Black Sea slave trade

3935:

and fortune awaited her; but at present low rates she may be taken by any huxter who never thought of keeping a slave before. Another evil is that the temptation to possess a Circassian girl at such low prices is so great in the minds of the Turks that many who cannot afford to keep several slaves have been sending their blacks to market, in order to make room for a newly-purchased white girl. The consequence is that numbers of black women, after being as many as eight or ten years in the same hands, have lately been consigned to the broker for disposal. Not a few of those wretched creatures are in a state quite unfit for being sold. I have it on the authority of a respectable slave-broker that at the present moment there have been thrown on the market unusually large numbers of negresses in the family way, some of them even slaves of pashas and men of rank. He finds them so unsalable that he has been obliged to decline receiving any more. A single observation will explain the reason of this, which might appear strange when compared with the value that is attached even to an unborn black baby in some slave countries. In Constantinople it is evident that there is a very large number of negresses living and having habitual intercourse with their Turkish masters—yet it is a rare thing to see a mulatto. What becomes of the progeny of such intercourse? I have no hesitation in saying that it is got rid of by infanticide, and that there is hardly a family in Stanboul where infanticide is not practiced in such cases as a mere matter of course, and without the least remorse or dread.

4017: 3959:...he applies to one of the well-known dealers in Tetuan, Tripoli or Trebizond, a marriage contract is drawn up, and all the ceremonies of legal wedlock are gone through by proxy. By resorting to these fictitious marriages and similar subterfuges, the owner of a harem may procure as many slaves, white, brown or black, as he wishes, and once they are within the walls of his house, no one can possibly interfere to release them, for, the police being under no conditions permitted to violate the privacy of a harem, there is obviously no safeguard for the liberty, or even the lives, of its inmates. As a result of this system, a constant stream of female slaves – fair-haired beauties from Georgia and Circassia, brown-skinned Arab girls from the borders of the Sahara, and negresses from Equatoria – trickles in to the North African coast towns by various roundabout channels, and though the European officials are perfectly well aware of this condition of things, they are powerless to end it. The women thus obtained, though nominally wives, are in reality slaves, for they are bought for money, they are not consulted about their sale, they cannot go away if they are discontented, and their very lives are at the disposal of their masters. If that is not slavery, I don't know what is. 3830:

the Sultan and the Pachas, and the young men to become Beys and Pachas'". It was commonly claimed that Circassian girls were eager to be enslaved and asked their parents to sell them to the traders, because it was the only way for them to enhance their class status. It was commonly known that Circassian girls were mainly bought to become wives or concubines to rich men, which made the Circassian slave trade to be viewed as a form of marriage market, with the girls being raised by the slave traders as "apprentices" for marriage and then sold to become the wives or concubines of rich men. The purported willingness to be sold to a rich man and thus escape the poverty of the Caucasus did not apply only to "marriage" as such: concubinage was more common and often a preliminary stage of marriage, but was also seen as social advancement, and the demand for concubines on the Ottoman Middle East slave market grew significantly during the 18th century. A common claim was also that Circassian girls were seen laughing and joking at the slave market, which was seen as another sign that they participated willingly.

4029: 3282: 3678: 3526:; every Ottoman galley required 200 galley slaves, and the Ottoman fleet consisted of between 45,000 and 60,000 galleys in the late 18th century, and these galleys were supplied with many slaves from the Crimean slave trade. In 1642, when an Ottoman galley was captured, 200 galley slaves were liberated, 207 of whom were from Ukraine and 20 were Russian men, some of whom had spent 40 years in captivity. In 1645, the Ottoman Sultan Ibrahim reportedly approved of a slave raid to Poland and Russia specifically because he was constructing 100 new galley ships and required galley slaves to man them. A young healthy Russian man was sold for 50–100 rubles, while Polish and Ukrainian men were more expensive. 54: 3670: 3059: 3425:

Catharina Pereswetoff-Morath, age 18, for §275, and an entire Swedish-Livonian family, Anders Jonsson with his wife and children. Those bought free with Swedish funds were probably escorted to the war camp of King Charles XII of Sweden in Bender and returned to Sweden with him. It was noted however, that though many Swedish citizens were bought free by the Swedish ambassador, it was impossible to buy everyone on sale for the limited financial funds during wartime, many young women and children being far too expensive, and that many were therefore purchased on market by actual buyers and left in the Ottoman Empire.

3940:

upon her new family. Since white women were very expensive on the slave market, this essentially functioned as a marriage market for the upper classes, and many of the consorts of the Ottoman and Egyptian rulers and other rich men were former victims of the Circassian slave trade, which made it a sensitive subject for Western diplomats to criticize. During the entire 19th century, many consorts of the Ottoman sultans were described as Circassian women who had been entrusted to the harem as children and brought up as foster daughters of the female family members of the Ottoman dynasty, and then presented to the

4056: 3697: 3890:, but this was mainly an issue of international diplomacy and not actually in practice, though the open slave markets disappeared and the slave purchases came to be officially termed "adoptions". There was a greater reluctance from Ottoman authorities to prohibit the Circassian slave trade than the African slave trade, because the Circassian slave trade was regarded as in effect a marriage market, and it continued until the end of the Ottoman Empire (1922). The Ottoman elite disliked free employed female servants and preferred slave maids, and while the slaves of the 3866:

shall have reoccupied the coast of the Caucasus this traffic in white slaves will be over, the Circassian dealers have redoubled their efforts ever since the commencement of the peace conferences to introduce into Turkey the greatest possible number of women while the opportunity of doing so lasted. They have been so successful, notwithstanding the prohibition of the trade by the Porte, and the presence of so many of Her Majesty's ships in the Black Sea, that never, perhaps, at any former period, was white human flesh so cheap as it is at this moment.

3070: 4041: 3883:

owners to buyers in Istanbul, most slave women, after being sold, are applying to the government with claims of freedom", and how these women were kept in the homes of officials until their a court of law could determine if they could be free or was legally slaves. Some women who applied for freedom to a legal court were indeed manumitted, but being a free single woman in an Islamic society created significant difficulties, unless she was able to be given protection by a family who could arrange a marriage for her.

3842:, the Russians were given control over the Ottoman forts along the Black Sea coast between Anatolia and the Caucasus, significantly reducing the Circassian slave trade, which caused the price of white women on the markets of Constantinople and Cairo to skyrocket. In the 1840s, the Ottoman Empire agreed to stop their attacks on Russian forts along the Black Sea in exchange for the Russians turning a blind eye to the Circassian slave trade in now Russian Caucasus, which the Russians agreed to silently tolerate. 2627:

publicly, or else secretly if they can, and violently seize children and adults of the other village, and immediately sell to merchants by the sea. And in the same way as the Tatars were accustomed to sell theirs, so too these wretched people", after which the slaves were taken to the Crimea, where a witness statement noted that slave traders were "selling Christians for a price on market days, where they are dragged with a rope tied from the tail of a horse to the neck of those who are sold".

3352: 3910:, but to the buyer directly in the residence of the slave trader. The Circassian girls were bought by the slave traders very young, were raised by the slave trader and his family as "foster daughters" to become ideal wives, and sold via a "marriage broker" to the buyer for money in the residence of the slave trader. The hidden nature of the Circassian slave trade made it invisible to foreign diplomats, and exposed it to less public criticism than the more open African slave trade. 2488: 3043: 3546:(r. 1789–1807); the harem population begun to shrink gradually only during the second half of the 19th century. Girls to the Imperial Harem were sent there as war captives during military campaigns, but also as gifts, or through purchase. Young virgin girls (normally arriving as children) were gifted to the Sultan from local statesmen, family members, grand dignitaries and provincial governors, and particularly from the Crimean Khan; 2496: 2508: 3487:

slave-shepherds, and the final share was sold, either in the domestic Crimean markets of Bakhchisarai, Karaseibazar and Evpatoria, or in Kaffa, from where they were exported to the rest of the Ottoman Empire. Slaves trafficked from the Crimean slave trade could be sold far away in the Mediterranean and the Middle East; a Convent in Sinai in Egypt is for example noted to have bought a male slave originating from Kozlov in Russia.

3051: 2106: 3626: 3078: 1917:, where the nomadic Scythians conducted slave raids toward the Thracians, who were also known to sell their children to slave traders, and the inhabitants up the Danube traded slaves for salt. The rural land around the Greek cities were inhabited by Hellenized Scythian farmers, who acted as go-betweens and sold the slaves captured by the nomadic Scythians to the Greeks in the cities. 1886: 3551:

nurses (daye cariyes) for the Sultan's children, who were required to be Circassian or Georgian. Since they were bought for sexual purposes, the price of female slaves varied according to the girl's beauty, and the price of female slaves therefore varied greatly between different individuals; the prices of Georgian and Russian girls bought for the Imperial Harem of

3826:

warfare toward other Circassians and sold the children of their own Circassian serfs to Ottoman slave traders as a way to secure their own finances. Circassian parents became notorious for their alleged willingness to sell their children to Ottoman slave traders, because their poverty made the high demand for Circassian girls highly lucrative.

3325:, which initially protected Russia from being subjected to the slave raids the Crimean Khanate conducted toward Poland and Lithuania. However, when the Golden Horde fell in 1502, Russia's protective status against the Crimean Khanate ended and from that point onward the Crimean raids where conducted against Russia as well as Poland. 2155:

Christians and Muslims, came to be highly valued. Pagans from Eastern and Northern Europe came to be the most popular targets for slavery in both the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic Arab world during the Early Middle Ages, where they were forced to convert to Christianity and Islam respectively after their enslavement.

3417:, about 2,000 men were forcibly enlisted to the Russian army, but many women and children were also abducted as serfs or sex slaves by Russian officers, who in some cases sold them on to the Crimean slave trade; about 4,600 people, the majority of whom were children, were abducted from Österbotten and Eastern Finland. 3448:

who were not expected to be ransomed, and who were instead sold on the slave market. The Crimean Khanate received its main income from the trade in captives, and the ransom for a rich captive, as well as the sale of a poor captive as a slave, was seen as an equally legitimate income for the Khanate state.

2254:, which was the term for white slaves in the Islamic Middle East (often provided by the Vikings), is not likely to stand for exclusively Slavic ethnicity in practice, since many victims of the Vikings' saqaliba slave trade was in fact other ethnicities such as Baltics, Lithuanians, and Finno-Ugric people. 3550:

received one hundred Circassian virgin girl slaves as presents upon his accession to the throne. Other girls were bought to the harem by the vizier or by private slave dealers, in private or from the Avrat bazar slave market. Except for the maidservants and the concubines, the harem also required wet

3463:

A common go-between during the negotiations for ransom were Polish Armenians. Polish Armenians were normally able to speak Turkish languages and had contacts with the Armenian communities in the Crimea, and they often acted as agents, negotiated for the ransom and escorted the hostages back home from

3292:

It is not documented exactly how many raids were conducted, where and how, and exactly the number of people abducted between the late 15th century and the late 18th century. Between 1474 and 1569, 75 major slave raids are estimated to have been conducted toward Polish–Lithuanian territory. During the

3272:

The Circassian slave trade of elite slaves to the Ottoman Empire came to be so essential for the Middle Eastern slave market that it survived the fall of the Crimean Khanate in 1783. After the annexation of the Crimea by Russia, the Circassian slave trade was redirected from the Crimea and came to be

3268:

The Crimean Khan regarded the Circassians tribal princes as their vassals, defined them as infidels and thus viewed them as legitimate targets for slave tributes for the Crimean Khanate as well as the Ottoman Empire, as well as punitive slave raid expeditions in collaboration with Ottoman troops. The

3126:

The Italian ruled cities in Crimea were taken by the Ottoman Empire by 1475. In 1462 the Venetian and Genoese had started to hire Polish mercenaries, which made the Ottoman Sultan concerned that Crimea would come under Polish hegemony. This resulted in an Ottoman campaign taking advantage of internal

2167:

to the Byzantine Mediterranean world and the Islamic Middle East. Different people acquired captives and shipped them down to Byzantine Crimea and other ports around the Black Sea, from where they continued to the slave market of the Mediterranean via Byzantine Constantinople, and to the Middle East.

1901:

outlawed the citizens of Athens to enslave other Athenians citizens; it was a common trend in the Greek city states to outlaw the enslavement of citizens of their own cities, and this trend made it necessary for the Greek to maintain a slave trade with non-Greek non-citizens they termed "barbarians",

3992:

Girls from the Caucasus and the Circassian colonies in Anatolia were still trafficked to the Middle East in the 1920s. In 1924, the law prohibited the enslavement of white girls (normally Armenian or Georgian) on Kuwaiti territory, but in 1928 at least 60 white slave girls were discovered. It became

3939:

White women slaves were primarily bought to become wives or concubines (sex slaves) for rich men. To buy a daughter-in-law was seen as a good alternative when arranging a marriage, since she was likely to become a humble wife, lacking both her own money as well as relatives, and completely dependent

3934:

In former times a "good middling" Circassian girl was thought very cheap at 100 pounds, but at the present moment the same description of goods may be had for 5 pounds! Formerly a Circassian slave girl was pretty sure of being bought into a good family, where not only good treatment, but often rank

3647:

of 1774, all slaves and captives in the Crimea regardless of nationality were released. The emancipation of such a large slave population as the one in the Crimea was a major project that could not be fulfilled quickly or easily, and in 1775, thousands of slaves were reported to still be left in the

3472:

The majority of the captives were brought to Kefe (Caffa), which was the center of the slave trade. In Caffa there were already existing accommodations for slave trade since the Italian slave trade, but they were significantly enlarged, since the Crimean slave trade was much bigger than the Italian

3424:

From June 1710, the Swedish ambassador Thomas Funck made trips to the slave market in Constantiople to buy Swedish citizens, tours which were noted by his legation priest Sven Agrell. Agrell noted, for example, the purchase of a "carpenter's daughter from Narva" for §82, a "Captain's wife" for §240,

3388:

in the Baltics. Since the 15th century, the Russian Army had allowed private soldiers to capture and sell war captives, and during the Great Northern War many Russian soldiers captured Swedes, Finns, and Baltic civilians (particularly children) from the Swedish provinces and sold them, some of which

2609:

In this time period, religious conviction was an important factor in who was considered legitimate to enslave. Christians could not be enslaved by Christians, and Muslims could not be enslaved by Muslims. However, since both Christians and Muslims regarded pagans to be legitimate targets of slavery,

1905:

In the 6th century BC, Greek city colonies expanded in the Northern shores of the Black Sea, which came to play an important role in the slave trade; it has even been hypothesized, that these cities were founded because of the Black Sea slave trade. The Greek Black Sea slave trade is documented from

1848:

from the Crimea. The massive slave trade was at this time a major source of income for the Crimean Khanate. When the Crimean slave trade was ended by the Russian conquest of the Crimea in 1783, the slave trade of Circassians from Caucasus became an independent slave trade. The Circassian slave trade

3882:

In 1873, there were many Circassian slave women in Istanbul who were sold by their Circassian immigrant slave owners to Ottoman citizens but escaped and tried to sue the government for their freedom, and a contemporary report described: "Being slaves of Circassian immigrants and being sold by their

3829:

There was a tendency by Ottomans to claim that slavery was beneficial to the Circassians, since it delivered them from "primitimism to civilisation, from poverty and need to prosperity and happiness", and that they became slaves willingly: "Circassians came to Istanbul willingly 'to become wives of

3825:

The Caucasus was an ideal area for slave trade, since it was a fragmented border zone affected by constant warfare and political instability. Prior to the Russian conquest, many Circassian tribal leaders and princes acknowledged the suzerainty of the Ottoman sultan and converted to Islam, conducted

3555:

varied between 150 kuruş and 250 kuruş, while others cost up to 320 kuruş. Preserved documentation does not clearly provide the place of origin for the majority of the slaves to the Imperial Harem, but it is clear that some of the European female slaves were from Greece, Hungary, Poland, Wallachia,

3447:

The slave market was in practice divided in two parallel sources of income. One category was made up of rich captives, who were kept in captivity in the Crimea during the negotiations of their ransom, after which they were released and allowed to depart. Another category was made up of poor people,

2154:

During the Middle Ages, the slave market was organized alongside religious borders. Christian slaves could not be sold in Christian slave markets, and Muslim slaves could not be sold on Muslim slave markets. The slave trade adjusted to this, and the result was that pagans, who could be sold to both

2150:

The slave trade trafficking humans from the Black Sea region to the Mediterranean Sea during the Roman period continued during the Byzantine Empire, but the Byzantine slave trade is not fully documented, though it appear to have continued to function via the old principles war-captives and children

2054:

The slave trade thus organized alongside religious principles. While Christians did not enslave Christians, and Muslims did not enslave Muslims, both did allow the enslavement of people they regarded to be heretics, which allowed Catholic Christians to enslave Orthodox Christians, and Sunni Muslims

3762:

in the late 18th century. However, the slave trade with Circassians from the Caucasus to the Middle East was redirected from the Crimea and instead went directly from the Caucasus to the Ottoman Empire, and was significantly expanded and continued until the early 20th century. The Circassian slave

2728:

conquered Russia, and the Italian Black Sea slave trade expanded in parallel with the Mongol warfare, with the Mongols encouraging the trade, using it to dispose of particularly Russian slaves; up until the Russian uprising of 1262, for example, the Mongols sold Russian peasants who were unable to

2203:

is rich in wood and water. The land is well watered and harvests abundant. They lord over all the Slavs who neighbour them and impose a heavy tribute on them. These Slavs are completely at their mercy, like prisoners. The Magyars are Pagans, worshipping fire. They make piratical raids on the Slavs

1893:

In antiquity, the Black Sea was called the Pontic Sea and people from the region often simply called Pontics. Greek colonies were established along the Black Sea, which engaged in slave trade between the tribes of the interior North of the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. Slaves were sold by their

3865:

There has been lately an unusually large number of Circassians going about the streets of Constantinople. They are here as slave dealers, charged with the disposal of the numerous parcels of Circassian girls that have been for some time pouring into this market. Perceiving that when the Russians

4854:

Yaşa, Fırat (2022-06-03). "Review of Felicia Roșu (ed.) 2022. Slavery in the Black Sea Region, c.900–1900: Forms of Unfreedom at the Intersection between Christianity and Islam" (på engelska). Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 75 (2): sid. 331–340. doi:10.1556/062.2022.00250. ISSN

3213:

referred to Caffa in the 16th century as: "not a town, but an abyss into which our blood is pouring". From Caffa, the captives were distributed between the Ottomans and the Crimean Tatars, and some were distributed to the smaller slave markets in the Crimean Khanate, while the rest were sold in

2257:

The Vikings also captured slaves in raids from all of Western Europe, from the British Isles to France and Spain. The people the Vikings captured in Christian Western Europe were taken first to Scandinavia, and from there trafficked South East, through pagan Eastern Europe, toward the Black Sea.

5012:

Gregg, John R. (2018-07-30). Sex, the Illustrated History: Through Time, Religion, and Culture: Volume Iii; Sex in the Modern World; Europe from the 17Th Century to the 21St Century, Colonial North and South America to the 21St Century, Slavery and Homosexual Histories, and Bisexuality. Xlibris

3854:

Between 1856 and 1866, at least half a million Circassians were exiled from the Caucasus by the Russians. The Circassian refugee colonies in Anatolia and Constantinople continued to sell girls, in this case, Circassians are noted to have sold the children of their own Circassian slaves or serfs

3816:

Muslims were banned from enslaving other people who were Muslims before their capture; technically, this made enslaving ethnic Circassians a problem, since many of them were Muslims before their enslavement, but in practice, the fact that so many Circassian slave girls were already Muslims were

3686: 2558:

Italian merchants, particularly the Genoese and Venetians, who had a large web of contacts as traders in the Mediterranean Sea, early established themselves in the slave trade. Initially they did so as traveling merchants, but eventually they managed to acquire their own trading colonies in the

3264:

The question how Muslims Circassians could be enslaved by Muslims despite the Islamic law allowing Muslims to take only non-Muslims as slaves, has been an item of speculation. Circassians in Caucasus were, however, split between Muslims, Christians, and pagans until the late 18th century, with

3229:

The Crimean slave raids to the Balkans were conducted in collaboration with the Ottomans, or with Ottoman approval, since the majority of the Balkans were under Ottoman Suzerainty, and Islamic law banned the enslavement of people living under Islamic rule. Raids were conducted when the various

3412:

to Persia and the Middle East, where blonde people were exotic; between 20,000 and 30,000 people are estimated to have been abducted and about a quarter of the Finnish farm houses were reportedly empty at the end of the occupation. Between 10,000 and 20,000 people were taken to serve as slave

2626:

People from the Caucasus were not only sold by their families but also taken captive in slave raids. In the 14th century, a contemporary witness from Sultaniyyah described how Circassian tribal noblemen conducted slave raids toward other Circassian tribes, "go out from one village to another

2372:

Since both Christians and Muslims banned the enslavement of people of their own faith but viewed pagans as legitimate targets for slavery, the pagans of northeastern Europe became highly targeted by the slave traders when the rest of Europe had become Christian by the 12th century. The pagan

2613:

In the 13th century, all of Europe had become Christian with the exception of the Baltics, Eastern Finland and Karelia, which became supply zones for slaves to the Black Sea slave trade, from where they were trafficked by Italian slave traders to Southern Europe and the Islamic Middle East.

3559:

The Imperial Harem was a model for the private harems of other rich men in the Middle East. Circassian women were popular as slave concubines by the Crimean Tatar aristocrats, and Ebulgazi Bahadir stated that many Crimean-Tatar men preferred enslaved women as wives because of their beauty.

3208:

The majority of the slaves captured were forced into slave caravans by land and then by sea to the city of Caffa, which was an Ottoman province in the Crimean Khanate and a major center of the Crimean slave trade. There were reportedly always around 30,000 slaves in Caffa. The Lithuanian

3486:

A fifth of the captives were gifted from the Crimean Khan to the Ottoman sultan as a vassal tribute, since the Khan was formally the vassal of the Sultan; another share was divided between the Crimean-Tatar tribal aristocracy as field slaves, the Khan's officials and the Nogai-Tatars as

3233:

Until 1699, Habsburg Hungary was the only part of the Balkans not under Ottoman suzerainty. Between 1521 and 1717, the Crimean Khanate conducted slave raids to Hungary in collaboration with or with permission from the Ottoman Empire during the warfare between the Ottoman Empire and the

3567:, who themselves were often of white slave origin (often Circassian or from Georgia), preferred to marry women of similar ethnicity, while black slave women were used as domestic maids. The white slave women bought to become concubines and wives of the Mamluks, such as for example 2384:

was a base for the Baltic pirates, who were noted for selling women captives to the slave trade. In 1226, the pagan Baltic pirates from Saaremaa conducted a slave raid toward now Christian Sweden, where they captured many Swedish women and girls with the purpose to sell as slaves.

3456:

The kin of rich prisoners were given the opportunity to buy back the hostage by paying ransom money, which was normally always the case when the captive belonged to the upper class, after which the prisoner was allowed to leave with a certificate of free passing and liberation.

2598:; via slave raids; or through parents selling their own children or relatives to slavery, which occurred because of poverty and was a regular and common occurrence especially after the Black Death, when the demand for slaves was high in both Southern Europe and the Middle East. 3328:

From 1507 onward, Russia was a constant target of the Crimean-Nogai raids. It is not documented exactly how many raids were conducted, where and how, and exactly the number of people abducted, but at least 43 major raids were documented toward Russia between 1500 and 1550.

3473:

had been. In Caffa, the captives were handed over to Ottoman slave traders. The Ottoman slave traders were often Jews, Greek or Armenian Ottomans. The prisoners were divided between the different participants according to age, sex and aptitude for resale and market price.

3260:

The slave trade with Circassians from Caucasus had been a big slave route already during the Italian slave trade period, but during the Crimean slave trade it came to be a permanent luxury slave trade route providing elite slaves to the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East.

3850:

had been a temporary war time ban due to foreign pressure, and that he had been given orders to allow slave ships on the Black Sea pass on their way to Constantinople, and in December formal tax regulations was introduced, legitimizing the Circassian slave trade again.

4016: 3122:

The Crimean Khanate had a small population and a rudimentary agriculture and needed another source of income as well as a supply of laborers for the estates they founded. They therefore started to tax the Italian slave trade and conduct raids to supply more slaves.

3380:

The slave raids conducted by private Russian slave traders over the border into Eastern Finland, capturing Finns and trafficking them south to the Black Sea, had been conducted since the Middle Ages and are estimated to have continued throughout the 17th century.

3127:

instability in the Crimean Khanate to conquer the Venetian and Genoese ruled cities in the region, and by 1475 all those cities were under Ottoman control, and the Crimean Khan had submitted to the Ottoman Sultan as a vassal, uniting their forces to the Ottomans.

2051:, informal slave zones were formed alongside religious borders, which were also crossed at the Black Sea region. Both Christians and Muslims banned the enslavement of people of their own faith, but both approved of the enslavement of people of a different faith. 3870:

The slave trade from the Caucasus itself also continued. In 1872–1873, British sources and press reported that Circassian slaves were now transported over the Black Sea via regular ships – some of whom owned by European companies – from Black Sea ports such as

3401:. Lovisa, together with two other female slaves, one from Finland and one from Narva, were sold on the Russian slave market in Moscow; the Finnish woman was sold to an Armenian, the woman from Narva to a Russian clerk, and Lovisa to a Turkish-Ottoman merchant. 2942: 4832:

Yaşa, F. (2022). Review of Felicia Roșu (ed.) 2022. Slavery in the Black Sea Region, c.900–1900: Forms of Unfreedom at the Intersection between Christianity and Islam. Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 75(2), 331, xxiii + 448 pp-340.

1552: 3420:

Many of the Swedish citizens captured and sold by Russian soldiers ended up via the Crimean slave trade in the slave market in Constantiople, where the Swedish ambassador to Constantinople managed to buy some of them free, many of whom were women.

2379:

When the Norse Vikings became Christian and ended their piracy in the 11th century, they were succeeded by pagan pirates from the Baltics, who raided the coasts of the Baltic Sea, such as now Christian Sweden and Finland, for slaves. The island of

1953:

in East Asia may have existed as early as the 3rd century BC, since Chinese silk has been found in Rome has been dated to about 200 BC. The Silk Road connected to the Mediterranean world via two routes. From China, the Silk Road continued over the

3187:

horsemen in a trade known as the "harvesting of the steppe". Slave raids were conducted by the Nogai Horde and or the Crimean Tatars toward Russia, Poland–Lithuania, and the Caucasus twice every year; during the harvest and during the winter.

3163:

were vassals of the Crimean Khanate and economically dependent upon the slave trade, and performed the slave raids independently, or in collaboration with the Crimean Tatars, who were dependent on slave trade and slave labor on their estates.

3332:

In the period of circa 1600 and 1650, between 150,000 and 200,000 Russians are estimated to have been abducted in the raids; in the period of 1633–1646, around 15,115 people were either killed or abducted during raids toward Kursk alone.

4406:

The slave trade of European women to the Middle East and Asia from antiquity to the ninth century. by Kathryn Ann Hain. Department of History The University of Utah. December 2016. Copyright © Kathryn Ann Hain 2016. All Rights Reserved.

1787:. The Black Sea slave trade was a center of the slave trade between Europe and the rest of the world from antiquity until the 19th century. One of the major and most significant slave trades of the Black Sea region was the trade of the 3529:

While African slave women were foremost bought as domestic laborers, white slave women were preferred for exclusively sexual slavery; as concubines or as wives. The Crimean slave trade was one of the biggest suppliers of women to the

2443:

noted that most of the slaves came from "beyond the Danube" by origin and have arrived via the "northern winds" from Pontic lands, likely a euphemism from slaves exported to Byzantine by the Vikings via the Black Sea slave trade.

2388:

When the Viking slave trade stopped in the mid-11th century, the old slave trade route between the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea and Central Asia via the Russian rivers was upheld by Pagan Baltic slave traders, who sold slaves via

2180:

of the Adriatic Sea rather than the Black Sea. However, in the 9th century, the Magyars of Hungary conducted regular slave raids toward the Slavs, and sold their captives to the Byzantine slave traders in the Black Sea port of

3269:

Circassian elite gradually converted to Islam between the 16th and 18th centuries, and were therefore able to participate themselves in the raids for slave tributes performed by the Crimean-Ottoman against other Circassians.

4028: 3833:

The official policy of the Russians since 1805 was to abolish the slave trade in their newly conquered territories, and thus the Circassian slave trade or Caucasian slave trade was officially and gradually abolished as the

3993:

more and more rare to find white girls in the slave trade from the mid-19th century onward, and was gradually replaced by light skin women from Africa and Asia, a slave trade that continued until the 1960s and 1970s, when

3481:

A man who has not seen this market has seen nothing in this world. There a mother is severed from her son and daughter, a son from his father and brother, and they are sold among lamentations, cries for help, weeping, and

2622:

Genoese slave traders bought slaves from a number of different ethnic groups in the Caucasus, such as Abkhazians, Mingrelians, and Circassians, from which families sold their own children and adolescents to slave traders.

3796:

In the context of the Circassian slave trade, the term Circassians did not necessarily refer to ethnic Circassians, but was used as an umbrella term for a number of different ethnicities from the Caucasus region, such as

5045:

Argit Bİ. The Imperial Harem and Its Residents. In: Life after the Harem: Female Palace Slaves, Patronage and the Imperial Ottoman Court. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2020:38–77. doi:10.1017/9781108770316.002

2058:

However, both Christians and Muslims approved of enslaving pagans, who came to be a preferred target of the slave trade in the Middle Ages, and Pagan war captives were sold by pagan enemies into the slave trade.

2973: 2924: 2911: 2893: 2880: 3293:

year of 1676 alone, circa 40,000 people are estimated to have been abducted from the territory of Volhynia-Podolia-Galicia, and at least 20,000 people are estimated to have been abducted from the territory of

3130:

Caffa was transformed in to an Ottoman province, after which the slave trade was taken over by Muslim Ottoman slave traders in collaboration with the Crimea Khanate, connecting the Crimean slave trade to the

4735:

Antunes & Tagliacozzo, Cátia; Eric (2023). The Cambridge History of Global Migrations: Volume 1: Migrations, 1400–1800. The Cambridge History of Global Migrations. "1". Cambridge University Press. ISBN

3602:(d. 1688), who was said to be either "Circassian or Georgian", which was likely a term for Russian or Eastern European which would mean they both likely arrived via the Crimean slave trade, perhaps via the 3521:

or the Crimean slave trade. Men without particular skills were used for hard agricultural labor on the estates of the Crimean tribal aristocrats. The worst fate for a male slave was reportedly to become a

2771:

maid servants, while the majority of the slaves, around 2,000 annually, were trafficked to the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate, in that case most of them boys, since the Mamluk Sultanate needed slave soldiers.

2452:

Information about the Byzantine slave trade is fragmentary prior to the 13th century, when it was taken over by Genoese and Venetian merchants, who established colonies in the Crimea in the 13th century.

1906:

at least the 6th century BC onward, when an inscription from Phanagoria describes the trafficking of a slave named Phaylles to Phanagoria (the Kerch Strait) from Borysthenes (Berezan by the Bug/Dnieper).

3845:

In 1854, the Ottoman Empire banned the slave trade in white women after pressure from Great Britain and France. However, in March 1858 the Ottoman governor of Trapezunt informed the British Consul that

3252:

The last Crimean slave raid to Hungary was conducted in 1717, during which 1,464 people were captured in the Ugocsa County, 861 of whom succeeded in escaping from the caravan going back to the Crimea.

1547: 3460:

The ransom for a captive was normally the market price that would have been paid for the person if they were sold on the slave market or, if the prisoner was from a rich family, double that amount.

5022:

Roşu, Felicia (2021) . Slavery in the Black Sea Region, c.900–1900 – Forms of Unfreedom at the Intersection Between Christianity and Islam. Studies in Global Slavery, Volume: 11. Brill. p. 173-176

4243:

Mayers, K. (2016). The First English Explorer: The Life of Anthony Jenkinson (1529–1611) and His Adventures on the Route to the Orient. Storbritannien: Matador. p. 122-123

4793:

Roşu, Felicia (2021). Slavery in the Black Sea Region, c.900–1900 – Forms of Unfreedom at the Intersection Between Christianity and Islam. Studies in Global Slavery, Volume: 11. Brill. p. 173-176

2420:

regularly conducted slave raids toward the Russian principalities and captured Russian "infidels" whom they sold to the Islamic Middle East via the Black Sea slave trade in exchange for weapons.

2373:

Lithuanians, Latvians, Estonians, Livonians, and Latgallians raided each other, Ingria and Novgorod during the 12th- and 13th-centuries, and sold war captives south to the Black Sea slave trade.

4879:

Roşu, Felicia (2021). Slavery in the Black Sea Region, c.900–1900 – Forms of Unfreedom at the Intersection Between Christianity and Islam. Studies in Global Slavery, Volume: 11. Brill p. 173-176

4823:

Roşu, Felicia (2021). Slavery in the Black Sea Region, c.900–1900 – Forms of Unfreedom at the Intersection Between Christianity and Islam. Studies in Global Slavery, Volume: 11. Brill p. 337-385

1798:

The Black Sea was situated in a region historically dominated by the margins of empires, conquests and major trade routes between Europe, the Mediterranean and Central Asia, notably the Ancient

4635:

Roşu, Felicia (2021). Slavery in the Black Sea Region, c.900–1900 – Forms of Unfreedom at the Intersection Between Christianity and Islam. Studies in Global Slavery, Volume: 11. Brill, p. 29-31

4626:

Roşu, Felicia (2021). Slavery in the Black Sea Region, c.900–1900 – Forms of Unfreedom at the Intersection Between Christianity and Islam. Studies in Global Slavery, Volume: 11. Brill, p. 27-28

4617:

Roşu, Felicia (2021). Slavery in the Black Sea Region, c.900–1900 – Forms of Unfreedom at the Intersection Between Christianity and Islam. Studies in Global Slavery, Volume: 11. Brill. p. 32-33

4599:

Roşu, Felicia (2021). Slavery in the Black Sea Region, c.900–1900 – Forms of Unfreedom at the Intersection Between Christianity and Islam. Studies in Global Slavery, Volume: 11. Brill, p. 35-36

4554:

Roşu, Felicia (2021). Slavery in the Black Sea Region, c.900–1900 – Forms of Unfreedom at the Intersection Between Christianity and Islam. Studies in Global Slavery, Volume: 11. Brill. p. 21-22

4688:

Mayers, K. (2016). The First English Explorer: The Life of Anthony Jenkinson (1529–1611) and His Adventures on the Route to the Orient. Storbritannien: Matador. p. 121

4522:

Roşu, Felicia (2021). Slavery in the Black Sea Region, c.900–1900 – Forms of Unfreedom at the Intersection Between Christianity and Islam. Studies in Global Slavery, Volume: 11. Brill, p.24-25

1909:

Classic Greek authors described particularly the North Western shore of the Black Sea as a slave coast were the conditions ensured a steady supply of slaves; it was a border zone between the

4504:

Roşu, Felicia (2021). Slavery in the Black Sea Region, c.900–1900 – Forms of Unfreedom at the Intersection Between Christianity and Islam. Studies in Global Slavery, Volume: 11. Brill, p. 19

4477:

Roşu, Felicia (2021). Slavery in the Black Sea Region, c.900–1900 – Forms of Unfreedom at the Intersection Between Christianity and Islam. Studies in Global Slavery, Volume: 11. Brill. p. 20

4291:

Roşu, Felicia (2021). Slavery in the Black Sea Region, c.900–1900 – Forms of Unfreedom at the Intersection Between Christianity and Islam. Studies in Global Slavery, Volume: 11. Brill. p. 19

3655:. As late as 1805 and 1811, when Crimea had been a Russian province for over two decades, thousands of people were still registered in slavery (yasyr) under the Crimea Tatars in the Crimea. 2784:

in 1453, the Ottomans closed the trade between the Crimea and the West. The slave trade gradually diminished, and in 1472, only 300 slaves are registered to have been trafficked from Caffa.

3924:, which resulted in the price for white slave girls to become cheaper and Muslim men who were not able to buy white girls before now exchanged their black slave women for white ones. The 3289:

In this time period, Poland and Lithuania were united, and Ukraine was a part of Poland–Lithuania. The first major Crimean–Nogai raid were conducted toward South Eastern Poland in 1468.

2764:, of slave origin came from the Black Sea slave trade; around a hundred Circassian males intended for Mamluks were being trafficked via the Black Sea slave trade until the 19th century. 2630:

However, the slave trade was not confined to the Caucasus, but extended along the entire Black Sea coastline, the official slave sale records of the town notaries of the Crimean town of

4888:

Korpela, Jukka Jari (2018). Slaves from the North – Finns and Karelians in the East European Slave Trade, 900–1600. Studies in Global Slavery, Band: 5. Nederländerna: Brill. p. 237-238

2033:

or Paphlagonians, who had been sold as war captives by enemy tribes or sold by their families as adolescents, were exported to the Mediterranean and could be found in Ancient Athens.

4456:

Korpela, Jukka Jari (2018). Slaves from the North – Finns and Karelians in the East European Slave Trade, 900–1600. Studies in Global Slavery, Band: 5. Nederländerna: Brill. p. 38-41

4536:

Korpela, Jukka Jari (2018). Slaves from the North – Finns and Karelians in the East European Slave Trade, 900–1600. Studies in Global Slavery, Band: 5. Nederländerna: Brill. p. 132

4356:

Korpela, Jukka Jari (2018). Slaves from the North – Finns and Karelians in the East European Slave Trade, 900–1600. Studies in Global Slavery, Band: 5. Nederländerna: Brill. p. 242

4545:

Korpela, Jukka Jari (2018). Slaves from the North – Finns and Karelians in the East European Slave Trade, 900–1600. Studies in Global Slavery, Band: 5. Nederländerna: Brill. p. 42

4465:

Korpela, Jukka Jari (2018). Slaves from the North – Finns and Karelians in the East European Slave Trade, 900–1600. Studies in Global Slavery, Band: 5. Nederländerna: Brill. p. 41

4447:

Korpela, Jukka Jari (2018). Slaves from the North – Finns and Karelians in the East European Slave Trade, 900–1600. Studies in Global Slavery, Band: 5. Nederländerna: Brill. p. 39

4435:

Korpela, Jukka Jari (2018). Slaves from the North – Finns and Karelians in the East European Slave Trade, 900–1600. Studies in Global Slavery, Band: 5. Nederländerna: Brill. p. 38

4423:

Korpela, Jukka Jari (2018). Slaves from the North – Finns and Karelians in the East European Slave Trade, 900–1600. Studies in Global Slavery, Band: 5. Nederländerna: Brill. p. 35

3789:

From the late 18th century onward, when first the Crimean Khanate slave trade ended with the Russian annexation of 1783, followed by the end of the Barbary slave trade after the

4495:

Korpela, Jukka Jari (2018). Slaves from the North – Finns and Karelians in the East European Slave Trade, 900–1600. Studies in Global Slavery, Band: 5. Nederländerna: Brill, p.

3556:

and Malta, some of whom were acquired from local Ottoman governors, though more Circassian, Georgian, Abkhasian, and Russian (meaning the arrived via the Crimean slave trade).

2349:

rivers South East through Europe to the Black Sea. In the 9th century, the Viking slave route was redirected, and until the 11th century the Vikings trafficked slaves from the

5123:"Traces of castes and other social strata in the Maldives: a case study of social stratification in a diachronic perspective (ethnographic, historic, and linguistic evidence)" 3920:

The preference of white girls over African girls as sex slaves was noted by the international press, when the slave market was flooded by white girls in the 1850s due to the

3913:

The Circassian slave trade was considered a luxury trade. White women were sold for six times as much as the ethnic category that was regarded as second best, the Galla (

3336:

The last major Crimean-Nogai raid were reportedly conducted toward Russian territory in 1769, during the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774), when 20,000 people were abducted.

3300:

A Polish proverb described death as a better fate than being captured by a slave raid: "O how much better to lie on one's bier, than to be captive on the way to Tatary".

2802:

The Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Khanate conquered the Venetian and Genoese cities in region in 1475, and the slave trade was then taken over by Muslim slave traders.

2330:

in Denmark, one of whom was a woman who sang psalms to identify herself as a Christian nun, and who the bishop was able to free by exchanging his horse for her freedom.

2981: 1673: 2364:

The Viking slave trade stopped in the 11th century, when Denmark, Norway, and Sweden became Christian themselves and thus could no longer trade in Christian slaves.

5234:Šmigeľ M. (2020). Metamorphoses of the Circassian Slave Trade (13th–19th centuries): Aspects of Women as the "Live Goods". Slavery: Theory and Practice. 5(1): 19–36 3004: 4252:

Slavery in the Black Sea Region, C.900–1900: Forms of Unfreedom at the Intersection Between Christianity and Islam. (2021). Nederländerna: Brill. 19

2845: 5003:

Dávid, Géza (2007). Ransom Slavery Along the Ottoman Borders: (Early Fifteenth – Early Eighteenth Centuries). Nederländerna: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-15704-0. p. 198

4994:

Dávid, Géza (2007). Ransom Slavery Along the Ottoman Borders: (Early Fifteenth – Early Eighteenth Centuries). Nederländerna: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-15704-0. p. 215

4814:

Dávid, Géza (2007). Ransom Slavery Along the Ottoman Borders: (Early Fifteenth – Early Eighteenth Centuries). Nederländerna: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-15704-0. p. 203

4805:

Dávid, Géza (2007). Ransom Slavery Along the Ottoman Borders: (Early Fifteenth – Early Eighteenth Centuries). Nederländerna: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-15704-0. p. 201

4270:

Slavery in the Black Sea Region, C.900–1900: Forms of Unfreedom at the Intersection Between Christianity and Islam. (2021). Nederländerna: Brill. 5

3574:

Outside of the Ottoman Empire, girls from the Black Sea region were also trafficked to Persia during this period. The slave concubines (and later mothers) of the

4171: 4166: 3759: 3652: 3096:

was the main source of income of the Khanate, and one of the biggest sources of slaves to the Ottoman Empire. The Crimean slave trade in Eastern Europe, and the

1825:

along the Northern Black Sea coasts used the instable political and religious border zones to buy captives and transport them as slaves to Italy, Spain, and the

2376:

The Christian Russians also raided the pagan Estonians to sell them in the slave trade, since they were viewed as a legitimate target because they were pagans.

5154:

Kurtynova-D'Herlugnan, L. (2010). The Tsar's Abolitionists: The Slave Trade in the Caucasus and Its Suppression. Nederländerna: Brill.

4563:

Pargas & Schiel, Damian A.; Juliane (2023). The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery Throughout History. Tyskland: Springer International Publishing. p. 162

4338:

Pargas & Schiel, Damian A.; Juliane (2023). The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery Throughout History. Tyskland: Springer International Publishing. p. 126

4314:

Pargas & Schiel, Damian A.; Juliane (2023). The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery Throughout History. Tyskland: Springer International Publishing. p. 161

4300:

Pargas & Schiel, Damian A.; Juliane (2023). The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery Throughout History. Tyskland: Springer International Publishing. p. 131

1537: 1068: 3948:

in Iran were also Georgian and Armenian girls, some war captives, but also bought on the slave markets and presented as gifts to the shah from the provinces.

2010:

close to the Black Sea. The Silk Road did not sell only textiles, jewels, metals, and cosmetics, but also slaves. connecting the Silk Road slave trade to the

4282:

Korpela, J. (2018). Slaves from the North: Finns and Karelians in the East European Slave Trade, 900–1600. Nederländerna: Brill. 242

3778:– were primarily used as domestic house servants and not exclusively for sexual slavery, while white women, trafficked via the Black Sea slave trade and the 2393:

to the Black Sea and East, which was now the only remaining slave trade in Europe after the slave market in Western Europe had died out in the 12th century.

1422: 794: 531: 4388:

The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives. Selected Papers from the Jerusalem 1999 International Khazar Colloquium. (2007). Nederländerna: Brill. p. 232

2993: 1158: 799: 2582:

The majority of the slaves in the Italian Black Sea slave trade came to be enslaved via three main methods; as war captives during warfare, such as the

4697:

Dávid, Géza (2007). Ransom Slavery Along the Ottoman Borders: (Early Fifteenth – Early Eighteenth Centuries). Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-15704-0. p. 194-195

4055: 3989:, which caused the end of slave military in Iran, when free Iranians were employed in the royal guard instead of the still available African slaves. 3408:(1714–1721). Among the atrocities were the abductions and enslavement of people by Russian military, many of whom were trafficked via Russia and the 4931:Åberg, Alf (1991). Fångars elände: karolinerna i Ryssland 1700–1723. Stockholm: Natur & Kultur. Libris 7228808. ISBN 91-27-02743-0 (in Swedish) 4209:

Slavery in the Black Sea Region, C.900–1900: Forms of Unfreedom at the Intersection Between Christianity and Islam. (2021). Nederländerna: Brill. 19

3793:, the Circassian slave trade became the main source of white slaves to the Islamic Middle East, and these slaves were referred to as "Circassians". 4985:

Dávid, Géza (2007). Ransom Slavery Along the Ottoman Borders: (Early Fifteenth – Early Eighteenth Centuries). Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-15704-0. p. 198

4670:

Dávid, Géza (2007). Ransom Slavery Along the Ottoman Borders: (Early Fifteenth – Early Eighteenth Centuries). Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-15704-0. p. 193

4486:

Slavery in the Black Sea Region, C.900–1900: Forms of Unfreedom at the Intersection Between Christianity and Islam. (2021). Nederländerna: Brill. 1

4191:

Slavery in the Black Sea Region, C.900–1900: Forms of Unfreedom at the Intersection Between Christianity and Islam. (2021). Nederländerna: Brill. 3

3115:

When the Crimean Khanate was founded in the 1440s, the Crimean Tatars initially taxed the Italian slave trade in the Italian ruled cities – mainly

491: 5102:

Sussan Babaie, Kathryn Babayan, Ina Baghdiantz-MacCabe, Mussumeh Farhad: Slaves of the Shah: New Elites of Safavid Iran, Bloomsbury Academic, 2004

1924:

noted that the quantity of humans captured and shipped as slaves from the Northern Black Sea shores were bigger than anywhere in the known world.

4940:

Kustaa H. J. Vilkuna: Viha. Perikato, katkeruus ja kertomus isostavihasta., s. 120. Suomalaisen kirjallisuuden seura, 2005. Teoksen verkkoversio.

4658:

Slavery in the Black Sea Region, C.900–1900: Forms of Unfreedom at the Intersection Between Christianity and Islam. (2021). Nederländerna: Brill.

3643:

In the peace negotiations with Russia in 1773, all Russians captives were released home from the Crimea without needing to pay ransom. After the

3104: 3062: 2865: 2811: 1841: 5196:

Zilfi, M. (2010). Women and Slavery in the Late Ottoman Empire: The Design of Difference. Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press. p. 126-127

4719:

Peirce, L. (2017). Empress of the East: How a European Slave Girl Became Queen of the Ottoman Empire. USA: Basic Books.

5351: 5296:

B. Belli, “Registered female prostitution in the Ottoman Empire (1876–1909),” Ph.D. – Doctoral Program, Middle East Technical University, 2020.

4949:

Tarkiainen, Kari: Moskovalainen. Ruotsi, Suomi ja Venäjä 1478–1721, s. 304–310. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 2022. ISBN 978-951-858-576-6.

3590:

women, captured as war booty, bought at the slave market, or received as gifts from local potentates. Even some of the slave concubines in the

846: 3766:

The Circassian slave trade was heavily (though not entirely) focused on girls. In the Islamic Middle East, African women – trafficked via the

5054:

Pargas & Roşu, Damian Alan; Felicia (2017). Critical Readings on Global Slavery. Nederländerna: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-34661-1. p. 978-979

3903: 5317:

Zilfi, M. (2010). Women and Slavery in the Late Ottoman Empire: The Design of Difference. Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press. p. 177

5308:

Zilfi, M. (2010). Women and Slavery in the Late Ottoman Empire: The Design of Difference. Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press. p. 217

5214:

Zilfi, M. (2010). Women and Slavery in the Late Ottoman Empire: The Design of Difference. Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press. p. 210

3242: 2999: 2968: 2937: 2906: 2875: 2838: 1542: 1392: 5405:

ZDANOWSKI, J. The Manumission Movement in the Gulf in the First Half of the Twentieth Century, Middle Eastern Studies, 47:6, 2011, p. 871.

4587:

Eurasian Slavery, Ransom and Abolition in World History, 1200–1860. (2016). Storbritannien: Taylor & Francis. p 151-152

3303:

Polish captives were marched down to the port of Ochakiv, where they were loaded on to slave ships and trafficked to Caffa in the Crimea.

2405:

started to disintegrate in internal warfare between the smaller Russian states in the 12th century, the various Russian princes and their

5063:

Pargas & Roşu, Damian Alan; Felicia (2017). Critical Readings on Global Slavery. Nederländerna: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-34661-1. p. 980

5031:

Pargas & Roşu, Damian Alan; Felicia (2017). Critical Readings on Global Slavery. Nederländerna: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-34661-1. p. 975

4229:

Parmenter, Christopher S. “Journeys into Slavery along the Black Sea Coast, c. 550–450 BCE.” Classical Antiquity 39.1 (2020): 57–94. Web.

873: 5205:

Zilfi, M. (2010). Women and Slavery in the Late Ottoman Empire: The Design of Difference. Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press. p.

5511: 4161: 4121: 4040: 3729: 3434: 2919: 2888: 2466: 2084: 1619: 371: 4513:

Eurasian Slavery, Ransom and Abolition in World History, 1200–1860. (2016). Storbritannien: Taylor & Francis. p 153

3306:

Polish was such a common ethnicity for a slave in the Crimea Khanate, that the Polish language was the second language in the Crimea.

5326:

Zilfi, M. (2010). Women and Slavery in the Late Ottoman Empire: The Design of Difference. Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press.

2535:, which exported slaves from Eastern Europe via their controlled cities in Crimea to Spain and Italy and to the Islamic Middle East. 821: 4379:

The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 3, C.900-c.1024. (1995). Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press. p. 91

3955:

described the slave trade to the harems of North African Maghreb in 1912, that when a rich Muslim man wished to enlarge his harem:

4200:

The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery Throughout History. (2023). Tyskland: Springer International Publishing. 160

1592: 1412: 585: 3951:

The Circassian slave trade was maintained in the early 20th century under the guise of a marriage market. The American journalist

3917:) women from Abyssinia, who sold for between a tenth or a 3rd of the price of a white woman, depending on how light her skin was. 1894:

families or as war captives to the Greek cities, who exported them West to the Mediterranean or East to Asia along the Silk road.

2831: 2218: 2132: 1814: 1750: 4769:

Davies, Brian (2014). Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe, 1500–1700. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-55283-2. p. 24-25

3281: 5421: 4116: 1850: 856: 274: 2326:

of Bremen (d. 888) reported that he witnessed a "large throng of captured Christians being hauled away" in the Viking port of

5526: 5382:

Powell, E. A. (2023). The Last Frontier: The White Man's War for Civilisation in Africa. Tjeckien: Good Press.

4867:

Davies, Brian (2014). Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe, 1500–1700. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-55283-2. p. 17

4760:

Davies, Brian (2014). Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe, 1500–1700. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-55283-2. p. 25

4679:

Davies, Brian (2014). Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe, 1500–1700. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-55283-2. p. 43

2231:

During the Early Middle Ages until the 11th century, the Black Sea was one of the two slave trade destinations of the Viking

1434: 1111: 883: 5223: 4649:

Davies, Brian (2014). Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe, 1500–1700. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-55283-2. p. 7

4126: 3404:

The Swedish province of Finland was subjected to severe oppression during the Russian invasion and occupation known as the

1867:

In antiquity, enslaved people were sold, via the Ancient Greek and Roman city ports of the Black Sea, East to Asia via the

1626: 1587: 1230: 5089: 3944:, where they became the consorts – a euphemism for slave concubines – to the Ottoman sultans. The slave concubines in the 3384:

During the Great Northern war between 1700 and 1721, Russia invaded the Eastern Swedish provinces of Finland, Estonia and

3135:

and a joint venture between the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire. The Crimean slave trade was also connected to the

2361:

river to the Black Sea (and the Byzantine Empire), or to the Caspian Sea (and the Middle East) via the Volga trade route.

3998: 1668: 1305: 965: 816: 612: 521: 17: 3509:

and the Black Sea slave trade were used for different purposes in the Middle East. In the 18th century, slave soldiers (

5481: 4347:

The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery Throughout History. (2023). Tyskland: Springer International Publishing. p. 126

3294: 3168: 3011: 2767:

The majority of the slaves trafficked to South Europe (Italy and Spain) were girls, since they were intended to become

1688: 1382: 1136: 5111:

Sen Gupta, S. (2019). MAHAL: Power and Pageantry in the Mughal Harem. Indien: Hachette India.

4608:

Eurasian Slavery, Ransom and Abolition in World History, 1200–1860. (2016). Storbritannien: Taylor & Francis. p. 9

4397:

The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 3, C.900-c.1024. (1995). Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press. p. 504

5441: 5172:

Gordon, Murray (1989). Slavery in the Arab World. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-941533-30-0. p.79-89

5074: 3637: 3023: 2950: 1510: 1387: 811: 580: 447: 5258:

Toledano, Ehud R. (1998). Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle East. University of Washington Press. p. 31-33

5246:

Toledano, Ehud R. (1998). Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle East. University of Washington Press. p. 31-32

5431: 3835: 2715: 2316: 2236: 1641: 851: 836: 782: 467: 457: 452: 281: 137: 3677: 3644: 3365:, 1859. Many Swedish citizens were captured by Russian soldiers during this occasion, who sold them to the Crimea. 1357: 5516: 3221:

until the 18th century, when the Atlantic slave trade exploded and surpassed the Crimean slave trade in numbers.

2428: 2413:) allies captured the subjects of enemy Russian princes during their wars, which were sold to the slave traders. 1636: 1407: 213: 5536: 3273:

conducted directly by Ottoman slave traders from the Caucasus, a trade that continued during the 19th century.

3017: 2583: 1106: 1094: 674: 486: 132: 3809:, in the same fashion as the term "Abbyssinians" was used as a term also for African slaves who were not from 5426: 4156: 3974: 2815: 1938:

The Black Sea slave trade continued after the Greek Black Sea cities had become vassals of the Roman Empire.

1678: 1461: 322: 5521: 5501: 5471: 3733: 3438: 2088: 1683: 1527: 1397: 1058: 826: 806: 366: 334: 53: 5506: 5272:"Horrible Traffic in Circassian Women—Infanticide in Turkey," New York Daily Times, August 6, 1856, p. 6. 3839: 3709: 3669: 2512: 2304: 1933: 1743: 1693: 1417: 1335: 462: 243: 63: 3393:

was a famous victim of those captured to Russian soldiers with intent to sell. Another case was that of

5496: 5466: 5461: 5446: 4958:

Zetterberg, Seppo (toim.): Suomen historian pikkujättiläinen. Helsinki: WSOY, 1990. ISBN 951-0-14253-0.

4101: 3058: 2900: 2440: 1602: 1454: 1439: 1330: 526: 196: 5436: 5270: 3767: 3494: 3389:

ended up in the Black Sea slave trade and Persia. One of these occasions was the fall of Narva, were

3218: 2792: 1880: 1698: 1597: 1128: 1116: 706: 679: 184: 5486: 3775: 3502: 3490:

The Crimean Khan received 12 percent of the price for every slave sold in the Crimean slave trade.

1478: 1347: 900: 689: 174: 75: 2737:

The Italian slave trade had two main routes; from the Crimea to Byzantine Constantinople, and via

354: 5456: 3994: 3610: 2987: 2543:

Slavery died out in Western Europe after the 12th century, but the demand for laborers after the

1663: 1402: 1352: 1280: 1053: 831: 775: 758: 189: 3594:

in India were of the same origin as the victims of the Crimean slave trade, such as for example

1802:, which made the Black Sea ideal for a slave trade of war captives sold along the trade routes. 4146: 3941: 3891: 3575: 3531: 3505:

trade were popular for use as domestic servants and laborers, and white slaves provided by the

2781: 2610:

the remaining pagans of northeastern Europe became an economical choice for the slave traders.

2563: 2128: 1736: 1705: 1210: 951: 863: 711: 435: 401: 396: 3786:(sex slaves) or wives, and there was therefore a constant demand for them in the Middle East. 3100:

in West and South Europe, were the two main sources of European slaves to the Ottoman Empire.

5476: 5451: 3894:

was officially freed in 1909, the rest of the Ottoman elite kept their own household slaves.

3390: 2956: 2262: 1572: 1427: 1340: 1325: 1007: 995: 741: 726: 511: 286: 179: 4913:Åberg, A. (2001). Karolinska kvinnoöden. Sverige: Natur och Kultur. 4904:

Karolinska förbundets årsbok. (1991). Sverige: Karolinska förbundet.. s. 7–10

4366: 3973:, were still used for the royal guard, and they were mainly white slaves from Caucasus. The 3084:, one of the most famous victims of the Crimean slave trade, captured in the 1510s or 1520s. 5365: 4046: 3963:

However, the Circassian slave trade did not exclusively trade in female slaves. During the

3926: 3906:

in 1846 onward, white slave girls were no longer sold in the open slave market such as the

3857: 3783: 3737: 3696: 3442: 3029: 2796: 2552: 2548: 2532: 2478: 2474: 2277:

to Russia, where slaves and furs were sold to Muslim merchants in exchange for Arab silver

2200: 2092: 1862: 1710: 1614: 1577: 1505: 1449: 1318: 1275: 1089: 1019: 694: 474: 376: 260: 167: 3230:

territories were in conflict with the Ottoman Empire and thus defined as enemy territory.

8: 4261:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 126, citing Strabo 11.493, 495–496

4136: 4111: 3952: 3921: 3779: 3771: 3603: 3518: 3506: 3498: 3409: 3140: 3132: 3097: 2932: 2870: 2528: 2470: 2312: 2240: 2226: 2011: 1946: 1845: 1833: 1198: 1178: 1063: 1048: 917: 888: 878: 768: 716: 684: 481: 339: 307: 302: 255: 112: 5531: 5345: 5284:

Globalization. (2001). Storbritannien: Duke University Press. p. 217-241

5225:

Globalization. (2001). Storbritannien: Duke University Press. p. 240-241

4408: 4141: 4131: 4106: 4086: 3538:(1574–1595), increasing in size with 295 in 1622, 433 in 1633, 446 during the reign of 3370: 3136: 2703: 2567: 2520: 2462: 2300: 2266: 2222: 2177: 2080: 2076: 2072: 1818: 1444: 1290: 1265: 1255: 1220: 1215: 1183: 1148: 1141: 1082: 1075: 932: 751: 746: 736: 506: 359: 317: 312: 265: 233: 223: 160: 4096: 3907: 3534:. The Imperial Harem was a big institution with 104 female slaves during the reign of 3069: 2519:

archers and Mamluk cavalry. During that time many mamluk soldiers originated from the

1817:

to the Byzantine ports at the Black Sea. In the late Middle Ages, trading colonies of

381: 327: 4151: 4081: 3887: 3753: 3664: 3599: 3362: 3356: 3235: 2571: 2436: 2274: 2232: 2114: 1822: 1806: 1532: 1250: 1245: 1188: 1173: 1153: 975: 970: 905: 868: 701: 667: 496: 349: 238: 117: 3214:

Caffa and trafficked to the rest of the Ottoman Empire and the Islamic Middle East.

5491: 5134: 3810: 3414: 3151:

was also provided with Europeans (mostly Russians) captured by the Crimean Tatars.

2962: 2746: 2742: 2667: 2566:, and Italian trade colonies took control over the Black Sea slave trade, with the 2527:

In the late Middle Ages (13th–15th centuries), the Black Sea was the center of the

2188: 2164: 2137: 1722: 1300: 1295: 1285: 1260: 1225: 1193: 1163: 1036: 1024: 1002: 980: 927: 763: 731: 33: 4922:Åberg, Alf, (in Swedish) Karolinska kvinnoöden , Natur och kultur, Stockholm, 1999 3474: 3265:

different religions dominating in different regions and different social classes.

4002: 3568: 3210: 3191:

A Ukrainian folk song remembered the despair and devastation of the slave raids:

3089: 2787:

From the 1440s, Spain and Portugal started to import their slaves from first the

2721: 2261:

People taken captive during the Viking raids in Western Europe, could be sold to

2204:

and follow the coast with their captives to a port in Byzantine territory named

1844:, who were transported to the rest of the Muslim world in collaboration with the 1837: 1788: 1631: 1522: 1517: 1270: 1240: 1235: 958: 922: 721: 639: 344: 90: 2439:

manumitted all the slaves in the capital of Constantinople in the 12th century,

2029:, as major ports of the Pontic slave trade, from which "Pontic" slaves, such as 4061: 3978: 3847: 3595: 3374: 2788: 2695: 2417: 2402: 1995: 1826: 1715: 1609: 501: 142: 100: 5394: 5415: 4091: 3964: 3564: 3351: 3340: 3217:

The Crimean slave trade is estimated to have been as large in numbers as the

2761: 2757: 2725: 2643: 2299:; initially this trade route between Europe and the Abbasid Caliphate passed 2096: 1898: 1780: 1653: 1582: 1029: 1012: 787: 617: 607: 391: 41: 2674:" then a little later again lists more slaves by ethnicity in the document " 5090:

Unveiling the Harem: Elite Women and the Paradox of Seclusion in Eighteenth

3914: 3802: 3790: 3749: 3708:

slave. Entitled, "Vornehmer Kaufmann mit seinem cirkassischen Sklaven" by

3591: 3523: 3394: 3322: 2587: 1658: 1495: 1471: 1377: 1370: 1101: 629: 602: 565: 543: 430: 147: 127: 105: 95: 85: 80: 70: 910: 5336:ʿĀżod-al-Dawla, Solṭān-Aḥmad Mirzā (1997) . ʿAbd-al-Ḥosayn Navāʾi (ed.). 5075:

Gender, Property, and Law in Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Communities in

4834: 4076: 3982: 3945: 3705: 3689: 3579: 3405: 3309:

Among the most known victims of the Crimean slave raids from Poland were

3160: 3107:, and European slaves were trafficked to the Middle East via the Crimea. 2675: 2639: 2544: 2342: 2048: 1999: 1784: 1500: 1488: 841: 644: 634: 592: 406: 4575:

A Tatárországi Rabszolgakereskedelem és a Magyarok a XIII-XV. Században

3855:

directly to the Ottoman slave traders, or to the buyers themselves. The

3806: 3285:

Invasion of the Tatars in Poland in 1666. Drawing by Jan Luyken, 1698.

2699: 2691: 2679: 2655: 2570:

establishing in Sudak in the Crimea in 1206 and later in Tana, and the

2487: 2350: 2334: 2123: 2022: 1648: 945: 649: 516: 5138: 3902:

Constantinople was the center of the Circassian slave trade. From the

3598:, who has sometimes been referred to as a Georgian or Circassian, and 3321:

Muscovite Russia and the Crimean Khanate were both the vassals of the

1902:

from foreign lands such as the Balkans or the North of the Black Sea.

5395:

BARDA and BARDA-DĀRI iv. From the Mongols to the abolition of slavery

5150: 5148: 3986: 3798: 3587: 3583: 3552: 3547: 3543: 3535: 3514: 3513:) in the Middle East were still often made up of white male slaves – 3398: 3180: 3176: 3092:(1441–1783) was a major center of the international slave trade. The 2823: 2819: 2687: 2635: 2601:

Common targets of slavery were Pagan Finno-Ugric and Turkish people.

2591: 2562:

In the 13th century, Byzantine control in the Crimea weakened by the

2338: 2036: 2030: 2003: 1978:, where it split in two main roads: a southern route from Bukhara to 1971: 1955: 1942: 1914: 1910: 1868: 1799: 1768: 893: 558: 420: 5122: 3886:

Officially, slave trade was prohibited in the Ottoman Empire by the

2141:) (blue) – and other trade routes of the 8th–11th centuries (orange) 575: 3685: 3629: 3539: 3310: 3172: 3081: 3050: 2768: 2631: 2507: 2495: 2410: 2381: 2354: 2308: 2251: 2192: 2105: 2068: 1967: 1921: 1776: 1483: 1041: 985: 937: 597: 442: 297: 203: 5254: 5252: 5242: 5240: 5145: 4532: 4530: 4528: 3297:

every year between 1500 and 1644, or at least one million people.

3042: 2025:, the major Black Sea port of the Caucasus, and the Greek city of 1853:

via Anatolia and Constantinople continued until the 20th century.

5280: 5278: 4443: 4441: 4431: 4429: 4419: 4417: 3872: 3625: 3385: 3246: 3245:

in the 1660s, the Crimean Khanate conducted raids as far West as

3148: 2683: 2432: 2431:

was still widely practiced during the early Middle Ages. Emperor

2390: 2323: 2244: 2118: 1987: 1983: 1975: 1810: 1466: 548: 228: 45: 4789: 4787: 4785: 4783: 4781: 4779: 4777: 4775: 4225: 4223: 4221: 4219: 4217: 4215: 3763:

trade has also been referred to as the "Caucasian slave trade".

2243:

and Iran; and to the Byzantine Empire and the Mediterranean via

2176:

The slave trade from the Balkans was mainly directed toward the

5249: 5237: 4525: 4359: 3876: 3658: 3510: 3184: 2753: 2671: 2659: 2651: 2647: 2516: 2482: 2406: 2346: 2327: 2296: 2279: 2270: 2100: 2026: 2018: 1991: 1963: 1772: 1168: 990: 570: 553: 415: 250: 218: 5275: 5168: 5166: 5164: 5162: 5160: 4595: 4593: 4438: 4426: 4414: 4034:

William Allan (1782–1850) - The Slave Market, Constantinople.

3339:

Among the victims of the Crimean slave raids from Russia were

2333:

Until the 9th century, the Vikings trafficked slaves from the

4772: 4212: 3745: 3741: 3701: 3144: 3116: 3077: 2738: 2663: 2595: 2500: 2292: 2288: 2205: 2182: 2062: 2007: 1950: 425: 411: 386: 5192: 5190: 5188: 5186: 5184: 5182: 5180: 5178: 4577:(in Hungarian). Budapest: Magyar Tudományos Akadémia Kiadó . 4239: 4237: 4235: 3609:

Slaves from Eastern Europe were known as far away as in the

2805: 2555:, as well as an increase in the demand for slaves in Egypt. 2456: 5157: 4875: 4873: 4863: 4861: 4756: 4754: 4752: 4750: 4748: 4746: 4744: 4742: 4590: 4473: 4471: 2358: 2284: 2110: 1979: 1959: 292: 122: 4801: 4799: 4666: 4664: 4645: 4643: 4641: 3204:

Old mother is sabred and my dear is taken into captivity."

1885: 5175: 4232: 3838:

progressed between the early 1800s and the 1860s. In the

3571:, were often from the Caucasus, Circassians or Georgian. 3103:

During this period the Crimea was the destination of the

2503:, when Caffa was a major port of the Genoese slave trade. 2491:

Feodosia and territorial demarcations in the 15th century

5304: 5302: 4870: 4858: 4739: 4468: 3359:

pacifies his marauding troops after taking Narva in 1704

2729:

pay tribute to the Italian slave traders in the Crimea.

4967:

Karonen, Pohjoinen suurvalta. Ruotsi ja Suomi 1521–1809

4796: 4661: 4638: 4167:

Annexation of the Crimean Khanate by the Russian Empire

2720:

In parallel with the establishment of the Venetian and

5266: 5264: 3817:

tolerated as an "open secret" within the slave trade.

3636:

The last slave raid was conducted in 1769, during the

2163:

Various slave routes passed via the Black Sea and the

5299: 4310: 4308: 4306: 3651:

In 1783, the Crimean Khanate was dissolved after the

3143:

further east in Central Asia, as the slave market in

2749:

in Egypt, which received the majority of the slaves.

4409:

https://collections.lib.utah.edu/ark:/87278/s6616pp7

3968: 2547:

resulted in a revival of slavery in Southern Europe

2185:

in exchange for brocades, wool, and other products.

1423:

Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery

5261: 4850: 4848: 4846: 4844: 4842: 4172:

List of Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe

3346: 4715: 4713: 4711: 4709: 4707: 4705: 4703: 4303: 4278: 4276: 3977:put an end to the import of white slaves from the 3241:During the war between the Ottoman Empire and the 5292: 5290: 3578:of the Persian Shah mainly consisted of enslaved 2303:, but from the early 10th century onward it went 5413: 4839: 4142:Kazakh Khanate slave trade on Russian settlement 3201:Our village is burnt and our property plundered. 1809:, the Byzantine Empire imported slaves from the 1538:13th Amendment to the United States Constitution 4976:Helsingin Sanomat månadsbilaga 7/2009, s. 28–33 4731: 4729: 4727: 4725: 4700: 4273: 3493:In this period, African slaves provided by the 3276: 2752:From at least 1382 onward, the majority of the 2367: 1871:; and West to the Ancient Mediterranean world. 5335: 5287: 1994:; or the northern route from Bukhara over the 5041: 5039: 5037: 4900: 4898: 4896: 4894: 3904:Disestablishment of the Istanbul Slave Market 3167:The slaves were captured in southern Russia, 2839: 2133:trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks 1744: 4722: 3659:Circassian slave trade (18th–20th centuries) 3369:Between the 16th century and the end of the 2239:in the Middle East via the Caspian Sea, the 2039:was a market for the Black Sea slave trade. 1874: 1813:, who transported European captives via the 1543:Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom 4328:(in Hungarian). Translated by Nándor Orbán. 3758:The Crimean slave trade was ended with the 3632:in ruins after Russian annexation of Crimea 3373:(1700–1721), the Baltics was a part of the 3105:Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe 3063:Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe 2812:Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe 1849:of particularly women from Caucasus to the 1842:Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe 5350:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 5034: 4891: 4323: 4162:List of Mongol and Tatar attacks in Europe 4122:History of concubinage in the Muslim world 3981:borderlands as it undermined the trade in 3730:History of concubinage in the Muslim world 3435:History of concubinage in the Muslim world 2846: 2832: 2791:, and then from Africa; initially via the 2467:History of concubinage in the Muslim world 2085:History of concubinage in the Muslim world 2063:Byzantine slave trade (5th–13th centuries) 1751: 1737: 5390: 5388: 3640:, when 20,000 people were taken captive. 3255: 2806:Crimean slave trade (15th–18th centuries) 2457:Italian slave trade (13th–15th centuries) 1889:Mine workers in Greece were often slaves. 3695: 3684: 3676: 3668: 3624: 3350: 3280: 3195:"The fires are burning behind the river. 3076: 3068: 3057: 3049: 3041: 2506: 2494: 2486: 2315:in Central Asia and finally via Iran to 2104: 1884: 1548:Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf 1413:Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery 1393:Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90 5120: 4064:, victim of the Circassian slave trade. 3692:, victim of the Circassian slave trade. 3198:The Tatars are dividing their captives. 2219:Route from the Varangians to the Greeks 1815:route from the Varangians to the Greeks 14: 5414: 5399: 5385: 4835:https://doi.org/10.1556/062.2022.00250 4117:History of slavery in the Muslim world 3224: 2853: 2604: 2396: 2113:territories used for the slave trade: 2014:as well as the Black Sea slave trade. 4572: 2827: 2795:from Libya, and then by starting the 2435:owned 3,000 slaves, and when Emperor 2212: 2171: 2017:In the 1st century, the Roman writer 1435:Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention 1112:Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea 5013:Corporation. ISBN 978-1-9845-2419-5. 4127:Human trafficking in the Middle East 4049:, victim of the Crimean slave trade. 1927: 1627:Slave marriages in the United States 1231:Human trafficking in the Middle East 3999:slavery in the United Arab Emirates 3073:Ukrainian cossacks conquer Feodosia 2634:lists the following nations: "many 966:Human trafficking in Southeast Asia 24: 5114: 5072:Jutta Sperling, Shona Kelly Wray, 3681:Circassians leaving their villages 3451: 2756:of the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate, 1840:abducted Eastern Europeans by the 1620:last survivors of American slavery 25: 5548: 5512:Economy of the Republic of Venice 3897: 3782:, where preferred for the use of 3467: 3428: 2732: 2273:or Brännö and from there via the 581:Field slaves in the United States 448:Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate 5376: 5358: 5329: 5320: 4054: 4039: 4027: 4015: 3836:Russian conquest of the Caucasus 3820: 3413:laborers during the building of 3347:Sweden, Finland, and the Baltics 3154: 3088:During the Early Modern age the 2716:Slave trade in the Mongol Empire 2709: 2577: 2237:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate 2195:traveler, remembers it this way: 458:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate 453:Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate 282:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate 52: 5311: 5228: 5217: 5208: 5199: 5105: 5096: 5081: 5066: 5057: 5048: 5025: 5016: 5006: 4997: 4988: 4979: 4970: 4961: 4952: 4943: 4934: 4925: 4916: 4907: 4882: 4826: 4817: 4808: 4763: 4691: 4682: 4673: 4652: 4629: 4620: 4611: 4602: 4581: 4566: 4557: 4548: 4539: 4516: 4507: 4498: 4489: 4480: 4459: 4450: 4400: 4391: 4382: 4373: 4350: 4341: 4332: 4317: 4294: 4285: 3723: 3563:The male Mamluk aristocrats of 3110: 2538: 2429:Slavery in the Byzantine Empire 2423: 1408:Committee of Experts on Slavery 959:East, Southeast, and South Asia 4264: 4255: 4246: 4203: 4194: 4185: 3620: 3542:(r. 1730–1754) and 720 during 2775: 2745:to Italy and Spain; or to the 2523:and the Black Sea slave trade. 2158: 2042: 1107:Slave raiding in Easter Island 13: 1: 5422:1st-century BC establishments 4178: 4157:Slavery in the Ottoman Empire 3930:reported on August 6, 1856: 3861:reported on August 6, 1856: 3713: 3638:Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) 2816:Slavery in the Ottoman Empire 2307:and from there by caravan to 2145: 1767:trafficked people across the 5527:Slavery in the Mongol Empire 4367:"The Slave Market of Dublin" 3760:Russian annexation of Crimea 3734:Islamic views on concubinage 3653:Russian annexation of Crimea 3439:Islamic views on concubinage 3277:Poland–Lithuania and Ukraine 3243:Principality of Transylvania 2447: 2368:Baltics, Sweden, and Finland 2089:Islamic views on concubinage 1856: 1398:Temporary Slavery Commission 1059:Slavery in the Mongol Empire 7: 4069: 3969: 3710:Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje 2617: 2564:fall of Constantinople 1204 2513:battle of Wadi al-Khazandar 2287:, which have been found in 2235:, which exported people to 1934:Slavery in the Roman Empire 1418:Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery 463:Volga Bulgarian slave trade 10: 5553: 5127:Zeitschrift für Ethnologie 4324:ibn Rustah, Ahmad (2017). 4102:Kazakh Khanate slave trade 4008: 3727: 3662: 3432: 2809: 2713: 2460: 2441:Eustathius of Thessalonica 2216: 2066: 1931: 1878: 1860: 1603:Great Dismal Swamp maroons 1440:Anti-Slavery International 1205:North Africa and West Asia 5482:Ottoman period in Ukraine 3967:of Iran, slave soldiers, 3768:trans-Saharan slave trade 3704:merchant (right) and his 3613:, where they were called 3495:trans-Saharan slave trade 3316: 3219:Transatlantic slave trade 2861: 2793:trans-Saharan slave trade 2055:to enslave Shia Muslims. 1881:Slavery in Ancient Greece 1875:Ancient Greek slave trade 1699:Emancipation Proclamation 1371:Opposition and resistance 1129:Sex trafficking in Europe 1117:Blackbirding in Polynesia 680:Trans-Saharan slave trade 5442:History of the Black Sea 3776:Indian Ocean slave trade 3645:Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca 3503:Indian Ocean slave trade 2301:via the Khazar Kaghanate 2201:Magyar country (Etelköz) 2151:sold by their families. 1479:Compensated emancipation 690:Indian Ocean slave trade 5432:1780s disestablishments 3995:slavery in Saudi Arabia 3611:slavery in the Maldives 3477:described the process: 2594:, and the conquests of 2586:, the wars between the 1920:In the 3rd century BC, 1403:1926 Slavery Convention 1159:Germany in World War II 776:North and South America 298:Contract of manumission 5517:Viking Age slave trade 5366:"FATḤ-ʿALĪ SHAH QĀJĀR" 5340:. Tehran. p. 336. 5121:Kulikov, L.I. (2014). 4147:Ottoman wars in Europe 3961: 3942:Ottoman Imperial Harem 3937: 3892:Ottoman Imperial Harem 3868: 3720: 3693: 3682: 3674: 3633: 3576:Safavid imperial harem 3532:Ottoman Imperial Harem 3484: 3366: 3286: 3256:Circassia and Caucasus 3085: 3074: 3066: 3055: 3047: 2782:fall of Constantinople 2524: 2504: 2492: 2210: 2142: 1890: 884:British Virgin Islands 436:Circassian slave trade 402:Safavid imperial harem 397:Ottoman Imperial Harem 5537:Black Sea slave trade 5370:Encyclopaedia Iranica 4573:Tardy, Lajos (1980). 4326:Ibn Rustah és Gardízi 3957: 3932: 3863: 3699: 3688: 3680: 3672: 3628: 3479: 3391:Lovisa von Burghausen 3354: 3284: 3080: 3072: 3061: 3053: 3045: 3024:2nd Russo-Turkish War 2951:1st Russo-Turkish War 2510: 2498: 2490: 2341:in the West, via the 2337:in the North, or the 2317:the Abbasid Caliphate 2197: 2108: 1888: 1765:Black Sea slave trade 1123:Europe and North Asia 1083:Australia and Oceania 783:Pre-Columbian America 355:Slave raid of Suðuroy 287:Slavery in al-Andalus 209:Black Sea slave trade 138:21st-century jihadism 5427:European slave trade 4005:was finally banned. 3975:1828 war with Russia 3927:New York Daily Times 3858:New York Daily Times 3840:Treaty of Adrianople 3738:Ma malakat aymanukum 3443:Ma malakat aymanukum 3054:Crimean Tatar archer 2797:Atlantic slave trade 2533:Venetian slave trade 2479:Ma malakat aymanukum 2475:Venetian slave trade 2313:Samanid slave market 2093:Ma malakat aymanukum 1863:Slavery in antiquity 1578:Indentured servitude 1506:Underground Railroad 1306:United Arab Emirates 695:Zanzibar slave trade 662:By country or region 475:Atlantic slave trade 377:Ma malakat aymanukum 261:Venetian slave trade 5522:Italian slave trade 5502:Circassian genocide 5472:Ottoman slave trade 4137:Barbary slave trade 4112:Red Sea slave trade 3953:E. Alexander Powell 3922:Circassian genocide 3879:to Constantinople. 3780:Barbary slave trade 3772:Red Sea slave trade 3673:Circassian refugees 3604:Bukhara slave trade 3519:Barbary slave trade 3507:Barbary slave trade 3499:Red Sea slave trade 3410:Crimean slave trade 3225:Balkans and Hungary 3141:Bukhara slave trade 3133:Ottoman slave trade 3098:Barbary slave trade 3094:Crimean slave trade 2871:Crimean slave trade 2866:Crimean–Nogai raids 2724:in the Crimea, the 2605:Baltics and Finland 2529:Genoese slave trade 2471:Genoese slave trade 2397:Russian slave trade 2247:and the Black Sea. 2241:Samanid slave trade 2227:Bukhara slave trade 2012:Bukhara slave trade 1947:Mediterranean world 1846:Ottoman slave trade 1834:early modern period 1793:Crimean slave trade 1664:Slave Route Project 795:Americas indigenous 685:Red Sea slave trade 675:Contemporary Africa 538:Topics and practice 308:Crimean slave trade 303:Bukhara slave trade 256:Genoese slave trade 133:Contemporary Africa 113:Forced prostitution 18:Crimean slave trade 5507:Viking Age economy 4736:978-1-108-48754-2. 4132:Turkish Abductions 4107:Balkan slave trade 4087:Russo-Crimean wars 3721: 3694: 3683: 3675: 3634: 3377:, as was Finland. 3371:Great Northern War 3367: 3287: 3137:Khivan slave trade 3086: 3075: 3067: 3056: 3048: 3012:5th and 6th Crimea 2855:Russo-Crimean Wars 2574:in Caffa in 1266. 2568:Republic of Venice 2525: 2521:Balkan slave trade 2515:, 1299, depicting 2505: 2499:Genoese Castle in 2493: 2463:Balkan slave trade 2305:via Volga Bulgaria 2269:or transported to 2267:Dublin slave trade 2223:Khazar slave trade 2213:Viking slave trade 2178:Balkan slave trade 2172:Magyars of Hungary 2143: 2129:Muslim Middle East 2081:Prague slave trade 2077:Balkan slave trade 2073:Dublin slave trade 1982:and from there to 1891: 1779:to slavery in the 1445:Blockade of Africa 752:Somali slave trade 668:Sub-Saharan Africa 360:Turkish Abductions 318:Khivan slave trade 313:Khazar slave trade 266:Balkan slave trade 224:Prague slave trade 5497:Republic of Genoa 5467:History of Crimea 5462:Asian slave trade 5447:Anti-white racism 4152:Slavery in Russia 4082:Slavery in Russia 4022:Caffa in ca 1800. 3888:Kanunname of 1889 3754:white slave trade 3665:Circassian beauty 3600:Aurangabadi Mahal 3363:Nikolay Sauerweid 3357:Peter I of Russia 3236:Habsburg monarchy 3119:– in the Crimea. 3039: 3038: 2572:Republic of Genoa 2275:Volga trade route 2233:Volga trade route 2191:, a 10th-century 2115:Volga trade route 1928:Roman slave trade 1807:Early Middle Ages 1761: 1760: 1711:Freedmen's Bureau 1533:Third Servile War 1528:International law 1095:Human trafficking 857:Human trafficking 532:Thirteen colonies 350:Sack of Baltimore 118:Human trafficking 16:(Redirected from 5544: 5437:Forced migration 5406: 5403: 5397: 5392: 5383: 5380: 5374: 5373: 5362: 5356: 5355: 5349: 5341: 5333: 5327: 5324: 5318: 5315: 5309: 5306: 5297: 5294: 5285: 5282: 5273: 5268: 5259: 5256: 5247: 5244: 5235: 5232: 5226: 5221: 5215: 5212: 5206: 5203: 5197: 5194: 5173: 5170: 5155: 5152: 5143: 5142: 5118: 5112: 5109: 5103: 5100: 5094: 5085: 5079: 5070: 5064: 5061: 5055: 5052: 5046: 5043: 5032: 5029: 5023: 5020: 5014: 5010: 5004: 5001: 4995: 4992: 4986: 4983: 4977: 4974: 4968: 4965: 4959: 4956: 4950: 4947: 4941: 4938: 4932: 4929: 4923: 4920: 4914: 4911: 4905: 4902: 4889: 4886: 4880: 4877: 4868: 4865: 4856: 4852: 4837: 4830: 4824: 4821: 4815: 4812: 4806: 4803: 4794: 4791: 4770: 4767: 4761: 4758: 4737: 4733: 4720: 4717: 4698: 4695: 4689: 4686: 4680: 4677: 4671: 4668: 4659: 4656: 4650: 4647: 4636: 4633: 4627: 4624: 4618: 4615: 4609: 4606: 4600: 4597: 4588: 4585: 4579: 4578: 4570: 4564: 4561: 4555: 4552: 4546: 4543: 4537: 4534: 4523: 4520: 4514: 4511: 4505: 4502: 4496: 4493: 4487: 4484: 4478: 4475: 4466: 4463: 4457: 4454: 4448: 4445: 4436: 4433: 4424: 4421: 4412: 4404: 4398: 4395: 4389: 4386: 4380: 4377: 4371: 4370: 4369:. 23 April 2013. 4363: 4357: 4354: 4348: 4345: 4339: 4336: 4330: 4329: 4321: 4315: 4312: 4301: 4298: 4292: 4289: 4283: 4280: 4271: 4268: 4262: 4259: 4253: 4250: 4244: 4241: 4230: 4227: 4210: 4207: 4201: 4198: 4192: 4189: 4058: 4043: 4031: 4019: 3972: 3718: 3715: 3415:Saint Petersburg 3295:Poland–Lithuania 3169:Poland–Lithuania 3008: 2977: 2946: 2928: 2915: 2897: 2884: 2856: 2848: 2841: 2834: 2825: 2824: 2747:Mamluk Sultanate 2743:Balearic Islands 2722:Genoese colonies 2584:Mongol invasions 2189:Ahmad ibn Rustah 2165:Byzantine Crimea 1753: 1746: 1739: 1723:Emancipation Day 1556: 1523:Slave Trade Acts 214:Byzantine Empire 56: 29: 28: 21: 5552: 5551: 5547: 5546: 5545: 5543: 5542: 5541: 5487:Crimean Khanate 5412: 5411: 5410: 5409: 5404: 5400: 5393: 5386: 5381: 5377: 5364: 5363: 5359: 5343: 5342: 5334: 5330: 5325: 5321: 5316: 5312: 5307: 5300: 5295: 5288: 5283: 5276: 5269: 5262: 5257: 5250: 5245: 5238: 5233: 5229: 5222: 5218: 5213: 5209: 5204: 5200: 5195: 5176: 5171: 5158: 5153: 5146: 5133:(2): 199–213 . 5119: 5115: 5110: 5106: 5101: 5097: 5086: 5082: 5071: 5067: 5062: 5058: 5053: 5049: 5044: 5035: 5030: 5026: 5021: 5017: 5011: 5007: 5002: 4998: 4993: 4989: 4984: 4980: 4975: 4971: 4966: 4962: 4957: 4953: 4948: 4944: 4939: 4935: 4930: 4926: 4921: 4917: 4912: 4908: 4903: 4892: 4887: 4883: 4878: 4871: 4866: 4859: 4853: 4840: 4831: 4827: 4822: 4818: 4813: 4809: 4804: 4797: 4792: 4773: 4768: 4764: 4759: 4740: 4734: 4723: 4718: 4701: 4696: 4692: 4687: 4683: 4678: 4674: 4669: 4662: 4657: 4653: 4648: 4639: 4634: 4630: 4625: 4621: 4616: 4612: 4607: 4603: 4598: 4591: 4586: 4582: 4571: 4567: 4562: 4558: 4553: 4549: 4544: 4540: 4535: 4526: 4521: 4517: 4512: 4508: 4503: 4499: 4494: 4490: 4485: 4481: 4476: 4469: 4464: 4460: 4455: 4451: 4446: 4439: 4434: 4427: 4422: 4415: 4405: 4401: 4396: 4392: 4387: 4383: 4378: 4374: 4365: 4364: 4360: 4355: 4351: 4346: 4342: 4337: 4333: 4322: 4318: 4313: 4304: 4299: 4295: 4290: 4286: 4281: 4274: 4269: 4265: 4260: 4256: 4251: 4247: 4242: 4233: 4228: 4213: 4208: 4204: 4199: 4195: 4190: 4186: 4181: 4176: 4097:Avret Pazarları 4072: 4065: 4059: 4050: 4047:Charlotte Aïssé 4044: 4035: 4032: 4023: 4020: 4011: 4003:Slavery in Oman 3908:Avret Pazarları 3900: 3823: 3756: 3726: 3716: 3667: 3661: 3623: 3569:Nafisa al-Bayda 3470: 3454: 3452:Ransom captives 3445: 3431: 3349: 3319: 3279: 3258: 3227: 3211:Mikhalon Litvin 3157: 3113: 3090:Crimean Khanate 3046:BlackSea1600-es 3040: 3035: 3002: 2971: 2940: 2922: 2909: 2891: 2878: 2857: 2854: 2852: 2822: 2808: 2778: 2735: 2718: 2712: 2620: 2607: 2580: 2541: 2485: 2459: 2450: 2426: 2399: 2370: 2229: 2215: 2174: 2161: 2148: 2109:Routes through 2103: 2065: 2045: 1936: 1930: 1897:In 594 BC, the 1883: 1877: 1865: 1859: 1838:Crimean Khanate 1791:, known as the 1789:Crimean Khanate 1757: 1728: 1727: 1632:Slave narrative 1588:Fugitive slaves 1568: 1560: 1559: 1550: 1518:Slave rebellion 1373: 1363: 1362: 1321: 1311: 1310: 1133:United Kingdom 1069:Yankee princess 663: 655: 654: 382:Avret Pazarları 328:Avret Pazarları 197:Medieval Europe 163: 153: 152: 91:Forced marriage 66: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5550: 5540: 5539: 5534: 5529: 5524: 5519: 5514: 5509: 5504: 5499: 5494: 5489: 5484: 5479: 5474: 5469: 5464: 5459: 5457:Racism in Asia 5454: 5449: 5444: 5439: 5434: 5429: 5424: 5408: 5407: 5398: 5384: 5375: 5357: 5338:Tāriḵ-e ʿażodi 5328: 5319: 5310: 5298: 5286: 5274: 5260: 5248: 5236: 5227: 5216: 5207: 5198: 5174: 5156: 5144: 5113: 5104: 5095: 5087:Mary Ann Fay, 5080: 5065: 5056: 5047: 5033: 5024: 5015: 5005: 4996: 4987: 4978: 4969: 4960: 4951: 4942: 4933: 4924: 4915: 4906: 4890: 4881: 4869: 4857: 4838: 4825: 4816: 4807: 4795: 4771: 4762: 4738: 4721: 4699: 4690: 4681: 4672: 4660: 4651: 4637: 4628: 4619: 4610: 4601: 4589: 4580: 4565: 4556: 4547: 4538: 4524: 4515: 4506: 4497: 4488: 4479: 4467: 4458: 4449: 4437: 4425: 4413: 4399: 4390: 4381: 4372: 4358: 4349: 4340: 4331: 4316: 4302: 4293: 4284: 4272: 4263: 4254: 4245: 4231: 4211: 4202: 4193: 4183: 4182: 4180: 4177: 4175: 4174: 4169: 4164: 4159: 4154: 4149: 4144: 4139: 4134: 4129: 4124: 4119: 4114: 4109: 4104: 4099: 4094: 4089: 4084: 4079: 4073: 4071: 4068: 4067: 4066: 4062:Neshedil Qadin 4060: 4053: 4051: 4045: 4038: 4036: 4033: 4026: 4024: 4021: 4014: 4010: 4007: 3979:Russian Empire 3899: 3896: 3822: 3819: 3725: 3722: 3660: 3657: 3622: 3619: 3617:(Circassian). 3596:Udaipuri Mahal 3469: 3468:Slave captives 3466: 3453: 3450: 3430: 3427: 3375:Swedish Empire 3348: 3345: 3318: 3315: 3278: 3275: 3257: 3254: 3226: 3223: 3206: 3205: 3202: 3199: 3196: 3156: 3153: 3112: 3109: 3037: 3036: 3034: 3033: 3027: 3021: 3015: 3009: 2997: 2991: 2985: 2982:Savisnk Forest 2979: 2966: 2960: 2954: 2948: 2935: 2930: 2917: 2904: 2898: 2886: 2873: 2868: 2862: 2859: 2858: 2851: 2850: 2843: 2836: 2828: 2807: 2804: 2789:Canary Islands 2777: 2774: 2734: 2731: 2711: 2708: 2619: 2616: 2606: 2603: 2579: 2576: 2540: 2537: 2458: 2455: 2449: 2446: 2425: 2422: 2398: 2395: 2369: 2366: 2250:The so-called 2214: 2211: 2173: 2170: 2160: 2157: 2147: 2144: 2064: 2061: 2044: 2041: 1996:Karakum Desert 1929: 1926: 1876: 1873: 1858: 1855: 1827:Ottoman Empire 1759: 1758: 1756: 1755: 1748: 1741: 1733: 1730: 1729: 1726: 1725: 1720: 1719: 1718: 1713: 1708: 1703: 1702: 1701: 1691: 1686: 1681: 1676: 1671: 1661: 1656: 1651: 1646: 1645: 1644: 1639: 1629: 1624: 1623: 1622: 1617: 1610:List of slaves 1607: 1606: 1605: 1600: 1595: 1585: 1580: 1575: 1569: 1566: 1565: 1562: 1561: 1558: 1557: 1545: 1540: 1535: 1530: 1525: 1520: 1515: 1514: 1513: 1503: 1498: 1493: 1492: 1491: 1481: 1476: 1475: 1474: 1469: 1459: 1458: 1457: 1452: 1442: 1437: 1432: 1431: 1430: 1425: 1420: 1415: 1410: 1405: 1400: 1395: 1390: 1385: 1374: 1369: 1368: 1365: 1364: 1361: 1360: 1355: 1350: 1345: 1344: 1343: 1338: 1328: 1322: 1317: 1316: 1313: 1312: 1309: 1308: 1303: 1298: 1293: 1288: 1283: 1278: 1273: 1268: 1263: 1258: 1253: 1248: 1243: 1238: 1233: 1228: 1223: 1218: 1213: 1207: 1206: 1202: 1201: 1196: 1191: 1186: 1181: 1176: 1171: 1166: 1161: 1156: 1154:Dutch Republic 1151: 1146: 1145: 1144: 1139: 1131: 1125: 1124: 1120: 1119: 1114: 1109: 1104: 1099: 1098: 1097: 1086: 1085: 1079: 1078: 1073: 1072: 1071: 1061: 1056: 1051: 1046: 1045: 1044: 1034: 1033: 1032: 1022: 1017: 1016: 1015: 1010: 1000: 999: 998: 993: 988: 978: 973: 968: 962: 961: 955: 954: 949: 942: 941: 940: 935: 925: 920: 915: 914: 913: 903: 898: 897: 896: 891: 886: 881: 871: 866: 861: 860: 859: 854: 849: 844: 839: 834: 829: 824: 819: 814: 804: 803: 802: 792: 791: 790: 779: 778: 772: 771: 766: 761: 756: 755: 754: 744: 739: 734: 729: 724: 719: 714: 709: 704: 699: 698: 697: 687: 682: 677: 671: 670: 664: 661: 660: 657: 656: 653: 652: 647: 642: 637: 632: 626: 625: 621: 620: 615: 613:Child soldiers 610: 605: 600: 595: 590: 589: 588: 578: 573: 568: 563: 562: 561: 556: 551: 540: 539: 535: 534: 529: 524: 522:Spanish Empire 519: 514: 509: 504: 502:Middle Passage 499: 494: 489: 484: 478: 477: 471: 470: 465: 460: 455: 450: 445: 440: 439: 438: 433: 428: 423: 418: 409: 404: 399: 394: 389: 384: 379: 374: 364: 363: 362: 357: 352: 347: 342: 332: 331: 330: 323:Ottoman Empire 320: 315: 310: 305: 300: 295: 290: 284: 278: 277: 271: 270: 269: 268: 258: 253: 248: 247: 246: 241: 236: 226: 221: 216: 211: 206: 200: 199: 193: 192: 187: 182: 177: 171: 170: 164: 159: 158: 155: 154: 151: 150: 145: 143:Sexual slavery 140: 135: 130: 125: 120: 115: 110: 109: 108: 103: 101:Child marriage 98: 88: 83: 78: 76:Child soldiers 73: 67: 62: 61: 58: 57: 49: 48: 38: 37: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5549: 5538: 5535: 5533: 5530: 5528: 5525: 5523: 5520: 5518: 5515: 5513: 5510: 5508: 5505: 5503: 5500: 5498: 5495: 5493: 5490: 5488: 5485: 5483: 5480: 5478: 5475: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5463: 5460: 5458: 5455: 5453: 5450: 5448: 5445: 5443: 5440: 5438: 5435: 5433: 5430: 5428: 5425: 5423: 5420: 5419: 5417: 5402: 5396: 5391: 5389: 5379: 5371: 5367: 5361: 5353: 5347: 5339: 5332: 5323: 5314: 5305: 5303: 5293: 5291: 5281: 5279: 5271: 5267: 5265: 5255: 5253: 5243: 5241: 5231: 5224: 5220: 5211: 5202: 5193: 5191: 5189: 5187: 5185: 5183: 5181: 5179: 5169: 5167: 5165: 5163: 5161: 5151: 5149: 5140: 5136: 5132: 5128: 5124: 5117: 5108: 5099: 5092: 5091: 5084: 5077: 5076: 5069: 5060: 5051: 5042: 5040: 5038: 5028: 5019: 5009: 5000: 4991: 4982: 4973: 4964: 4955: 4946: 4937: 4928: 4919: 4910: 4901: 4899: 4897: 4895: 4885: 4876: 4874: 4864: 4862: 4851: 4849: 4847: 4845: 4843: 4836: 4829: 4820: 4811: 4802: 4800: 4790: 4788: 4786: 4784: 4782: 4780: 4778: 4776: 4766: 4757: 4755: 4753: 4751: 4749: 4747: 4745: 4743: 4732: 4730: 4728: 4726: 4716: 4714: 4712: 4710: 4708: 4706: 4704: 4694: 4685: 4676: 4667: 4665: 4655: 4646: 4644: 4642: 4632: 4623: 4614: 4605: 4596: 4594: 4584: 4576: 4569: 4560: 4551: 4542: 4533: 4531: 4529: 4519: 4510: 4501: 4492: 4483: 4474: 4472: 4462: 4453: 4444: 4442: 4432: 4430: 4420: 4418: 4410: 4403: 4394: 4385: 4376: 4368: 4362: 4353: 4344: 4335: 4327: 4320: 4311: 4309: 4307: 4297: 4288: 4279: 4277: 4267: 4258: 4249: 4240: 4238: 4236: 4226: 4224: 4222: 4220: 4218: 4216: 4206: 4197: 4188: 4184: 4173: 4170: 4168: 4165: 4163: 4160: 4158: 4155: 4153: 4150: 4148: 4145: 4143: 4140: 4138: 4135: 4133: 4130: 4128: 4125: 4123: 4120: 4118: 4115: 4113: 4110: 4108: 4105: 4103: 4100: 4098: 4095: 4093: 4092:Russian lands 4090: 4088: 4085: 4083: 4080: 4078: 4075: 4074: 4063: 4057: 4052: 4048: 4042: 4037: 4030: 4025: 4018: 4013: 4012: 4006: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3990: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3971: 3966: 3965:Qajar dynasty 3960: 3956: 3954: 3949: 3947: 3943: 3936: 3931: 3929: 3928: 3923: 3918: 3916: 3911: 3909: 3905: 3895: 3893: 3889: 3884: 3880: 3878: 3874: 3867: 3862: 3860: 3859: 3852: 3849: 3843: 3841: 3837: 3831: 3827: 3818: 3814: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3794: 3792: 3787: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3764: 3761: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3698: 3691: 3687: 3679: 3671: 3666: 3656: 3654: 3649: 3646: 3641: 3639: 3631: 3627: 3618: 3616: 3612: 3607: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3572: 3570: 3566: 3565:Ottoman Egypt 3561: 3557: 3554: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3527: 3525: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3491: 3488: 3483: 3478: 3476: 3475:Evliya Celebi 3465: 3461: 3458: 3449: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3416: 3411: 3407: 3402: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3387: 3382: 3378: 3376: 3372: 3364: 3360: 3358: 3353: 3344: 3342: 3341:Turhan Sultan 3337: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3324: 3314: 3312: 3307: 3304: 3301: 3298: 3296: 3290: 3283: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3253: 3250: 3248: 3244: 3239: 3237: 3231: 3222: 3220: 3215: 3212: 3203: 3200: 3197: 3194: 3193: 3192: 3189: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3165: 3162: 3152: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3118: 3108: 3106: 3101: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3083: 3079: 3071: 3064: 3060: 3052: 3044: 3031: 3028: 3025: 3022: 3019: 3016: 3013: 3010: 3006: 3001: 2998: 2995: 2992: 2989: 2986: 2983: 2980: 2975: 2970: 2967: 2964: 2961: 2958: 2955: 2952: 2949: 2944: 2939: 2936: 2934: 2931: 2926: 2921: 2918: 2913: 2908: 2905: 2902: 2899: 2895: 2890: 2887: 2882: 2877: 2874: 2872: 2869: 2867: 2864: 2863: 2860: 2849: 2844: 2842: 2837: 2835: 2830: 2829: 2826: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2803: 2800: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2785: 2783: 2773: 2770: 2765: 2763: 2762:Bahri Mamluks 2759: 2758:Burji Mamluks 2755: 2750: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2730: 2727: 2726:Mongol Empire 2723: 2717: 2710:Mongol Empire 2707: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2628: 2624: 2615: 2611: 2602: 2599: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2575: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2560: 2556: 2554: 2550: 2546: 2536: 2534: 2530: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2509: 2502: 2497: 2489: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2454: 2445: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2421: 2419: 2414: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2394: 2392: 2386: 2383: 2377: 2374: 2365: 2362: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2331: 2329: 2325: 2320: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2281: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2263:Moorish Spain 2259: 2255: 2253: 2248: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2209: 2207: 2202: 2196: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2184: 2179: 2169: 2166: 2156: 2152: 2140: 2139: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2125: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2107: 2102: 2098: 2097:Abbasid harem 2094: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2050: 2040: 2038: 2034: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2015: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1939: 1935: 1925: 1923: 1918: 1916: 1912: 1907: 1903: 1900: 1899:laws of Solon 1895: 1887: 1882: 1872: 1870: 1864: 1854: 1852: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1830: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1803: 1801: 1796: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1781:Mediterranean 1778: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1754: 1749: 1747: 1742: 1740: 1735: 1734: 1732: 1731: 1724: 1721: 1717: 1714: 1712: 1709: 1707: 1704: 1700: 1697: 1696: 1695: 1692: 1690: 1687: 1685: 1682: 1680: 1677: 1675: 1672: 1670: 1667: 1666: 1665: 1662: 1660: 1657: 1655: 1654:Slave catcher 1652: 1650: 1647: 1643: 1640: 1638: 1635: 1634: 1633: 1630: 1628: 1625: 1621: 1618: 1616: 1613: 1612: 1611: 1608: 1604: 1601: 1599: 1596: 1594: 1591: 1590: 1589: 1586: 1584: 1583:Forced labour 1581: 1579: 1576: 1574: 1571: 1570: 1564: 1563: 1554: 1549: 1546: 1544: 1541: 1539: 1536: 1534: 1531: 1529: 1526: 1524: 1521: 1519: 1516: 1512: 1509: 1508: 1507: 1504: 1502: 1499: 1497: 1494: 1490: 1487: 1486: 1485: 1482: 1480: 1477: 1473: 1470: 1468: 1465: 1464: 1463: 1460: 1456: 1453: 1451: 1448: 1447: 1446: 1443: 1441: 1438: 1436: 1433: 1429: 1428:Abolitionists 1426: 1424: 1421: 1419: 1416: 1414: 1411: 1409: 1406: 1404: 1401: 1399: 1396: 1394: 1391: 1389: 1386: 1384: 1381: 1380: 1379: 1376: 1375: 1372: 1367: 1366: 1359: 1356: 1354: 1351: 1349: 1346: 1342: 1339: 1337: 1334: 1333: 1332: 1329: 1327: 1324: 1323: 1320: 1315: 1314: 1307: 1304: 1302: 1299: 1297: 1294: 1292: 1289: 1287: 1284: 1282: 1279: 1277: 1274: 1272: 1269: 1267: 1264: 1262: 1259: 1257: 1254: 1252: 1249: 1247: 1244: 1242: 1239: 1237: 1234: 1232: 1229: 1227: 1224: 1222: 1219: 1217: 1214: 1212: 1209: 1208: 1204: 1203: 1200: 1197: 1195: 1192: 1190: 1187: 1185: 1182: 1180: 1177: 1175: 1172: 1170: 1167: 1165: 1162: 1160: 1157: 1155: 1152: 1150: 1147: 1143: 1140: 1138: 1135: 1134: 1132: 1130: 1127: 1126: 1122: 1121: 1118: 1115: 1113: 1110: 1108: 1105: 1103: 1100: 1096: 1093: 1092: 1091: 1088: 1087: 1084: 1081: 1080: 1077: 1074: 1070: 1067: 1066: 1065: 1062: 1060: 1057: 1055: 1052: 1050: 1047: 1043: 1040: 1039: 1038: 1035: 1031: 1030:comfort women 1028: 1027: 1026: 1023: 1021: 1018: 1014: 1013:Chukri System 1011: 1009: 1006: 1005: 1004: 1001: 997: 994: 992: 989: 987: 984: 983: 982: 979: 977: 974: 972: 969: 967: 964: 963: 960: 957: 956: 953: 950: 947: 943: 939: 936: 934: 931: 930: 929: 926: 924: 921: 919: 916: 912: 909: 908: 907: 904: 902: 901:Latin America 899: 895: 892: 890: 887: 885: 882: 880: 877: 876: 875: 872: 870: 867: 865: 862: 858: 855: 853: 852:interregional 850: 848: 845: 843: 840: 838: 837:prison labour 835: 833: 830: 828: 825: 823: 820: 818: 815: 813: 810: 809: 808: 807:United States 805: 801: 798: 797: 796: 793: 789: 786: 785: 784: 781: 780: 777: 774: 773: 770: 767: 765: 762: 760: 757: 753: 750: 749: 748: 745: 743: 740: 738: 735: 733: 730: 728: 725: 723: 720: 718: 715: 713: 710: 708: 705: 703: 700: 696: 693: 692: 691: 688: 686: 683: 681: 678: 676: 673: 672: 669: 666: 665: 659: 658: 651: 648: 646: 643: 641: 638: 636: 633: 631: 628: 627: 623: 622: 619: 618:White slavery 616: 614: 611: 609: 608:Slave raiding 606: 604: 601: 599: 596: 594: 591: 587: 584: 583: 582: 579: 577: 576:Corvée labour 574: 572: 569: 567: 564: 560: 557: 555: 552: 550: 547: 546: 545: 542: 541: 537: 536: 533: 530: 528: 525: 523: 520: 518: 515: 513: 510: 508: 505: 503: 500: 498: 495: 493: 490: 488: 485: 483: 480: 479: 476: 473: 472: 469: 466: 464: 461: 459: 456: 454: 451: 449: 446: 444: 441: 437: 434: 432: 429: 427: 424: 422: 419: 417: 413: 410: 408: 405: 403: 400: 398: 395: 393: 392:Abbasid harem 390: 388: 385: 383: 380: 378: 375: 373: 370: 369: 368: 365: 361: 358: 356: 353: 351: 348: 346: 343: 341: 338: 337: 336: 335:Barbary Coast 333: 329: 326: 325: 324: 321: 319: 316: 314: 311: 309: 306: 304: 301: 299: 296: 294: 291: 288: 285: 283: 280: 279: 276: 273: 272: 267: 264: 263: 262: 259: 257: 254: 252: 249: 245: 242: 240: 237: 235: 232: 231: 230: 227: 225: 222: 220: 217: 215: 212: 210: 207: 205: 202: 201: 198: 195: 194: 191: 188: 186: 183: 181: 178: 176: 173: 172: 169: 166: 165: 162: 157: 156: 149: 146: 144: 141: 139: 136: 134: 131: 129: 126: 124: 121: 119: 116: 114: 111: 107: 104: 102: 99: 97: 94: 93: 92: 89: 87: 84: 82: 79: 77: 74: 72: 69: 68: 65: 60: 59: 55: 51: 50: 47: 43: 42:Forced labour 40: 39: 35: 31: 30: 27: 19: 5477:Nogai people 5452:Trade routes 5401: 5378: 5369: 5360: 5337: 5331: 5322: 5313: 5230: 5219: 5210: 5201: 5130: 5126: 5116: 5107: 5098: 5088: 5083: 5073: 5068: 5059: 5050: 5027: 5018: 5008: 4999: 4990: 4981: 4972: 4963: 4954: 4945: 4936: 4927: 4918: 4909: 4884: 4828: 4819: 4810: 4765: 4693: 4684: 4675: 4654: 4631: 4622: 4613: 4604: 4583: 4574: 4568: 4559: 4550: 4541: 4518: 4509: 4500: 4491: 4482: 4461: 4452: 4411:. p. 244-246 4402: 4393: 4384: 4375: 4361: 4352: 4343: 4334: 4325: 4319: 4296: 4287: 4266: 4257: 4248: 4205: 4196: 4187: 3991: 3962: 3958: 3950: 3938: 3933: 3925: 3919: 3912: 3901: 3898:Slave market 3885: 3881: 3869: 3864: 3856: 3853: 3848:the 1854 ban 3844: 3832: 3828: 3824: 3815: 3795: 3791:Barbary Wars 3788: 3765: 3757: 3750:Abd (Arabic) 3650: 3642: 3635: 3614: 3608: 3592:Mughal harem 3573: 3562: 3558: 3528: 3524:galley slave 3492: 3489: 3485: 3480: 3471: 3464:the Crimea. 3462: 3459: 3455: 3446: 3429:Slave market 3423: 3419: 3403: 3395:Annika Svahn 3383: 3379: 3368: 3355: 3338: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3323:Golden Horde 3320: 3308: 3305: 3302: 3299: 3291: 3288: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3251: 3240: 3232: 3228: 3216: 3207: 3190: 3166: 3158: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3114: 3102: 3093: 3087: 2801: 2786: 2779: 2766: 2751: 2736: 2733:Slave market 2719: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2612: 2608: 2600: 2588:Golden Horde 2581: 2561: 2557: 2542: 2526: 2451: 2427: 2424:Slave market 2415: 2400: 2387: 2378: 2375: 2371: 2363: 2353:via Ladoga, 2332: 2321: 2278: 2260: 2256: 2249: 2230: 2198: 2187: 2175: 2162: 2153: 2149: 2136: 2122: 2057: 2053: 2046: 2035: 2016: 1974:and finally 1941:The Ancient 1940: 1937: 1919: 1908: 1904: 1896: 1892: 1866: 1851:Muslim world 1831: 1804: 1797: 1792: 1764: 1762: 1659:Slave patrol 1496:Freedom suit 1472:Sierra Leone 1462:Colonization 1378:Abolitionism 1358:Baháʼí Faith 1331:Christianity 1281:Saudi Arabia 1137:Penal Labour 1102:Blackbirding 1008:Debt bondage 996:penal system 822:Contemporary 812:Field slaves 800:U.S. Natives 759:South Africa 630:Galley slave 603:Slave market 593:House slaves 566:Blackbirding 544:Conscription 468:21st century 431:Umm al-walad 275:Muslim world 244:Emancipation 208: 148:Wage slavery 128:Penal labour 106:Wife selling 96:Bride buying 81:Conscription 71:Child Labour 64:Contemporary 26: 4077:Wild Fields 3983:Circassians 3946:Qajar harem 3821:Slave trade 3717: 1888 3690:Ikbal Hanim 3517:, from the 3406:Great Wrath 3161:Nogai Horde 3155:Slave trade 3030:Kuban Nogai 3003: [ 2988:3rd Crimean 2972: [ 2941: [ 2933:Sudbinischi 2923: [ 2910: [ 2892: [ 2879: [ 2694:, unknown, 2578:Slave trade 2545:Black Death 2418:Bulgar Khan 2403:Kievan Rus' 2322:Archbishop 2159:Slave trade 2049:Middle Ages 2047:During the 2043:Middle Ages 2000:Caspian Sea 1966:, Almalik, 1945:connecting 1785:Middle East 1674:court cases 1551: [ 1501:Slave Power 1489:Manumission 1336:Catholicism 1211:Afghanistan 952:Puerto Rico 864:The Bahamas 842:Slave codes 645:Shanghaiing 635:Impressment 527:Slave Coast 407:Qajar harem 367:Concubinage 340:slave trade 5416:Categories 5139:1887/32215 4179:References 3807:Abkhazians 3784:concubines 3728:See also: 3724:Background 3706:Circassian 3663:See also: 3615:Charukeysi 3580:Circassian 3501:, and the 3433:See also: 3111:Background 3000:4th Crimea 2969:4th Moscow 2957:3rd Moscow 2938:2nd Crimea 2907:2nd Moscow 2901:1st Moscow 2876:1st Crimea 2810:See also: 2780:After the 2714:See also: 2539:Background 2461:See also: 2351:Baltic Sea 2335:Baltic Sea 2217:See also: 2146:Background 2138:Byzantines 2124:Varangians 2067:See also: 2023:Dioscurias 2021:described 1932:See also: 1879:See also: 1861:See also: 1689:J.Q. Adams 1679:Washington 1649:Slave name 1598:convention 1573:Common law 946:Encomienda 742:Seychelles 727:Mauritania 650:Slave ship 517:Panyarring 512:New France 161:Historical 5532:Silk Road 5346:cite book 4855:0001-6446 3987:Georgians 3811:Abyssinia 3799:Georgians 3621:Abolition 3553:Ahmed III 3548:Ahmed III 3544:Selim III 3536:Murad III 3515:janissary 3399:Afrosinya 3181:Circassia 3177:Wallachia 3026:(1735–39) 3020:(1695–96) 3014:(1687–89) 2953:(1568–70) 2820:Devshirme 2776:Abolition 2592:Ilkhanate 2448:Abolition 2401:When the 2339:North Sea 2311:, to the 2127:) to the 2117:from the 2037:Byzantium 2031:Scythians 2004:Astrakhan 1988:Trebizond 1972:Samarkand 1956:Tian Shan 1943:Silk Road 1915:Scythians 1911:Thracians 1869:Silk road 1857:Antiquity 1800:Silk road 1769:Black Sea 1684:Jefferson 1341:Mormonism 1276:Palestine 1090:Australia 1020:Indonesia 911:Lei Áurea 894:Code Noir 874:Caribbean 847:Treatment 586:Treatment 559:Devshirme 421:Odalisque 239:In Russia 180:Babylonia 168:Antiquity 4070:See also 3774:and the 3648:Crimea. 3588:Armenian 3584:Georgian 3540:Mahmud I 3311:Roxelana 3173:Moldavia 3139:and the 3082:Roxelana 2920:2th Tula 2889:1th Tula 2769:ancillae 2741:and the 2652:Valachus 2618:Caucasus 2590:and the 2559:Crimea. 2553:in Spain 2549:in Italy 2531:and the 2437:Manuel I 2382:Saaremaa 2357:and the 2355:Novgorod 2309:Khwarazm 2265:via the 2252:saqaliba 2069:Saqaliba 1968:Tashkent 1922:Polybius 1913:and the 1783:and the 1777:Caucasus 1775:and the 1716:Iron bit 1706:40 acres 1669:breeding 1484:Freedman 1319:Religion 1179:Portugal 1064:Thailand 1054:Maldives 1049:Malaysia 1042:Kwalliso 986:Booi Aha 938:Restavek 918:Colombia 889:Trinidad 879:Barbados 769:Zanzibar 717:Ethiopia 598:Saqaliba 492:Database 443:Saqaliba 204:Ancillae 34:a series 32:Part of 5492:Mamluks 5372:. 2012. 4009:Gallery 3970:ghilman 3873:Trabzon 3482:sorrow. 3386:Livonia 3247:Moravia 3149:Bukhara 2994:Perekop 2754:Mamluks 2700:Ungalus 2433:Basil I 2411:Kipchak 2391:Daugava 2345:or the 2324:Rimbert 2245:Dnieper 2193:Persian 2131:(red), 2119:Vikings 1998:to the 1984:Antioch 1976:Bukhara 1832:In the 1811:Vikings 1805:In the 1694:Lincoln 1567:Related 1467:Liberia 1353:Judaism 1291:Tunisia 1266:Morocco 1256:Lebanon 1221:Bahrain 1216:Algeria 1184:Romania 1149:Denmark 1142:Slavery 1076:Vietnam 747:Somalia 737:Nigeria 712:Comoros 640:Pirates 549:Ghilman 482:Bristol 372:history 345:pirates 234:History 123:Peonage 46:slavery 5078:p. 256 3877:Samsun 3805:, and 3770:, the 3752:, and 3702:Meccan 3586:, and 3511:Mamluk 3497:, the 3441:, and 3317:Russia 3179:, and 3032:(1783) 2996:(1663) 2990:(1646) 2984:(1632) 2978:(1591) 2965:(1572) 2963:Molodi 2959:(1571) 2947:(1559) 2929:(1552) 2916:(1541) 2903:(1521) 2885:(1507) 2818:, and 2704:Maniar 2696:Borgar 2688:Georgi 2672:Kumuch 2660:Ivlach 2636:Armeni 2517:Mongol 2483:Mamluk 2481:, and 2328:Hedeby 2297:Dublin 2295:, and 2280:dirham 2271:Hedeby 2225:, and 2111:Slavic 2101:Mamluk 2099:, and 2027:Tanais 2019:Strabo 1992:Aleppo 1964:Turpan 1836:, the 1819:Venice 1773:Europe 1615:owners 1251:Kuwait 1246:Jordan 1199:Sweden 1189:Russia 1174:Poland 1169:Norway 991:Laogai 976:Brunei 971:Bhutan 933:revolt 906:Brazil 869:Canada 832:partus 817:female 702:Angola 571:Coolie 554:Mamluk 507:Nantes 487:Brazil 416:Cariye 251:Thrall 219:Kholop 185:Greece 3915:Oromo 3803:Adyge 3746:Jarya 3742:Qiyan 3630:Caffa 3185:Tatar 3145:Khiva 3117:Caffa 3007:] 2976:] 2945:] 2927:] 2914:] 2896:] 2883:] 2739:Crete 2680:Abhaz 2676:Ziqui 2668:Avari 2664:Alani 2644:Gothi 2640:Ziqui 2632:Kaffa 2596:Timur 2501:Caffa 2407:Cuman 2347:Donau 2343:Wisla 2293:Wolin 2289:Birka 2206:Karkh 2183:Kerch 2008:Kazan 1990:, or 1951:China 1823:Genoa 1771:from 1642:songs 1637:films 1555:] 1511:songs 1348:Islam 1326:Bible 1301:Yemen 1296:Qatar 1286:Syria 1261:Libya 1226:Egypt 1194:Spain 1164:Malta 1037:Korea 1025:Japan 1003:India 981:China 928:Haiti 788:Aztec 764:Sudan 732:Niger 624:Naval 497:Dutch 426:Qiyan 412:Jarya 387:Harem 229:Serfs 175:Egypt 5352:link 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Knowledge

Black Sea slave trade

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