1230:, who Israel said was responsible for hundreds of civilian deaths. The attack also killed 14 others (including his wife and 9 children). It had targeted the building where Shahade hid in Gaza City. It also wounded some 150 Palestinians, according to the complaint (or 50, according to other reports). The Israeli chief of operations and prime minister apologized officially, saying they were unaware, due to faulty intelligence, that civilians were in the house. The investigation in the case was halted on 30 June 2009 by a decision of a panel of 18 judges of the Audiencia Nacional. The Spanish Court of Appeals rejected the lower court's decision, and on appeal in April 2010 the Supreme Court of Spain upheld the Court of Appeals decision against conducting an official inquiry into the IDF's targeted killing of Shehadeh.
670:. The ICJ's decision issued on 14 February 2002 found that it did not have jurisdiction to consider the question of universal jurisdiction, instead deciding the question on the basis of immunity of high-ranking state officials. However, the matter was addressed in separate and dissenting opinions, such as that of President Guillaume who concluded that universal jurisdiction exists only in relation to piracy; and the dissenting opinion of Judge Oda who recognised piracy, hijacking, terrorism and genocide as crimes subject to universal jurisdiction.
194:
573:(SCSL) that was set up under the auspices of a treaty that binds only the United Nations and the Government of Sierra Leone. Taylor contested the Special Court's jurisdiction, claiming immunity, but the Special Court for Sierra Leone concluded in 2004 that "the sovereign equality of states does not prevent a head of state from being prosecuted before an international criminal tribunal or court". The Special Court convicted Taylor in 2012 and sentenced him to fifty years' imprisonment, making him the first head of state since the
1179:. This investigation follows a Spanish Constitutional Court (26 September 2005) ruling that Spanish courts could try genocide cases even if they did not involve Spanish nationals. China denounced the investigation as an interference in its internal affairs and dismissed the allegations as "sheer fabrication". The case was shelved in 2010, because of a law passed in 2009 that restricted High Court investigations to those "involving Spanish victims, suspects who are in Spain, or some other obvious link with Spain".
554:
also stated that when abroad, state officials may enjoy immunity from arrest in another state on criminal charges, including charges of war crimes or crimes against humanity. But the ICJ qualified its conclusions, saying that state officers "may be subject to criminal proceedings before certain international criminal courts, where they have jurisdiction. Examples include the
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda ..., and the future
176:
1546:
410:
1427:(2008â2009). The warrant was issued on 12 December and revoked on 14 December 2009 after it was revealed that Livni had not entered British territory. The warrant was later denounced as "cynical" by the Israeli foreign ministry, while Livni's office said she was "proud of all her decisions in Operation Cast Lead". Livni herself called the arrest warrant "an abuse of the British legal system". Similarly a January visit to Britain by a team of
1459:
been to the United States, and even when the person has never conspired or assisted in the commission of a crime within the United States, there is a functioning government which could try the person for the crime committed there, and notwithstanding the existence of a proper treaty of extradition between that country and the United States, ignoring the provisions of the treaty and capturing or killing the person directly.
1139:, were formally charged on 7 July 2006 to appear in the Spanish National Court after Spain's Constitutional Court ruled in September 2005, the Spanish Constitutional Court declaration that the "principle of universal jurisdiction prevails over the existence of national interests", following the Menchu suit brought against the officials for atrocities committed in the
968:
covered under international customary law. As a supplemental form of jurisdiction, a further argument is made on the basis of protective jurisdiction. Protective jurisdiction is a principle that "provides that states may exercise jurisdiction over aliens who have committed an act abroad which is deemed prejudicial to the security of the particular state concerned".
380:(1988)). In more recent years, however, a broad global consensus has emerged in permitting its use in the case of torture, "forced disappearances" or terrorist offences (due in part to it being permitted by the various United Nations conventions on terrorism); but its application in other areas is still highly controversial. For example, former dictator of Chile
3400:
465:
rape, slavery, persecution, extermination, and torture. Universal jurisdiction over the crimes enumerated in the Rome
Statute was rejected by the signing parties, however universal jurisdiction is what allows the United Nations Security Council to refer specific situations to the ICC. This has only happened with Darfur (2005) and Libya (2011).
3408:
1488:
held that, notwithstanding the existence of an extradition treaty with Mexico, it was still legal for the federal government of the United States to exercise self-help by forcibly abducting him on a street in Mexico and bringing him to the United States to stand trial. In
Alvarez-Machain's subsequent
710:
law professor, has argued that these laws go further than the Rome
Statute, providing Canadian courts with jurisdiction over acts pre-dating the ICC and occurring in territories outside of ICC member-states; "as a result, anyone who is present in Canada and alleged to have committed genocide, torture
553:
concluded that state officials may have immunity under international law while serving in office. The court stated that immunity was not granted to state officials for their own benefit, but instead to ensure the effective performance of their functions on behalf of their respective states. The court
276:
enforcing universal principles of right and wrong could prosecute acts without a particular geographic location, Nazi "crimes against the peace of the world"âeven if the acts were perfectly legal at the time in
Fascist Germany. Indeed, one charge was Nazi law itself became a crime, law distorted into
1110:
Spanish law recognizes the principle of universal jurisdiction. Article 23.4 of the
Judicial Power Organization Act (LOPJ), enacted on 1 July 1985, establishes that Spanish courts have jurisdiction over crimes committed by Spaniards or foreign citizens outside Spain when such crimes can be described
967:
Israel argued universal jurisdiction based on the "universal character of the crimes in question" and that the crimes committed by
Eichmann were not only in violation of Israel law, but were considered "grave offenses against the law of nations itself". It also asserted that the crime of genocide is
1533:
One of the major logistical issues a court may run into during an application of universal jurisdiction is the accessibility of witnesses. States do not have the legal authority to summon witnesses who currently reside abroad to appear before their national courts, nor do they always have access to
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in the apprehension or killing persons who are suspected of conspiring to commit crimes within the United States from outside of the country or committing crimes against
American officials outside of the United States. This has occurred even when the suspect is not a United States person, has never
464:
signed in 1998. A serious international crime is outlined in
Article 7 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal court as a serious criminal act committed as part of a "widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population, with knowledge of the attack", including murder,
292:
remarked that his colleague
Justice Jackson acting as Nuremberg Chief prosecutor was "conducting his high-grade lynching party in Nuremberg. I don't mind what he does to the Nazis, but I hate to see the pretense that he is running a court and proceeding according to common law. This is a little too
963:
Eichmann's defense lawyer argued that Israel did not have jurisdiction on account of Israel not having come into existence until 1948. The Genocide Convention also did not come into effect until 1951, and the Genocide Convention does not automatically provide for universal jurisdiction. It is also
605:
In 1993, Belgium's Parliament passed a "law of universal jurisdiction" (sometimes referred to as "Belgium's genocide law"), allowing it to judge people accused of war crimes, crimes against humanity or genocide. In 2001, four Rwandan citizens were convicted and given sentences from 12 to 20 years'
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on behalf of persons tortured in US detention camps, invoking the universal jurisdiction doctrine. Bush cancelled his trip to Switzerland after news of the planned prosecution came to light. Bush has traveled to Canada but the Canadian government shut down the prosecution in advance of his arrest.
219:, says that "All nations ... are governed partly by their own particular laws, and partly by those laws which are common to all, natural Reason appoints for all mankind." Expanding on the classical understanding of universal law accessible by reason, in the seventeenth century, the Dutch jurist
327:
Amongst the vast spread of literature surrounding the theory, application, and history of Universal Jurisdiction, there are two approaches: the "global enforcer" and the "no safe haven". "Global enforcer" refers to the usage of Universal Jurisdiction as an active way of preventing and punishing
513:
are obliged whenever a person suspected of torture is found in their territory to submit the case to their prosecuting authorities for the purposes of prosecution, or to extradite that person. In addition, it is now widely recognized that states, even those that are not states parties to these
496:
Amnesty International argues that since the end of the Second World War over fifteen states have conducted investigations, commenced prosecutions and completed trials based on universal jurisdiction for the crimes or arrested people with a view to extraditing the persons to a state seeking to
492:
Universal jurisdiction may be asserted by a particular nation as well as by an international tribunal. The result is the same: individuals become answerable for crimes defined and prosecuted regardless of where they live, or where the conduct occurred; crimes said to be so grievous as to be
344:). As an example, the United States asserts jurisdiction over stateless vessels carrying illicit drugs on international watersâbut here the US reaches across national borders to enforce its own law, rather than invoking universal jurisdiction and trans-national standards of right and wrong.
577:
after World War II to be tried and convicted by an international court. In sum, the question whether a former head of state might have immunity depends on which international court or tribunal endeavors to try him, how the court is constituted, and how it interprets its own mandate.
1111:
according to Spanish criminal law as genocide, terrorism, or some other, as well as any other crime that, according to international treaties or conventions, must be prosecuted in Spain. On 25 July 2009, the Spanish Congress passed a law that limits the competence of the
347:
States attempting to police acts committed by foreign nationals on foreign territory tends to be more controversial than a state prosecuting its own citizens wherever they may be found. Bases on which a state might exercise jurisdiction in this way include the following:
460:(ICC) is an international tribunal of general jurisdiction (defined by treaty) to prosecute state-members' citizens for genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression, as specified by several international agreements, most prominently the
1115:
under Article 23.4 to cases in which Spaniards are victims, there is a relevant link to Spain, or the alleged perpetrators are in Spain. The law still has to pass the Senate, the high chamber, but passage is expected because it is supported by both major parties.
2084:
792:
ruled that French universal jurisdiction allows for a trial of said individuals, and that it was not obligatory that "the offences of crime against humanity or war crime be identically described by the laws of the foreign country", in this case Syria.
548:
652:
Confronted with this sharp increase in cases, Belgium established the condition that the accused person must be Belgian or present in Belgium. An arrest warrant issued in 2000 under this law, against the then Minister of Foreign Affairs of the
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argued that Israeli agents obtained Eichmann illegally, violating international law when they seized and kidnapped Eichmann, and brought him to Israel to stand trial. The Argentinian government settled the dispute diplomatically with Israel.
3874:
360:
largely supports the extraterritoriality of the said Act. The law states that a contravention of the Act that affects any computer or computer network situated in India will be punishable by India irrespective of the culprit's location and
677:
similar to or more restrictive than that of most other European countries. However, some cases that had already started continued. These included those concerning the Rwandan genocide, and complaints filed against the Chadian ex-President
328:
international crimes committed anywhere while "no safe haven" takes on a more passive tone, referring to the usage of this principle to ensure that the specific country is not a territorial refuge for any suspects of international crimes.
63:, a proponent of universal jurisdiction, certain crimes pose such a serious threat to the international community as a whole that states have a logical and moral duty to prosecute individuals responsible; therefore, no place should be
1474:(DEA) agent in Mexico. Mexico declined to extradite a Mexican national for the alleged crime committed in Mexico, despite having a treaty of extradition. The United States then hired a private citizen and some Mexican nationals as
258:("enemies of the human race") applying to pirates or hijackers whose crimes took place outside of nation-state territories, while universal jurisdiction subjecting senior officials or heads of states as criminal subjects was new.
916:, stating that German criminal law applies to offenses committed abroad by foreign nationals who currently reside in Germany if there is no criminal law jurisdiction in the foreign country or when no extradition request was made.
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on 10 charges relating to directing murders, purges and other abuses against civilians, including genocide in connection with the 1995 massacre of 8,000 Muslim men and boys in Srebrenica; he was sentenced to 40 years in prison.
2454:
388:'s demand, on charges of human rights abuses, not on the grounds of universal jurisdiction but rather on the grounds that some of the victims of the abuses committed in Chile were Spanish citizens. Spain then sought his
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strongly criticized the decision, and Israeli officials refused to provide information requested by the Spanish court. The attack killed the founder and leader of the military wing of the Islamic militant organisation
2047:"The U.N. Security Council's Referral of the Crimes in Darfur to the International Criminal Court in Light of U.S. Opposition to the Court: Implications for the International Criminal Court's Functions and Status"
666:
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a bludgeon of oppression. The Nuremberg trials supposed universal standards by which one nation's laws, and acts of its officials, can be judged; an international rule of law unbound by national borders.
371:
More controversial is the exercise of jurisdiction where the victim of the crime is a national of the state exercising jurisdiction. In the past some states have claimed this jurisdiction (e.g., Mexico,
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and six other senior Israeli political and military officials by pro-Palestinian organizations, who sought to prosecute them in Spain under the principle of universal jurisdiction. On 29 January 2009,
3456:
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was charged in the UK with torture under universal jurisdiction. He was acquitted in September 2016, with the jury finding him not guilty on one count, and failing to reach a verdict on the other.
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1872:
f there does exist some concept of universal justice, if even the most powerful states on occasion feel compelled to abide by the demands of international law, that we owe to the Enlightenment.
1154:, a former Argentine naval officer, who was extradited from Mexico to Spain pending his trial on charges of genocide and terrorism relating to the years of Argentina's military dictatorship.
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An offence is generally only triable in the jurisdiction where the offence took place, unless a specific statute enables the UK to exercise extraterritorial jurisdiction. This is the case,
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states the infractions that can be judged in France when they were committed outside French territory either by French citizens or foreigners. The following infractions may be prosecuted:
2817:
1716:
1846:(discussing in introductory notes Grotius' account of universal principles of right and wrong derived from reason and divine Will, the underpinning of much modern international law).
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to kidnap Alvarez-Machain and take him to the United States for trial. The trial court ruled that his arrest was unlawful because it violated the extradition treaty. On appeal, in
468:
In addition the United Nations has set up geographically specific courts to investigate and prosecute crimes against humanity under a theory of universal jurisdiction, such as the
3591:
1507:
591:
The High Court of Australia confirmed the authority of the Australian Parliament, under the Australian Constitution, to exercise universal jurisdiction over war crimes in the
1315:. He was accused of "having supported, participated in and failed to prevent 'systematic and generalised attacks' as part of a repressive campaign by security forces against
4004:
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1944:
The compromises of 1945 came to be seen as imperfect but essential progress toward international rule of law and the foundation for modern international criminal tribunals.
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The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia investigates war crimes that took place in the Balkans in the 1990s. It convicted former Bosnian Serb leader
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2336:
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473:
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1968:
Kaleck, Wolfgang; Kroker, Patrick (1 March 2018). "Syrian Torture Investigations in Germany and Beyond: Breathing New Life into Universal Jurisdiction in Europe?".
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Since then Germany has implemented the principle of universal jurisdiction for genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes into its criminal law through the
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following requests from Senegalese courts, he was tried and convicted for war crimes by the Special Tribunal in Senegal in 2016 and sentenced to life in prison.
510:
3896:
114:, and "idespread agreement that human rights violations and crimes against humanity must be prosecuted has hindered active consideration of the proper role of
40:, or any other connection to the prosecuting entity. Crimes prosecuted under universal jurisdiction are considered crimes against all, too serious to tolerate
261:
From these premises, representing the Enlightenment belief in trans-territorial, trans-cultural standards of right and wrong, derives universal jurisdiction.
824:
686:"). In September 2005, Habré was indicted for crimes against humanity, torture, war crimes and other human rights violations by a Belgian court. Arrested in
4219:
3339:
1625:
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875:, Germany's highest court of appeal for criminal matters, on 30 April 1999. The court stated that genocide is a crime which all nations must prosecute.
1574:
1513:
1162:
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3432:"Rebuilding Iraq; Fighting by the book; The Israeli army instructs its soldiers in a stringent ethical code. Can US forces learn from its example?"
2554:
Thomas, Beck; Ritscher, Christian (2015). "Do Criminal Complaints Make Sense in (German) International Criminal Law?: A Prosecutor's Perspective".
1911:
461:
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Universal Jurisdiction: The duty of states to enact and implement legislation â Chapter Nine (Torture: The legal basis for universal jurisdiction)
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1693:
137:
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1292:. This was the first time that a Liberian national was tried for war crimes in relation to the Liberian Civil Wars, and the first time that the
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for the invasion of Iraq. In May 2012, the tribunal again under what it saw as universal jurisdiction took testimony from victims of torture at
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2184:, June 2003. Cites in footnote 6: Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium), Judgment, Merits, para. 61.
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1996:
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prosecute them. These states include: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Israel, Mexico, Netherlands,
376:(1887)), while others have been strongly opposed to it (e.g., the United States, except in cases in which an American citizen is a victim:
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were started under universal jurisdiction legislation of several individual states. States that started investigations included Germany,
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1431:(IDF) was cancelled over concerns that arrest warrants would be sought by pro-Palestinian advocates in connection with allegations of
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on 26 September 1997 was convicted of genocide in Germany and sentenced to four terms of life imprisonment for his involvement in the
36:
over an accused person, regardless of where the alleged crime was committed and irrespective of the accused's nationality, country of
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The center has filed a grievance with the United Nations for Canada's failure to invoke universal jurisdiction to enforce the
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2006:
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892:("international criminal code", literally "book of the criminal law of peoples"), which implemented the treaty creating the
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François Bazaramba was sentenced to life imprisonment in Finland in 2010 for participation in the Rwandan genocide of 1994.
2963:
2875:
827:, former head of investigations for the service, for the deaths of two French-Syrian citizens during the Syrian civil war.
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In 2021 a trial for Gibril Massaquoi, charged with murder, aggravated war crimes and aggravated crimes against humanity in
4504:
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Canada disregarded an opportunity to shatter the global impunity Bush enjoys and in so doing violated international law.
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as a private institution (without the support of any government), exercised what it viewed as universal jurisdiction to
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that are based on the concept of universal jurisdiction, indicate widespread international acceptance of the concept.
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3457:"Iran: Conviction of former Iranian official over involvement in 1988 prison massacres landmark step towards justice"
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904:. In 2015 he was found guilty and sentenced to 13 years in prison. Furthermore, section 7(2) of German Criminal Code
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their own citizens as a matter of law, but will instead try them on their own territory for crimes committed abroad.
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1480:
654:
527:
336:
Universal jurisdiction differs from a state's prosecuting crimes under its own laws, whether on its own territory (
3198:
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44:. The concept of universal jurisdiction is therefore closely linked to the idea that some international norms are
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1471:
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703:
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in 1961 as an assertion of universal jurisdiction. He claims that while Israel did invoke a statute specific to
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Examples of particular states invoking universal jurisdiction are Israel's prosecution of Eichmann in 1961 (see
4458:
4402:
4168:
Legal Remedies for Victims of "International Crimes": Fostering an EU Approach To Extraterritorial Jurisdiction
3648:
2366:
707:
661:
570:
2214:
4274:
2476:
1564:
1467:
1335:, lawyer Gulden Sonmez stated that Turkish legislation recognises universal jurisdiction for these offences.
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506:
341:
148:
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A state may try its own nationals for crimes committed abroad. France and some other nations will refuse to
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4407:
4236:
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893:
555:
457:
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Individual Responsibility in International Law for Serious Human Rights Violations, Nijhoff (1992) 252 p.
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while fighting on the side of Syrian government forces. He was sentenced to twelve years of imprisonment.
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3431:
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A state can exercise jurisdiction over acts that affect the fundamental interests of the state, such as
264:
Perhaps the most notable and influential precedent for universal jurisdiction were the mid-20th century
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2110:
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the necessary witnesses or evidence needed to implicate a foreign national of crimes against humanity.
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for conspiracy to commit war crimes. The tribunal referred its findings to the chief prosecutor at the
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29:
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Security Council passes landmark resolution â world has responsibility to protect people from genocide
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into domestic law. The law was passed in 2002 and up to 2014. It has been used once, in the trial of
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has no formal statute to authorize it. In some cases, however, the federal government has exercised
861:) and are not dependent on the victims' individual criminal complaints to initiate the prosecution.
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1369:
1365:
1289:
872:
356:, even if the act was committed by foreign nationals on foreign territory. For example, the Indian
337:
41:
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The Emerging System of International Criminal Law: Developments in Codification and Implementation
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1623:
The Program for Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research, "Brief Primer on Genocide" Accessed at
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Under the German legal system, international crimes are offenses that require public prosecution (
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On 1 August 2003, Belgium repealed the law on universal jurisdiction, and introduced a new law on
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from Britain, again, not on the grounds of universal jurisdiction, but by invoking the law of the
4311:
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3817:
3116:
1841:
1404:
1312:
1058:, described the KLWCC as having no legal basis, and was sceptical about fair trials taking place
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223:
laid the foundations for universal jurisdiction in modern international law, promulgating in his
207:
76:
122:." According to Kissinger, as a logistical matter, since any number of states could set up such
4514:
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theglobeandmail.com: "Ex-dictator of Chad denies legitimacy of torture crimes trial in Senegal"
2161:
1214:
1183:
1151:
1132:
801:
233:
181:
164:
111:
72:
2397:
2390:
2215:< "Prosecutor v. Charles Ghankay Taylor, Summary of Decision on Immunity From Jurisdiction"
788:, was arrested and indicted for war crimes and torture, respectively. In May 2023, the French
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treaties, may exercise universal jurisdiction over torture under customary international law.
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agreed to investigate a case in which seven former Chinese officials, including the former
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901:
846:
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88:
37:
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For a list of particular offences with an extra-territorial reach see Archbold 2-36a-2-83.
3498:"The trial of a former Syrian general over alleged role in war crimes starts in Stockholm"
2162:"ICJ rejects Belgian arrest warrant for foreign ministers of Democratic Republic of Congo"
1817:
Ancient Law: Its Connection With the Early History of Society and Relation to Modern Ideas
1654:
1194:, a judge of the Audiencia Nacional, opened preliminary investigations into claims that a
726:, started in Finland, with part of the hearings of witnesses to take place in Liberia and
8:
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Proceedings, Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal
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447: UN member states and observers that have neither signed nor acceded to the Statute
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252:, at about the same time, international law came to recognize the analogous concept of
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99:
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regarding extradition; and he was finally released on grounds of health. Argentinian
308:
269:
193:
167:" and commits the Security Council to action to protect civilians in armed conflict.
145:
119:
1791:, Book I, Title II, "Concerning Natural Law, the Law of Nations, and the Civil Law".
189:, which are held to be binding on all people and nations regardless of local custom.
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On 15 November 2023, France issued international arrest warrants for Syrian leader
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607:
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381:
265:
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Individual Responsibility in International Law for Serious Human Rights Violations
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Global Justice or Global Revenge? International Criminal Justice at the Crossroads
3649:"British court issued Gaza arrest warrant for former Israeli minister Tzipi Livni"
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842:
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against the American government over his wrongful apprehension and imprisonment.
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tried first in Switzerland and then in Canada to prosecute former U.S. President
385:
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95:
25:
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2022:
501:, Spain, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States. Amnesty writes:
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was arrested and indicted for complicity in crimes against humanity during the
531:
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304:
216:
3966:"'Sadder but Wiser?' NGOs and Universal Jurisdiction for International Crimes"
2849:"Are George W. Bush and Dick Cheney war criminals? Malaysian court says 'yes'"
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below) and Spain's prosecution of South American dictators and torturers (see
4483:
4197:
3897:"Lithuanian prosecutors to probe filmmaker's killing in Ukraine as war crime"
3368:
Israeli counter-insurgency and the Intifadas: dilemmas of a conventional army
2195:
2046:
1604:
1451:
1253:
1227:
626:
397:
316:
280:
On the other hand, even at the time, the Nuremberg trials were criticized as
175:
3563:
2914:
2773:
2267:"Belgique : Questions et Réponses sur la loi de Compétence Universelle"
800:
and three other Syrian officials for war crimes perpetrated during the 2013
307:
in Jerusalem in 1961. Roth also argues that clauses in treaties such as the
4289:
4035:
3251:"State commission to examine civilian deaths in 2002 Shahade assassination"
2754:
2752:
2682:
2497:"French court upholds right to investigate Syrians suspected of war crimes"
1883:
1712:
1316:
1300:
1277:
1071:
953:
945:
850:
820:
727:
641:
615:
432:
296:
144:
on 28 April 2006, "eaffirm the provisions of paragraphs 138 and 139 of the
33:
3981:
3865:"Germany Opens Investigation Into Suspected Russian War Crimes in Ukraine"
2777:
2567:
1981:
404:
4060:
1958:, Harlan Fiske Stone: Pillar of the Law (New York: Viking, 1956), p. 716.
1416:
1331:
against Chinese officials for torture, rape, crimes against humanity and
1165:
1075:
1012:
816:
773:
645:
389:
365:
186:
107:
2749:
331:
126:
tribunals, the process could quickly degenerate into politically driven
4098:
4081:
3112:
1551:
1439:
1432:
1308:
1199:
1187:
1004:
1000:
996:
413:
States parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court
285:
127:
64:
56:âthat certain international law obligations are binding on all states.
52:
46:
4065:
Universal Jurisdiction: International and Municipal Legal Perspectives
3965:
3199:"Spain investigates claims of Israeli crimes against humanity in Gaza"
2902:
Dutch court convicts Syria pro-gov't fighter on war crimes charges
2421:
2132:"Halting Canadian Bush Prosecution Violated International Obligations"
1407:, ss. 52â54 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003, and several earlier acts)
581:
185:. First published in 1625, Grotius advances a system of principles of
50:, or owed to the entire world community, as well as to the concept of
4358:
3998:
3936:
3785:"The 'Mistrial' of Kumar Lama: Problematizing Universal Jurisdiction"
2668:, p. 3322), as last amended by Article 2 of the Act of 19 June 2019 (
2440:
Liberia war crimes suspect Gibril Massaquoi's trial begins in Finland
2062:
1517:
1475:
1420:
1281:
1128:
1024:
453:
353:
156:
80:
2636:"US tells armed group in DRC to surrender or face 'military option'"
1545:
487:
409:
4326:
2129:
1020:
633:
152:
68:
4192:
The AU-EU Expert Report on the Principle of Universal Jurisdiction
4031:
Crime and Global Justice. The Dynamics of International Punishment
3994:"Spain opens probe into 'serious violations' by Russia in Ukraine"
3676:"Foreign Ministry outraged over U.K. arrest warrant against Livni"
2085:"U.N. tribunal finds former Bosnia Serb leader guilty of genocide"
1131:
military leadership in a Spanish Court. Six officials, among them
3255:
2196:
The Arrest Warrant Against The Liberian President, Charles Taylor
2177:
The Arrest Warrant Against The Liberian President, Charles Taylor
2117:
1 September 2001. Section II. Universal Jurisdiction over torture
1831:
1490:
1285:
1172:
1099:
871:. His appeal following his conviction was rejected by the German
723:
687:
566:
498:
220:
84:
4182:
The Pitfalls of Universal Jurisdiction: Risking Judicial Tyranny
3582:"Uighurs in Turkey file criminal case against Chinese officials"
2239:
1884:
Jackson, Robert, U.S. Supreme Court Justice (21 November 1945).
1470:
allegedly assisted in the torture and murder of a United States
4343:
3856:
3823:
3550:"Swiss charge ex-Gambian minister with crimes against humanity"
3518:"Alieu Kosiah: Liberian convicted of war crimes in Swiss court"
2723: (District Court of Jerusalem 1961), archived from
2136:
1463:
897:
547:
On 14 February 2002, the International Court of Justice in the
322:
106:âargue that universal jurisdiction is a breach of each state's
1508:
Universal jurisdiction investigations of war crimes in Ukraine
1054:
Special Rapporteur on the Independence of Judges and Lawyers,
3477:"Sweden upholds life sentence in Iran prison executions case"
3173:"Spanish war crimes probe against Israeli officials to go on"
3109:"Spanish court shelves Tibet human rights case against China"
1776:
1273:
1223:
1176:
960:
claimed universal jurisdiction over crimes against humanity.
948:, along with Kenneth Roth, has cited Israel's prosecution of
823:, former director of the Air Force intelligence service, and
245:
view that there are universal principles of right and wrong.
3574:
3147:"Universal jurisdiction victory in Spain but battle goes on"
3019:"Spanish Judge Sends Argentine to Prison on Genocide Charge"
2978:"Spain judge charges ex-generals in Guatemala genocide case"
980:(KLWCC), created in 2007 by former Malaysian prime minister
3926:
3924:
2535:"Senior Syrian officials on trial in France for war crimes"
1299:
On 18 April 2023, the Swiss Attorney General declared that
1257:
1050:
expressed concern about the KLWCC's procedures, and former
303:, argues that universal jurisdiction allowed Israel to try
2517:"France issues arrest warrant for Syria's President Assad"
1739:"CNN.com - Spanish judge seeks Kissinger - April 18, 2002"
118:. Universal jurisdiction risks creating universal tyrannyâ
110:. All states are equal in sovereignty, as affirmed by the
4393:
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
3522:
2242:"Judge Gives Taylor 50 Years for 'Heinous' Crimes in War"
2130:
Matt Eisenbrandt; Katherine Gallagher (17 January 2012).
1886:"Justice Jackson's Opening statement for the Prosecution"
1249:
In April 2024, a Swedish court started a trial of Syrian
474:
International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia
151:
regarding the responsibility to protect populations from
3921:
3776:
3196:
2893:
2422:"Finland sentences Rwanda preacher to life for genocide"
2164:. United Nations Information Service. 14 September 2002.
1202:
in 2002 warranted the prosecution of Halutz, the former
4428:
International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals
3932:"Sweden launches investigation into Ukraine war crimes"
3832:"What are War Crimesâand Will Putin Be Tried for Them?"
3758:"Nepal's Colonel Kumar Lama charged in UK with torture"
3706:"Israel condemns attempt in a UK court to arrest Livni"
2240:
Simons, Marlise & Goodman, J. David (31 May 2004).
1820:(1861 first ed.). London: John Murray. p. 46.
811:
On 21 May 2024, a Paris Criminal Court started a trial
740:
Prosecution of Syrian civil war criminals § France
405:
International tribunals invoking universal jurisdiction
293:
sanctimonious a fraud to meet my old-fashioned ideas."
179:
Title page from the second edition (Amsterdam 1631) of
3830:
Stephenson, Heather; Dannenbaum, Tom (29 March 2022).
3750:
3542:
2664:(StGB), in the version published on 13 November 1998 (
2125:
2123:
332:
Universal distinct from extraterritorial jurisdiction
3829:
3333:
3331:
3227:. Middle-east-online.com. 4 May 2009. Archived from
2956:
1541:
1327:
In January 2022, when filing a criminal case in the
1246:. In 2022, Nouri was sentenced to a life in prison.
629:
on grounds of responsibility for terrorist activity;
2818:"Bush, Blair guilty in Malaysia 'war crimes trial'"
2792:"Symbolic 'war crimes' tribunal to try Bush, Blair"
1501:
1280:was sentenced to 20 years in prison for committing
1175:were alleged to have participated in a genocide in
1082:and crimes against humanity carried out during the
582:
Universal jurisdiction enforcement around the world
201:
listening to translated evidence through headphones
4383:International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg Trials)
4140:The Princeton principles on Universal Jurisdiction
4127:Curbing the Manipulation of Universal Jurisdiction
3337:
3297:
3066:"Spanish court to investigate Tibet massacre case"
2389:
2212:
2120:
1575:Jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice
1514:war crimes in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
1489:criminal trial, he was acquitted; he later lost a
1238:Universal jurisdiction was used in Sweden for the
3328:
1804:, Book I, Chapter I, "De Jure Gentium et Civili".
698:To implement the Rome Statute, Canada passed the
488:Particular states invoking universal jurisdiction
441: Signatories who have subsequently withdrawn
384:was arrested in London in 1998, on Spanish judge
315:of 1984, which requires signatory states to pass
4481:
4413:Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia
4388:International Military Tribunal for the Far East
3364:
3340:"Israeli general apologizes for civilian deaths"
3300:Right to exist: a moral defense of Israel's wars
3225:"Spanish judge to go ahead with Gaza raid probe"
3004:"Spanish Supreme Court: Guatemala Genocide Case"
2710:
2708:
2706:
2024:Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court
1256:for indiscriminate attacks against civilians in
711:... anywhere, at any time, can be prosecuted ".
462:Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court
4151:The Princeton Project on Universal Jurisdiction
3295:
1837:De jure praedae : (Of the Law of Captures)
1655:"UNIVERSAL JURISDICTION: Questions and answers"
1364:Sexual offences against children (s. 72 of the
819:, former head of the National Security Bureau,
542:
272:then chief prosecutor, famously stated that an
138:United Nations Security Council Resolution 1674
98:âwho was himself investigated by Spanish judge
4227:
3495:
3429:
3268:
3262:
2873:
2553:
2350:"Belgium: Universal Jurisdiction Law Repealed"
1924:
1855:
1580:Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts Project (RULAC)
1244:1988 executions of Iranian political prisoners
4213:
2761:Mahathir's war crimes tribunal under fire
2703:
2477:"France: Court Ruling Win for Syrian Victims"
2396:. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre. p.
2384:
2168:
2154:
1998:An Introduction to Transnational Criminal Law
1528:
1011:former President Bush, former Vice President
937:Nazis and Nazi Collaborators (Punishment) Law
622:in Lebanon, conducted by a Christian militia;
425: Parties who have subsequently withdrawn
4138:Macedo, Stephen (project chair and editor).
3963:
3647:Black, Ian; Cobain, Ian (14 December 2009).
3197:Giles Tremlett in Madrid (29 January 2009).
3050:"Spain to investigate 'genocide' in Tibet".
2794:. CBS News. 15 November 2011. Archived from
2610:"Conviction of FDLR leaders by German Court"
2082:
1994:
1967:
1910:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1767:
1094:A case against the former dictator of Chad,
1019:, former Deputy Assistant Attorneys General
905:
879:
856:
400:'s sentence is part of this juridical frame.
323:Theory of universal jurisdiction application
3646:
3398:
1858:The Enlightenment, and Why It Still Matters
1391:Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001
911:
606:imprisonment for their involvement in 1994
569:, was served with an arrest warrant by the
4398:International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
4220:
4206:
3724:
2876:"Bush Convicted of War Crimes in Absentia"
2193:Cesare P.R. Romano and André Nollkaemper.
2174:Cesare P.R. Romano and André Nollkaemper.
926:Extraterritorial jurisdiction in Irish law
700:Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes Act
470:International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
4418:Special Panels of the Dili District Court
3970:Journal of International Criminal Justice
3862:
3732:"Tzipi Livni: UK warrant a legal 'abuse'"
3271:"Palestinians grapple with collaborators"
3140:
3138:
2964:"Spanish court ends Israel bombing probe"
2943:
2846:
2556:Journal of International Criminal Justice
2187:
1970:Journal of International Criminal Justice
1707:
1705:
1703:
1678:
1674:
1672:
1512:Universal jurisdiction investigations of
1070:In January 2024, Mustafa A., a member of
610:. There was a rapid succession of cases:
539:, a petition on which action is pending.
313:United Nations Convention Against Torture
134:stamp on a state's enemies or opponents.
4175:International Federation of Human Rights
3902:Lithuanian National Radio and Television
3642:
3640:
3144:
3087:"China rejects Spain's 'genocide' claim"
1684:"The Pitfalls of Universal Jurisdiction"
1649:
1647:
408:
192:
174:
4059:
3837:The Fletcher School at Tufts University
3423:
3392:
3358:
3289:
3170:
2851:. NewJerseyNewsroom.com. Archived from
2318:separate opinion of President Guillaume
1830:
1186:chief of General Staff Lt.-Gen. (res.)
618:was accused of involvement in the 1982
4482:
4125:Diane Morrison and Justus Reid Weiner
3782:
3135:
3084:
2716:Attorney General of Israel v. Eichmann
2689:. Yale University Press. p. 114.
2681:
2044:
1700:
1669:
1435:under laws of universal jurisdiction.
1182:Complaints were lodged against former
102:in connection with the U.S.-sponsored
4201:
3790:European Journal of International Law
3673:
3637:
2980:. Jurist. 8 July 2006. Archived from
2201:American Society of International Law
2182:American Society of International Law
2104:
2051:Berkeley Journal of International Law
1813:
1717:"The Case for Universal Jurisdiction"
1644:
1403:and sexual exploitation (s. 2 of the
3243:
3171:Service, Haaretz (20 January 2010).
3016:
2921:from the original on 22 January 2024
1711:
1209:, the former defence chief-of-staff
910:(stGB) establishes the principle of
4116:Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs
3764:from the original on 7 January 2015
3594:from the original on 5 January 2022
3570:from the original on 22 April 2023.
3401:"Peres apologizes for Shehadeh hit"
3338:Pierre Klochendler (23 July 2002).
3269:Walter Rodgers (4 September 2002).
3006:. Nizkor Project. 25 February 2003.
2027:(last amended 2010), 17 July 1998,
1345:Augusto Pinochet's arrest and trial
13:
4019:
4007:from the original on 27 March 2022
3530:from the original on 9 August 2022
3119:. 26 February 2010. Archived from
2824:. 22 November 2011. Archived from
2614:Armed Groups and International Law
2301:"separate and dissenting opinions"
2213:Appellate Tribunal (31 May 2004).
1925:Jack Goldsmith (20 January 2012).
1438:In January 2013, Nepalese Colonel
1419:in connection with accusations of
995:and former British Prime Minister
978:Kuala Lumpur War Crimes Commission
284:, revenge papered over with legal
14:
4531:
4132:
3945:from the original on 5 April 2022
3909:from the original on 5 April 2022
3877:from the original on 5 April 2022
3863:Pancevski, Bojan (8 March 2022).
3844:from the original on 5 April 2022
3674:Ravid, Barak (14 December 2009).
2966:. Associated Press. 30 June 2009.
2946:"Spain reins in crusading judges"
2944:Kingstone, Steve (25 June 2009).
1892:. International Military Tribunal
1338:
1163:Communist Party General Secretary
1046:The Malaysian human rights group
288:. US Supreme Court Chief Justice
24:is a legal principle that allows
3797:from the original on 14 May 2021
3496:Chisato Tanaka (15 April 2024).
3430:David B. Green (20 April 2003).
3037:"Profile: Judge Baltasar Garzon"
2367:Trial Watch : HissÚne Habré
1814:Maine, Sir Henry Sumner (1861).
1544:
1502:2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
1481:United States v. Alvarez-Machain
1445:
1382:Terrorism (ss. 59, 62â63 of the
655:Democratic Republic of the Congo
528:Center for Constitutional Rights
3957:
3809:
3783:Hovell, Devika (6 April 2017).
3698:
3667:
3606:
3489:
3469:
3449:
3217:
3190:
3164:
3145:Izenberg, Dan (19 April 2010).
3101:
3078:
3058:
3043:
3029:
3010:
2996:
2970:
2937:
2925:
2867:
2840:
2810:
2784:
2675:
2654:
2628:
2602:
2574:
2547:
2527:
2509:
2489:
2469:
2457:(in French). Legifrance.gouv.fr
2447:
2432:
2414:
2378:
2360:
2342:
2337:dissenting opinion of Judge Oda
2330:
2311:
2293:
2281:
2259:
2233:
2221:. Special Court of Sierra Leone
2206:
2076:
2038:
2015:
1988:
1961:
1949:
1918:
1877:
1849:
1824:
1807:
1794:
1472:Drug Enforcement Administration
358:Information Technology Act 2000
274:International Military Tribunal
142:United Nations Security Council
4510:Legal doctrines and principles
4459:International humanitarian law
4403:Special Court for Sierra Leone
4105:. Nijhoff, 1992, 252 pp.
3054:. 11 January 2006. p. 19.
2874:Ridley, Yvonne (12 May 2011).
2083:Brian Murphy (24 March 2016).
1782:
1749:
1731:
1617:
1597:
1413:Westminster Magistrates' Court
1267:
1065:
708:University of British Columbia
662:International Court of Justice
625:Israelis filed a case against
571:Special Court for Sierra Leone
1:
4520:Extraterritorial jurisdiction
4088:. Kluwer, 1997, 508 pp.
3964:Van Der Wilt, Harmen (2015).
3085:Olesen, Alexa (7 June 2006).
1802:Commentaries on the Roman Law
1779:Press Release â 28 April 2006
1590:
1565:Extraterritorial jurisdiction
1415:issued an arrest warrant for
675:extraterritorial jurisdiction
342:extraterritorial jurisdiction
67:for those who have committed
4423:Special Tribunal for Lebanon
4408:International Criminal Court
3760:. BBC News. 5 January 2013.
3399:David Rudge (25 July 2002).
3323:Salah Shehade precision bomb
1626:"- Brief Primer on Genocide"
1523:
1329:Istanbul Prosecutor's Office
1294:Swiss Federal Criminal Court
1146:In June 2003, Spanish judge
1041:International Criminal Court
894:International Criminal Court
784:, a former spokesperson for
660:, was challenged before the
632:In 2003, Iraqi victims of a
586:
556:International Criminal Court
543:Immunity for state officials
526:below). More recently, the
458:International Criminal Court
299:, the executive director of
7:
4464:International speech crimes
4245:Customary international law
4067:. Oxford University Press.
3074:. Reuters. 12 January 2006.
3017:Daly, Emma (30 June 2003).
2001:. Oxford University Press.
1537:
1496:
1484:, 504 U.S. 655 (1992), the
1389:Bribery (was s. 109 of the
1127:brought a case against the
1015:, former Defense Secretary
971:
594:Polyukhovich v Commonwealth
519:
239:Of the Law of War and Peace
30:international organizations
10:
4536:
4505:International criminal law
4285:Convention Against Torture
4229:International criminal law
2582:"Nikola JorgiÄ profile at"
2219:Case Number SCSL-2003-01-I
1715:(SeptemberâOctober 2001).
1529:Accessibility of witnesses
1505:
1342:
1089:
1027:, former Attorney General
934:
923:
919:
840:
834:
830:
772:, a former soldier of the
737:
714:
658:Abdoulaye Yerodia Ndombasi
620:Sabra and Shatila massacre
600:
565:, the former president of
537:Convention Against Torture
523:
507:Convention against Torture
505:All states parties to the
170:
4454:Joint criminal enterprise
4436:
4367:
4298:
4235:
3618:Crown Prosecution Service
3365:Sergio Catignani (2008).
2847:Holt, Bob (15 May 2012).
1927:"The Shadow of Nuremberg"
1423:in the Gaza Strip during
1377:Criminal Justice Act 1993
1359:Criminal Justice Act 1988
1322:
1296:held a war crimes trial.
1290:country's first civil war
1233:
1217:. Israeli Prime Minister
956:crimes against Jews, its
930:
733:
693:
511:Inter-American Convention
4495:Human rights instruments
4374:(in order of foundation)
4121:26 February 2021 at the
3296:Yaacov Lozowick (2003).
3093:. London. Archived from
2442:, Africanews, 03/02/2021
2199:, on the website of the
2180:, on the website of the
2045:Heyder, Corrina (2006).
1761:23 February 2009 at the
1468:Humberto Alvarez-Machain
1370:Sexual Offences Act 1956
1366:Sexual Offences Act 2003
1333:genocide against Uyghurs
1311:, had been charged with
1272:On 18 June 2021, former
1204:Israeli defence minister
1157:On 11 January 2006, the
1105:
1031:, and former counselors
873:Federal Court of Justice
746:code de procédure pénale
636:pressed charges against
338:territorial jurisdiction
130:that attempt to place a
77:extrajudicial executions
42:jurisdictional arbitrage
4312:Crimes against humanity
3870:The Wall Street Journal
3818:Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain
3117:Deutsche Presse-Agentur
1856:Anthony Pagden (2013).
1842:Oxford University Press
1789:Institutes of Justinian
1405:Modern Slavery Act 2015
1357:Torture (s. 134 of the
1313:crimes against humanity
1242:for involvement in the
1215:crimes against humanity
1213:, and four others, for
1074:, was convicted in the
913:aut dedere aut judicare
744:The article 689 of the
667:ICJ Arrest Warrant Case
550:ICJ Arrest Warrant Case
493:universally condemned.
208:Institutes of Justinian
165:crimes against humanity
73:crimes against humanity
4490:Universal jurisdiction
4469:Universal jurisdiction
4444:Command responsibility
4337:Incitement to genocide
4275:United Nations Charter
3071:The New Zealand Herald
2880:Foreign Policy Journal
1756:Resolution 1674 (2006)
1375:Fraud and dishonesty (
1184:Israeli Defense Forces
1152:Ricardo Miguel Cavallo
976:In November 2011, the
912:
906:
880:
857:
802:Ghouta chemical attack
516:
449:
234:DÄ jĆ«re bellÄ« ac pÄcis
229:Of the Law of Captures
202:
190:
182:De jure belli ac pacis
124:universal jurisdiction
112:United Nations Charter
22:Universal jurisdiction
4145:23 March 2021 at the
3462:Amnesty International
3342:. CNN. Archived from
3273:. CNN. Archived from
2670:Federal Law Gazette I
2666:Federal Law Gazette I
2660:German Criminal Code
2372:13 April 2009 at the
2115:Amnesty International
2021:UN General Assembly,
1995:Neil Boister (2012).
1570:Hostis humani generis
1429:Israel Defense Forces
1098:, started in 2015 in
882:Völkerstrafgesetzbuch
837:Völkerstrafgesetzbuch
806:Douma chemical attack
682:(dubbed the "African
664:in the case entitled
503:
412:
255:hostÄs hĆ«mÄnÄ« generis
196:
178:
89:forced disappearances
61:Amnesty International
4370:International courts
4270:Nuremberg principles
4155:Princeton University
3039:. BBC. 7 April 2010.
2768:, 13 February 2007,
2323:3 March 2016 at the
2269:. Human Rights Watch
1682:(JulyâAugust 2001).
1520:, Spain and Sweden.
1240:trial of Hamid Nouri
1207:Binyamin Ben-Eliezer
1141:Guatemalan Civil War
1137:Ăscar Humberto MejĂa
991:former US President
902:Ignace Murwanashyaka
847:Ignace Murwanashyaka
634:1991 Baghdad bombing
116:international courts
4317:Crime of aggression
4280:Genocide Convention
4188:, July/August 2001.
4180:Kissinger, Henry,
3982:10.1093/jicj/mqv007
3686:on 16 December 2009
3485:. 19 December 2023.
3346:on 13 February 2008
3277:on 25 February 2008
3259:, 19 September 2007
2909:, 22 January 2024,
2721:Criminal Case 40/61
2616:. 28 September 2015
2590:. 27 September 1997
2568:10.1093/jicj/mqv010
2523:. 15 November 2023.
2392:Intent for a Nation
2090:The Washington Post
1982:10.1093/jicj/mqy014
1727:on 21 January 2009.
1696:on 14 January 2009.
1425:Operation Cast Lead
1393:, now s. 12 of the
825:Abdel Salam Mahmoud
94:Opponents, such as
4322:Crime of apartheid
4260:Geneva Conventions
4026:Archibugi, Daniele
3738:. 14 December 2009
3712:. 15 December 2009
3624:on 20 January 2017
3590:. 4 January 2022.
3587:Al Jazeera English
3555:Al Jazeera English
3411:on 11 January 2012
3405:The Jerusalem Post
3231:on 7 November 2017
3151:The Jerusalem Post
3023:The New York Times
2907:Al Jazeera English
2828:on 13 January 2012
2766:BRussells Tribunal
2587:The New York Times
2482:Human Rights Watch
2455:"DĂ©tail d'un code"
2354:Human Rights Watch
2246:The New York Times
1932:The New York Times
1411:In December 2009,
1384:Terrorism Act 2000
1219:Benjamin Netanyahu
1159:Spanish High Court
1113:Audiencia Nacional
790:Court of Cassation
768:In February 2019,
764:Airplane hijacking
450:
309:Geneva Conventions
301:Human Rights Watch
290:Harlan Fiske Stone
203:
197:Defendants at the
191:
32:to claim criminal
4477:
4476:
4303:international law
4265:Nuremberg Charter
4255:Hague Conventions
4171:The Redress Trust
4044:978-1-50951-262-1
3558:. 19 April 2023.
3378:978-0-203-93069-4
2798:on 1 January 2012
2738:on 1 October 2006
2407:978-1-55365-250-2
2307:on 13 March 2007.
2008:978-0-19-960538-5
1867:978-1-4000-6068-9
1844:. pp. xviii.
1613:978-0-7923-1453-0
1401:Human trafficking
1305:Interior Minister
1251:Brigadier general
1133:EfraĂn RĂos Montt
1121:Nobel Peace Prize
1056:Param Cumaraswamy
1037:William Haynes II
943:moral philosopher
770:Abdulhamid Chaban
758:Nuclear smuggling
638:George H. W. Bush
270:Robert H. Jackson
146:2005 World Summit
140:, adopted by the
4527:
4437:Related concepts
4375:
4332:Genocidal intent
4222:
4215:
4208:
4199:
4198:
4194:, 16 April 2009.
4078:
4028:, Pease, Alice.
4016:
4014:
4012:
4003:. 8 March 2022.
3986:
3985:
3961:
3955:
3954:
3952:
3950:
3941:. 5 April 2022.
3928:
3919:
3918:
3916:
3914:
3905:. 5 April 2022.
3893:
3887:
3886:
3884:
3882:
3860:
3854:
3853:
3851:
3849:
3827:
3821:
3813:
3807:
3806:
3804:
3802:
3780:
3774:
3773:
3771:
3769:
3754:
3748:
3747:
3745:
3743:
3728:
3722:
3721:
3719:
3717:
3702:
3696:
3695:
3693:
3691:
3682:. Archived from
3671:
3665:
3664:
3662:
3660:
3644:
3635:
3633:
3631:
3629:
3620:. Archived from
3610:
3604:
3603:
3601:
3599:
3578:
3572:
3571:
3546:
3540:
3539:
3537:
3535:
3526:. 18 June 2021.
3514:
3508:
3507:
3493:
3487:
3486:
3473:
3467:
3466:
3453:
3447:
3446:
3444:
3442:
3427:
3421:
3420:
3418:
3416:
3407:. Archived from
3396:
3390:
3389:
3387:
3385:
3362:
3356:
3355:
3353:
3351:
3335:
3326:
3325:
3320:
3318:
3303:
3293:
3287:
3286:
3284:
3282:
3266:
3260:
3247:
3241:
3240:
3238:
3236:
3221:
3215:
3214:
3212:
3210:
3194:
3188:
3187:
3185:
3183:
3168:
3162:
3161:
3159:
3157:
3142:
3133:
3132:
3130:
3128:
3105:
3099:
3098:
3097:on 13 June 2006.
3082:
3076:
3075:
3062:
3056:
3055:
3047:
3041:
3040:
3033:
3027:
3026:
3014:
3008:
3007:
3000:
2994:
2993:
2991:
2989:
2974:
2968:
2967:
2960:
2954:
2953:
2941:
2935:
2929:
2923:
2922:
2897:
2891:
2890:
2888:
2886:
2871:
2865:
2864:
2862:
2860:
2844:
2838:
2837:
2835:
2833:
2814:
2808:
2807:
2805:
2803:
2788:
2782:
2781:
2776:, archived from
2756:
2747:
2746:
2745:
2743:
2734:, archived from
2718:
2712:
2701:
2700:
2679:
2673:
2658:
2652:
2651:
2649:
2647:
2632:
2626:
2625:
2623:
2621:
2606:
2600:
2599:
2597:
2595:
2578:
2572:
2571:
2551:
2545:
2544:
2531:
2525:
2524:
2513:
2507:
2506:
2493:
2487:
2486:
2473:
2467:
2466:
2464:
2462:
2451:
2445:
2436:
2430:
2429:
2418:
2412:
2411:
2395:
2382:
2376:
2364:
2358:
2357:
2356:. 1 August 2003.
2346:
2340:
2334:
2328:
2315:
2309:
2308:
2303:. Archived from
2297:
2291:
2290:See paragraph 43
2285:
2279:
2278:
2276:
2274:
2263:
2257:
2256:
2254:
2252:
2237:
2231:
2230:
2228:
2226:
2210:
2204:
2191:
2185:
2172:
2166:
2165:
2158:
2152:
2151:
2146:
2144:
2127:
2118:
2108:
2102:
2101:
2099:
2097:
2080:
2074:
2073:
2071:
2069:
2063:10.15779/Z385W7H
2042:
2036:
2019:
2013:
2012:
1992:
1986:
1985:
1965:
1959:
1956:Alpheus T. Mason
1953:
1947:
1946:
1941:
1939:
1922:
1916:
1915:
1909:
1901:
1899:
1897:
1881:
1875:
1874:
1860:. Random House.
1853:
1847:
1845:
1828:
1822:
1821:
1811:
1805:
1798:
1792:
1786:
1780:
1771:
1765:
1753:
1747:
1746:
1735:
1729:
1728:
1723:. Archived from
1709:
1698:
1697:
1692:. Archived from
1680:Kissinger, Henry
1676:
1667:
1666:
1664:
1662:
1651:
1642:
1641:
1639:
1637:
1628:. Archived from
1621:
1615:
1601:
1585:Targeted killing
1554:
1549:
1548:
1395:Bribery Act 2010
1262:Syrian civil war
1196:targeted killing
1125:Rigoberta MenchĂș
1084:Syrian civil war
1029:Alberto Gonzales
1007:, and convicted
986:try and convict
982:Mahathir Mohamad
915:
909:
885:
869:Bosnian genocide
860:
778:Syrian civil war
608:Rwandan genocide
575:Nuremberg trials
481:Radovan KaradĆŸiÄ
472:(1994), and the
446:
440:
430:
424:
418:
382:Augusto Pinochet
311:of 1949 and the
282:victor's justice
266:Nuremberg Trials
199:Nuremberg trials
161:ethnic cleansing
149:Outcome Document
104:Operation Condor
4535:
4534:
4530:
4529:
4528:
4526:
4525:
4524:
4480:
4479:
4478:
4473:
4449:Superior orders
4432:
4376:
4373:
4372:
4363:
4305:
4302:
4294:
4250:Peremptory norm
4231:
4226:
4186:Foreign Affairs
4147:Wayback Machine
4135:
4123:Wayback Machine
4075:
4022:
4020:Further reading
4010:
4008:
3992:
3990:
3989:
3962:
3958:
3948:
3946:
3930:
3929:
3922:
3912:
3910:
3895:
3894:
3890:
3880:
3878:
3861:
3857:
3847:
3845:
3828:
3824:
3814:
3810:
3800:
3798:
3781:
3777:
3767:
3765:
3756:
3755:
3751:
3741:
3739:
3730:
3729:
3725:
3715:
3713:
3704:
3703:
3699:
3689:
3687:
3672:
3668:
3658:
3656:
3645:
3638:
3627:
3625:
3612:
3611:
3607:
3597:
3595:
3580:
3579:
3575:
3548:
3547:
3543:
3533:
3531:
3516:
3515:
3511:
3494:
3490:
3475:
3474:
3470:
3465:. 14 July 2022.
3455:
3454:
3450:
3440:
3438:
3428:
3424:
3414:
3412:
3397:
3393:
3383:
3381:
3379:
3363:
3359:
3349:
3347:
3336:
3329:
3316:
3314:
3312:
3294:
3290:
3280:
3278:
3267:
3263:
3248:
3244:
3234:
3232:
3223:
3222:
3218:
3208:
3206:
3195:
3191:
3181:
3179:
3169:
3165:
3155:
3153:
3143:
3136:
3126:
3124:
3107:
3106:
3102:
3091:The Independent
3083:
3079:
3064:
3063:
3059:
3052:The Independent
3049:
3048:
3044:
3035:
3034:
3030:
3015:
3011:
3002:
3001:
2997:
2987:
2985:
2984:on 6 March 2010
2976:
2975:
2971:
2962:
2961:
2957:
2942:
2938:
2930:
2926:
2899:
2898:
2894:
2884:
2882:
2872:
2868:
2858:
2856:
2845:
2841:
2831:
2829:
2816:
2815:
2811:
2801:
2799:
2790:
2789:
2785:
2758:
2757:
2750:
2741:
2739:
2728:
2714:
2713:
2704:
2697:
2680:
2676:
2662:Strafgesetzbuch
2659:
2655:
2645:
2643:
2642:. 5 August 2014
2634:
2633:
2629:
2619:
2617:
2608:
2607:
2603:
2593:
2591:
2580:
2579:
2575:
2552:
2548:
2533:
2532:
2528:
2515:
2514:
2510:
2495:
2494:
2490:
2475:
2474:
2470:
2460:
2458:
2453:
2452:
2448:
2437:
2433:
2428:. 11 June 2010.
2420:
2419:
2415:
2408:
2383:
2379:
2374:Wayback Machine
2365:
2361:
2348:
2347:
2343:
2335:
2331:
2327:at paragraph 12
2325:Wayback Machine
2316:
2312:
2299:
2298:
2294:
2286:
2282:
2272:
2270:
2265:
2264:
2260:
2250:
2248:
2238:
2234:
2224:
2222:
2211:
2207:
2192:
2188:
2173:
2169:
2160:
2159:
2155:
2142:
2140:
2128:
2121:
2109:
2105:
2095:
2093:
2081:
2077:
2067:
2065:
2043:
2039:
2020:
2016:
2009:
1993:
1989:
1966:
1962:
1954:
1950:
1937:
1935:
1923:
1919:
1903:
1902:
1895:
1893:
1882:
1878:
1868:
1854:
1850:
1829:
1825:
1812:
1808:
1799:
1795:
1787:
1783:
1772:
1768:
1763:Wayback Machine
1754:
1750:
1743:edition.cnn.com
1737:
1736:
1732:
1721:Foreign Affairs
1710:
1701:
1689:Foreign Affairs
1677:
1670:
1660:
1658:
1657:. December 2001
1653:
1652:
1645:
1635:
1633:
1632:on 19 June 2009
1624:
1622:
1618:
1602:
1598:
1593:
1560:Actio popularis
1550:
1543:
1540:
1531:
1526:
1510:
1504:
1499:
1448:
1347:
1341:
1325:
1319:'s opponents".
1270:
1236:
1192:Fernando Andreu
1148:Baltasar GarzĂłn
1108:
1092:
1068:
1033:David Addington
1017:Donald Rumsfeld
974:
939:
933:
928:
922:
907:Strafgesetzbuch
858:Offizialdelikte
853:
839:
833:
798:Bashar al-Assad
742:
736:
717:
696:
614:Prime Minister
603:
589:
584:
545:
490:
452:Established in
448:
444:
442:
438:
436:
428:
426:
422:
420:
416:
414:
407:
386:Baltazar Garzon
334:
325:
268:. U.S. Justice
250:Henry Kissinger
225:De Jure Praedae
173:
100:Baltasar GarzĂłn
96:Henry Kissinger
17:
16:Legal principle
12:
11:
5:
4533:
4523:
4522:
4517:
4512:
4507:
4502:
4497:
4492:
4475:
4474:
4472:
4471:
4466:
4461:
4456:
4451:
4446:
4440:
4438:
4434:
4433:
4431:
4430:
4425:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4395:
4390:
4385:
4379:
4377:
4368:
4365:
4364:
4362:
4361:
4356:
4351:
4346:
4341:
4340:
4339:
4334:
4324:
4319:
4314:
4308:
4306:
4301:Crimes against
4299:
4296:
4295:
4293:
4292:
4287:
4282:
4277:
4272:
4267:
4262:
4257:
4252:
4247:
4241:
4239:
4233:
4232:
4225:
4224:
4217:
4210:
4202:
4196:
4195:
4189:
4178:
4165:
4134:
4133:External links
4131:
4130:
4129:
4113:
4096:
4079:
4073:
4057:
4047:
4021:
4018:
3988:
3987:
3956:
3920:
3888:
3855:
3822:
3808:
3775:
3749:
3723:
3697:
3666:
3636:
3614:"Jurisdiction"
3605:
3573:
3541:
3509:
3488:
3482:Deutsche Welle
3468:
3448:
3422:
3391:
3377:
3357:
3327:
3310:
3288:
3261:
3242:
3216:
3189:
3163:
3134:
3123:on 9 June 2011
3100:
3077:
3057:
3042:
3028:
3009:
2995:
2969:
2955:
2936:
2934:, 20 July 2015
2924:
2892:
2866:
2855:on 18 May 2012
2839:
2822:Ottawa Citizen
2809:
2783:
2780:on 4 July 2008
2748:
2702:
2695:
2674:
2653:
2627:
2601:
2573:
2546:
2526:
2508:
2505:. 13 May 2023.
2488:
2485:. 12 May 2023.
2468:
2446:
2431:
2413:
2406:
2377:
2359:
2341:
2339:, paragraph 12
2329:
2310:
2292:
2288:ICJ's decision
2280:
2258:
2232:
2205:
2186:
2167:
2153:
2119:
2103:
2075:
2057:(2): 650â671.
2037:
2014:
2007:
1987:
1976:(1): 165â191.
1960:
1948:
1917:
1876:
1866:
1848:
1823:
1806:
1793:
1781:
1766:
1748:
1730:
1699:
1668:
1643:
1616:
1595:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1588:
1587:
1582:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1562:
1556:
1555:
1539:
1536:
1530:
1527:
1525:
1522:
1506:Main article:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1447:
1444:
1409:
1408:
1398:
1387:
1380:
1373:
1362:
1340:
1339:United Kingdom
1337:
1324:
1321:
1269:
1266:
1235:
1232:
1107:
1104:
1091:
1088:
1067:
1064:
1052:United Nations
1043:in The Hague.
993:George W. Bush
973:
970:
950:Adolf Eichmann
935:Main article:
932:
929:
924:Main article:
921:
918:
835:Main article:
832:
829:
786:Jaysh al-Islam
766:
765:
762:
759:
756:
753:
735:
732:
716:
713:
695:
692:
650:
649:
630:
623:
602:
599:
597:case of 1991.
588:
585:
583:
580:
563:Charles Taylor
544:
541:
532:George W. Bush
489:
486:
443:
437:
427:
421:
415:
406:
403:
402:
401:
394:European Union
369:
362:
333:
330:
324:
321:
317:municipal laws
305:Adolf Eichmann
211:, echoing the
172:
169:
132:quasi-judicial
120:that of judges
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4532:
4521:
4518:
4516:
4515:Globalization
4513:
4511:
4508:
4506:
4503:
4501:
4498:
4496:
4493:
4491:
4488:
4487:
4485:
4470:
4467:
4465:
4462:
4460:
4457:
4455:
4452:
4450:
4447:
4445:
4442:
4441:
4439:
4435:
4429:
4426:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4391:
4389:
4386:
4384:
4381:
4380:
4378:
4371:
4366:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4349:Slave trading
4347:
4345:
4342:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4330:
4329:
4328:
4325:
4323:
4320:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4310:
4309:
4307:
4304:
4297:
4291:
4288:
4286:
4283:
4281:
4278:
4276:
4273:
4271:
4268:
4266:
4263:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4251:
4248:
4246:
4243:
4242:
4240:
4238:
4234:
4230:
4223:
4218:
4216:
4211:
4209:
4204:
4203:
4200:
4193:
4190:
4187:
4183:
4179:
4176:
4172:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4163:0-9711859-0-5
4160:
4156:
4152:
4148:
4144:
4141:
4137:
4136:
4128:
4124:
4120:
4117:
4114:
4112:
4111:0-7923-1453-0
4108:
4104:
4100:
4099:Lyal S. Sunga
4097:
4095:
4094:90-411-0472-0
4091:
4087:
4083:
4082:Lyal S. Sunga
4080:
4076:
4074:0-19-927426-6
4070:
4066:
4062:
4058:
4055:
4051:
4050:Köchler, Hans
4048:
4045:
4041:
4037:
4033:
4032:
4027:
4024:
4023:
4017:
4006:
4002:
4000:
3995:
3983:
3979:
3975:
3971:
3967:
3960:
3944:
3940:
3938:
3933:
3927:
3925:
3908:
3904:
3903:
3898:
3892:
3876:
3872:
3871:
3866:
3859:
3843:
3839:
3838:
3833:
3826:
3820:
3819:
3812:
3796:
3792:
3791:
3786:
3779:
3763:
3759:
3753:
3737:
3733:
3727:
3711:
3707:
3701:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3670:
3654:
3650:
3643:
3641:
3623:
3619:
3615:
3609:
3593:
3589:
3588:
3583:
3577:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3556:
3551:
3545:
3529:
3525:
3524:
3519:
3513:
3505:
3504:
3499:
3492:
3484:
3483:
3478:
3472:
3464:
3463:
3458:
3452:
3437:
3433:
3426:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3395:
3380:
3374:
3371:. Routledge.
3370:
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616:Ariel Sharon
604:
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524:§ Spain
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374:Cutting Case
373:
361:nationality.
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297:Kenneth Roth
295:
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231:) and later
228:
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213:Commentaries
212:
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3742:14 December
3716:15 December
3690:14 December
3235:18 February
3209:18 February
3127:6 September
2832:24 November
2731:Transcripts
2646:19 November
2461:18 February
2273:18 February
2068:27 February
1476:mercenaries
1417:Tzipi Livni
1368:, formerly
1303:, a former
1288:during the
1268:Switzerland
1260:during the
1168:and former
1166:Jiang Zemin
1076:Netherlands
1066:Netherlands
1060:in absentia
1013:Dick Cheney
1009:in absentia
988:in absentia
817:Ali Mamlouk
813:in absentia
774:Syrian Army
646:Dick Cheney
435:signatories
390:extradition
187:natural law
128:show trials
108:sovereignty
4484:Categories
4354:Starvation
3976:(2): 242.
3768:9 December
3564:Q117832665
3182:20 October
3113:phayul.com
3111:. Madrid:
2915:Q124343850
2774:Q117832759
2742:6 February
2672:, p. 844.)
1896:3 November
1840:. London:
1661:6 February
1591:References
1552:Law portal
1440:Kumar Lama
1433:war crimes
1421:war crimes
1351:inter alia
1343:See also:
1309:the Gambia
1282:war crimes
1276:commander
1198:attack in
1188:Dan Halutz
1129:Guatemalan
1080:war crimes
1005:Guantanamo
1001:Abu Ghraib
997:Tony Blair
841:See also:
782:Majdi Nema
780:, whereas
738:See also:
433:Unratified
378:US v Yunis
157:war crimes
81:war crimes
53:jus cogens
47:erga omnes
4359:War crime
3999:The Local
3937:The Local
3801:5 January
3628:17 August
3598:5 January
2687:One World
2620:1 October
1524:Critiques
1518:Lithuania
1466:national
1456:self-help
1119:In 1999,
1025:Jay Bybee
755:Terrorism
587:Australia
561:In 2003,
454:The Hague
366:extradite
286:simulacra
38:residence
4327:Genocide
4173:and the
4157:, 2001,
4143:Archived
4119:Archived
4063:(2004).
4038:, 2018,
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3943:Archived
3939:â Sweden
3907:Archived
3875:Archived
3842:Archived
3795:Archived
3762:Archived
3736:BBC News
3710:BBC News
3655:. London
3592:Archived
3568:Archived
3560:Wikidata
3534:9 August
3528:Archived
3205:. London
2950:BBC News
2919:archived
2911:Wikidata
2770:Wikidata
2685:(2002).
2594:5 August
2426:BBC News
2388:(2007).
2370:Archived
2321:Archived
2096:24 March
1938:17 March
1906:cite web
1834:(1604).
1759:Archived
1538:See also
1497:By event
1021:John Yoo
972:Malaysia
684:Pinochet
509:and the
476:(1993).
153:genocide
69:genocide
4237:Sources
4011:5 April
4001:â Spain
3949:5 April
3913:5 April
3881:5 April
3848:5 April
3680:Haaretz
3503:AP News
3256:Haaretz
3177:Haaretz
2521:Reuters
2143:6 March
1832:Grotius
1800:Gaius.
1636:29 July
1491:lawsuit
1464:Mexican
1379:Part 1)
1353:, for:
1286:Liberia
1173:Li Peng
1170:Premier
1150:jailed
1123:winner
1100:Senegal
1090:Senegal
920:Ireland
898:Rwandan
831:Germany
752:Torture
724:Liberia
715:Finland
688:Senegal
601:Belgium
567:Liberia
499:Senegal
221:Grotius
171:History
85:torture
4344:Piracy
4161:
4109:
4092:
4071:
4056:(2003)
4042:
3659:27 May
3562:
3441:20 May
3415:20 May
3384:20 May
3375:
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3317:19 May
3308:
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3156:20 May
2988:3 July
2913:
2885:16 May
2859:16 May
2802:16 May
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2251:30 May
2225:30 May
2137:Jurist
2031:
2005:
1864:
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1323:Turkey
1317:Jammeh
1234:Sweden
1048:SUARAM
931:Israel
849:, and
734:France
694:Canada
644:, and
445:
439:
431:
429:
423:
417:
354:spying
241:) the
26:states
1777:Oxfam
1274:ULIMO
1224:Hamas
1177:Tibet
1106:Spain
889:VStGB
217:Gaius
87:, or
4159:ISBN
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4090:ISBN
4069:ISBN
4040:ISBN
4013:2022
3951:2022
3915:2022
3883:2022
3850:2022
3815:See
3803:2022
3770:2014
3744:2009
3718:2009
3692:2009
3661:2010
3630:2011
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3158:2010
3129:2010
2990:2007
2887:2012
2861:2012
2834:2011
2804:2012
2744:2013
2691:ISBN
2648:2014
2622:2015
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2275:2012
2253:2012
2227:2012
2145:2016
2098:2016
2070:2022
2029:ISBN
2003:ISBN
1940:2016
1912:link
1898:2012
1862:ISBN
1663:2016
1638:2009
1609:ISBN
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1200:Gaza
1135:and
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