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are true, despite skeptical attempts to show we know little or nothing. But if the term 'knowledge' is used when skeptical hypotheses are being discussed, we count as "knowing" very little, if anything. Contextualists use this to explain why skeptical arguments can be persuasive, while at the same time protecting the correctness of our ordinary claims to "know" things. This theory does not allow that someone can have knowledge at one moment and not the other, which would not be a satisfying epistemological answer. What contextualism entails is that in one context an utterance of a knowledge attribution can be true, and in a context with higher standards for knowledge, the same statement can be false. This happens in the same way that 'I' can correctly be used (by different people) to refer to different people at the same time.
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case matching the fact of the matter, not only in the actual world, but also in the sufficiently close possible worlds: Knowledge amounts to there being no "nearby" worlds in which one goes wrong with respect to p. But how close is sufficiently close? It's here that DeRose takes the modal account of knowledge in a contextualist direction, for the range of "epistemically relevant worlds" is what varies with context: In high standards contexts one's belief must match the fact of the matter through a much wider range of worlds than is relevant to low standards contexts.
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700:(2005). SSI claims that it is the context of the subject of the knowledge attribution that determines the epistemic standards, whereas Contextualism maintains it is the attributor. IRI, on the other hand, argues that it is the context of the practical interests of the subject of the knowledge attribution that determines the epistemic standards. Stanley writes that bare IRI is "simply the claim that whether or not someone knows that
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account of knowledge can be a contextualist by holding that what range of alternatives are relevant is sensitive to conversational context. DeRose adopts a type of modal or "safety" (as it has since come to be known) account on which knowledge is a matter of one's belief as to whether or not p is the
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That is, when we attribute knowledge to someone, the context in which we use the term 'knowledge' determines the standards relative to which "knowledge" is being attributed (or denied). If we use it in everyday conversational contexts, the contextualist maintains, most of our claims to "know" things
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The standards for attributing knowledge to someone, the contextualist claims, vary from one user's context to the next. Thus, if I say "John knows that his car is in front of him", the utterance is true if and only if (1) John believes that his car is in front of him, (2) the car is in fact in front
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may be determined in part by practical facts about the subject's environment." ("Contextualism" is a misnomer for either form of
Invariantism, since "Contextualism" among epistemologists is considered to be restricted to a claim about the context-sensitivity of knowledge attributions (or the word
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The main tenet of contextualist epistemology is that knowledge attributions are context-sensitive, and the truth values of "know" depend on the context in which it is used. A statement like 'I know that I have hands' would be false. The same proposition in an ordinary context—e.g., in a cafe with
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has taken an empirical approach to testing the claims of contextualism and related views. This research has proceeded by conducting experiments in which ordinary non-philosophers are presented with vignettes, then asked to report on the status of the knowledge ascription. The studies address
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of him, and (3) John meets the epistemic standards that my (the speaker's) context selects. This is a loose contextualist account of knowledge, and there are many significantly different theories of knowledge that can fit this contextualist template and thereby come in a contextualist form.
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In the studies completed up to 2010, no support for contextualism has been found: stakes have no impact on evidence. More specifically, non-philosophical intuitions about knowledge attributions are not affected by the importance to the potential knower of the accuracy of that knowledge.
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The contextualist solution is not to deny any premise, nor to say that the argument does not follow, but link the truth value of (3) to the context, and say that we can refuse (3) in context—like everyday conversational context—where we have different requirements to say we know.
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thesis about how 'knows' works in
English, not a theory of what knowledge, justification, or strength of epistemic position consists in. However, epistemologists combine contextualism with views about what knowledge is to address epistemological puzzles and issues, such as
514:, or expression occurs. Proponents of contextualism argue that, in some important respect, the action, utterance, or expression can only be understood relative to that context. Contextualist views hold that philosophically controversial concepts, such as "meaning
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friends— would be truth, and its negation would be false. When we participate in philosophical discourses of the skeptical sort, we seem to lose our knowledge; once we leave the skeptical context, we can truthfully say we have knowledge.
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of use, whom it refers to varies with context. Similarly, epistemic contextualists argue that the word 'knows' is context sensitive, expressing different relations in some different contexts.
562:. Context-sensitive expressions are ones that "express different propositions relative to different contexts of use". For example, some terms generally considered context-sensitive are
526:", and possibly even "being true" or "being right" only have meaning relative to a specified context. Other philosophers contend that context-dependence leads to complete
705:"knows"). Thus, any view which maintains that something other than knowledge attributions are context-sensitive is not, strictly speaking, a form of Contextualism.)
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What varies with context is how well-positioned a subject must be with respect to a proposition to count as "knowing" it. Contextualism in epistemology then is a
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account of knowledge can be an instance of contextualism if it's held that strength of justification is a contextually varying matter. And one who accepts a
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684:, which claims that knowledge is not context-sensitive (i.e. it is invariant). More recent criticism has been in the form of rival theories, including
1137:), special issue on Psychology and Experimental Philosophy ed. by Edouard Machery, Tania Lombrozo, & Joshua Knobe, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 265–273.
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contextualism by varying the context of the knowledge ascription, e.g. how important it is that the agent in the vignette has accurate knowledge.
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Contextualist accounts of knowledge became increasingly popular toward the end of the 20th century, particularly as responses to the problem of
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Contextualist epistemology has been criticized by several philosophers. Contextualism is opposed to any general form of
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Cohen, Stuart. 1998. "Contextualist
Solutions to Epistemological Problems: Scepticism, Gettier, and the Lottery."
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Timmons Mark, 1998 "Morality
Without Foundations: A Defense of Ethical Contextualism Oxford University Press US.
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is a theory of design where modern building types are harmonized with urban forms usual to a traditional city.
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See Feltz and
Zarpentine (2010), May, Sinnott-Armstrong, Hull, and Zimmerman (2010), and Buckwatler (2010)
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If I don't know that H is not the case, then I don't know an ordinary proposition O (e.g., I have hands)
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Contextualism was introduced, in part, to undermine skeptical arguments that have this basic structure:
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Buckwalter, Wesley (2010). "Knowledge Isn't Closed on
Saturday: A Study in Ordinary Language".
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Practical
Interests, Relevant Alternatives, and Knowledge Attributions: An Empirical Study
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DeRose, Keith. 1999. "Contextualism: An
Explanation and Defense", in Greco and Sosa 1999.
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I don't know that I am not in a skeptical scenario H (e.g., I'm not a brain in a vat)
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Topic of inquiry in philosophy and linguistics, also known as epistemic contextualism
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Price, A. W. 2008. ' 'Contextuality in
Practical Reason' ', Oxford University Press.
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May, Joshua, Sinnott-Armstrong, Walter, Hull, Jay G. & Zimmerman, Aaron. 2010. "
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Feltz, Adam; Zarpentine, Chris (2010). "Do You Know More When It
Matters Less?".
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Cohen Stuart. 1999. "Contextualism, Skepticism, and Reasons", in Tomberlin 1999.
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Insensitive Semantics: A Defense of Semantic Minimalism and Speech Act Pluralism
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This article is about epistemic contextualism. For semantic contextualism, see
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Schaffer, Jonathan; Knobe, Joshua (2011). "Contrastive Knowledge Surveyed".
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Annis, David. 1978. "A Contextualist Theory of Epistemic Justification", in
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Feldman, Richard. 1999. "Contextualism and Skepticism", in Tomberlin 1999.
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Mackie, J.L. 1977, "Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong", Viking Press,
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The Case for Contextualism: Knowledge, Skepticism and Context, Vol. 1
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Schiffer, Stephen. 1996. "Contextualist Solutions to Scepticism",
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Schaffer, Jonathan. 2004. "From Contextualism to Contrastivism,"
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DeRose, Keith. 1992. "Contextualism and Knowledge Attributions",
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632:. Contemporary contextualists include Michael Blome-Tillmann,
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1143:"Neurophilosophy of consciousness: from mind to consciousness"
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566:, such as 'I', 'here', and 'now'; while 'I' has a constant
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DeRose, Keith. 2002. "Assertion, Knowledge, and Context,"
537:, "contextualist" views are often closely associated with
1246:- DeRose on the history of contextualism in epistemology.
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Minding the Brain: A Guide to Philosophy and Neuroscience
558:, contextualism is the treatment of the word 'knows' as
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DeRose, Keith. 1995. "Solving the Skeptical Problem,"
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1010:Philosophy and Phenomenological Research
1206:Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society
1100:(7th ed.). Yale University Press.
708:An alternative to contextualism called
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592:Conclusion: Therefore, I don't know O
1215:. New York: Oxford University Press.
991:Cappelen, H. & Lepore, E. 2005.
373:Conservative and innovative language
1293:Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
1280:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1254:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1149:. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 351.
1131:Review of Philosophy and Psychology
964:Review of Philosophy and Psychology
843:
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1092:, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1036:, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1000:Australasian Journal of Philosophy
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2607:Sociology of scientific knowledge
2602:Sociology of scientific ignorance
2555:History and philosophy of science
1252:- an article by Tim Black on the
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1213:Knowledge and Practical Interests
688:(SSI), mainly due to the work of
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1237:A Brief History of Contextualism
1191:10.1111/j.1468-0068.2010.00795.x
955:American Philosophical Quarterly
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3213:Systemic functional linguistics
3162:List of skeptical organizations
1083:Blackwell Guide to Epistemology
1081:Greco, J. & Sosa, E. 1999.
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3142:List of books about skepticism
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1996:Analytic–synthetic distinction
1744:Analytic–synthetic distinction
1221:Tomberlin, James (ed.). 1999.
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686:Subject-Sensitive Invariantism
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3152:List of skeptical conferences
1250:Contextualism in Epistemology
1135:European Review of Philosophy
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912:Northoff, Georg (2014) p. 351
549:Contextualism in architecture
1098:New Paradigm In Architecture
1067:10.1080/09515089.2010.514572
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313:Functional discourse grammar
179:Ethnography of communication
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3157:List of skeptical magazines
3147:List of scientific skeptics
2329:Hypothetico-deductive model
2304:Deductive-nomological model
2289:Constructivist epistemology
1789:Internalism and externalism
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502:, is a family of views in
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323:Interactional linguistics
3068:Problem of the criterion
2132:Intertheoretic reduction
2121:Ignoramus et ignorabimus
2098:Functional contextualism
1892:Philosophy of perception
1695:Representational realism
1665:Naturalized epistemology
1141:Northoff, Georg (2014).
1096:Jencks, Charles (2002).
1045:Philosophical Psychology
2617:Philosophers of science
2395:Scientific essentialism
2344:Model-dependent realism
2279:Constructive empiricism
2172:Evidence-based practice
1872:Outline of epistemology
1705:Transcendental idealism
1289:Epistemic contextualism
1260:Epistemic contextualism
1225:, Blackwell Publishing.
1090:Knowledge and Lotteries
1088:Hawthorne, John. 2004.
1085:, Blackwell Publishing.
995:, Blackwell Publishing.
721:experimental philosophy
522:", "having a reason to
500:epistemic contextualism
3058:Five-minute hypothesis
2950:Skeptical philosophers
2904:Skeptical philosophies
2700:Alfred North Whitehead
2690:Charles Sanders Peirce
1819:Problem of other minds
1211:Stanley, Jason. 2005.
921:Stanley (2005), p. 85.
903:Stanley (2005), p. 17.
894:Stanley (2005), p. 16.
805:Propositional attitude
800:Principle of bivalence
661:relevant alternative's
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2550:Hard and soft science
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1977:Philosophy of science
1897:Philosophy of science
1877:Faith and rationality
1759:Descriptive knowledge
1630:Feminist epistemology
1570:Nicholas Wolterstorff
1199:Philosophical Studies
1032:DeRose, Keith. 2009.
825:Semiotic anthropology
765:Exclusive disjunction
712:has been proposed by
648:, and George Mattey.
154:Conversation analysis
3104:Semantic externalism
3073:Problem of induction
3063:MĂĽnchhausen trilemma
2525:Criticism of science
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2284:Constructive realism
2189:Scientific pluralism
2162:Problem of induction
1829:Procedural knowledge
1814:Problem of induction
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1017:Philosophical Review
820:Rhizome (philosophy)
510:in which an action,
506:which emphasize the
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308:Construction grammar
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3031:Skeptical scenarios
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655:For instance, an
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560:context-sensitive
518:", "knowing that
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1839:Regress argument
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1182:10.1.1.641.7164
1157:
1108:
1058:10.1.1.174.4685
949:
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938:
934:
929:
925:
920:
916:
911:
907:
902:
898:
893:
889:
884:
880:
876:Timmons (1998).
875:
871:
866:
862:
858:Feldman (1999).
857:
853:
848:
844:
839:
834:
744:
739:
737:
734:
719:Recent work in
673:contextualizing
669:neurophilosophy
623:Lottery paradox
619:Gettier problem
580:
525:
521:
517:
489:
448:
447:
358:
350:
349:
261:
253:
252:
248:Writing systems
139:Anthropological
129:
121:
120:
71:
63:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3236:
3226:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3200:
3195:
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3159:
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3089:
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3080:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3048:Dream argument
3045:
3043:Brain in a vat
3040:
3034:
3032:
3028:
3027:
3025:
3024:
3019:
3017:René Descartes
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
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2789:
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2780:
2778:
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2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2745:W. V. O. Quine
2742:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2680:Rudolf Steiner
2677:
2672:
2670:Henri Poincaré
2667:
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2542:
2540:Exact sciences
2537:
2532:
2527:
2521:
2519:
2518:Related topics
2515:
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2504:
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2477:Social science
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2470:Space and time
2462:
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2296:
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2233:
2228:
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2222:
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2201:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2179:Scientific law
2176:
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2174:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2117:
2116:
2115:
2110:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2088:Falsifiability
2085:
2080:
2075:
2074:
2073:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2048:
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2036:
2031:
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2019:
2017:Mill's Methods
2009:
1998:
1993:
1987:
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1981:
1980:
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1607:
1605:Constructivism
1602:
1596:
1594:
1588:
1587:
1585:
1584:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1562:
1557:
1555:Baruch Spinoza
1552:
1550:P. F. Strawson
1547:
1542:
1540:Susanna Siegel
1537:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1517:
1515:W. V. O. Quine
1512:
1507:
1502:
1497:
1492:
1487:
1482:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1442:
1437:
1432:
1427:
1422:
1417:
1415:Nelson Goodman
1412:
1407:
1405:Edmund Gettier
1402:
1397:
1392:
1390:René Descartes
1387:
1382:
1380:Gilles Deleuze
1377:
1372:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1355:William Alston
1352:
1347:
1345:Thomas Aquinas
1341:
1339:
1333:
1332:
1325:
1324:
1317:
1310:
1302:
1296:
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1286:
1266:
1257:
1247:
1242:2013-01-18 at
1232:
1231:External links
1229:
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1209:
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1175:(4): 675–708.
1164:
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1112:
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1051:(5): 683–706.
1040:
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1013:
1006:
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1002:, 76: 289–306.
996:
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971:(3): 395–406.
958:
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730:
696:(IRI), due to
690:John Hawthorne
594:
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428:Prescriptivism
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3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3139:
3137:
3135:
3131:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3119:Contextualism
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3096:
3094:
3090:
3084:
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2934:
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2929:
2927:
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2909:
2908:
2906:
2902:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2880:
2879:
2876:
2872:
2869:
2868:
2867:
2866:Philosophical
2864:
2863:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2846:
2841:
2839:
2834:
2832:
2827:
2826:
2823:
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2800:
2790:
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2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
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2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2730:Rudolf Carnap
2728:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2665:Auguste Comte
2663:
2662:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2637:Francis Bacon
2635:
2633:
2630:
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2623:
2620:
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2614:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
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2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2566:
2565:Pseudoscience
2563:
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2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
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2541:
2538:
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2523:
2522:
2520:
2516:
2508:
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2453:
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2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2424:Structuralism
2422:
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2412:
2410:
2406:
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2396:
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2386:Received view
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2320:
2317:
2315:
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2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2294:Contextualism
2292:
2290:
2287:
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1794:Justification
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1673:
1671:
1670:Phenomenalism
1668:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1660:NaĂŻve realism
1658:
1656:
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1636:
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1626:
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1618:
1616:
1613:
1611:
1610:Contextualism
1608:
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1603:
1601:
1598:
1597:
1595:
1593:
1589:
1583:
1582:
1578:
1576:
1575:Vienna Circle
1573:
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1510:Hilary Putnam
1508:
1506:
1503:
1501:
1498:
1496:
1493:
1491:
1488:
1486:
1485:Robert Nozick
1483:
1481:
1480:John McDowell
1478:
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1471:
1468:
1466:
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1440:Immanuel Kant
1438:
1436:
1433:
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1423:
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1418:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1410:Alvin Goldman
1408:
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1244:archive.today
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1156:9781137406057
1152:
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1132:
1128:
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1120:0-14-013558-8
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1038:
1035:
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1029:111: 167–203.
1028:
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867:Mackie (1977)
864:
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849:Price (2008).
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823:
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795:Perspectivism
793:
791:
788:
786:
785:Logical value
783:
781:
778:
776:
773:
771:
770:False dilemma
768:
766:
763:
761:
758:
756:
753:
752:
747:
736:
729:
725:
722:
717:
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710:contrastivism
706:
703:
699:
698:Jason Stanley
695:
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670:
665:
662:
658:
657:evidentialist
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3083:Wax argument
2775:Larry Laudan
2755:Imre Lakatos
2710:Otto Neurath
2685:Karl Pearson
2675:Pierre Duhem
2647:Isaac Newton
2577:Protoscience
2535:Epistemology
2409:Anti-realism
2407: /
2388: /
2379: /
2365: /
2363:Reductionism
2361: /
2334:Inductionism
2314:Evolutionism
2293:
2119:
2006:a posteriori
2005:
2001:
1853:
1754:Common sense
1732:A posteriori
1731:
1723:
1685:Reductionism
1609:
1579:
1530:Gilbert Ryle
1400:Fred Dretske
1385:Keith DeRose
1329:Epistemology
1278:
1253:
1222:
1212:
1208:, 96:317-33.
1205:
1201:119: 73–103.
1198:
1172:
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1097:
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845:
755:Anekantavada
726:
718:
707:
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693:
692:(2004), and
685:
681:Invariantism
679:
677:
672:
666:
654:
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638:Keith DeRose
627:
607:
603:
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595:
581:
556:epistemology
553:
547:
532:
507:
499:
495:
494:
291:Glossematics
271:Constituency
243:interpreting
81:Lexicography
3053:Evil genius
2997:Aenesidemus
2982:Clitomachus
2765:Ian Hacking
2750:Thomas Kuhn
2735:Karl Popper
2715:C. D. Broad
2632:Roger Bacon
2560:Non-science
2502:Linguistics
2482:Archaeology
2377:Rationalism
2367:Determinism
2354:Physicalism
2319:Fallibilism
2269:Coherentism
2199:Testability
2152:Observation
2147:Objectivity
2108:alternative
2039:Correlation
2029:Consilience
1834:Proposition
1804:Objectivity
1690:Reliabilism
1680:Rationalism
1625:Fallibilism
1600:Coherentism
1545:Ernest Sosa
1520:Thomas Reid
1505:James Pryor
1475:G. E. Moore
1465:David Lewis
1455:Saul Kripke
1450:Peter Klein
1430:Susan Haack
1360:Robert Audi
775:Fuzzy logic
642:David Lewis
443:Terminology
418:Orthography
338:Usage-based
239:Translating
134:Acquisition
39:Linguistics
3208:Skepticism
3203:Relativism
3198:Metatheory
3193:Metaethics
3182:Categories
3124:Relativism
3038:Acatalepsy
3022:David Hume
2967:Arcesilaus
2936:Pyrrhonism
2888:Scientific
2852:Skepticism
2652:David Hume
2625:Precursors
2507:Psychology
2487:Economics‎
2381:Empiricism
2372:Pragmatism
2359:Positivism
2349:Naturalism
2219:scientific
2103:Hypothesis
2066:Experiment
1935:Discussion
1925:Task Force
1844:Simplicity
1824:Perception
1700:Skepticism
1675:Positivism
1650:Infinitism
1615:Empiricism
1470:John Locke
1435:David Hume
1425:Anil Gupta
1420:Paul Grice
1395:John Dewey
1365:A. J. Ayer
1264:PhilPapers
1133:(formerly
1019:104: 1-52.
947:References
815:Relativism
646:Gail Stine
630:skepticism
621:, and the
615:skepticism
564:indexicals
541:, or with
528:relativism
504:philosophy
413:Orismology
298:Functional
286:Generative
276:Dependency
96:Pragmatics
86:Morphology
76:Diachronic
3092:Responses
3012:Montaigne
2977:Carneades
2941:Solipsism
2931:Humeanism
2921:Cartesian
2893:Religious
2492:Geography
2460:Chemistry
2419:Scientism
2214:ladenness
2034:Construct
2012:Causality
1799:Knowledge
1784:Induction
1734:knowledge
1726:knowledge
1177:CiteSeerX
1053:CiteSeerX
985:144530801
837:Footnotes
512:utterance
388:Iconicity
383:Etymology
303:Cognitive
266:Formalist
219:Phonetics
209:Philology
101:Semantics
91:Phonology
2926:Charvaka
2787:Category
2439:Vitalism
2262:Theories
2236:Variable
2157:Paradigm
2044:function
2002:A priori
1991:Analysis
1984:Concepts
1920:Category
1739:Analysis
1724:A priori
1715:Concepts
1655:Innatism
1592:Theories
1240:Archived
1075:15444124
732:See also
610:semantic
578:Overview
572:contexts
189:Forensic
169:Distance
116:Typology
31:a series
29:Part of
3002:Agrippa
2972:Lacydes
2871:Radical
2497:History
2465:Physics
2455:Biology
2253:more...
2241:control
2137:Inquiry
1855:more...
1635:Fideism
1581:more...
1291:at the
1277:(ed.).
570:in all
508:context
144:Applied
54:History
49:Outline
2992:Cicero
2957:Pyrrho
2916:Ajñana
2209:choice
2204:Theory
2142:Nature
2071:design
1749:Belief
1645:Holism
1179:
1153:
1118:
1104:
1073:
1055:
983:
617:, the
535:ethics
459:Portal
357:Topics
106:Syntax
3134:Lists
2962:Timon
2883:Moral
2878:Local
1930:Stubs
1849:Truth
1495:Plato
1273:. In
1071:S2CID
981:S2CID
830:Truth
59:Index
2113:null
2083:Fact
2004:and
1169:Noûs
1151:ISBN
1116:ISBN
1102:ISBN
241:and
234:Text
1262:at
1187:doi
1129:",
1063:doi
973:doi
554:In
533:In
3184::
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975::
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