:Of Engelond, to Caunterbury they wende,
6386:(So priketh hem Nature in hir corages);
6333:Hath in the Ram his halfe cours yronne,
6318:The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne
6250:And bathed every veyne in swich licour,
6196:First 18 lines of the General Prologue
5428:, used particularly in positions where
4599:. In some words, however, notably from
4177:pronounced, the latter sounding as the
1875:Below each Middle English pronoun, the
792:
323:question marks, boxes, or other symbols
14:
10268:
8338:
8047:
7912:
7785:"Medieval Inscriptions in Oxfordshire"
7682:
7363:
7190:
7164:Lohmeier, Charlene (28 October 2012).
7127:
7081:
6886:Horobin, Simon; Smith, Jeremy (2002).
6678:For that like cause, if that you read,
6394:their spirits thus aroused by Nature;
6269:Of which vertu engendred is the flour;
5845:Used interchangeably. As a consonant,
5305:(this was formerly one of the uses of
4753:, except for some rare occurrences of
4698:were often omitted and indicated by a
4676:were also used. It was common for the
4164:
4155:Middle English generally did not have
4129:
1470:Some nouns of the strong type have an
1043:in official documents that, since the
939:
10306:Languages extinct in the 15th century
10301:11th-century establishments in Europe
10002:
9616:
8360:
8312:
8134:
8021:
7944:Abriss der mittelenglischen Grammatik
7886:First Middle English Primer (updated)
7880:
7695:
7609:The Principles of English Composition
7605:
7077:
7075:
7010:
6726:When we have left this mortal sphere,
6708:From what was written then, we learn,
6639:Been taught of that was written then:
6484:from England, they go to Canterbury,
6481:Of England, to Canterbury they went,
6466:And specially from every shire's end
6406:Then folk long to go on pilgrimages.
6371:That slepen al the nyght with open ye
6364:and small birds that chirp melodies,
6308:Inspired has in every holt and heath
6303:Inspired hath in every holt and heeth
5328:(except for the allophones for which
4811:, becoming by about 1500. Sometimes
1652:), after a possessive pronoun (e.g.,
7951:An Outline of Middle English Grammar
7753:
7589:Mayhew, AL; Skeat, Walter W (1888).
7026:
7024:
7022:
7006:
7004:
7002:
7000:
6998:
6881:
6879:
6720:Like those we from these sages cite,
6675:To him that shall it every day read,
6491:The hooly blisful martir for to seke
6461:And specially from every shires ende
6379:sleep all night with half-open eyes
6376:That sleep all night with open eyes
6323:The tender crops; and the young sun
6055:Epitaph of John the smyth, died 1371
5562:spelling was often used rather than
4370:Wynn, which represented the phoneme
1602:to refer to masculine nouns such as
77:, published in the late 14th century
8893:Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German
7623:Horobin, Simon (9 September 2016).
7577:. London: Oxford University Press.
7441:cf. 'Sawles Warde' (The protection
7096:
6762:So all can something pleasing find.
6717:Do write anew some things of worth,
6702:Of those who wrote before our lives
6687:Somewhat of lust, somewhat of lore,
6345:passes halfway through the sign of
6225:When April with his showers sweet
4902:(while some words that never had a
1229:required (much as occurs in modern
967:, of people to the counties of the
24:
10252:Languages between parentheses are
9617:
7072:
6756:And sometimes for amusement's sake
6741:Of wisdom all day long, one breeds
6723:So that such in like manner might,
6693:Some man may like of that I write:
6669:That who that all of wisdom writes
6618:Somwhat of lust, somewhat of lore,
6609:For thilke cause, if that ye rede,
6228:When April with its sweet showers
4528:. (For example, spellings such as
1775:. A few adjectives also displayed
1527:form is now rare and used only in
1032:Transition to Early Modern English
579:, which developed in England into
25:
10322:
7972:
7688:Salmon, V., (in) Lass, R. (ed.),
7673:Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
7571:Stratmann, Francis Henry (1891).
7558:An Introduction to Middle English
7019:
7013:A History of the English Language
6995:
6889:An Introduction to Middle English
6876:
6711:And so it's well that we in turn,
6684:And write a book between the two,
6636:The books dwell, and we therefore
6624:Som man mai lyke of that I wryte:
6615:And wryte a bok betwen the tweie,
6597:Bot for men sein, and soth it is,
6567:The bokes duelle, and we therfore
6173:
6069:in an Oxfordshire parish church:
5931:
5926:
5864:
5723:
5718:
5687:
5677:
5672:
5654:
5644:
5639:
5618:
5608:
5603:
5586:
5581:
5531:
5521:
5402:
5397:
5367:
5200:
5190:
5185:
5160:
5150:
5145:
5111:
5101:
5096:
5075:
5070:
5044:
5034:
4877:
4872:
4848:
4838:
4833:
4804:
1873:Middle English personal pronouns
1727:, greater). Adjectives ending in
1626:Single-syllable adjectives added
390:, which lasted until about 1650.
7744:, Cengage Learning 2013, p. 128.
7650:Ward, AW; Waller, AR (1907–21).
6802:Middle English creole hypothesis
6729:Remain for all the world to hear
6621:That of the lasse or of the more
6606:To him that schal it aldai rede,
6588:Whan we ben dede and elleswhere,
6585:So that it myhte in such a wyse,
6570:Ben tawht of that was write tho:
6356:And smale foweles maken melodye,
5432:would be softened. Also used in
4667:
4632:, which had been represented as
4338:
4119:With the discontinuation of the
1743:formed comparatives either with
1281:
1241:in an adjoining syllable. Thus,
10291:History of the English language
7906:
7874:
7838:
7776:
7747:
7734:
7729:The History of English Spelling
7721:
7708:
7666:
7616:
7599:
7563:
7560:, Broadview Press, 2012, p. 65.
7550:
7468:
7448:
7395:
7329:
7311:
7285:
7280:Our Magnificent Bastard Tongue,
7272:
7238:
7227:
7216:
7184:
7157:
7144:
7121:
7090:
6759:A lighter path of pleasure take
6738:To say that when one only reads
6735:But it is so that men are prone
6705:Their precious legacy survives;
6690:That of the less or of the more
6654:So that it might in such a way,
6600:That who that al of wisdom writ
6469:Particularly from every county
6361:And small birds make melodies,
6277:prompting the flowers to grow,
5990:
5766:(formerly was an allophone of
4761:Letter-to-sound correspondences
4316:Eth and thorn both represented
4262:. There was not yet a distinct
4187:). The major exception was the
4144:that have taken place over the
4138:present-day English orthography
2466:Middle English verb inflection
2394:
2379:
1608:("helmet"), or phrases such as
817:constructions. The Old English
463:The dialects of Middle English
379:invention of the printing press
10256:of the language on their left.
7629:. Edinburgh University Press.
7626:Introduction to Middle English
7039:
6959:
6912:
6842:
6837:Introduction to Middle English
6829:
6747:If you agree I'll choose to go
6666:But for men say, and so it is,
6657:When we be dead and elsewhere,
6564:Of hem that written ous tofore
6528:
6255:And bathed every vein in such
5651:, becoming by about 1500; or
5627:Late Middle English diphthongs
5209:Late Middle English diphthongs
5118:, becoming by about 1500. In
5108:, becoming by about 1500; or
4821:Late Middle English diphthongs
4386:, it is mostly represented by
4294:
4203:
4202:(for these sound changes, see
4114:
1865:in most dialects by the 15th.
1024:scholastic philosophical Latin
890:, religious texts written for
766:(inherited from Old English),
571:rulers who spoke a dialect of
13:
1:
10147:Germanic substrate hypothesis
10003:
7294:Dictionary of the Middle Ages
6822:
6750:Along a kind of middle ground
6714:In our allotted time on earth
6579:Do wryte of newe som matiere,
5518:, or in lengthened positions
5364:, or in lengthened positions
5031:, or in lengthened positions
4801:, or in lengthened positions
4726:; the thorn here resembled a
4710:. A thorn with a superscript
4684:(as in Latin manuscripts) to
4463:, and printers tended to use
2102:heo / his / hie / hies / hire
1621:
1287:
1233:). Also, nonfinal unstressed
1138:Reduction of the Old English
1096:The main changes between the
1037:
927:
464:
10177:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law
8868:Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
7692:, Vol. III, CUP 2000, p. 39.
6633:Of them that wrote us before
6603:It dulleth ofte a mannes wit
6582:Essampled of these olde wyse
6576:In oure tyme among ous hiere
6007:sense-for-sense translations
1871:
1085:
758:Words were often taken from
7:
10157:High German consonant shift
8012:Middle English encyclopedia
7989:(archived 22 February 2012)
7849:Canterbury Tales (selected)
7820:Utechin, Patricia (1990) .
7612:. Cochrane and Pickersgill.
7574:A Middle-English dictionary
7476:The Syntax of Early English
6787:
6642:For it is good that we also
6594:In tyme comende after this.
6573:Forthi good is that we also
6549:Original in Middle English
6293:even with his sweet breath
6201:Original in Middle English
5297:, post-vowel allophones of
4652:, with the adoption of the
4225:
4054:, Midland dialects showing
1803:were mostly developed from
1794:
1687:The Owl and the Nightingale
1213:Loss of weak final vowels (
914:The Owl and the Nightingale
455:Transition from Old English
10:
10327:
8695:Westlauwers–Terschellings
8348:According to contemporary
7763:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
7754:Holt, Robert, ed. (1878).
7703:Oxford English Dictionary,
7679:retrieved February 1, 2009
7595:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
7191:Wright, Mary Anne (2022).
6798:(collection of glossaries)
6732:In ages following our own.
6672:It dulls often a man's wit
6663:In time coming after this.
6660:Be left to the world's ear
6651:Exampled by these old ways
6612:I wolde go the middel weie
6591:Beleve to the worldes eere
6058:
6020:
6011:word-for-word translations
5994:
5961:. As a vowel, the same as
5479:, including its allophone
5382:((corresponding to modern
4845:(alternatively denoted by
4680:to abbreviate the name of
4628:. This was similar to the
4232:Old English Latin alphabet
2680:
2524:
2448:, "he cometh/he comes"). (
1640:), after a demonstrative (
1451:-stem nouns but also from
1437:
1431:
1423:
1409:
1403:
1395:
1382:
1369:
1353:
1344:
1247:began to be pronounced as
1167:Raising of the long vowel
1089:
449:
350:that was spoken after the
10239:
10190:
10114:
10083:
10015:
10011:
9998:
9947:
9920:
9874:Southern Schleswig Danish
9805:
9686:
9642:
9633:
9629:
9612:
9453:
9396:
9284:
9275:
9180:
9152:
9111:
9102:
9077:
9059:
8970:
8942:
8916:
8907:
8858:
8771:
8746:
8737:
8676:
8571:
8520:
8495:
8486:
8382:
8373:
8369:
8356:
8346:
8213:
8147:
8143:
8130:
8055:
7822:Epitaphs from Oxfordshire
7459:cf. 'Ancrene Wisse' (The
6839:, Edinburgh 2016, s. 1.1.
6812:Middle English literature
6807:Middle English Dictionary
6681:I would go the middle way
6648:Do write some new matter,
6645:In our time among us here
6205:Word-for-word translation
6100:
6081:Word-for-word translation
6041:
5997:Middle English literature
4757:during the 15th century.
4111:), as in Modern English.
2766:
2759:
2749:
2742:
2701:
2694:
2685:
2580:
2566:
2559:
2552:
2539:
2532:
2499:
2496:
2493:
2490:
2487:
2484:
2479:
2476:
2473:
2470:
2284:
2261:eower / ower / gur / our
2252:eow / ou / ȝow / gu / you
2227:
2183:
2178:
2039:
1975:
1925:
1920:
1890:
1379:
1366:
1350:
1341:
1317:
1312:
1309:
1299:inflection in Old English
1195:Lengthening of vowels in
473:The transition from Late
430:Middle English literature
428:Little survives of early
309:
293:
279:
263:
245:
240:
224:
196:
136:
112:
82:
60:
39:
34:
10152:West Germanic gemination
10106:Ancient Belgian language
10101:Germanic parent language
10045:Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)
9167:Austrian Standard German
8361:
8172:Changes before historic
8164:Changes before historic
8002:. Macmillan – via
7961:(3 ed.). Blackwell.
7959:A Book of Middle English
7913:Brodie, Richard (2005).
7888:. Evolution Publishing:
7783:Bertram, Jerome (2003).
7740:Algeo, J., Butcher, C.,
7097:BBC (27 December 2014).
7031:Jespersen, Otto (1919).
6744:A paucity of wit, and so
6005:translations are poetic
4771:Middle English phonology
4738:". Various forms of the
4624:(modern "joy"), used in
4591:, that is, the sound of
4431:, while the Carolingian
4293:that it represented had
2413:
2111:hio / heo / hire / heore
1292:
1188:Unrounding of the front
1185:in the southern dialects
1108:Emergence of the voiced
1098:Old English sound system
1092:Middle English phonology
959:In the aftermath of the
529:, modals, comparatives,
8075:Anglo-Frisian languages
7999:A Middle English Reader
7987:Middle English Glossary
7128:Potter, Simeon (1950).
7082:McCrum, Robert (1987).
7046:Crystal, David (1995).
6513:
6490:
6475:
6460:
6441:
6415:
6400:
6385:
6370:
6355:
6332:
6317:
6302:
6283:
6268:
6249:
6234:
6219:
6159:
6151:
5629:; these later merged).
5211:; these later merged).
4998:as the doubled form of
4906:sound came to be spelt
4620:
4567:(and transliterated in
4536:
4530:
4345:
4103:
4097:
4041:
4034:
4027:
4020:
4013:
4006:
3999:
3992:
3985:
3978:
3971:
3963:
3954:
3947:
3940:
3933:
3923:
3916:
3909:
3902:
3895:
3888:
3880:
3871:
3864:
3857:
3850:
3840:
3833:
3826:
3819:
3805:
3796:
3789:
3782:
3775:
3765:
3758:
3751:
3744:
3730:
3721:
3714:
3707:
3700:
3693:
3686:
3679:
3672:
3665:
3658:
3651:
3643:
3634:
3627:
3620:
3613:
3606:
3599:
3592:
3585:
3578:
3571:
3565:
3558:
3550:
3541:
3534:
3527:
3520:
3510:
3503:
3496:
3489:
3475:
3466:
3459:
3452:
3445:
3438:
3431:
3424:
3417:
3410:
3403:
3397:
3390:
3382:
3373:
3367:
3361:
3354:
3348:
3342:
3335:
3329:
3323:
3316:
3310:
3304:
3296:
3289:
3283:
3276:
3269:
3262:
3255:
3249:
3242:
3234:
3225:
3218:
3211:
3204:
3197:
3191:
3184:
3177:
3170:
3163:
3156:
3150:
3143:
3135:
3126:
3119:
3112:
3105:
3098:
3091:
3084:
3077:
3070:
3063:
3057:
3050:
3042:
3033:
3026:
3019:
3012:
3005:
2998:
2992:
2985:
2978:
2971:
2964:
2958:
2951:
2943:
2934:
2928:
2921:
2915:
2908:
2902:
2895:
2889:
2882:
2876:
2869:
2862:
2855:
2848:
2841:
2835:
2828:
2820:
2811:
2804:
2798:
2791:
2784:
2777:
2768:
2761:
2751:
2744:
2737:
2730:
2723:
2716:
2709:
2703:
2696:
2688:
2673:
2666:
2659:
2652:
2645:
2633:
2622:
2616:
2606:
2601:
2593:
2587:
2582:
2574:
2568:
2561:
2554:
2547:
2541:
2534:
2444:
2434:
2424:
2204:ure / our / ures / urne
1857:
1847:
1841:
1827:
1825:), but the alternative
1817:
1787:
1781:
1770:
1762:
1754:
1746:
1738:
1730:
1723:
1717:
1710:
1702:
1671:
1660:
1654:
1648:
1642:
1636:
1629:
1610:
1604:
1598:
1592:
1512:
1502:
1361:
1261:
1255:
1249:
1243:
1157:Merging of Old English
986:
979:of England, and a new
880:
837:roughly one dozen forms
823:
53:
47:
41:
10213:Preterite-present verb
10096:Proto-Germanic grammar
10050:North Sea (Ingvaeonic)
9162:German Standard German
8838:East Frisian Low Saxon
7011:Baugh, Albert (1951).
6785:
6503:in order to visit the
6119:Wycliffe's Bible, 1384
6001:Most of the following
5890:(replaced Old English
5274:was still pronounced.
5138:Sometimes the same as
4786:Description and notes
4183:
4125:writing of Old English
4123:standard used for the
1886:forms in parentheses)
1102:that of Middle English
865:Peterborough Chronicle
540:(which formed part of
470:
360:University of Valencia
311:This article contains
10218:Grammatischer Wechsel
9201:Namibian Black German
9172:Swiss Standard German
9141:Early New High German
8699:Mainland West Frisian
8560:Harlingerland Frisian
8107:Anglo-Norman language
7994:Oliver Farrar Emerson
7949:Brunner, Karl (1963)
7942:Brunner, Karl (1962)
7890:Bristol, Pennsylvania
7869:when april, with his.
7606:Booth, David (1831).
7105:. BBC. Archived from
6774:
6342:his half-course run,
6059:Further information:
6021:Further information:
6017:Ormulum, 12th century
4730:, giving rise to the
4674:scribal abbreviations
4395:Carolingian minuscule
4361:in this context; see
4142:pronunciation changes
1905:Possessive determiner
1305:Middle English nouns
1131:of the corresponding
924:Auchinleck manuscript
799:many Norse borrowings
462:
10223:Indo-European ablaut
10203:Germanic strong verb
10172:Germanic spirant law
9309:Southeast Limburgish
8805:Gelders-Overijssels
8434:Irish Middle English
8424:Early Modern English
8137:Phonological history
8117:Early Modern English
7084:The Story of English
6945:10.1353/cr.2004.0003
6498:holy blissful martyr
6447:To far-off shrines (
6185:The Canterbury Tales
5873:Development of /juː/
5770:). Also appeared as
5120:Early Modern English
4706:could be written as
4206:, above). The final
4146:Early Modern English
2276:Ȝou self / ou selue
2219:us self / ous silue
1815:that developed into
1805:those of Old English
1516:, "father's bane").
1500:or no ending (e.g.,
1161:into a single vowel
1064:Early Modern English
1013:Northumbrian dialect
969:southeast of England
894:, apparently in the
793:Early Middle English
396:Northumbrian dialect
388:Early Modern English
118:Early Modern English
74:The Canterbury Tales
10191:Synchronic features
10162:Germanic a-mutation
10115:Diachronic features
9465:in the broad sense
9398:East Central German
9352:Lorraine Franconian
9326:Transylvanian Saxon
9286:West Central German
9061:East Low Franconian
8971:West Low Franconian
8070:Proto-West-Germanic
8060:Proto-Indo-European
6505:holy blessed martyr
6197:
6135:
6093:by Patricia Utechin
5394:Used sometimes for
4994:, replaced earlier
4613:affricate consonant
4561:palatal approximant
4559:, representing the
4107:, a process called
2467:
2321:þa / þei / þeo / þo
1966:min one / mi seluen
1887:
1880:is shown in italics
1306:
1127:, rather than mere
940:Late Middle English
346:) is a form of the
204:Proto-Indo-European
132:by the 15th century
18:Late Middle English
10286:Medieval languages
10208:Germanic weak verb
10017:Language subgroups
9367:Pennsylvania Dutch
9316:Moselle Franconian
9294:Central Franconian
9127:Middle High German
8878:Central Pomeranian
8833:Northern Low Saxon
8546:Wangerooge Frisian
8340:Germanic languages
8205:Trisyllabic laxing
8185:Close front vowels
8049:History of English
7765:Internet Archive:
7705:2nd edition (1989)
7478:, CUP 2000, p. 72.
7211:power at the time.
7109:on 31 January 2016
6922:The Chaucer Review
6795:Medulla Grammatice
6435:) seek new shores
6195:
6130:
6065:An epitaph from a
6061:Brightwell Baldwin
5913:⟨wh⟩
5434:⟨kn⟩
5338:⟨th⟩
5334:⟨ch⟩
5330:⟨gh⟩
5311:⟨gh⟩
5266:for details). The
5140:⟨ai⟩
5124:⟨ea⟩
4996:⟨kk⟩
4742:replaced the word
4718:could be used for
4646:⟨dg⟩
4634:⟨cg⟩
4445:⟨gh⟩
4374:, was replaced by
4334:⟨th⟩
4311:⟨oe⟩
4303:⟨ae⟩
4179:⟨ch⟩
4175:⟨gh⟩
4140:is largely due to
3896:willende, willynge
2465:
2062:his / hisse / hes
2029:þeself / þi seluen
1957:min / mire / minre
1910:Possessive pronoun
1872:
1587:Grammatical gender
1304:
1278:doubled consonants
833:English possessive
811:instrumental cases
778:(from Norman) and
558:West Saxon dialect
531:pronominal adverbs
499:synthetic language
471:
383:Johannes Gutenberg
163:North Sea Germanic
10263:
10262:
10248:extinct languages
10235:
10234:
10231:
10230:
10182:Great Vowel Shift
9994:
9993:
9990:
9989:
9943:
9942:
9789:Greenlandic Norse
9608:
9607:
9604:
9603:
9600:
9599:
9539:Southern Bavarian
9522:Northern Bavarian
9498:Highest Alemannic
9449:
9448:
9183:standard variants
9098:
9097:
8944:Standard variants
8903:
8902:
8762:Middle Low German
8733:
8732:
8729:
8728:
8533:Saterland Frisian
8306:
8305:
8302:
8301:
8298:
8297:
8195:Great Vowel Shift
8180:Close back vowels
7899:978-1-889758-70-1
7831:978-0-946976-04-1
7349:978-1-134-28025-4
7303:978-0-684-18275-9
7282:2008, pp. 89–136.
7172:. Dutch Lichliter
6988:978-0-19-289043-6
6899:978-0-19-521950-0
6768:
6767:
6536:Confessio Amantis
6526:
6525:
6171:
6170:
6116:
6115:
6052:
6051:
6033:
5988:
5987:
5967:⟨y⟩
5963:⟨i⟩
5566:when adjacent to
5564:⟨u⟩
5560:⟨o⟩
5430:⟨c⟩
5384:⟨j⟩
5346:⟨h⟩
5268:⟨g⟩
5263:⟨g⟩
5258:⟨y⟩
5254:⟨i⟩
5250:⟨e⟩
5126:. The two vowels
5057:⟨e⟩
5000:⟨k⟩
4955:⟨y⟩
4951:⟨i⟩
4947:⟨e⟩
4912:reduction of /mb/
4817:⟨l⟩
4775:Great Vowel Shift
4728:⟨Y⟩
4716:⟨e⟩
4712:⟨t⟩
4696:⟨m⟩
4692:⟨n⟩
4650:⟨g⟩
4642:⟨i⟩
4638:⟨j⟩
4611:was used for the
4609:⟨i⟩
4605:⟨j⟩
4593:⟨y⟩
4577:⟨i⟩
4549:⟨i⟩
4545:⟨j⟩
4525:⟨i⟩
4519:⟨j⟩
4513:⟨u⟩
4507:⟨v⟩
4502:⟨w⟩
4498:⟨z⟩
4494:⟨q⟩
4490:⟨k⟩
4479:⟨z⟩
4465:⟨z⟩
4441:⟨y⟩
4437:⟨j⟩
4425:⟨ȝ⟩
4388:⟨w⟩
4384:⟨p⟩
4307:⟨œ⟩
4260:⟨ƿ⟩
4253:⟨þ⟩
4246:⟨ð⟩
4239:⟨æ⟩
4212:⟨a⟩
4208:⟨e⟩
4200:Great Vowel Shift
4191:⟨e⟩
4171:⟨k⟩
4130:Chancery Standard
4048:
4047:
2471:Verbs inflection
2375:
2374:
2288:From Old English
1983:/ þu / tu / þeou
1801:personal pronouns
1531:and as part of a
1445:
1444:
1273:⟨e⟩
1239:⟨e⟩
1235:⟨e⟩
1219:⟨e⟩
1201:Great Vowel Shift
988:Ayenbite of Inwyt
542:Scandinavian York
503:analytic language
493:The influence of
479:Augustinian canon
423:Great Vowel Shift
337:
336:
319:rendering support
315:phonetic symbols.
105:, to some extent
89:(except for west
16:(Redirected from
10318:
10281:Anglic languages
10040:Elbe (Irminonic)
10013:
10012:
10000:
9999:
9928:Mainland Gutnish
9818:Swedish dialects
9780:Middle Icelandic
9754:Middle Norwegian
9643:Historical forms
9640:
9639:
9631:
9630:
9614:
9613:
9573:South Franconian
9559:Hutterite German
9527:Central Bavarian
9347:Rhine Franconian
9282:
9281:
9112:Historical forms
9109:
9108:
9024:Surinamese Dutch
8917:Historical forms
8914:
8913:
8747:Historical forms
8744:
8743:
8496:Historical forms
8493:
8492:
8380:
8379:
8371:
8370:
8358:
8357:
8333:
8326:
8319:
8310:
8309:
8200:Open back vowels
8175:
8167:
8145:
8144:
8132:
8131:
8042:
8035:
8028:
8019:
8018:
8007:
8004:Internet Archive
7966:Mustanoja, Tauno
7962:
7935:
7934:
7932:
7930:
7921:. Archived from
7910:
7904:
7903:
7878:
7872:
7871:
7852:
7842:
7836:
7835:
7817:
7808:
7807:
7789:
7780:
7774:
7764:
7751:
7745:
7738:
7732:
7725:
7719:
7712:
7706:
7699:
7693:
7686:
7680:
7670:
7664:
7663:
7661:
7659:
7647:
7641:
7640:
7620:
7614:
7613:
7603:
7597:
7596:
7586:
7567:
7561:
7554:
7548:
7545:
7530:
7527:
7521:
7518:
7509:
7506:
7500:
7497:
7491:
7488:
7479:
7472:
7460:
7455:
7446:
7439:
7430:
7429:
7427:
7425:
7411:
7399:
7393:
7392:
7381:. p. 99ff.
7370:
7361:
7360:
7358:
7356:
7333:
7327:
7326:
7315:
7309:
7307:
7289:
7283:
7276:
7270:
7269:
7267:
7265:
7242:
7236:
7231:
7225:
7220:
7214:
7213:
7207:
7205:
7199:
7188:
7182:
7181:
7179:
7177:
7161:
7155:
7148:
7142:
7141:
7135:
7125:
7119:
7118:
7116:
7114:
7094:
7088:
7087:
7079:
7070:
7069:
7053:
7043:
7037:
7036:
7028:
7017:
7016:
7008:
6993:
6992:
6972:
6966:
6963:
6957:
6956:
6938:
6916:
6910:
6909:
6907:
6906:
6883:
6874:
6873:
6871:
6869:
6846:
6840:
6833:
6546:
6545:
6516:
6493:
6478:
6463:
6444:
6418:
6403:
6388:
6373:
6358:
6335:
6320:
6305:
6286:
6271:
6252:
6237:
6222:
6198:
6194:
6190:Geoffrey Chaucer
6180:General Prologue
6163:
6155:
6136:
6129:
6125:Wycliffe's Bible
6072:
6071:
6067:monumental brass
6037:
6036:
6031:
5983:
5968:
5964:
5960:
5952:
5945:As a consonant,
5937:
5935:
5930:
5914:
5908:
5889:
5870:
5868:
5860:
5852:
5828:
5820:
5806:
5792:
5769:
5765:
5757:
5743:
5729:
5727:
5722:
5708:
5693:
5691:
5683:
5681:
5676:
5660:
5658:
5650:
5648:
5643:
5624:
5622:
5614:
5612:
5607:
5592:
5590:
5585:
5565:
5561:
5549:
5537:
5535:
5527:
5525:
5517:
5502:
5494:
5486:
5478:
5464:
5450:
5435:
5431:
5427:
5408:
5406:
5401:
5385:
5381:
5373:
5371:
5363:
5347:
5339:
5335:
5331:
5327:
5312:
5304:
5296:
5288:
5269:
5264:
5259:
5255:
5251:
5247:
5239:
5225:
5206:
5204:
5196:
5194:
5189:
5166:
5164:
5156:
5154:
5149:
5141:
5125:
5117:
5115:
5107:
5105:
5100:
5081:
5079:
5074:
5058:
5050:
5048:
5040:
5038:
5030:
5016:
5001:
4997:
4993:
4979:
4956:
4952:
4948:
4944:
4936:
4928:
4910:by analogy; see
4905:
4897:
4883:
4881:
4876:
4854:
4852:
4844:
4842:
4837:
4818:
4814:
4810:
4808:
4800:
4780:
4779:
4729:
4717:
4713:
4697:
4693:
4651:
4647:
4643:
4639:
4635:
4626:Wycliffe's Bible
4623:
4617:
4610:
4606:
4594:
4590:
4578:
4575:and in Latin by
4566:
4550:
4546:
4543:The consonantal
4539:
4533:
4526:
4520:
4514:
4508:
4503:
4499:
4495:
4491:
4484:
4480:
4466:
4446:
4442:
4438:
4430:
4426:
4389:
4385:
4381:
4373:
4360:
4348:
4342:
4335:
4330:
4319:
4312:
4308:
4304:
4301:for the digraph
4292:
4261:
4254:
4247:
4240:
4213:
4209:
4192:
4186:
4180:
4176:
4172:
4168:
4166:[ˈkniçt]
4106:
4100:
4085:, and sometimes
4044:
4037:
4030:
4023:
4016:
4009:
4002:
3995:
3988:
3981:
3979:witende, witynge
3974:
3966:
3957:
3950:
3943:
3936:
3926:
3919:
3912:
3905:
3898:
3891:
3883:
3874:
3867:
3860:
3853:
3843:
3836:
3829:
3822:
3808:
3799:
3792:
3785:
3778:
3768:
3761:
3754:
3747:
3733:
3724:
3717:
3710:
3703:
3696:
3689:
3682:
3675:
3668:
3661:
3654:
3646:
3637:
3630:
3623:
3616:
3609:
3602:
3595:
3588:
3581:
3574:
3568:
3561:
3553:
3544:
3537:
3530:
3523:
3513:
3506:
3499:
3492:
3478:
3469:
3462:
3455:
3448:
3441:
3434:
3427:
3420:
3413:
3406:
3400:
3393:
3385:
3376:
3370:
3364:
3357:
3351:
3345:
3338:
3332:
3326:
3319:
3313:
3307:
3299:
3292:
3286:
3279:
3272:
3265:
3258:
3252:
3245:
3237:
3228:
3221:
3214:
3207:
3200:
3194:
3187:
3180:
3173:
3166:
3159:
3153:
3146:
3138:
3129:
3122:
3115:
3108:
3101:
3094:
3087:
3080:
3073:
3066:
3060:
3053:
3045:
3036:
3029:
3022:
3015:
3008:
3001:
2995:
2988:
2981:
2974:
2967:
2961:
2954:
2946:
2937:
2931:
2924:
2918:
2911:
2905:
2898:
2892:
2885:
2879:
2872:
2865:
2858:
2851:
2844:
2838:
2831:
2823:
2814:
2807:
2801:
2794:
2787:
2780:
2771:
2764:
2754:
2747:
2740:
2733:
2726:
2719:
2712:
2706:
2699:
2691:
2681:Irregular verbs
2676:
2669:
2662:
2655:
2648:
2636:
2625:
2619:
2609:
2604:
2596:
2590:
2585:
2577:
2571:
2564:
2557:
2550:
2544:
2537:
2468:
2464:
2447:
2437:
2427:
2407:
2398:
2392:
2383:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2262:
2253:
2235:
2205:
2112:
2103:
2092:
2090:sche / sho / ȝho
2030:
2020:
2010:
2000:
1984:
1967:
1958:
1949:
1933:
1891:Person / gender
1888:
1860:
1850:
1845:was replaced by
1844:
1830:
1820:
1790:
1784:
1773:
1765:
1757:
1749:
1741:
1733:
1726:
1720:
1713:
1705:
1674:
1663:
1657:
1651:
1645:
1639:
1632:
1613:
1607:
1601:
1595:
1515:
1505:
1440:
1439:
1434:
1433:
1426:
1425:
1412:
1411:
1406:
1405:
1398:
1397:
1385:
1384:
1372:
1371:
1364:
1356:
1355:
1347:
1346:
1307:
1303:
1274:
1264:
1258:
1252:
1246:
1240:
1236:
1220:
1192:in most dialects
1184:
1180:
1174:
1170:
1164:
1160:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1042:
1039:
998:Geoffrey Chaucer
991:
954:English monarchy
932:
929:
885:
841:definite article
827:survives in the
826:
469:
466:
443:Canterbury Tales
438:Geoffrey Chaucer
411:grammatical case
368:Late Middle Ages
348:English language
342:(abbreviated to
305:
289:
284:
275:
268:
259:
258:
250:
230:
142:
69:Geoffrey Chaucer
65:
56:
50:
44:
32:
31:
21:
10326:
10325:
10321:
10320:
10319:
10317:
10316:
10315:
10266:
10265:
10264:
10259:
10227:
10186:
10167:Germanic umlaut
10132:Holtzmann's law
10110:
10079:
10007:
9986:
9939:
9916:
9850:South Jutlandic
9835:Danish dialects
9801:
9682:
9625:
9596:
9578:East Franconian
9532:Viennese German
9445:
9426:Silesian German
9392:
9381:Central Hessian
9271:
9196:Namibian German
9185:
9176:
9154:Standard German
9148:
9134:New High German
9120:Old High German
9094:
9073:
9055:
8966:
8938:
8899:
8883:East Pomeranian
8873:Brandenburgisch
8860:East Low German
8854:
8781:Dutch Low Saxon
8773:West Low German
8767:
8725:
8691:Schiermonnikoog
8672:
8567:
8553:Wursten Frisian
8516:
8482:
8365:
8352:
8342:
8337:
8307:
8294:
8264:-glottalization
8209:
8139:
8126:
8051:
8046:
7975:
7939:
7938:
7928:
7926:
7925:on Mar 29, 2013
7911:
7907:
7900:
7879:
7875:
7865:
7845:
7843:
7839:
7832:
7818:
7811:
7787:
7781:
7777:
7752:
7748:
7739:
7735:
7726:
7722:
7714:"J" and "jay",
7713:
7709:
7700:
7696:
7687:
7683:
7671:
7667:
7657:
7655:
7648:
7644:
7637:
7621:
7617:
7604:
7600:
7568:
7564:
7555:
7551:
7546:
7533:
7528:
7524:
7519:
7512:
7507:
7503:
7498:
7494:
7489:
7482:
7473:
7469:
7458:
7449:
7440:
7433:
7423:
7421:
7409:
7403:Franklin, James
7400:
7396:
7389:
7371:
7364:
7354:
7352:
7350:
7334:
7330:
7317:
7316:
7312:
7304:
7290:
7286:
7277:
7273:
7263:
7261:
7259:
7243:
7239:
7232:
7228:
7221:
7217:
7203:
7201:
7197:
7189:
7185:
7175:
7173:
7162:
7158:
7149:
7145:
7126:
7122:
7112:
7110:
7095:
7091:
7080:
7073:
7066:
7044:
7040:
7029:
7020:
7009:
6996:
6989:
6973:
6969:
6964:
6960:
6936:10.1.1.691.7778
6917:
6913:
6904:
6902:
6900:
6884:
6877:
6867:
6865:
6863:
6847:
6843:
6835:Simon Horobin,
6834:
6830:
6825:
6790:
6531:
6425:) to seek new
6176:
6142:Second version
6121:
6104:
6103:
6063:
6057:
6045:
6044:
6025:
6019:
5999:
5993:
5966:
5962:
5912:
5563:
5559:
5433:
5429:
5386:); see above).
5383:
5345:
5337:
5333:
5329:
5310:
5267:
5262:
5257:
5253:
5249:
5139:
5123:
5056:
4999:
4995:
4963:hard and soft C
4954:
4950:
4946:
4819:or nasals (see
4816:
4763:
4755:Arabic numerals
4727:
4715:
4711:
4695:
4691:
4670:
4649:
4645:
4641:
4637:
4633:
4608:
4604:
4592:
4576:
4548:
4544:
4524:
4518:
4512:
4506:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4478:
4464:
4444:
4440:
4436:
4424:
4387:
4383:
4375:
4354:
4333:
4310:
4306:
4302:
4295:merged into /a/
4259:
4252:
4245:
4238:
4228:
4211:
4207:
4190:
4178:
4174:
4170:
4169:(with both the
4163:was pronounced
4159:. For example,
4121:Late West Saxon
4117:
2416:
2411:
2410:
2401:Accusative case
2399:
2395:
2390:indirect object
2384:
2380:
2331:
2326:
2319:
2316:From Old Norse
2303:
2298:
2291:
2277:
2270:
2263:
2260:
2254:
2251:
2236:
2231:
2220:
2213:
2206:
2203:
2197:
2190:
2171:
2164:
2157:
2150:
2141:
2127:
2120:
2113:
2110:
2104:
2101:
2093:
2088:
2077:
2070:
2063:
2056:
2049:
2031:
2028:
2021:
2018:
2011:
2008:
2001:
1998:
1985:
1979:
1968:
1965:
1959:
1956:
1950:
1947:
1941:
1934:
1929:
1874:
1799:Middle English
1797:
1777:Germanic umlaut
1624:
1295:
1290:
1272:
1238:
1234:
1218:
1094:
1088:
1045:Norman Conquest
1040:
1034:
994:Kentish dialect
942:
936:
930:
888:Katherine Group
795:
575:, now known as
565:Norman Conquest
550:East of England
467:
457:
452:
352:Norman Conquest
317:Without proper
301:
287:
280:
271:
264:
254:
253:
246:
231:
226:
220:
199:
192:
143:
140:Language family
138:
116:developed into
78:
51:
45:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
10324:
10314:
10313:
10308:
10303:
10298:
10293:
10288:
10283:
10278:
10276:Middle English
10261:
10260:
10258:
10257:
10250:
10240:
10237:
10236:
10233:
10232:
10229:
10228:
10226:
10225:
10220:
10215:
10210:
10205:
10200:
10194:
10192:
10188:
10187:
10185:
10184:
10179:
10174:
10169:
10164:
10159:
10154:
10149:
10144:
10139:
10134:
10129:
10124:
10118:
10116:
10112:
10111:
10109:
10108:
10103:
10098:
10093:
10091:Proto-Germanic
10087:
10085:
10081:
10080:
10078:
10077:
10070:
10063:
10055:
10054:
10053:
10052:
10047:
10042:
10032:
10027:
10021:
10019:
10009:
10008:
9996:
9995:
9992:
9991:
9988:
9987:
9985:
9984:
9977:
9970:
9966:Crimean Gothic
9955:
9953:
9945:
9944:
9941:
9940:
9938:
9937:
9936:
9935:
9930:
9921:
9918:
9917:
9915:
9914:
9913:
9912:
9902:
9901:
9900:
9893:
9886:
9881:
9876:
9871:
9870:
9869:
9864:
9854:
9853:
9852:
9842:
9840:Insular Danish
9837:
9827:
9826:
9825:
9823:Rinkebysvenska
9820:
9809:
9807:
9803:
9802:
9800:
9799:
9792:
9785:
9784:
9783:
9776:
9764:
9759:
9758:
9757:
9750:
9743:
9737:
9731:
9726:
9721:
9716:
9711:
9706:
9701:
9690:
9688:
9684:
9683:
9681:
9680:
9679:
9678:
9671:
9669:Old East Norse
9666:
9664:Old West Norse
9654:
9646:
9644:
9637:
9627:
9626:
9610:
9609:
9606:
9605:
9602:
9601:
9598:
9597:
9595:
9594:
9587:
9586:
9585:
9575:
9570:
9569:
9568:
9567:
9566:
9561:
9556:
9551:
9546:
9544:South Tyrolean
9536:
9535:
9534:
9524:
9514:
9513:
9512:
9507:
9506:
9505:
9495:
9494:
9493:
9486:High Alemannic
9483:
9482:
9481:
9476:
9459:
9457:
9451:
9450:
9447:
9446:
9444:
9443:
9438:
9433:
9428:
9423:
9418:
9413:
9408:
9402:
9400:
9394:
9393:
9391:
9390:
9385:
9384:
9383:
9373:
9372:
9371:
9370:
9369:
9364:
9354:
9344:
9343:
9342:
9341:
9340:
9339:
9338:
9328:
9323:
9313:
9312:
9311:
9306:
9290:
9288:
9279:
9277:Central German
9273:
9272:
9270:
9269:
9268:
9267:
9262:
9255:
9250:
9245:
9235:
9230:
9229:
9228:
9218:
9216:Barossa German
9213:
9208:
9203:
9198:
9192:
9190:
9178:
9177:
9175:
9174:
9169:
9164:
9158:
9156:
9150:
9149:
9147:
9146:
9145:
9144:
9130:
9123:
9115:
9113:
9106:
9100:
9099:
9096:
9095:
9093:
9092:
9087:
9081:
9079:
9075:
9074:
9072:
9071:
9065:
9063:
9057:
9056:
9054:
9053:
9036:
9031:
9026:
9020:
9019:
9014:
9009:
9004:
8999:
8998:
8997:
8995:French Flemish
8987:
8986:
8985:
8974:
8972:
8968:
8967:
8965:
8964:
8954:
8948:
8946:
8940:
8939:
8937:
8936:
8931:
8926:
8920:
8918:
8911:
8909:Low Franconian
8905:
8904:
8901:
8900:
8898:
8897:
8896:
8895:
8885:
8880:
8875:
8870:
8864:
8862:
8856:
8855:
8853:
8852:
8847:
8842:
8841:
8840:
8830:
8829:
8828:
8823:
8818:
8817:
8816:
8811:
8803:
8798:
8793:
8788:
8777:
8775:
8769:
8768:
8766:
8765:
8758:
8750:
8748:
8741:
8735:
8734:
8731:
8730:
8727:
8726:
8724:
8723:
8722:
8721:
8716:
8715:
8714:
8713:
8712:
8710:Westereendersk
8704:
8693:
8688:
8682:
8680:
8674:
8673:
8671:
8670:
8669:
8668:
8663:
8656:
8651:
8650:
8649:
8644:
8641:
8633:
8628:
8627:
8626:
8615:
8614:
8613:
8608:
8603:
8602:
8601:
8596:
8588:
8577:
8575:
8569:
8568:
8566:
8565:
8564:
8563:
8556:
8549:
8537:
8536:
8535:
8526:
8524:
8518:
8517:
8515:
8514:
8511:Middle Frisian
8507:
8499:
8497:
8490:
8484:
8483:
8481:
8480:
8479:
8478:
8471:
8459:
8458:
8457:
8450:
8443:
8431:
8430:
8429:
8428:
8427:
8417:Modern English
8413:
8410:Middle English
8406:
8399:
8388:
8386:
8377:
8367:
8366:
8354:
8353:
8347:
8344:
8343:
8336:
8335:
8328:
8321:
8313:
8304:
8303:
8300:
8299:
8296:
8295:
8293:
8292:
8285:
8284:
8283:
8278:
8266:
8258:
8253:
8246:
8238:
8230:
8225:
8219:
8217:
8211:
8210:
8208:
8207:
8202:
8197:
8192:
8187:
8182:
8177:
8169:
8161:
8153:
8151:
8141:
8140:
8128:
8127:
8125:
8124:
8122:Modern English
8119:
8114:
8112:Middle English
8109:
8104:
8103:
8102:
8097:
8092:
8087:
8077:
8072:
8067:
8065:Proto-Germanic
8062:
8056:
8053:
8052:
8045:
8044:
8037:
8030:
8022:
8016:
8015:
8009:
7996:, ed. (1915).
7990:
7984:
7974:
7973:External links
7971:
7970:
7969:
7963:
7954:
7947:
7937:
7936:
7905:
7898:
7873:
7863:
7837:
7830:
7809:
7775:
7746:
7733:
7720:
7707:
7694:
7681:
7665:
7642:
7635:
7615:
7598:
7562:
7549:
7531:
7522:
7510:
7501:
7492:
7480:
7467:
7447:
7431:
7394:
7388:978-1138006935
7387:
7362:
7348:
7328:
7310:
7302:
7284:
7271:
7257:
7237:
7226:
7215:
7183:
7156:
7143:
7120:
7089:
7071:
7064:
7038:
7018:
6994:
6987:
6967:
6958:
6929:(3): 246–254.
6911:
6898:
6875:
6861:
6841:
6827:
6826:
6824:
6821:
6820:
6819:
6814:
6809:
6804:
6799:
6789:
6786:
6766:
6765:
6764:
6763:
6760:
6757:
6754:
6751:
6748:
6745:
6742:
6739:
6736:
6733:
6730:
6727:
6724:
6721:
6718:
6715:
6712:
6709:
6706:
6703:
6700:
6696:
6695:
6694:
6691:
6688:
6685:
6682:
6679:
6676:
6673:
6670:
6667:
6664:
6661:
6658:
6655:
6652:
6649:
6646:
6643:
6640:
6637:
6634:
6631:
6627:
6626:
6625:
6622:
6619:
6616:
6613:
6610:
6607:
6604:
6601:
6598:
6595:
6592:
6589:
6586:
6583:
6580:
6577:
6574:
6571:
6568:
6565:
6562:
6557:
6556:
6553:
6550:
6530:
6527:
6524:
6523:
6520:
6517:
6509:
6508:
6501:
6494:
6486:
6485:
6482:
6479:
6471:
6470:
6467:
6464:
6456:
6455:
6452:
6445:
6437:
6436:
6431:and pilgrims (
6429:
6421:And pilgrims (
6419:
6411:
6410:
6407:
6404:
6396:
6395:
6392:
6389:
6381:
6380:
6377:
6374:
6366:
6365:
6362:
6359:
6351:
6350:
6343:
6336:
6328:
6327:
6324:
6321:
6313:
6312:
6309:
6306:
6298:
6297:
6294:
6287:
6279:
6278:
6275:
6272:
6264:
6263:
6260:
6253:
6245:
6244:
6241:
6238:
6230:
6229:
6226:
6223:
6215:
6214:
6211:
6209:Modern English
6202:
6175:
6174:Chaucer, 1390s
6172:
6169:
6168:
6164:
6156:
6147:
6146:
6143:
6140:
6139:First version
6120:
6117:
6114:
6113:
6109:
6105:
6096:
6095:
6087:
6085:Modern English
6078:
6056:
6053:
6050:
6049:
6046:
6018:
6015:
6003:Modern English
5995:Main article:
5992:
5989:
5986:
5985:
5975:
5971:
5970:
5943:
5939:
5938:
5922:
5918:
5917:
5900:
5896:
5895:
5881:
5877:
5876:
5853:. As a vowel,
5843:
5839:
5838:
5812:
5808:
5807:
5798:
5794:
5793:
5784:
5780:
5779:
5749:
5745:
5744:
5735:
5731:
5730:
5714:
5710:
5709:
5700:
5696:
5695:
5667:
5663:
5662:
5635:
5631:
5630:
5599:
5595:
5594:
5576:
5572:
5571:
5509:
5505:
5504:
5470:
5466:
5465:
5456:
5452:
5451:
5442:
5438:
5437:
5419:
5415:
5414:
5392:
5388:
5387:
5354:
5350:
5349:
5319:
5315:
5314:
5280:
5276:
5275:
5231:
5227:
5226:
5217:
5213:
5212:
5180:
5176:
5175:
5136:
5132:
5131:
5092:
5088:
5087:
5065:
5061:
5060:
5055:). For silent
5022:
5018:
5017:
5008:
5004:
5003:
4985:
4981:
4980:
4971:
4967:
4966:
4965:for details).
4920:
4916:
4915:
4889:
4885:
4884:
4868:
4864:
4863:
4829:
4825:
4824:
4792:
4788:
4787:
4784:
4762:
4759:
4751:Roman numerals
4690:. The letters
4669:
4666:
4630:geminate sound
4579:); words like
4447:in words like
4399:insular script
4227:
4224:
4157:silent letters
4150:Modern English
4116:
4113:
4046:
4045:
4038:
4031:
4024:
4017:
4010:
4003:
3996:
3989:
3982:
3975:
3968:
3959:
3958:
3951:
3944:
3937:
3930:
3927:
3920:
3913:
3906:
3899:
3892:
3885:
3876:
3875:
3868:
3861:
3854:
3847:
3844:
3837:
3830:
3823:
3816:
3813:
3810:
3801:
3800:
3793:
3786:
3779:
3772:
3769:
3762:
3755:
3748:
3741:
3738:
3735:
3726:
3725:
3718:
3711:
3704:
3697:
3690:
3683:
3676:
3669:
3662:
3659:owende, owynge
3655:
3648:
3639:
3638:
3631:
3624:
3617:
3610:
3603:
3596:
3589:
3582:
3575:
3562:
3555:
3546:
3545:
3538:
3531:
3524:
3517:
3514:
3507:
3500:
3493:
3486:
3483:
3480:
3471:
3470:
3463:
3456:
3449:
3442:
3435:
3428:
3421:
3414:
3407:
3394:
3387:
3378:
3377:
3358:
3339:
3320:
3301:
3293:
3280:
3273:
3266:
3259:
3246:
3239:
3230:
3229:
3222:
3215:
3208:
3201:
3188:
3181:
3174:
3167:
3160:
3147:
3140:
3131:
3130:
3123:
3116:
3109:
3102:
3095:
3088:
3081:
3074:
3067:
3054:
3047:
3046:"be good for"
3038:
3037:
3030:
3023:
3016:
3009:
3002:
2989:
2982:
2975:
2968:
2955:
2948:
2939:
2938:
2925:
2912:
2899:
2886:
2873:
2866:
2859:
2852:
2845:
2832:
2825:
2816:
2815:
2808:
2795:
2788:
2781:
2773:
2772:
2765:
2758:
2755:
2748:
2741:
2734:
2727:
2720:
2713:
2700:
2693:
2683:
2682:
2678:
2677:
2670:
2663:
2656:
2649:
2642:
2638:
2637:
2630:
2627:
2613:
2610:
2598:
2579:
2565:
2558:
2551:
2538:
2531:
2527:
2526:
2525:Regular verbs
2522:
2521:
2518:
2515:
2512:
2509:
2506:
2502:
2501:
2498:
2495:
2492:
2489:
2486:
2482:
2481:
2478:
2475:
2472:
2415:
2412:
2409:
2408:
2393:
2377:
2376:
2373:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2341:
2340:
2337:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2317:
2313:
2312:
2309:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2289:
2286:
2282:
2281:
2274:
2267:
2258:
2249:
2229:
2225:
2224:
2217:
2210:
2201:
2194:
2185:
2181:
2180:
2176:
2175:
2168:
2161:
2154:
2147:
2136:
2132:
2131:
2124:
2117:
2108:
2099:
2086:
2082:
2081:
2074:
2067:
2060:
2053:
2044:
2041:
2037:
2036:
2026:
2016:
2006:
1996:
1977:
1973:
1972:
1963:
1954:
1945:
1938:
1927:
1923:
1922:
1918:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1878:Modern English
1861:was ousted by
1796:
1793:
1682:Layamon's Brut
1623:
1620:
1489:-stem nouns).
1480:Proto-Germanic
1443:
1442:
1427:
1419:
1415:
1414:
1399:
1391:
1387:
1386:
1378:
1374:
1373:
1365:
1357:
1349:
1340:
1336:
1335:
1332:
1329:
1326:
1322:
1321:
1316:
1311:
1294:
1291:
1289:
1286:
1267:
1266:
1211:
1204:
1197:open syllables
1193:
1190:rounded vowels
1186:
1175:
1165:
1155:
1136:
1090:Main article:
1087:
1084:
1072:Richard Pynson
1068:William Caxton
1059:respectively.
1033:
1030:
1017:Scots language
941:
938:
908:Layamon's Brut
831:of the modern
794:
791:
749:seigneurialism
456:
453:
451:
448:
340:Middle English
335:
334:
321:, you may see
307:
306:
299:
291:
290:
285:
277:
276:
269:
261:
260:
251:
243:
242:
241:Language codes
238:
237:
232:
228:Writing system
225:
222:
221:
219:
218:
217:
216:
209:Proto-Germanic
202:
200:
197:
194:
193:
191:
190:
189:
188:
187:
186:
185:
184:
183:
182:
181:
180:
178:Middle English
146:
144:
137:
134:
133:
114:
110:
109:
84:
80:
79:
66:
58:
57:
37:
36:
35:Middle English
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
10323:
10312:
10309:
10307:
10304:
10302:
10299:
10297:
10294:
10292:
10289:
10287:
10284:
10282:
10279:
10277:
10274:
10273:
10271:
10255:
10251:
10249:
10245:
10242:
10241:
10238:
10224:
10221:
10219:
10216:
10214:
10211:
10209:
10206:
10204:
10201:
10199:
10198:Germanic verb
10196:
10195:
10193:
10189:
10183:
10180:
10178:
10175:
10173:
10170:
10168:
10165:
10163:
10160:
10158:
10155:
10153:
10150:
10148:
10145:
10143:
10140:
10138:
10137:Sievers's law
10135:
10133:
10130:
10128:
10125:
10123:
10120:
10119:
10117:
10113:
10107:
10104:
10102:
10099:
10097:
10094:
10092:
10089:
10088:
10086:
10084:Reconstructed
10082:
10076:
10075:
10071:
10069:
10068:
10064:
10062:
10061:
10057:
10056:
10051:
10048:
10046:
10043:
10041:
10038:
10037:
10036:
10033:
10031:
10028:
10026:
10023:
10022:
10020:
10018:
10014:
10010:
10006:
10001:
9997:
9983:
9982:
9978:
9976:
9975:
9971:
9968:
9967:
9962:
9961:
9957:
9956:
9954:
9952:
9951:
9946:
9934:
9931:
9929:
9926:
9925:
9923:
9922:
9919:
9911:
9908:
9907:
9906:
9903:
9899:
9898:
9897:Middle Danish
9894:
9892:
9891:
9887:
9885:
9882:
9880:
9877:
9875:
9872:
9868:
9865:
9863:
9860:
9859:
9858:
9855:
9851:
9848:
9847:
9846:
9843:
9841:
9838:
9836:
9833:
9832:
9831:
9828:
9824:
9821:
9819:
9816:
9815:
9814:
9811:
9810:
9808:
9804:
9798:
9797:
9793:
9791:
9790:
9786:
9782:
9781:
9777:
9775:
9774:
9773:Old Icelandic
9770:
9769:
9768:
9765:
9763:
9760:
9756:
9755:
9751:
9749:
9748:
9747:Old Norwegian
9744:
9741:
9738:
9735:
9732:
9730:
9727:
9725:
9722:
9720:
9717:
9715:
9712:
9710:
9707:
9705:
9702:
9700:
9697:
9696:
9695:
9692:
9691:
9689:
9685:
9677:
9676:
9672:
9670:
9667:
9665:
9662:
9661:
9660:
9659:
9655:
9653:
9652:
9648:
9647:
9645:
9641:
9638:
9636:
9632:
9628:
9624:
9620:
9615:
9611:
9593:
9592:
9588:
9584:
9581:
9580:
9579:
9576:
9574:
9571:
9565:
9564:Gottscheerish
9562:
9560:
9557:
9555:
9552:
9550:
9547:
9545:
9542:
9541:
9540:
9537:
9533:
9530:
9529:
9528:
9525:
9523:
9520:
9519:
9518:
9515:
9511:
9508:
9504:
9503:Walser German
9501:
9500:
9499:
9496:
9492:
9489:
9488:
9487:
9484:
9480:
9477:
9475:
9472:
9471:
9470:
9469:Low Alemannic
9467:
9466:
9464:
9461:
9460:
9458:
9456:
9452:
9442:
9439:
9437:
9434:
9432:
9431:High Prussian
9429:
9427:
9424:
9422:
9419:
9417:
9416:Erzgebirgisch
9414:
9412:
9409:
9407:
9404:
9403:
9401:
9399:
9395:
9389:
9386:
9382:
9379:
9378:
9377:
9374:
9368:
9365:
9363:
9360:
9359:
9358:
9355:
9353:
9350:
9349:
9348:
9345:
9337:
9334:
9333:
9332:
9329:
9327:
9324:
9322:
9321:Luxembourgish
9319:
9318:
9317:
9314:
9310:
9307:
9305:
9302:
9301:
9300:
9297:
9296:
9295:
9292:
9291:
9289:
9287:
9283:
9280:
9278:
9274:
9266:
9263:
9261:
9260:
9259:Klezmer-loshn
9256:
9254:
9253:Scots Yiddish
9251:
9249:
9246:
9244:
9241:
9240:
9239:
9236:
9234:
9231:
9227:
9224:
9223:
9222:
9219:
9217:
9214:
9212:
9209:
9207:
9204:
9202:
9199:
9197:
9194:
9193:
9191:
9189:
9184:
9179:
9173:
9170:
9168:
9165:
9163:
9160:
9159:
9157:
9155:
9151:
9143:
9142:
9138:
9137:
9136:
9135:
9131:
9129:
9128:
9124:
9122:
9121:
9117:
9116:
9114:
9110:
9107:
9105:
9101:
9091:
9090:Meuse-Rhenish
9088:
9086:
9083:
9082:
9080:
9076:
9070:
9067:
9066:
9064:
9062:
9058:
9052:
9048:
9044:
9040:
9037:
9035:
9032:
9030:
9027:
9025:
9022:
9021:
9018:
9017:Kleverlandish
9015:
9013:
9010:
9008:
9005:
9003:
9000:
8996:
8993:
8992:
8991:
8988:
8984:
8981:
8980:
8979:
8978:Central Dutch
8976:
8975:
8973:
8969:
8962:
8958:
8955:
8953:
8950:
8949:
8947:
8945:
8941:
8935:
8932:
8930:
8927:
8925:
8922:
8921:
8919:
8915:
8912:
8910:
8906:
8894:
8891:
8890:
8889:
8886:
8884:
8881:
8879:
8876:
8874:
8871:
8869:
8866:
8865:
8863:
8861:
8857:
8851:
8848:
8846:
8843:
8839:
8836:
8835:
8834:
8831:
8827:
8824:
8822:
8819:
8815:
8812:
8810:
8807:
8806:
8804:
8802:
8799:
8797:
8794:
8792:
8789:
8787:
8786:Stellingwarfs
8784:
8783:
8782:
8779:
8778:
8776:
8774:
8770:
8764:
8763:
8759:
8757:
8756:
8752:
8751:
8749:
8745:
8742:
8740:
8736:
8720:
8717:
8711:
8708:
8707:
8706:Wood Frisian
8705:
8702:
8701:
8700:
8697:
8696:
8694:
8692:
8689:
8687:
8684:
8683:
8681:
8679:
8675:
8667:
8664:
8662:
8661:
8657:
8655:
8652:
8648:
8645:
8642:
8639:
8638:
8637:
8634:
8632:
8629:
8624:
8623:
8622:
8619:
8618:
8616:
8612:
8609:
8607:
8604:
8600:
8597:
8595:
8592:
8591:
8589:
8587:
8586:
8582:
8581:
8579:
8578:
8576:
8574:
8573:North Frisian
8570:
8562:
8561:
8557:
8555:
8554:
8550:
8548:
8547:
8543:
8542:
8541:
8538:
8534:
8531:
8530:
8528:
8527:
8525:
8523:
8519:
8513:
8512:
8508:
8506:
8505:
8501:
8500:
8498:
8494:
8491:
8489:
8485:
8477:
8476:
8472:
8470:
8469:
8465:
8464:
8463:
8460:
8456:
8455:
8451:
8449:
8448:
8444:
8442:
8441:
8437:
8436:
8435:
8432:
8426:
8425:
8421:
8420:
8419:
8418:
8414:
8412:
8411:
8407:
8405:
8404:
8400:
8398:
8395:
8394:
8393:
8390:
8389:
8387:
8385:
8381:
8378:
8376:
8375:Anglo-Frisian
8372:
8368:
8364:
8359:
8355:
8351:
8345:
8341:
8334:
8329:
8327:
8322:
8320:
8315:
8314:
8311:
8291:
8290:
8286:
8282:
8279:
8277:
8274:
8273:
8272:
8271:
8267:
8265:
8263:
8259:
8257:
8254:
8252:
8251:
8247:
8245:
8244:-vocalization
8243:
8239:
8237:
8235:
8231:
8229:
8226:
8224:
8221:
8220:
8218:
8216:
8212:
8206:
8203:
8201:
8198:
8196:
8193:
8191:
8188:
8186:
8183:
8181:
8178:
8176:
8170:
8168:
8162:
8160:
8159:
8155:
8154:
8152:
8150:
8146:
8142:
8138:
8133:
8129:
8123:
8120:
8118:
8115:
8113:
8110:
8108:
8105:
8101:
8098:
8096:
8093:
8091:
8088:
8086:
8083:
8082:
8081:
8078:
8076:
8073:
8071:
8068:
8066:
8063:
8061:
8058:
8057:
8054:
8050:
8043:
8038:
8036:
8031:
8029:
8024:
8023:
8020:
8013:
8010:
8005:
8001:
8000:
7995:
7991:
7988:
7985:
7983:
7982:
7977:
7976:
7967:
7964:
7960:
7955:
7952:
7948:
7945:
7941:
7940:
7924:
7920:
7916:
7909:
7901:
7895:
7891:
7887:
7883:
7877:
7870:
7866:
7864:9780812000399
7860:
7856:
7851:
7850:
7841:
7833:
7827:
7823:
7816:
7814:
7805:
7801:
7797:
7793:
7786:
7779:
7772:
7768:
7762:
7761:
7758:
7750:
7743:
7737:
7731:, Wiley 2011.
7730:
7724:
7717:
7711:
7704:
7698:
7691:
7685:
7678:
7674:
7669:
7653:
7646:
7638:
7636:9781474408462
7632:
7628:
7627:
7619:
7611:
7610:
7602:
7594:
7593:
7584:
7580:
7576:
7575:
7566:
7559:
7553:
7544:
7542:
7540:
7538:
7536:
7526:
7517:
7515:
7505:
7496:
7487:
7485:
7477:
7471:
7465:
7462:
7461:
7454:
7453:
7444:
7438:
7436:
7419:
7415:
7408:
7404:
7398:
7390:
7384:
7380:
7376:
7369:
7367:
7351:
7345:
7342:. Routledge.
7341:
7340:
7332:
7324:
7320:
7314:
7305:
7299:
7295:
7288:
7281:
7275:
7260:
7258:9788437083216
7254:
7250:
7249:
7241:
7235:
7230:
7224:
7219:
7212:
7196:
7195:
7187:
7171:
7167:
7160:
7153:
7147:
7139:
7134:
7133:
7124:
7108:
7104:
7100:
7093:
7085:
7078:
7076:
7067:
7065:9780521401791
7061:
7057:
7052:
7051:
7042:
7034:
7027:
7025:
7023:
7014:
7007:
7005:
7003:
7001:
6999:
6990:
6984:
6980:
6979:
6971:
6962:
6954:
6950:
6946:
6942:
6937:
6932:
6928:
6924:
6923:
6915:
6901:
6895:
6891:
6890:
6882:
6880:
6864:
6862:9788437083216
6858:
6854:
6853:
6845:
6838:
6832:
6828:
6818:
6815:
6813:
6810:
6808:
6805:
6803:
6800:
6797:
6796:
6792:
6791:
6784:
6781:
6777:
6773:
6772:
6761:
6758:
6755:
6752:
6749:
6746:
6743:
6740:
6737:
6734:
6731:
6728:
6725:
6722:
6719:
6716:
6713:
6710:
6707:
6704:
6701:
6699:
6698:
6697:
6692:
6689:
6686:
6683:
6680:
6677:
6674:
6671:
6668:
6665:
6662:
6659:
6656:
6653:
6650:
6647:
6644:
6641:
6638:
6635:
6632:
6630:
6629:
6628:
6623:
6620:
6617:
6614:
6611:
6608:
6605:
6602:
6599:
6596:
6593:
6590:
6587:
6584:
6581:
6578:
6575:
6572:
6569:
6566:
6563:
6561:
6560:
6559:
6558:
6554:
6551:
6548:
6547:
6544:
6542:
6538:
6537:
6521:
6518:
6515:
6511:
6510:
6506:
6502:
6499:
6495:
6492:
6488:
6487:
6483:
6480:
6477:
6473:
6472:
6468:
6465:
6462:
6458:
6457:
6453:
6450:
6446:
6443:
6439:
6438:
6434:
6430:
6428:
6424:
6420:
6417:
6413:
6412:
6408:
6405:
6402:
6398:
6397:
6393:
6390:
6387:
6383:
6382:
6378:
6375:
6372:
6368:
6367:
6363:
6360:
6357:
6353:
6352:
6348:
6344:
6341:
6337:
6334:
6330:
6329:
6325:
6322:
6319:
6315:
6314:
6310:
6307:
6304:
6300:
6299:
6295:
6292:
6288:
6285:
6281:
6280:
6276:
6273:
6270:
6266:
6265:
6261:
6258:
6254:
6251:
6247:
6246:
6242:
6239:
6236:
6232:
6231:
6227:
6224:
6221:
6217:
6216:
6212:
6210:
6206:
6203:
6200:
6199:
6193:
6191:
6187:
6186:
6181:
6165:
6162:
6157:
6154:
6149:
6148:
6144:
6141:
6138:
6137:
6133:
6128:
6126:
6110:
6106:
6098:
6097:
6094:
6091:
6088:
6086:
6082:
6079:
6077:
6076:Original text
6074:
6073:
6070:
6068:
6062:
6047:
6039:
6038:
6035:
6030:
6024:
6014:
6012:
6008:
6004:
5998:
5981:
5976:
5973:
5972:
5958:
5950:
5944:
5941:
5940:
5934:
5929:
5923:
5920:
5919:
5915:
5906:
5901:
5898:
5897:
5893:
5887:
5882:
5879:
5878:
5874:
5867:
5858:
5850:
5844:
5841:
5840:
5836:
5832:
5826:
5818:
5813:
5810:
5809:
5804:
5799:
5796:
5795:
5790:
5785:
5782:
5781:
5777:
5773:
5763:
5755:
5750:
5747:
5746:
5741:
5736:
5733:
5732:
5726:
5721:
5715:
5712:
5711:
5706:
5701:
5698:
5697:
5690:
5680:
5675:
5668:
5665:
5664:
5657:
5647:
5642:
5636:
5633:
5632:
5628:
5621:
5611:
5606:
5600:
5597:
5596:
5589:
5584:
5577:
5574:
5573:
5569:
5568:i, m, n, v, w
5557:
5553:
5547:
5542:). Sometimes
5541:
5534:
5528:or sometimes
5524:
5515:
5510:
5507:
5506:
5500:
5492:
5484:
5476:
5471:
5468:
5467:
5462:
5457:
5454:
5453:
5448:
5443:
5440:
5439:
5425:
5420:
5417:
5416:
5412:
5405:
5400:
5393:
5390:
5389:
5379:
5370:
5361:
5355:
5352:
5351:
5343:
5325:
5320:
5317:
5316:
5308:
5302:
5294:
5286:
5281:
5278:
5277:
5273:
5265:
5245:
5237:
5232:
5229:
5228:
5223:
5218:
5215:
5214:
5210:
5203:
5193:
5188:
5181:
5178:
5177:
5173:
5171:
5163:
5153:
5148:
5137:
5134:
5133:
5129:
5121:
5114:
5104:
5099:
5093:
5090:
5089:
5085:
5078:
5073:
5066:
5063:
5062:
5059:, see above.
5054:
5047:
5041:or sometimes
5037:
5028:
5023:
5020:
5019:
5014:
5009:
5006:
5005:
4991:
4986:
4983:
4982:
4977:
4972:
4969:
4968:
4964:
4960:
4942:
4934:
4926:
4921:
4918:
4917:
4913:
4909:
4901:
4895:
4890:
4887:
4886:
4880:
4875:
4869:
4866:
4865:
4861:
4859:
4851:
4841:
4836:
4830:
4827:
4826:
4822:
4807:
4798:
4793:
4790:
4789:
4785:
4782:
4781:
4778:
4776:
4772:
4768:
4758:
4756:
4752:
4747:
4745:
4741:
4737:
4733:
4725:
4721:
4709:
4705:
4701:
4689:
4688:
4683:
4679:
4675:
4668:Other symbols
4665:
4663:
4659:
4655:
4631:
4627:
4622:
4614:
4602:
4598:
4586:
4582:
4574:
4570:
4562:
4558:
4554:
4541:
4538:
4532:
4527:
4521:
4515:
4509:
4486:
4476:
4475:
4470:
4462:
4458:
4454:
4450:
4434:
4422:
4418:
4414:
4413:
4407:
4406:
4400:
4397:replaced the
4396:
4391:
4379:
4368:
4366:
4365:
4358:
4352:
4347:
4341:
4336:
4328:
4323:
4314:
4300:
4296:
4287:
4285:
4281:
4277:
4273:
4269:
4265:
4258:
4251:
4244:
4237:
4233:
4223:
4221:
4215:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4185:
4167:
4162:
4158:
4153:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4126:
4122:
4112:
4110:
4105:
4099:
4094:
4090:
4088:
4084:
4080:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4063:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4043:
4039:
4036:
4032:
4029:
4025:
4022:
4018:
4015:
4011:
4008:
4004:
4001:
3997:
3994:
3990:
3987:
3983:
3980:
3976:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3961:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3949:
3945:
3942:
3938:
3935:
3931:
3928:
3925:
3921:
3918:
3914:
3911:
3907:
3904:
3900:
3897:
3893:
3890:
3886:
3882:
3878:
3877:
3873:
3869:
3866:
3862:
3859:
3855:
3852:
3848:
3845:
3842:
3841:þurven, þaren
3838:
3835:
3831:
3828:
3824:
3821:
3817:
3814:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3791:
3787:
3784:
3780:
3777:
3773:
3770:
3767:
3763:
3760:
3756:
3753:
3749:
3746:
3742:
3739:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3727:
3723:
3719:
3716:
3712:
3709:
3705:
3702:
3698:
3695:
3691:
3688:
3684:
3681:
3677:
3674:
3670:
3667:
3663:
3660:
3656:
3653:
3649:
3647:"owe, ought"
3645:
3641:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3629:
3625:
3622:
3618:
3615:
3611:
3608:
3604:
3601:
3597:
3594:
3590:
3587:
3583:
3580:
3576:
3573:
3567:
3563:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3547:
3543:
3539:
3536:
3532:
3529:
3525:
3522:
3518:
3515:
3512:
3508:
3505:
3501:
3498:
3494:
3491:
3487:
3484:
3481:
3477:
3473:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3461:
3457:
3454:
3450:
3447:
3443:
3440:
3436:
3433:
3429:
3426:
3422:
3419:
3415:
3412:
3408:
3405:
3399:
3395:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3380:
3379:
3375:
3369:
3363:
3359:
3356:
3350:
3344:
3340:
3337:
3331:
3325:
3321:
3318:
3312:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3291:
3285:
3281:
3278:
3274:
3271:
3267:
3264:
3260:
3257:
3251:
3247:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3220:
3216:
3213:
3209:
3206:
3202:
3199:
3193:
3189:
3186:
3182:
3179:
3175:
3172:
3168:
3165:
3161:
3158:
3152:
3148:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3121:
3117:
3114:
3110:
3107:
3103:
3100:
3096:
3093:
3089:
3086:
3082:
3079:
3075:
3072:
3068:
3065:
3059:
3055:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3028:
3024:
3021:
3017:
3014:
3010:
3007:
3003:
3000:
2994:
2990:
2987:
2983:
2980:
2976:
2973:
2969:
2966:
2960:
2956:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2940:
2936:
2930:
2926:
2923:
2917:
2913:
2910:
2904:
2900:
2897:
2891:
2887:
2884:
2878:
2874:
2871:
2867:
2864:
2860:
2857:
2853:
2850:
2846:
2843:
2837:
2833:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2806:
2800:
2796:
2793:
2789:
2786:
2782:
2779:
2775:
2774:
2770:
2763:
2756:
2753:
2746:
2739:
2735:
2732:
2728:
2725:
2721:
2718:
2714:
2711:
2705:
2698:
2690:
2684:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2668:
2664:
2661:
2657:
2654:
2650:
2647:
2643:
2640:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2628:
2624:
2618:
2614:
2611:
2608:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2589:
2584:
2576:
2570:
2563:
2556:
2549:
2543:
2536:
2529:
2528:
2523:
2519:
2516:
2513:
2510:
2507:
2504:
2503:
2483:
2469:
2463:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2452:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2406:
2405:direct object
2402:
2397:
2391:
2387:
2382:
2378:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2342:
2338:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2322:
2318:
2315:
2314:
2310:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2294:
2290:
2287:
2283:
2280:
2275:
2273:
2268:
2266:
2259:
2257:
2250:
2247:
2246:
2241:
2240:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2223:
2218:
2216:
2211:
2209:
2202:
2200:
2195:
2193:
2189:
2186:
2182:
2177:
2174:
2169:
2167:
2162:
2160:
2155:
2153:
2148:
2146:
2145:
2140:
2137:
2134:
2133:
2130:
2125:
2123:
2118:
2116:
2109:
2107:
2100:
2098:
2097:
2091:
2087:
2084:
2083:
2080:
2075:
2073:
2068:
2066:
2061:
2059:
2054:
2052:
2048:
2045:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2027:
2024:
2017:
2014:
2007:
2004:
1997:
1994:
1990:
1989:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1971:
1964:
1962:
1955:
1953:
1948:min / minen
1946:
1944:
1939:
1937:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1919:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1879:
1870:
1866:
1864:
1859:
1854:
1851:south of the
1849:
1843:
1837:
1832:
1829:
1824:
1819:
1814:
1813:demonstrative
1810:
1806:
1802:
1792:
1789:
1783:
1778:
1774:
1772:
1766:
1764:
1758:
1756:
1750:
1748:
1742:
1740:
1734:
1732:
1725:
1719:
1714:
1712:
1706:
1704:
1698:
1694:
1692:
1689:adds a final
1688:
1684:
1683:
1677:
1675:
1673:
1667:
1662:
1656:
1650:
1644:
1638:
1633:
1631:
1619:
1617:
1612:
1611:scaft stærcne
1606:
1600:
1594:
1588:
1584:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1533:double plural
1530:
1526:
1522:
1517:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1495:
1490:
1488:
1484:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1468:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1428:
1420:
1417:
1416:
1400:
1392:
1389:
1388:
1376:
1375:
1363:
1358:
1338:
1337:
1333:
1330:
1327:
1324:
1323:
1320:
1315:
1308:
1302:
1300:
1285:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1263:
1257:
1251:
1245:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1216:
1212:
1209:
1205:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1191:
1187:
1176:
1166:
1156:
1141:
1137:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1111:
1107:
1106:
1105:
1103:
1099:
1093:
1083:
1081:
1077:
1076:English Bible
1073:
1069:
1065:
1060:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1029:
1027:
1025:
1020:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1005:
1003:
999:
995:
990:
989:
982:
978:
974:
971:and from the
970:
966:
962:
957:
955:
951:
947:
937:
934:
926:
925:
918:
916:
915:
910:
909:
903:
901:
897:
896:West Midlands
893:
889:
884:
883:
882:Ancrene Wisse
877:
873:
872:
867:
866:
860:
858:
853:
848:
846:
843:("the"). The
842:
838:
834:
830:
825:
820:
816:
815:prepositional
812:
808:
804:
800:
790:
788:
783:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
756:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
737:
732:
731:
726:
725:
720:
719:
714:
713:
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
691:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
665:
660:
656:
655:
650:
646:
645:
640:
639:
634:
633:
628:
627:
622:
621:
616:
615:
610:
609:
604:
603:
598:
597:
592:
591:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
561:
559:
555:
551:
547:
546:East Midlands
543:
539:
534:
532:
528:
523:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
491:
489:
488:
483:
480:
476:
461:
447:
445:
444:
439:
435:
434:John Wycliffe
431:
426:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
403:
401:
397:
393:
389:
384:
380:
376:
371:
369:
365:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
314:
308:
304:
300:
298:
297:
292:
286:
283:
278:
274:
270:
267:
262:
257:
252:
249:
244:
239:
236:
233:
229:
223:
215:
212:
211:
210:
207:
206:
205:
201:
195:
179:
176:
175:
174:
171:
170:
169:
168:Anglo-Frisian
166:
165:
164:
161:
160:
159:
158:West Germanic
156:
155:
154:
151:
150:
149:
148:Indo-European
145:
141:
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
108:
104:
101:and Scottish
100:
97:, south east
96:
92:
88:
85:
81:
76:
75:
70:
64:
59:
55:
49:
43:
38:
33:
30:
19:
10243:
10127:Verner's law
10072:
10067:Gotho-Nordic
10065:
10058:
9979:
9972:
9964:
9958:
9948:
9933:Fårö Gutnish
9895:
9888:
9794:
9787:
9778:
9771:
9752:
9745:
9673:
9668:
9663:
9656:
9649:
9589:
9491:Swiss German
9455:Upper German
9388:Amana German
9362:Volga German
9331:Hunsrückisch
9257:
9211:Unserdeutsch
9206:Berlinerisch
9139:
9132:
9125:
9118:
9078:Cover groups
9034:Mohawk Dutch
9029:Jersey Dutch
9007:East Flemish
8990:West Flemish
8934:Middle Dutch
8888:Low Prussian
8760:
8753:
8719:Terschelling
8703:Clay Frisian
8678:West Frisian
8666:Wiedingharde
8658:
8646:
8606:Heligolandic
8583:
8558:
8551:
8544:
8539:
8522:East Frisian
8509:
8502:
8475:Middle Scots
8473:
8466:
8452:
8445:
8438:
8433:
8422:
8415:
8409:
8408:
8401:
8288:
8269:
8261:
8249:
8241:
8233:
8157:
8111:
8095:Northumbrian
7998:
7980:
7958:
7950:
7943:
7927:. Retrieved
7923:the original
7918:
7908:
7885:
7882:Sweet, Henry
7876:
7868:
7848:
7840:
7821:
7795:
7791:
7778:
7760:
7756:
7749:
7741:
7736:
7728:
7723:
7715:
7710:
7702:
7697:
7689:
7684:
7672:
7668:
7656:. Retrieved
7645:
7625:
7618:
7608:
7601:
7591:
7573:
7565:
7557:
7556:Fulk, R.D.,
7552:
7525:
7504:
7495:
7475:
7470:
7463:
7457:
7456:
7452:
7451:
7442:
7422:. Retrieved
7417:
7413:
7397:
7374:
7353:. Retrieved
7338:
7331:
7323:hcmc.uvic.ca
7322:
7313:
7293:
7287:
7279:
7274:
7262:. Retrieved
7247:
7240:
7229:
7218:
7209:
7202:. Retrieved
7193:
7186:
7174:. Retrieved
7169:
7159:
7146:
7132:Our Language
7131:
7123:
7111:. Retrieved
7107:the original
7102:
7092:
7083:
7049:
7041:
7032:
7012:
6977:
6970:
6961:
6926:
6920:
6914:
6903:. Retrieved
6888:
6866:. Retrieved
6851:
6844:
6836:
6831:
6793:
6782:
6778:
6775:
6770:
6769:
6534:
6532:
6183:
6177:
6145:Translation
6122:
6092:
6089:
6075:
6064:
6026:
6000:
5991:Sample texts
5771:
5758:, sometimes
5567:
5555:
5551:
5539:
5410:
5356:As a vowel,
5348:was silent.
5341:
5271:
5169:
5142:; sometimes
5128:later merged
5083:
5052:
4907:
4899:
4857:
4764:
4748:
4743:
4731:
4723:
4719:
4707:
4703:
4685:
4671:
4661:
4657:
4656:convention (
4596:
4584:
4580:
4542:
4487:
4477:, where the
4473:
4468:
4460:
4457:Middle Scots
4452:
4448:
4432:
4416:
4411:
4410:Carolingian
4404:
4392:
4369:
4362:
4350:
4315:
4288:
4283:
4279:
4275:
4271:
4267:
4263:
4229:
4216:
4195:
4160:
4154:
4118:
4093:Strong verbs
4091:
4086:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4064:
4059:
4055:
4051:
4049:
3806:Þurven/Þaren
2459:
2455:
2449:
2439:
2429:
2419:
2417:
2396:
2381:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2344:
2278:
2271:
2264:
2255:
2243:
2237:
2221:
2214:
2207:
2198:
2191:
2172:
2165:
2158:
2151:
2142:
2128:
2121:
2114:
2105:
2094:
2078:
2071:
2069:his / hisse
2064:
2057:
2050:
2032:
2022:
2012:
2002:
1986:
1969:
1960:
1951:
1942:
1935:
1931:ic / ich / I
1876:
1867:
1862:
1853:River Thames
1833:
1822:
1798:
1768:
1760:
1752:
1744:
1736:
1728:
1708:
1700:
1697:Comparatives
1695:
1690:
1686:
1680:
1678:
1669:
1665:
1627:
1625:
1615:
1585:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1518:
1507:
1497:
1493:
1491:
1486:
1482:
1475:
1471:
1469:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1446:
1314:Strong nouns
1296:
1268:
1177:Rounding of
1123:as separate
1095:
1061:
1035:
1028:
1021:
1006:
1002:Reeve's Tale
975:and central
958:
943:
935:
922:
919:
912:
906:
904:
876:Lincolnshire
869:
863:
861:
849:
828:
803:inflectional
796:
784:
779:
775:
771:
767:
763:
757:
734:
728:
722:
716:
710:
706:
702:
698:
694:
688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
668:
662:
658:
652:
648:
642:
636:
630:
624:
618:
612:
606:
600:
594:
588:
581:Anglo-Norman
562:
535:
524:
492:
485:
472:
441:
427:
415:Anglo-Norman
404:
372:
343:
339:
338:
310:
294:
177:
72:
67:A page from
29:
10142:Kluge's law
10122:Grimm's law
9905:Dalecarlian
9884:Perkerdansk
9857:East Danish
9675:Old Gutnish
9651:Proto-Norse
9591:Langobardic
9583:Vogtlandian
9411:Upper Saxon
9265:Lachoudisch
9226:Lotegorisch
9104:High German
8850:Westphalian
8845:Eastphalian
8809:Achterhooks
8686:Hindeloopen
8621:Bökingharde
8590:Föhr–Amrum
8504:Old Frisian
8468:Early Scots
8403:Old English
8080:Old English
8014:on Miraheze
7464:Anchoresses
7443:of the soul
7355:14 February
7278:McWhorter,
7264:19 December
6892:. Oup USA.
6868:19 December
6529:Gower, 1390
6090:Translation
5270:in initial
4115:Orthography
2520:3rd person
2517:2nd person
2514:1st person
2511:3rd person
2508:2nd person
2505:1st person
2494:Participle
2485:Participle
2474:Infinitive
2435:þou spekest
2386:Dative case
2304:heore / her
2076:him-seluen
2055:him / hine
1519:The strong
1459:-stem, and
1377:Accusative
1339:Nominative
1282:Orthography
1280:(see under
1080:Prayer Book
1041: 1430
961:Black Death
931: 1330
900:AB language
892:anchoresses
475:Old English
468: 1300
407:inflections
375:orthography
356:Old English
325:instead of
214:Old English
198:Early forms
10270:Categories
9974:Burgundian
9890:Old Danish
9879:Gøtudanskt
9862:Bornholmsk
9724:Vestlandsk
9704:Kebabnorsk
9441:Halcnovian
9406:Thuringian
9069:Limburgish
9039:Stadsfries
9012:Brabantian
8739:Low German
8585:Eiderstedt
8440:Fingallian
8215:Consonants
8190:Diphthongs
8100:West Saxon
7915:"Prologue"
7792:Oxoniensia
7654:. Bartleby
7204:August 24,
7176:12 January
7113:12 January
6905:2023-12-01
6823:References
6541:John Gower
6127:, (1384):
6032:(3494–501)
5578:Rare, for
5167:(see also
5067:Rare, for
4601:Old French
4423:, written
4230:The basic
4181:in German
2370:themselves
2339:þam-selue
2279:yourselves
2170:hit sulue
2149:hit / him
2126:heo-seolf
2043:Masculine
2035:(thyself)
1622:Adjectives
1513:fader bone
1503:fole hoves
1485:-stem and
1319:Weak nouns
1288:Morphology
1284:, below).
1217:, written
1208:gemination
1140:diphthongs
1135:fricatives
1129:allophones
1110:fricatives
1057:Law French
946:Anglicised
857:vernacular
852:word order
736:parliament
681:courageous
577:Old Norman
573:Old French
122:Fingallian
10254:varieties
10246:indicate
10060:Northwest
10005:Philology
9910:Elfdalian
9845:Jutlandic
9767:Icelandic
9742:(written)
9736:(written)
9714:Trøndersk
9694:Norwegian
9658:Old Norse
9479:Coloniero
9463:Alemannic
9436:Wymysorys
9304:Colognian
9299:Ripuarian
9221:Rotwelsch
9051:Midslands
9002:Zeelandic
8983:Hollandic
8957:Afrikaans
8929:Old Dutch
8755:Old Saxon
8654:Karrharde
8636:Goesharde
8617:Mainland
8350:philology
8256:Rhoticity
8236:-dropping
7929:March 15,
7804:0308-5562
7420:: 177–191
7414:Et Cetera
7379:Routledge
6953:162332574
6931:CiteSeerX
6500:to seek,
6123:From the
4945:) before
4937:(earlier
4858:vein–vain
4740:ampersand
4581:Jerusalem
4322:allophone
4220:geminated
4204:Phonology
3783:scholdest
3734:"should"
3113:doughtest
2497:Singular
2488:Singular
2299:his / heo
2222:ourselves
2196:us / ous
2085:Feminine
2019:þin / þyn
1921:Singular
1915:Reflexive
1809:Old Norse
1721:, great;
1390:Genitive
1331:Singular
1325:Singular
1159:/æ/and/ɑ/
1133:voiceless
1104:include:
1086:Phonology
753:crusading
745:feudalism
741:chivalric
511:Icelandic
495:Old Norse
419:Old Norse
296:Glottolog
282:ISO 639-6
266:ISO 639-3
248:ISO 639-2
9981:Vandalic
9924:Gutnish
9729:Vikværsk
9709:Sognamål
9699:Bergensk
9549:Cimbrian
9517:Bavarian
9474:Alsatian
9421:Lusatian
9357:Palatine
9047:Amelands
8924:Frankish
8814:Sallaans
8796:Gronings
8647:Southern
8640:Northern
8631:Halligen
8580:Insular
8397:dialects
8281:stopping
8276:fronting
8228:Flapping
8223:Clusters
7884:(2005).
7771:Volume 2
7767:Volume 1
7759:Two vols
7583:7114246M
7405:(1983).
7308:, p. 280
6788:See also
6291:Zephyrus
6029:Nativity
5965:, where
5911:English
5783:sch, sh
5554:(modern
5550:, as in
5487:(before
5342:horrible
4767:digraphs
4678:Lollards
4664:, etc.)
4618:, as in
4537:paradijs
4474:McKenzie
4415:(modern
4408:and the
4403:insular
4380:⟩
4376:⟨
4359:⟩
4355:⟨
4299:ligature
4226:Alphabet
4173:and the
4109:apophony
3621:mightest
3212:durstest
3157:durrynge
3151:durrende
3127:doughten
2909:couthest
2842:cunnynge
2836:cunnende
2477:Present
2445:he comeþ
2425:ich here
2327:þem / þo
2293:heo / he
2033:yourself
1940:me / mi
1821:(modern
1795:Pronouns
1541:brethren
1537:children
1256:palmeres
1206:Loss of
1125:phonemes
1009:Scotland
981:prestige
977:Midlands
886:and the
819:genitive
787:dialects
780:guardian
673:valuable
556:(in the
548:and the
527:pronouns
440:, whose
400:Scotland
331:Help:IPA
303:midd1317
153:Germanic
99:Scotland
91:Cornwall
42:Englisch
10244:Italics
9867:Scanian
9813:Swedish
9762:Faroese
9740:Nynorsk
9719:Valdris
9554:Mòcheno
9510:Swabian
9376:Hessian
9336:Hunsrik
9248:Western
9243:Eastern
9238:Yiddish
9188:creoles
9085:Bergish
8801:Drèents
8791:Tweants
8643:Central
8625:Mooring
8488:Frisian
8447:Kildare
8392:English
8090:Mercian
8085:Kentish
7796:LXVVIII
7466:Guide)
7424:29 June
7170:YouTube
7103:YouTube
6978:Ormulum
6449:hallows
6433:palmers
6427:strands
6423:palmers
6340:the Ram
6338:Has in
6023:Ormulum
5669:Either
5666:ou, ow
5598:oi, oy
5558:); the
5309:). The
5248:before
5182:Either
5135:ei, ey
4867:au, aw
4828:ai, ay
4815:before
4736:Ye Olde
4555:letter
4443:and by
4364:ye olde
4320:or its
4189:silent
4134:regular
4101:became
4028:wistest
3967:"know"
3941:woldest
3884:"want"
3872:þurften
3809:"need"
3797:scholde
3790:scholde
3776:scholde
3766:schulen
3731:Schulen
3635:mighten
3607:imought
3572:mowynge
3566:mowende
3528:mustest
3479:"must"
3453:haddest
3404:havynge
3398:havende
3386:"have"
3324:wendest
3226:dursten
3139:"dare"
3099:idought
3064:douynge
3058:douende
2935:couthen
2903:coudest
2530:Strong
2500:Plural
2491:Plural
2442:(e.g.,
2432:(e.g.,
2422:(e.g.,
2269:youres
2233:ȝe / ye
2228:Second
2179:Plural
2135:Neuter
2129:herself
2079:himself
2025:(thine)
2009:þi / ti
1976:Second
1895:Subject
1884:archaic
1771:-lokest
1724:gretter
1575:), and
1565:hose(s)
1455:-stem,
1418:Dative
1334:Plural
1328:Plural
1271:silent
1262:palmers
1223:Chaucer
871:Ormulum
839:of the
690:liberty
685:freedom
664:mansion
608:poultry
602:chicken
544:), the
519:Danelaw
517:in the
515:Vikings
507:Faroese
487:Ormulum
450:History
366:to the
327:Unicode
130:Ireland
107:Ireland
87:England
48:English
9960:Gothic
9830:Danish
9734:Bokmål
9233:Yenish
9043:Bildts
8826:Veluws
8821:Urkers
8660:Strand
8384:Anglic
8149:Vowels
7896:
7861:
7828:
7802:
7798:: 30.
7718:(1993)
7658:Oct 4,
7633:
7581:
7385:
7346:
7300:
7255:
7062:
6985:
6951:
6933:
6896:
6859:
6257:liquor
6134:8:1–3
6043:wille.
6009:, not
5776:long s
5344:, the
5172:merger
5170:fleece
4929:, but
4860:merger
4855:; see
4783:Symbol
4700:macron
4654:soft G
4585:Joseph
4563:sound
4553:Hebrew
4496:, and
4255:, and
4184:Knecht
4161:knight
4152:eras.
4098:binden
4067:-ed(e)
4042:wisten
4014:iwiten
3955:wolden
3924:wollen
3889:willen
3881:Willen
3752:schalt
3628:mighte
3614:mighte
3586:myghst
3554:"may"
3542:musten
3467:hadden
3362:wenden
3336:yodest
3330:yedest
3300:(gen)
3256:goynge
3250:goende
3185:durren
3144:durren
3136:Durren
3120:dought
3106:dought
3078:deight
3034:didden
2965:doynge
2959:doende
2929:couden
2922:couthe
2896:couthe
2877:cunned
2870:cunnen
2829:cunnen
2824:"can"
2821:Cunnen
2710:beynge
2704:beende
2686:Been "
2660:-edest
2430:-(e)st
2365:theirs
2345:modern
2285:Third
2212:oures
2184:First
2173:itself
2040:Third
2005:(thee)
1970:myself
1926:First
1900:Object
1882:(with
1788:lenger
1763:-loker
1755:-liest
1593:þo ule
1310:Nouns
1253:, and
1231:French
1221:). By
1049:French
965:London
950:French
807:dative
776:warden
764:kingly
751:, and
733:, and
730:appeal
701:, and
699:vision
669:worthy
654:forest
644:mutton
585:Norman
569:Norman
554:Wessex
173:Anglic
120:, and
103:burghs
83:Region
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10074:South
10025:North
9635:North
9619:North
8961:Kaaps
8952:Dutch
8599:Amrum
8540:Weser
8462:Scots
7788:(PDF)
7701:"J",
7410:(PDF)
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6949:S2CID
6347:Aries
6289:When
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6083:into
5909:(see
5861:, or
5842:u, v
5835:thorn
5625:(see
5538:(see
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5481:[
5409:(see
5353:i, j
5295:]
5291:[
5287:]
5283:[
5260:(see
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5207:(see
5082:(see
5051:(see
4957:(see
4682:Jesus
4672:Many
4569:Greek
4467:when
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4453:laugh
4449:night
4351:thorn
4282:, or
4270:, or
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4104:bound
4075:-t(e)
4073:, or
4071:-d(e)
4035:wiste
4021:wiste
4007:witen
3993:woost
3972:witen
3964:Witen
3948:wolde
3934:wolde
3865:þurft
3858:þurst
3851:þurft
3827:þarst
3759:schal
3745:schal
3722:ought
3708:ought
3694:iowen
3673:owest
3600:mowen
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3521:muste
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3476:Moten
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3446:hadde
3432:haven
3391:haven
3383:Haven
3374:yoden
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3238:"go"
3219:durst
3205:durst
3198:dirst
3192:durst
3171:darst
3092:douen
3085:deigh
3071:deigh
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3043:Douen
3027:didde
3020:didst
3013:didde
2947:"do"
2916:coude
2890:coude
2856:canst
2769:weren
2757:wast
2745:ibeen
2674:-eden
2641:Weak
2542:-ende
2480:Past
2414:Verbs
2360:their
2272:yours
2023:yours
2015:(thy)
1747:-lier
1739:-lich
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1579:(for
1571:(for
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1555:(for
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1547:(for
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1525:-(e)n
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1244:every
1227:meter
1215:schwa
1053:Latin
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768:royal
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538:North
392:Scots
235:Latin
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10035:West
10030:East
9950:East
9806:East
9796:Norn
9687:West
9623:East
9621:and
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9181:Non-
8611:Sylt
8594:Föhr
8529:Ems
8454:Yola
8363:West
7931:2012
7894:ISBN
7859:ISBN
7826:ISBN
7800:ISSN
7660:2011
7631:ISBN
7587:and
7569:See
7426:2021
7383:ISBN
7357:2023
7344:ISBN
7298:ISBN
7266:2017
7253:ISBN
7206:2024
7178:2016
7154:Web.
7115:2016
7060:ISBN
6983:ISBN
6894:ISBN
6870:2017
6857:ISBN
6496:The
6132:Luke
6102:grit
5892:wynn
5833:and
5552:sone
5307:yogh
4961:and
4813:/au/
4734:of "
4722:and
4720:that
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4616:/dʒ/
4573:iota
4557:yodh
4534:and
4531:wijf
4522:and
4510:and
4469:yogh
4451:and
4429:,,,,
4421:yogh
4309:for
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4196:name
4148:and
4000:woot
3986:woot
3917:will
3910:wilt
3903:will
3834:þarf
3820:þarf
3715:owed
3701:owed
3687:owen
3652:owen
3644:Owen
3497:must
3439:ihad
3418:hast
3411:have
3355:yode
3349:yede
3317:yode
3311:yede
3305:wend
3297:igon
3270:gost
3006:idon
2979:dost
2883:coud
2812:were
2805:been
2799:beth
2785:bist
2738:aren
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2667:-ede
2653:-ede
2623:-est
2588:(-es
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2355:them
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2332:þeir
2265:your
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2163:his
2156:his
2122:hers
2013:your
1993:thou
1961:mine
1842:hine
1836:dual
1828:heyr
1818:sche
1782:long
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1569:kine
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1276:and
1250:evry
1183:/ɔː/
1179:/ɑː/
1173:/ɛː/
1169:/æː/
1100:and
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707:dine
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632:beef
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509:and
482:Orrm
436:and
364:High
288:meng
126:Yola
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8166:/l/
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6539:by
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5899:wh
5894:).
5875:).
5831:eth
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5778:).
5768:/s/
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5634:oo
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5575:oa
5556:son
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5391:ie
5289:or
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5272:gn-
5197:or
5179:ew
5174:).
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5091:ee
5086:).
5064:ea
4984:ck
4970:ch
4914:).
4908:-mb
4904:/b/
4900:-mb
4862:).
4823:).
4744:and
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4571:by
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4087:bi-
4060:-es
4056:-en
4052:-eþ
3680:owe
3666:owe
3593:may
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3504:mot
3490:mot
3425:haþ
3290:gon
3284:goþ
3277:goþ
3243:Gon
3235:Gon
3178:dar
3164:dar
2999:don
2993:doþ
2986:doþ
2952:don
2944:Don
2863:can
2849:can
2792:biþ
2762:was
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2724:art
2646:-ed
2634:-en
2607:-en
2594:-eþ
2583:-en
2575:-es
2569:-eþ
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2440:-eþ
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2239:you
2208:our
2166:its
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2096:she
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2065:his
2058:him
2003:you
1988:you
1981:þou
1858:him
1848:him
1823:she
1759:or
1735:or
1731:-ly
1703:-er
1661:our
1655:hir
1649:þat
1643:þis
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1583:).
1567:),
1559:),
1551:),
1508:-er
1494:-'s
1259:as
1181:to
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1163:/a/
1152:/ɡ/
1148:/w/
1144:/j/
1121:/z/
1117:/ð/
1113:/v/
1004:".
956:.
933:).
829:-'s
703:eat
626:cow
590:pig
402:).
381:by
313:IPA
273:enm
256:enm
128:in
113:Era
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8289:Wh
8270:Th
8250:Ng
7917:.
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7867:.
7857:.
7812:^
7794:.
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7677:ye
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