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981:, the crime of aggression "means the planning, preparation, initiation or execution, by a person in a position effectively to exercise control over or to direct the political or military action of a State, of an act of aggression which, by its character, gravity and scale, constitutes a manifest violation of the Charter of the United Nations". The criminal prosecution of aggression is limited to the most serious acts of state aggression; non-state aggression, an even more disputed concept, is excluded. The Rome Statute also restricts the crime of aggression to leaders of a state who have the power to determine a state's policy, excluding even high-ranking officials or generals who carry out a war of aggression.
22:
896:, the customary criminalization of aggression covers "planning, or organizing, or preparing, or participating in the first use of armed force by a State against the territorial integrity and political independence of another State in contravention of the UN Charter, provided the acts of aggression concerned have large-scale and serious consequences". Gerhard Werle and Florian Jessberger argue that wars of aggression are criminalized under customary law, but not acts of aggression falling short of war. Others argue for a broader conception, including other acts of aggression that have broad-ranging and severe consequences.
432:
949:("the Statute"), the crime was included as one of the crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court (Article 5.1) and over which any State that becomes party to the Statute accepts the Court's jurisdiction (Article 12.1). However, participants to the Rome Conference could not agree on the definition of the crime nor on further conditions for the Court's exercise of jurisdiction; the Statute did not allow the Court to exercise such jurisdiction until these outstanding issues were solved (Article 5.2). At the 2010
2065:
868:
independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the
Purposes of the United Nations." "Force" refers to armed or military force, defined broadly: it can refer to conventional armies or irregular forces. Although not explicitly stated in the UN Charter, the conventional view is that only state actors can commit aggression. Although self-defense is an exception to the prohibition of force, claims of preventative and pre-emptive self-defense is largely rejected.
740:
Pacific and Indian Oceans, and of all countries and islands therein and bordering thereon" by "wag declared or undeclared war or wars of aggression, and war or wars in violation of international law, treaties, agreements and assurances, against any country or countries which might oppose that purpose." The conspiracy charges were partly successful as the judges accepted that there was a joint conspiracy to wage aggressive war from 1928 to 1945.
419:, six members of the cabinet, and the Finnish ambassador to Germany, but not any generals. Unlike other specifications of the crimes against peace, the Finnish trials charged those who joined the government after 1941 and rejected peace offers from the Soviet Union. Initially seven were convicted and the ambassador was acquitted; the judgement was revised to convict all the defendants with harsher penalties, up to ten years imprisonment with
876:
independence of another State, or in any other manner inconsistent with the
Charter of the United Nations, as set out in this Definition." It includes an incomplete list of acts of aggression and confirms that aggression are committed by one state against another, excluding non-state actors. The resolution also refers to "crime of aggression" and makes it clear that there is individual criminal liability for aggression.
693:), all of them during the Ministries trial. Nevertheless, the trials helped clarify the scope of aggression as a criminal offense, defining its four necessary elements as "a state act of aggression; sufficient authority to satisfy the leadership requirement; participation in the planning, preparing, initiating or waging of the aggressive act; and
1108:. Critics argue that the ICC should not prosecute aggression; a prominent criticism is that justified war is a political determination, and the involvement of a court in such a matter could compromise its legitimacy. A prosecution by the ICC is unlikely because of the narrow scope of the crime and limited jurisdiction.
1133:) are not criminalized as aggression, while lesser infringements involving military force can be criminalized. It is debatable whether prohibiting aggression protects state sovereignty or circumscribes it. Others see aggression as a crime primarily against individuals who are killed or harmed as a result of war.
932:
criminalizing aggression, with different variations in prohibited conduct. Dinstein has argued that national prosecutions for aggression are undesirable as "the nature of crimes against peace is such that no domestic proceedings can conceivably dispel doubts regarding the impartiality of the judges."
919:
argues that aggression can only be committed by a few high state officials who decide to wage aggressive war, and any subordinates who know in advance that their plans will be used to wage an aggressive war. Other jurists require a special intent, in the form of seeking to "achieve territorial gains,
739:
to file more charges as each member of a conspiracy was held responsible for all others acting in the same conspiracy. All of the conspiracy charges related to crimes against peace alleged that the conspiracy sought to "secure military, naval, political and economic domination of East Asia and of the
656:
The main
Nuremberg trial only considered the conspiracy to commit crimes against peace against Austria and Czechoslovakia, ruling that these relatively bloodless invasions were not wars of aggression. The slightly different wording of the offense in Law No. 10 allowed the invasions of these countries
875:
elaborated on the prohibition of the use of force in the UN Charter. Although not legally binding, it influenced the Rome
Statute's definition of aggression. Resolution 3314 generally defines aggression as "the use of armed force by a State against the sovereignty, territorial integrity or political
651:
Initiation of invasions of other countries and wars of aggression in violation of international laws and treaties, including but not limited to planning, preparation, initiation or waging a war of aggression, or a war of violation of international treaties, agreements or assurances, or participation
333:
lobbied for a formal international tribunal with jurisdiction over acts of aggression. In 1944, Trainin proposed that the Nazi leaders could be dealt with either with a tribunal or by "the political verdict of the victorious democratic States". At the time, the Soviet Union still perceived itself as
175:
ruled that aggression was "the supreme international crime" because "it contains within itself the accumulated evil of the whole". The standard view is that aggression is a crime against the state that is attacked, but it can also be considered a crime against individuals who are killed or harmed as
1148:
The traditional view is that only decision-makers can be held criminally responsible for aggression, rather than lower-level military personnel and ordinary soldiers. In recent times, however, there has been consideration as to whether soldiers who knowingly participate in a war of aggression incur
867:
in customary law, such that it is binding on states that are not members of the United
Nations. The most important provision in the UN Charter is Article 2(4): "All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political
461:
The
International Military Tribunal agreed with the prosecution that aggression was the gravest charge against the accused, stating in its judgement that because war in general is evil, "To initiate a war of aggression, therefore, is not only an international crime; it is the supreme international
414:
in
Finland insisted on holding trials for aggression during the second war, as the armistice had required Finnish cooperation in trying those accused of war crimes. The law establishing the tribunal established criminal responsibility for those who "in a significant manner contributed in Finland's
767:
with
Romania obliged the country to apprehend and bring to trial people accused of "war crimes and crimes against peace and humanity". Consequently, on 18 August 1947, Romania issued its "Law for the Prosecution and Punishment of Those Guilty of War Crimes or Crimes against Peace or Humanity". At
264:
cited the loss of "the lives of millions of the best young men in Europe" and "the outrage upon international law which is involved in invading the territory of an independent country without its consent" as a crime for which someone should be held responsible. The proposed prosecution met with
1120:
Wars of aggression entail "legally unjustified killing that is otherwise anomalously non-criminal at both the international and national levels: the killing of combatants and proportionate collateral civilians through a manifestly illegal use of international force". The standard view is that
847:
that was a crime, but aggression in general. Crimes against peace, devised by the Allies as a temporary solution, soon exhausted their usefulness and were abandoned by 1950. In the early 1950s, attempts to codify the crime of aggression in a "Code of
Offences Against the Peace and Security of
598:
granted immunity for such serious crimes. The defendants were prosecuted even for acts that were legal under domestic law. Opinion on the
Nuremberg trials was divided. While some heralded it as a breakthrough in international law, crimes against peace specifically were subject to criticism as
204:, over the centuries, held that a war fought for territorial aggrandizement was unjust, and that just wars are fought only for self-defense, or in defense of allies, against such aggression. The philosophical basis for the criminalization of aggression derives from eighteenth-century theorist
726:
The charge of aggression was central to the trial; 36 out of 55 counts were for crimes against peace. The judgement in the Tokyo Trial was three times longer than the Nuremberg judgement, making it a valuable source of case law on aggression. The majority of the judges followed the Nuremberg
1140:
maintains that serious aggressions, entailing loss of life, can be subsumed under the category of crimes against humanity. Conversely, a war cannot be justified by a minor violation of territorial integrity, and a violation of territorial integrity that does not involve serious human rights
1072:(e) The use of armed forces of one State which are within the territory of another State with the agreement of the receiving State, in contravention of the conditions provided for in the agreement or any extension of their presence in such territory beyond the termination of the agreement;
272:
had the mandate of maintaining international peace. Interwar treaties criminalizing aggression were proposed but not ratified, and there was no progress towards the criminalization of aggression. Aggressive war became progressively delegitimized but was not considered illegal under
358:
decided to criminalize aggression and try their vanquished enemies although at the conference doubts were raised that wars of aggression were illegal under customary law. Both the Soviet Union, which invaded the Baltic States and Poland according to the secret protocols of the
953:("the Conference"), States Parties agreed by consensus to adopt resolution RC/Res.6 accepting the amendments to the Statute adding the definition of the crime and the conditions for the exercise of jurisdiction over this crime. Aggression is one of the core crimes in
721:
the planning, preparation, initiation or waging of a declared or undeclared war of aggression, or a war in violation of international law, treaties, agreements or assurances, or participation in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of any of the
1111:
The ICC's jurisdiction over aggression was activated on 17 July 2018 after a decision by two-thirds of states parties. As of 17 March 2022, 43 State Parties have ratified or acceded to the amendments on the crime of aggression to the Rome Statute.
208:, although Vattel did not envision formal trials for aggression, simply the execution of wrongdoers. Early modern just war theorists conceived aggression as the first wrong committed against another country, rather than the first military strike.
826:
was tried by a Chinese court for aggression, convicted, and executed. Sakai appears to have been responsible for carrying out policies designed by others, which would put him outside the Rome Statute definition of aggression. According to jurist
1186:
379:
they extended into 1949; no one has been prosecuted for aggression before or since. The courts faced the challenge, first of proving the criminality of acts of aggression, and secondly in tying such acts to individuals.
1149:
moral or should incur legal liability. Soldiers have a right and a responsibility to refuse to commit war crimes, but in general the right to refuse to fight an illegal war is not recognized. International law scholar
349:
in ten months. Some prominent United States policymakers thought that execution without trial compromised the principles of the Allies and that formal trials before an international court would lend legitimacy. At the
2424:"Rome statute of the International Criminal Court – Rome, 17 July 1998 – Amendments to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court – Kampala, 11 June 2010 – Adoption of Amendments on the Crime of Aggression"
892:, but there is no agreement on the exact scope of aggression that is covered in customary law. This threshold is probably high, in order to distinguish criminal aggression from other acts of aggression. According to
77:
of ports. In general, committing an act of aggression is a leadership crime that can only be committed by those with the power to shape a state's policy of aggression, as opposed to those who discharge it.
466:, have been widely quoted. The judgement found that there was a premeditated conspiracy to commit crimes against peace, whose goals were "the disruption of the European order as it had existed since the
1075:(f) The action of a State in allowing its territory, which it has placed at the disposal of another State, to be used by that other State for perpetrating an act of aggression against a third State;
950:
313:. Trainin argued that although material and political responsibility rested with the state, criminal responsibility for aggressive war was vested in the individuals exercising authority. He blamed
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aggression is a crime against the state that is attacked. The Rome Statute definition of aggression does not technically require harm to individuals, but the relatively bloodless invasion of the
406:, Finland managed to retake its ceded territory and progressed further to the areas of Soviet Union that had never been part of Finland. In 1944, the war turned against Finland, which signed
141:
1104:
The International Criminal Court may only prosecute an act of aggression if the aggressing state has accepted its jurisdiction over the crime of aggression, or following a referral from the
367:, were aware that they could also be accused of acts of aggression and so they limited the definition of crimes against peace to the actions of their defeated enemies during World War II.
3159:
3147:
281:
did not contain any suggestion that war was criminal, it was cited as a precedent for the prosecution of German and Japanese leaders for waging aggressive wars after World War II.
330:
53:
is the planning, initiation, or execution of a large-scale and serious act of aggression using state military force. The definition and scope of the crime is controversial. The
748:
462:
crime differing only from other war crimes in that it contains within itself the accumulated evil of the whole." These words, originally written in a letter by British judge
457:, or a war in violation of international treaties, agreements or assurances, or participation in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of any of the foregoing.
1181:
301:
developed the ideas that were used to criminalize aggressive war, although he did not attract international attention until 1943. Others making similar proposals included
543:. Although the court did not rule on acts of aggression short of war, it does not preclude the criminality of aggression for less large-scale actions than World War II.
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ruled that "States parties engaged in acts of aggression as defined in international law, resulting in deprivation of life, violate ipso facto article 6 of the"
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2436:
2963:
2822:
2753:
3192:
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1082:, which carry out acts of armed force against another State of such gravity as to amount to the acts listed above, or its substantial involvement therein.
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to be counted as substantive crimes against peace, and ultimately two defendants were convicted for their role in these invasions. Chief prosecutor
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has been part of human experience since the beginning of human history. The criminalization of aggression is of recent origin, dating to after
102:
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of another State, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Charter of the United Nations. Any of the following acts, regardless of a
776:
was rehabilitated by the Romanian Supreme Court on 26 October 1998. Another Romanian sentenced for crimes against peace –
232:
3370:
1153:
argues that soldiers should have a right not to fight in illegal wars, and those who refuse to do so should be recognized as refugees.
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was outlawed "as an Enemy and Disturber of the tranquillity of the World" in what was considered an "Exception to general rules of the
3257:
3185:
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states that the evidence that Greiser had participated in a conspiracy to wage aggressive war is weak or nonexistent. According to
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2352:
784:'s last finance minister (1 April to 23 August, 1944) – was rehabilitated by the Supreme Court on 17 January 2000.
843:
passed a resolution affirming the criminality of "waging aggressive war" and stating that it was not just the aggression of the
375:
Almost all the trials for crimes against peace took place between November 1945 and November 1948, though in some cases such as
475:
325:
and German industrialists for acts of aggression against the Soviet Union, which he described as "the most heinous crime". The
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2754:"The Crime of Aggression: From the Trial of Takashi Sakai, August 1946, to the Kampala Review Conference on the ICC in 2010"
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region annexed from Poland, was tried and convicted by a Polish court in 1946 for aggression among other charges. Historian
3135:
389:
110:
57:
contains an exhaustive list of acts of aggression that can give rise to individual criminal responsibility, which include
3477:
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90:
30:
3227:
3129:
1069:(d) An attack by the armed forces of a State on the land, sea or air forces, or marine and air fleets of another State;
516:
2903:
The Crime of Aggression in International Criminal Law: Historical Development, Comparative Analysis and Present State
2423:
512:
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of the Netherlands – dissented against the prosecution of crimes against peace. The prosecution used
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Jia, Bing Bing (2015). "The Crime of Aggression as Custom and the Mechanisms for Determining Acts of Aggression".
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violations cannot be considered a criminal act of aggression. This conception of aggression could also allow for
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Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States of America, 1776–1949: Multilateral, 1946–1949
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or to obtain economic advantages, or to interfere with the internal affairs" of the state that is aggressed.
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engagement in the war...or prevented peace" between 1941 and 1944. Eight men were tried; wartime president
133:
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May, Larry (2016). "Just War Theory and the Crime of Aggression". In KreĂź, Claus; Barriga, Stefan (eds.).
21:
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Maintenance of international peace and stability is a major function of the international order, and the
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594:. The Nuremberg verdict was groundbreaking, establishing international criminal law and rejecting that
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137:
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10 .b Amendments on the crime of aggression to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.
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831:, he probably would not have been convicted for crimes against peace if tried at the Tokyo trial.
334:
vulnerable to international aggression, which motivated its interest in criminalizing aggression.
3284:
2823:"'Germans are the Lords and Poles are the Servants': The Trial of Arthur Greiser in Poland, 1946"
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prohibits acts of aggression against other states. The prohibition of aggression is considered a
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164:
508:
431:
3441:
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3309:
3126:– Amendments to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court on the crime of aggression
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149:
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2020:
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in 1939 was not prosecuted at Nuremberg. Some severe violations of state sovereignty (such as
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are cited as a reason for the illegality of aggression. Pictured: aerial view of the ruins of
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was skeptical about prosecuting aggression, but ultimately charged defendants in four of the
595:
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Thus, the crime of aggression is distinguished from the act of aggression, defined in the
8:
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2964:"The Finnish War-Responsibility Trial in 1945–6: The Limits of Ad Hoc Criminal Justice?"
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Special international tribunal for the crime of aggression (Russian invasion of Ukraine)
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by the armed forces of a State against the territory of another State or the use of any
216:, saw the principal wrong in aggression in the violation of individual rights. In 1815,
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provided criminal liability for waging aggressive war, which was the main focus of the
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Mankind" stalled. After the 1940s, other crimes against international law, especially
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Aggressive use of state military force that violates the Charter of the United Nations
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10 .a Amendment to article 8 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court
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Rethinking the Crime of Aggression: International and Interdisciplinary Perspectives
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The Crime of Aggression under the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court
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3163:
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2722:
Casey-Maslen, Stuart (2021). "Jus ad Bellum, Aggression, and the Right to Life".
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One controversial issue is whether waging aggressive war inherently violates the
1078:(g) The sending by or on behalf of a State of armed bands, groups, irregulars or
893:
864:
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666:
546:
All 22 defendants were charged with crimes against peace, and 12 were convicted:
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201:
196:, but the idea of aggression as a grave moral transgression and violation of the
106:
82:
495:, and 23 November 1939. The court considered the planning of acts of aggression
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423:. The convicts were treated leniently in prison and all were released by 1949.
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The Nuremberg Military Tribunals and the Origins of International Criminal Law
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in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of any of the foregoing.
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121:. No one has been prosecuted for aggression either before or since the 1940s.
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for aggression was proposed by the United Kingdom and France. In a speech on
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Communist Terror in Romania: Gheorghiu-Dej and the Police State, 1948–1965
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2. For the purpose of paragraph 1, "act of aggression" means the use of
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interpretation of crimes against peace, but two judges –
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Individual Criminal Liability for the International Crime of Aggression
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681:. Of 66 defendants charged with aggression, only three were convicted (
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disapproval from the judiciary and was rejected by the United States.
168:
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38:
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1036:, however temporary, resulting from such invasion or attack, or any
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The philosophical basis for the wrongness of aggression is found in
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The Right to Life under International Law: An Interpretative Manual
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made the first successful proposal to criminalize aggression. The
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UN Treaty Collection (UTC) – Status of Acceptance, Ratification
124:
It is generally accepted that the crime of aggression exists in
3316:
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294:
109:. Other participants in World War II were tried for aggression
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The Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal: Law, History, and Jurisprudence
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The Global Prosecution of Core Crimes under International Law
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1906:
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1020:(XXIX) of 14 December 1974, qualify as an act of aggression:
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The International Criminal Court and the Crime of Aggression
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1942:
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International Day of Innocent Children Victims of Aggression
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and in 1938–1939 it prepared for war with the Soviet Union.
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The planning of aggression was traced to Hitler's 1925 book
2533:"Crime of Aggression Activated at the ICC: Does it Matter?"
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State- versus human-rights-centric approaches to aggression
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were sentenced in 1949 for crimes against peace, although
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International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
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128:. The definitions and the conditions for the exercise of
2796:"The Criminalization of Aggression and Soldiers' Rights"
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International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals
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The crime of aggression was conceived by Soviet jurist
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Dennis Deletant, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 1999,
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1918:
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815:, he would probably not be convicted according to the
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in which an expansionist policy was decided. In 1937,
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Romania Since 1989: Politics, Economics, and Society
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Romania Since 1989: Politics, Economics, and Society
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International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
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Criminal Responsibility for the Crime of Aggression
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3014:The Crime of Aggression, Humanity, and the Soldier
2571:"Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court"
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1055:by a State against the territory of another State;
1044:of the territory of another State or part thereof;
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3138:– Official Site of the Assembly of States Parties
3132:– Official Site of the Assembly of States Parties
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945:In 1998, at the Rome Conference that adopted the
453:planning, preparation, initiation or waging of a
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3386:Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia
3361:International Military Tribunal for the Far East
2886:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 273–286.
2726:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 122–140.
1028:or attack by the armed forces of a State of the
947:Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court
709:International Military Tribunal for the Far East
703:International Military Tribunal for the Far East
2066:David Singer, American Jewish Committee, 2001,
1018:United Nations General Assembly resolution 3314
977:Under the Rome Statute, as amended in the 2010
873:United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3314
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148:of some countries, and can be prosecuted under
3200:
144:. Aggression is criminalized according to the
103:Charter of the International Military Tribunal
3186:
768:least 8 members of the wartime government of
541:Japanese aggression against the United States
2926:'Crimes Against Peace' and International Law
2721:
2774:
1972:
1960:
1948:
1936:
1912:
1096:The list of prohibited acts is exhaustive.
227:
3371:International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
3193:
3179:
2793:
2709:
2697:
2673:
2649:
2637:
2625:
2613:
2598:
2068:American Jewish Year Book 2001, Volume 101
2021:United States, Department of State, 1968,
337:Although there was not much in the way of
3391:Special Panels of the Dili District Court
3078:
2992:
2968:The Hidden Histories of War Crimes Trials
2827:The Hidden Histories of War Crimes Trials
2811:
2758:The Hidden Histories of War Crimes Trials
1062:of the ports or coasts of a State by the
631:testifies for the prosecution during the
503:, as well as wars of aggressions against
345:put together the legal framework for the
87:war without a just cause for self-defense
2961:
1681:
1669:
1657:
1645:
1633:
1621:
1609:
1597:
888:that the crime of aggression is part of
616:
430:
231:
155:Aggression is one of the core crimes in
20:
3030:
2923:
2900:
2323:
2239:
2227:
2212:
2200:
2188:
2176:
2164:
2152:
2051:Henry F. Carey, Lexington Books, 2004,
2008:
1996:
1984:
1924:
1849:
1834:
1822:
1810:
1798:
1786:
1774:
1762:
1750:
1738:
1726:
1711:
1585:
1559:Henry F. Carey, Lexington Books, 2004,
1546:
1534:
1522:
1510:
1498:
1486:
1474:
1462:
1450:
1438:
1426:
1414:
1402:
1390:
1378:
1366:
1351:
1336:
1321:
1246:
1222:
1210:
537:declaration of war on the United States
3455:
3097:
2993:Bock, Stefanie; Conze, Eckart (2021).
2843:
2820:
2350:
2104:
2092:
2080:
1900:
1888:
1876:
1864:
884:It is generally agreed by scholars of
647:, which defined aggression as follows:
3174:
3052:American Journal of International Law
2942:
2884:The Crime of Aggression: A Commentary
2800:European Journal of International Law
2751:
2557:
2519:
2507:
2480:
2463:
2405:
2128:
2116:
1696:
1166:United Nations Human Rights Committee
973:Rome Statute definition of aggression
743:The judgement summarizes the rise of
487:and specific secret meetings held on
2862:
2338:
2311:
2299:
2287:
2275:
2263:
2251:
2140:
1573:
390:War-responsibility trials in Finland
384:War-responsibility trials in Finland
3049:
2881:
2775:Cohen, David; Totani, Yuma (2020).
2685:
2661:
2495:
1302:
1285:
1270:
1258:
1234:
363:, and Western countries, which had
293:led to new thinking on aggression.
91:German invasion of the Soviet Union
31:German invasion of the Soviet Union
13:
2986:
2442:from the original on 24 April 2022
856:, took priority over aggression.
410:on even less favorable terms. The
212:, often considered the founder of
184:
14:
3494:
3117:
2357:Harvard International Law Journal
835:Development in the United Nations
822:In 1946, former Japanese general
2715:
2575:United Nations Treaty Collection
2563:
2525:
879:
717:defined crimes against peace as
635:, giving evidence for aggression
449:defined crimes against peace as
396:the Soviet Union invaded Finland
3064:10.5305/amerjintelaw.109.3.0569
2367:
2344:
2059:
2044:
2029:
2014:
1552:
1099:
940:
928:After 1948, many states passed
923:
841:United Nations General Assembly
787:
747:in the 1930s leading up to the
427:International Military Tribunal
398:, leading to a peace treaty on
343:United States Department of War
284:
173:International Military Tribunal
3432:International humanitarian law
3376:Special Court for Sierra Leone
3083:. Cambridge University Press.
3016:. Cambridge University Press.
2928:. Cambridge University Press.
2779:. Cambridge University Press.
1891:, pp. 179, 181, 186, 201.
1162:international human rights law
1127:foreign electoral interference
988:by the amendments of the 2010
933:Aggression can be tried under
89:is unjust. In the wake of the
1:
1192:
861:Charter of the United Nations
365:planned an invasion of Norway
331:London International Assembly
238:loss of life and harms of war
179:
3396:Special Tribunal for Lebanon
3381:International Criminal Court
2375:"Resolution RC/Res.6 !"
1016:, shall, in accordance with
749:Conference of 11 August 1936
641:Nuremberg Military Tribunals
613:Nuremberg Military Tribunals
607:Nuremberg Military Tribunals
321:, government officials, the
252:, the prosecution of Kaiser
136:were adopted in 2010 at the
134:International Criminal Court
7:
3437:International speech crimes
3218:Customary international law
2970:. Oxford University Press.
2943:Soler, Christopher (2019).
2848:. Oxford University Press.
2829:. Oxford University Press.
2760:. Oxford University Press.
2351:Scharf, Michael P. (2012).
1175:
899:Aggression requires both a
890:international customary law
819:definition of aggression.
663:subsequent Nuremberg trials
539:and prior encouragement of
370:
275:international customary law
142:states parties to the court
126:international customary law
115:subsequent Nuremberg trials
10:
3501:
3478:International criminal law
3258:Convention Against Torture
3202:International criminal law
3079:McDougall, Carrie (2021).
3031:Grzebyk, Patrycja (2013).
2844:Heller, Kevin Jon (2011).
2744:
955:international criminal law
886:international criminal law
758:
706:
610:
387:
339:international criminal law
157:international criminal law
3427:Joint criminal enterprise
3409:
3340:
3271:
3208:
2924:Sellars, Kirsten (2013).
1143:humanitarian intervention
1087:Kampala Review Conference
1032:of another State, or any
990:Kampala Review Conference
979:Kampala Review Conference
839:On 11 December 1946, the
470:" and "the creation of a
412:Allied Control Commission
352:London Conference of 1945
260:, British Prime Minister
200:dates back much farther.
138:Kampala Review Conference
3347:(in order of foundation)
3150:13 December 2014 at the
3012:Dannenbaum, Tom (2018).
2901:Sayapin, Sergey (2014).
2821:Drumbl, Mark A. (2013).
2794:Dannenbaum, Tom (2018).
2752:Clark, Roger S. (2013).
228:World War I and interwar
3285:Crimes against humanity
2962:Tallgren, Immi (2013).
1973:Cohen & Totani 2020
1961:Cohen & Totani 2020
1949:Cohen & Totani 2020
1937:Cohen & Totani 2020
1913:Cohen & Totani 2020
1000:by a State against the
963:crimes against humanity
854:crimes against humanity
165:crimes against humanity
132:over this crime by the
41:in ruins, December 1942
3442:Universal jurisdiction
3417:Command responsibility
3310:Incitement to genocide
3248:United Nations Charter
3098:Politi, Mauro (2017).
2997:. T.M.C. Asser Press.
2947:. T.M.C. Asser Press.
2863:Kemp, Gerhard (2010).
1094:
1010:political independence
935:universal jurisdiction
724:
654:
636:
622:Theodor von Hornbostel
592:Konstantin von Neurath
556:Joachim von Ribbentrop
459:
442:
299:Aron Naumovich Trainin
245:
150:universal jurisdiction
42:
1006:territorial integrity
994:
871:On 14 December 1974,
719:
649:
620:
596:act of state doctrine
476:the frontiers of 1914
451:
434:
235:
113:, Poland, China, the
69:by the use of force,
24:
3343:International courts
3243:Nuremberg principles
3162:15 June 2013 at the
2712:, pp. 868, 870.
2700:, pp. 865, 867.
2435:. 30 November 2010.
2254:, pp. 202, 207.
2119:, pp. 387, 390.
1576:, pp. 209, 211.
765:1947 treaty of peace
588:Arthur Seyss-Inquart
468:Treaty of Versailles
402:in 1940. During the
327:governments-in-exile
277:. Although the 1928
85:, in which waging a
3463:Crime of aggression
3290:Crime of aggression
3253:Genocide Convention
3136:Crime of Aggression
3124:Resolution RC/Res.6
2813:10.1093/ejil/chy054
2664:, pp. 279–280.
2652:, pp. 861–862.
2522:, pp. 104–105.
2510:, pp. 397–398.
2278:, pp. 209–210.
2266:, pp. 207–208.
2242:, pp. 105–106.
2203:, pp. 114–116.
2131:, pp. 396–397.
1987:, pp. 163–165.
1903:, pp. 201–202.
1879:, pp. 180–181.
1801:, pp. 157–159.
1789:, pp. 156–157.
1777:, pp. 155–156.
1765:, pp. 154–155.
1753:, pp. 152–154.
1741:, pp. 151–152.
1729:, pp. 150–151.
1636:, pp. 436–437.
1624:, pp. 435–436.
1273:, pp. 276–277.
1034:military occupation
795:, a Nazi leader in
753:Japan invaded China
745:Japanese militarism
329:represented in the
279:Kellogg–Briand Pact
198:international order
63:military occupation
51:crime against peace
47:crime of aggression
29:in the wake of the
3295:Crime of apartheid
3233:Geneva Conventions
2907:T.M.C. Asser Press
2539:. 19 December 2017
1915:, pp. 69, 71.
1525:, pp. x, 150.
1014:declaration of war
675:High Command trial
637:
509:Denmark and Norway
443:
361:German–Soviet pact
341:to work from, the
303:Hersch Lauterpacht
262:David Lloyd George
246:
43:
3450:
3449:
3276:international law
3238:Nuremberg Charter
3228:Hague Conventions
3130:Review Conference
3109:978-1-351-21829-0
3090:978-1-108-86476-3
3042:978-1-136-00120-8
3023:978-1-107-16918-0
3004:978-94-6265-467-9
2977:978-0-19-967114-4
2954:978-94-6265-335-1
2935:978-1-107-02884-5
2916:978-90-6704-927-6
2893:978-1-107-01526-5
2874:978-94-000-0013-1
2855:978-0-19-955431-7
2836:978-0-19-967114-4
2786:978-1-108-82068-4
2767:978-0-19-967114-4
2733:978-1-108-49478-6
2191:, pp. 82–83.
2179:, pp. 80–81.
1951:, pp. 72–73.
1513:, pp. 67–68.
1489:, pp. 57–58.
1453:, pp. 51–52.
1441:, pp. 49–50.
1393:, pp. 22–23.
1066:of another State;
951:Review Conference
915:, Israeli jurist
809:Catherine Epstein
535:, as well as the
455:war of aggression
447:Nuremberg Charter
437:Robert H. Jackson
435:Chief prosecutor
400:unfavorable terms
354:, the victorious
289:Invasions during
270:League of Nations
214:international law
176:a result of war.
3490:
3410:Related concepts
3348:
3305:Genocidal intent
3195:
3188:
3181:
3172:
3171:
3113:
3094:
3075:
3046:
3027:
3008:
2981:
2958:
2939:
2920:
2897:
2878:
2859:
2840:
2817:
2815:
2790:
2771:
2738:
2737:
2719:
2713:
2707:
2701:
2695:
2689:
2683:
2677:
2671:
2665:
2659:
2653:
2647:
2641:
2635:
2629:
2623:
2617:
2611:
2602:
2596:
2587:
2586:
2584:
2582:
2567:
2561:
2555:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2544:
2529:
2523:
2517:
2511:
2505:
2499:
2493:
2484:
2478:
2467:
2461:
2452:
2451:
2449:
2447:
2441:
2428:
2420:
2409:
2403:
2397:
2396:
2394:
2392:
2387:on 20 March 2012
2386:
2380:. Archived from
2379:
2371:
2365:
2364:
2348:
2342:
2336:
2327:
2326:, p. xviii.
2321:
2315:
2309:
2303:
2297:
2291:
2285:
2279:
2273:
2267:
2261:
2255:
2249:
2243:
2237:
2231:
2225:
2216:
2210:
2204:
2198:
2192:
2186:
2180:
2174:
2168:
2162:
2156:
2150:
2144:
2138:
2132:
2126:
2120:
2114:
2108:
2102:
2096:
2090:
2084:
2078:
2072:
2063:
2057:
2048:
2042:
2033:
2027:
2018:
2012:
2006:
2000:
1994:
1988:
1982:
1976:
1970:
1964:
1958:
1952:
1946:
1940:
1934:
1928:
1922:
1916:
1910:
1904:
1898:
1892:
1886:
1880:
1874:
1868:
1862:
1853:
1847:
1838:
1832:
1826:
1820:
1814:
1808:
1802:
1796:
1790:
1784:
1778:
1772:
1766:
1760:
1754:
1748:
1742:
1736:
1730:
1724:
1715:
1709:
1700:
1694:
1685:
1679:
1673:
1667:
1661:
1655:
1649:
1643:
1637:
1631:
1625:
1619:
1613:
1607:
1601:
1595:
1589:
1583:
1577:
1571:
1565:
1556:
1550:
1544:
1538:
1532:
1526:
1520:
1514:
1508:
1502:
1496:
1490:
1484:
1478:
1472:
1466:
1460:
1454:
1448:
1442:
1436:
1430:
1424:
1418:
1412:
1406:
1400:
1394:
1388:
1382:
1376:
1370:
1364:
1355:
1349:
1340:
1334:
1325:
1319:
1306:
1300:
1289:
1283:
1274:
1268:
1262:
1256:
1250:
1244:
1238:
1232:
1226:
1220:
1214:
1208:
1106:Security Council
1090:
679:Ministries trial
633:Ministries trial
630:
564:Alfred Rosenberg
533:the Soviet Union
404:Continuation War
347:Nuremberg trials
258:11 November 1918
97:, Soviet jurist
3500:
3499:
3493:
3492:
3491:
3489:
3488:
3487:
3453:
3452:
3451:
3446:
3422:Superior orders
3405:
3349:
3346:
3345:
3336:
3278:
3275:
3267:
3223:Peremptory norm
3204:
3199:
3164:Wayback Machine
3152:Wayback Machine
3120:
3110:
3091:
3043:
3024:
3011:
3005:
2989:
2987:Further reading
2984:
2978:
2955:
2936:
2917:
2894:
2875:
2867:. Intersentia.
2856:
2837:
2787:
2768:
2747:
2742:
2741:
2734:
2720:
2716:
2710:Dannenbaum 2018
2708:
2704:
2698:Dannenbaum 2018
2696:
2692:
2684:
2680:
2674:Dannenbaum 2018
2672:
2668:
2660:
2656:
2650:Dannenbaum 2018
2648:
2644:
2638:Dannenbaum 2018
2636:
2632:
2626:Dannenbaum 2018
2624:
2620:
2614:Dannenbaum 2018
2612:
2605:
2599:Dannenbaum 2018
2597:
2590:
2580:
2578:
2577:. 17 March 2022
2569:
2568:
2564:
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2502:
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2479:
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2455:
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2443:
2439:
2426:
2422:
2421:
2412:
2404:
2400:
2390:
2388:
2384:
2377:
2373:
2372:
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2345:
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2250:
2246:
2238:
2234:
2226:
2219:
2211:
2207:
2199:
2195:
2187:
2183:
2175:
2171:
2163:
2159:
2151:
2147:
2139:
2135:
2127:
2123:
2115:
2111:
2103:
2099:
2091:
2087:
2079:
2075:
2064:
2060:
2049:
2045:
2034:
2030:
2019:
2015:
2007:
2003:
1995:
1991:
1983:
1979:
1971:
1967:
1959:
1955:
1947:
1943:
1935:
1931:
1923:
1919:
1911:
1907:
1899:
1895:
1887:
1883:
1875:
1871:
1863:
1856:
1848:
1841:
1833:
1829:
1821:
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1809:
1805:
1797:
1793:
1785:
1781:
1773:
1769:
1761:
1757:
1749:
1745:
1737:
1733:
1725:
1718:
1710:
1703:
1695:
1688:
1680:
1676:
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1596:
1592:
1584:
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1572:
1568:
1557:
1553:
1545:
1541:
1533:
1529:
1521:
1517:
1509:
1505:
1497:
1493:
1485:
1481:
1473:
1469:
1461:
1457:
1449:
1445:
1437:
1433:
1425:
1421:
1413:
1409:
1401:
1397:
1389:
1385:
1377:
1373:
1365:
1358:
1350:
1343:
1335:
1328:
1324:, p. xvii.
1320:
1309:
1301:
1292:
1284:
1277:
1269:
1265:
1257:
1253:
1245:
1241:
1233:
1229:
1221:
1217:
1209:
1200:
1195:
1178:
1164:. In 2019, the
1118:
1102:
1091:
1085:
975:
943:
926:
894:Antonio Cassese
882:
865:peremptory norm
837:
790:
761:
731:from India and
711:
705:
687:Wilhelm Keppler
667:IG Farben trial
624:
615:
609:
517:the Netherlands
497:against Austria
491:, 23 May 1939,
489:5 November 1937
472:Greater Germany
440:(on the pulpit)
429:
392:
386:
373:
287:
230:
202:Just war theory
187:
185:Just war theory
182:
171:. In 1946, the
107:Nuremberg trial
83:just war theory
73:, and military
17:
12:
11:
5:
3498:
3497:
3486:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3448:
3447:
3445:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3413:
3411:
3407:
3406:
3404:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3352:
3350:
3341:
3338:
3337:
3335:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3313:
3312:
3307:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3281:
3279:
3274:Crimes against
3272:
3269:
3268:
3266:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3214:
3212:
3206:
3205:
3198:
3197:
3190:
3183:
3175:
3169:
3168:
3167:
3166:
3154:
3139:
3133:
3127:
3119:
3118:External links
3116:
3115:
3114:
3108:
3095:
3089:
3076:
3058:(3): 569–582.
3047:
3041:
3028:
3022:
3009:
3003:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2982:
2976:
2959:
2953:
2940:
2934:
2921:
2915:
2898:
2892:
2879:
2873:
2860:
2854:
2841:
2835:
2818:
2806:(3): 859–886.
2791:
2785:
2772:
2766:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2740:
2739:
2732:
2714:
2702:
2690:
2688:, p. 283.
2678:
2676:, p. 864.
2666:
2654:
2642:
2640:, p. 862.
2630:
2628:, p. 860.
2618:
2616:, p. 859.
2603:
2601:, p. 861.
2588:
2562:
2560:, p. 105.
2550:
2524:
2512:
2500:
2498:, p. 284.
2485:
2483:, p. 104.
2468:
2466:, p. 393.
2453:
2432:United Nations
2410:
2398:
2366:
2343:
2341:, p. 194.
2328:
2316:
2314:, p. 212.
2304:
2302:, p. 210.
2292:
2290:, p. 211.
2280:
2268:
2256:
2244:
2232:
2230:, p. 105.
2217:
2215:, p. 104.
2205:
2193:
2181:
2169:
2157:
2145:
2143:, p. 205.
2133:
2121:
2109:
2107:, p. 427.
2097:
2095:, p. 423.
2085:
2083:, p. 411.
2073:
2058:
2043:
2028:
2013:
2011:, p. 167.
2001:
1999:, p. 166.
1989:
1977:
1965:
1953:
1941:
1929:
1927:, p. 161.
1917:
1905:
1893:
1881:
1869:
1867:, p. 179.
1854:
1839:
1837:, p. 148.
1827:
1825:, p. 160.
1815:
1813:, p. 159.
1803:
1791:
1779:
1767:
1755:
1743:
1731:
1716:
1714:, p. 150.
1701:
1699:, p. 392.
1686:
1684:, p. 441.
1674:
1672:, p. 440.
1662:
1660:, p. 439.
1650:
1648:, p. 438.
1638:
1626:
1614:
1612:, p. 433.
1602:
1600:, p. 432.
1590:
1588:, p. 149.
1578:
1566:
1551:
1549:, p. xii.
1539:
1527:
1515:
1503:
1491:
1479:
1467:
1455:
1443:
1431:
1419:
1407:
1395:
1383:
1371:
1356:
1341:
1326:
1307:
1305:, p. 279.
1290:
1288:, p. 278.
1275:
1263:
1261:, p. 274.
1251:
1249:, p. xvi.
1239:
1237:, p. 273.
1227:
1215:
1213:, p. 165.
1197:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1190:
1189:
1184:
1177:
1174:
1160:guaranteed in
1151:Tom Dannenbaum
1117:
1114:
1101:
1098:
1093:
1092:
1089:, 11 June 2010
1083:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1056:
1045:
974:
971:
942:
939:
925:
922:
917:Yoram Dinstein
911:. In terms of
881:
878:
836:
833:
829:Roger S. Clark
813:Mark A. Drumbl
793:Arthur Greiser
789:
786:
760:
757:
729:Radhabinod Pal
707:Main article:
704:
701:
659:Telford Taylor
643:were based on
611:Main article:
608:
605:
560:Wilhelm Keitel
548:Hermann Göring
501:Czechoslovakia
493:22 August 1939
428:
425:
388:Main article:
385:
382:
372:
369:
307:Marcel de Baer
297:criminologist
286:
283:
229:
226:
222:Law of Nations
206:Emer de Vattel
186:
183:
181:
178:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3496:
3495:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3461:
3460:
3458:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3414:
3412:
3408:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3353:
3351:
3344:
3339:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3322:Slave trading
3320:
3318:
3315:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3302:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3282:
3280:
3277:
3270:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3215:
3213:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3196:
3191:
3189:
3184:
3182:
3177:
3176:
3173:
3165:
3161:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3149:
3146:
3143:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3134:
3131:
3128:
3125:
3122:
3121:
3111:
3105:
3102:. Routledge.
3101:
3096:
3092:
3086:
3082:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3048:
3044:
3038:
3035:. Routledge.
3034:
3029:
3025:
3019:
3015:
3010:
3006:
3000:
2996:
2991:
2990:
2979:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2960:
2956:
2950:
2946:
2941:
2937:
2931:
2927:
2922:
2918:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2899:
2895:
2889:
2885:
2880:
2876:
2870:
2866:
2861:
2857:
2851:
2847:
2842:
2838:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2819:
2814:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2792:
2788:
2782:
2778:
2773:
2769:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2750:
2749:
2735:
2729:
2725:
2718:
2711:
2706:
2699:
2694:
2687:
2682:
2675:
2670:
2663:
2658:
2651:
2646:
2639:
2634:
2627:
2622:
2615:
2610:
2608:
2600:
2595:
2593:
2576:
2572:
2566:
2559:
2554:
2538:
2537:Just Security
2534:
2528:
2521:
2516:
2509:
2504:
2497:
2492:
2490:
2482:
2477:
2475:
2473:
2465:
2460:
2458:
2438:
2434:
2433:
2425:
2419:
2417:
2415:
2408:, p. 89.
2407:
2402:
2383:
2376:
2370:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2347:
2340:
2335:
2333:
2325:
2320:
2313:
2308:
2301:
2296:
2289:
2284:
2277:
2272:
2265:
2260:
2253:
2248:
2241:
2236:
2229:
2224:
2222:
2214:
2209:
2202:
2197:
2190:
2185:
2178:
2173:
2167:, p. 77.
2166:
2161:
2155:, p. 76.
2154:
2149:
2142:
2137:
2130:
2125:
2118:
2113:
2106:
2101:
2094:
2089:
2082:
2077:
2071:
2069:
2062:
2056:
2054:
2047:
2041:
2039:
2032:
2026:
2024:
2017:
2010:
2005:
1998:
1993:
1986:
1981:
1975:, p. 74.
1974:
1969:
1963:, p. 75.
1962:
1957:
1950:
1945:
1939:, p. 70.
1938:
1933:
1926:
1921:
1914:
1909:
1902:
1897:
1890:
1885:
1878:
1873:
1866:
1861:
1859:
1852:, p. xi.
1851:
1846:
1844:
1836:
1831:
1824:
1819:
1812:
1807:
1800:
1795:
1788:
1783:
1776:
1771:
1764:
1759:
1752:
1747:
1740:
1735:
1728:
1723:
1721:
1713:
1708:
1706:
1698:
1693:
1691:
1683:
1682:Tallgren 2013
1678:
1671:
1670:Tallgren 2013
1666:
1659:
1658:Tallgren 2013
1654:
1647:
1646:Tallgren 2013
1642:
1635:
1634:Tallgren 2013
1630:
1623:
1622:Tallgren 2013
1618:
1611:
1610:Tallgren 2013
1606:
1599:
1598:Tallgren 2013
1594:
1587:
1582:
1575:
1570:
1564:
1562:
1555:
1548:
1543:
1537:, p. 38.
1536:
1531:
1524:
1519:
1512:
1507:
1501:, p. 67.
1500:
1495:
1488:
1483:
1477:, p. 57.
1476:
1471:
1465:, p. 53.
1464:
1459:
1452:
1447:
1440:
1435:
1429:, p. 40.
1428:
1423:
1417:, p. 23.
1416:
1411:
1405:, p. 28.
1404:
1399:
1392:
1387:
1381:, p. 45.
1380:
1375:
1368:
1363:
1361:
1353:
1348:
1346:
1339:, p. ix.
1338:
1333:
1331:
1323:
1318:
1316:
1314:
1312:
1304:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1287:
1282:
1280:
1272:
1267:
1260:
1255:
1248:
1243:
1236:
1231:
1225:, p. xv.
1224:
1219:
1212:
1207:
1205:
1203:
1198:
1188:
1185:
1183:
1180:
1179:
1173:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1158:right to life
1154:
1152:
1146:
1144:
1139:
1134:
1132:
1131:regime change
1128:
1124:
1113:
1109:
1107:
1097:
1088:
1081:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1022:
1021:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
993:
991:
987:
982:
980:
970:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
938:
936:
931:
921:
918:
914:
910:
909:
904:
903:
897:
895:
891:
887:
880:Customary law
877:
874:
869:
866:
862:
857:
855:
851:
846:
842:
832:
830:
825:
824:Takashi Sakai
820:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
785:
783:
782:Ion Antonescu
779:
775:
771:
770:Ion Antonescu
766:
756:
754:
750:
746:
741:
738:
734:
730:
723:
718:
716:
715:Tokyo Charter
710:
700:
698:
697:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
653:
648:
646:
642:
634:
628:
623:
619:
614:
604:
602:
601:ex post facto
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
577:
573:
569:
568:Wilhelm Frick
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
544:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
485:
479:
477:
473:
469:
465:
464:Robert Wright
458:
456:
450:
448:
441:
438:
433:
424:
422:
418:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
391:
381:
378:
368:
366:
362:
357:
353:
348:
344:
340:
335:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
311:Bohuslav EÄŤer
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
282:
280:
276:
271:
268:Instead, the
266:
263:
259:
255:
251:
243:
239:
234:
225:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
177:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
153:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
122:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
79:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
40:
36:
32:
28:
23:
19:
3473:Military law
3468:Wars by type
3289:
3263:Rome Statute
3099:
3080:
3055:
3051:
3032:
3013:
2994:
2967:
2944:
2925:
2902:
2883:
2864:
2845:
2826:
2803:
2799:
2776:
2757:
2723:
2717:
2705:
2693:
2681:
2669:
2657:
2645:
2633:
2621:
2579:. Retrieved
2565:
2553:
2541:. Retrieved
2536:
2527:
2515:
2503:
2444:. Retrieved
2430:
2401:
2389:. Retrieved
2382:the original
2369:
2360:
2356:
2346:
2324:Sayapin 2014
2319:
2307:
2295:
2283:
2271:
2259:
2247:
2240:Sayapin 2014
2235:
2228:Sayapin 2014
2213:Sayapin 2014
2208:
2201:Sayapin 2014
2196:
2189:Sayapin 2014
2184:
2177:Sayapin 2014
2172:
2165:Sayapin 2014
2160:
2153:Sayapin 2014
2148:
2136:
2124:
2112:
2100:
2088:
2076:
2067:
2061:
2052:
2046:
2037:
2031:
2022:
2016:
2009:Sayapin 2014
2004:
1997:Sayapin 2014
1992:
1985:Sayapin 2014
1980:
1968:
1956:
1944:
1932:
1925:Sayapin 2014
1920:
1908:
1896:
1884:
1872:
1850:Sellars 2013
1835:Sayapin 2014
1830:
1823:Sayapin 2014
1818:
1811:Sayapin 2014
1806:
1799:Sayapin 2014
1794:
1787:Sayapin 2014
1782:
1775:Sayapin 2014
1770:
1763:Sayapin 2014
1758:
1751:Sayapin 2014
1746:
1739:Sayapin 2014
1734:
1727:Sayapin 2014
1712:Sayapin 2014
1677:
1665:
1653:
1641:
1629:
1617:
1605:
1593:
1586:Sayapin 2014
1581:
1569:
1560:
1554:
1547:Sellars 2013
1542:
1535:Sayapin 2014
1530:
1523:Sellars 2013
1518:
1511:Sellars 2013
1506:
1499:Sellars 2013
1494:
1487:Sellars 2013
1482:
1475:Sellars 2013
1470:
1463:Sellars 2013
1458:
1451:Sellars 2013
1446:
1439:Sellars 2013
1434:
1427:Sellars 2013
1422:
1415:Sellars 2013
1410:
1403:Sellars 2013
1398:
1391:Sellars 2013
1386:
1379:Sellars 2013
1374:
1369:, p. x.
1367:Sellars 2013
1354:, p. 1.
1352:Sellars 2013
1337:Sellars 2013
1322:Sayapin 2014
1266:
1254:
1247:Sayapin 2014
1242:
1230:
1223:Sayapin 2014
1218:
1211:Sellars 2013
1155:
1147:
1136:Philosopher
1135:
1119:
1110:
1103:
1100:Jurisdiction
1095:
1064:armed forces
1042:use of force
995:
992:as follows:
986:Rome Statute
983:
976:
957:, alongside
944:
941:Rome Statute
927:
924:National law
912:
906:
900:
898:
883:
870:
858:
838:
821:
817:Rome Statute
791:
788:Other trials
778:Gheron Netta
762:
742:
725:
720:
712:
694:
691:Paul Koerner
683:Hans Lammers
655:
650:
638:
600:
580:Erich Raeder
572:Walther Funk
545:
482:
480:
460:
452:
444:
439:
408:an armistice
393:
374:
336:
315:Adolf Hitler
291:World War II
288:
285:World War II
267:
247:
242:Vaux, France
210:Hugo Grotius
194:World War II
188:
159:, alongside
154:
130:jurisdiction
123:
99:Aron Trainin
95:World War II
80:
55:Rome Statute
50:
46:
44:
37:. Pictured:
35:World War II
27:Aron Trainin
18:
3483:State crime
2105:Drumbl 2013
2093:Drumbl 2013
2081:Drumbl 2013
1901:Heller 2011
1889:Heller 2011
1877:Heller 2011
1865:Heller 2011
1123:Czech lands
1080:mercenaries
1049:Bombardment
1002:sovereignty
998:armed force
930:statute law
845:Axis powers
774:one of them
733:Bert Röling
671:Krupp trial
625: [
584:Alfred Jodl
576:Karl Dönitz
552:Rudolf Hess
319:his cabinet
250:World War I
146:statute law
119:Tokyo trial
71:bombardment
3457:Categories
3327:Starvation
2558:Soler 2019
2520:Soler 2019
2508:Clark 2013
2481:Soler 2019
2464:Clark 2013
2406:Soler 2019
2129:Clark 2013
2117:Clark 2013
1697:Clark 2013
1193:References
1129:aiming at
1038:annexation
967:war crimes
908:actus reus
799:and later
737:conspiracy
722:foregoing.
645:Law No. 10
525:Yugoslavia
521:Luxembourg
484:Mein Kampf
421:hard labor
417:Risto Ryti
323:Nazi Party
254:Wilhelm II
180:Background
169:war crimes
117:, and the
111:in Finland
67:annexation
39:Stalingrad
3332:War crime
3072:147754466
2339:Kemp 2010
2312:Kemp 2010
2300:Kemp 2010
2288:Kemp 2010
2276:Kemp 2010
2264:Kemp 2010
2252:Kemp 2010
2141:Kemp 2010
1574:Kemp 2010
1138:Larry May
1030:territory
805:Warthegau
801:Gauleiter
394:In 1939,
3300:Genocide
3160:Archived
3148:Archived
2686:May 2016
2662:May 2016
2581:17 March
2496:May 2016
2446:9 August
2437:Archived
2070:, p. 430
2040:, p. 131
2025:, p. 405
1303:May 2016
1286:May 2016
1271:May 2016
1259:May 2016
1235:May 2016
1176:See also
1084:—
1060:blockade
1058:(c) The
1026:invasion
1024:(a) The
959:genocide
913:mens rea
902:mens rea
850:genocide
696:mens rea
371:Case law
218:Napoleon
161:genocide
75:blockade
59:invasion
3210:Sources
2745:Sources
2543:2 March
2055:, p. 75
1563:, p. 75
1053:weapons
1040:by the
803:in the
759:Romania
513:Belgium
474:beyond
377:Romania
244:, 1918.
190:Warfare
140:by the
93:during
33:during
3317:Piracy
3106:
3087:
3070:
3039:
3020:
3001:
2974:
2951:
2932:
2913:
2890:
2871:
2852:
2833:
2783:
2764:
2730:
2391:14 May
2363:: 357.
965:, and
797:Danzig
689:, and
677:, and
665:: the
590:, and
531:, and
529:Greece
505:Poland
356:Allies
309:, and
295:Soviet
248:After
167:, and
3068:S2CID
2440:(PDF)
2427:(PDF)
2385:(PDF)
2378:(PDF)
629:]
603:law.
3104:ISBN
3085:ISBN
3037:ISBN
3018:ISBN
2999:ISBN
2972:ISBN
2949:ISBN
2930:ISBN
2911:ISBN
2888:ISBN
2869:ISBN
2850:ISBN
2831:ISBN
2781:ISBN
2762:ISBN
2728:ISBN
2583:2022
2545:2022
2448:2022
2393:2012
1047:(b)
905:and
852:and
763:The
713:The
639:The
519:and
499:and
478:".
445:The
236:The
3060:doi
3056:109
2808:doi
1008:or
699:".
224:".
49:or
3459::
3066:.
3054:.
2966:.
2909:.
2905:.
2825:.
2804:29
2802:.
2798:.
2756:.
2606:^
2591:^
2573:.
2535:.
2488:^
2471:^
2456:^
2429:.
2413:^
2361:53
2359:.
2355:.
2331:^
2220:^
1857:^
1842:^
1719:^
1704:^
1689:^
1359:^
1344:^
1329:^
1310:^
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