Blockade of Germany (1914–1919)

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initially considered the armistice only a temporary cessation of the war (so that they can regroup their forces), and feared that when fighting broke out again, the ships would be confiscated outright. In January, German officials notified an American representative in Berlin that the shortage of food would not become critical until late spring, with some leaders urging a delay in shipments so as to avoid strengthening the German left. Ultimately, food began arriving in American ships in March, and facing the threat of food riots, Germany finally agreed to surrender its fleet on 14 March 1919. The Allies allowed Germany, under their supervision, to import 300,000 tons of grain and 70,000 tons of cured pork per month until August 1919, making them the largest recipient of food imports. The remaining restrictions were finally lifted on 12 July 1919 after Germany had signed the

152: 905: 729:'s functions in such a war would be the capture of German commercial shipping and the blockade of German ports. A blockade was considered useful for two reasons: it could force the enemy's fleet to fight, and it could act as an economic weapon to destroy German commerce. It was not until 1908, however, that a blockade of Germany formally appeared in the navy's war plans and even then some officials were divided over how feasible it was. The plans remained in a state of constant change and revision until 1914, with the navy undecided over how best to operate such a blockade. A traditional "close blockade" involved warships being stationed directly outside an enemy's ports. By 1912, improvements in naval technology especially in 219: 1049: 206: 2792:, Dezember 1918. (Parallel English translation) Injuries inflicted to the German national strength through the enemy blockade. Memorial of the German Board of Public Health, 27 December 1918 the German Board of Health report provided an English translation of the German text. On page 17, it stated, "The high accumulation of cases of death from influenza which is to be noticed only in the second half-year of 1918 has consequently not been taken into account at all, although a considerable part of these cases of death was the consequence of bad constitution of the body, caused by malnutrition". 165: 193: 1419:, and the authors attributed the civilian deaths over the prewar level primarily to food and fuel shortages in 1917–1918. The study also estimated an additional 209,000 Spanish flu deaths in 1918. A study sponsored by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in 1940 estimated the German civilian death toll at over 600,000. Based on the 1928 German study, it maintained, "A thorough inquiry has led to the conclusion that the number of 'civilian' deaths traceable to the war was 424,000, to which number must be added about 200,000 deaths caused by the influenza epidemic". 136: 1145: 49: 1292: 1258: 2977: 986: 1098:

their cooperation with Germany was only out of fear that the Germans would otherwise "torpedo their vessels without mercy". The British were also able to exert pressure through controlling British exports, such as coal and fertilizer, and by making the threat of potentially extending the blockade. As the war went on, therefore, neutral countries cooperated more and more with the British, and so the blockade at last began to bite. Things only worsened with the February 1917 German declaration of

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impossible to confirm, possibly too high. Historian Alan Kramer notes that many authors have taken the estimate at face value, but cautions that it comes from a partisan source in a context of "quivering nationalist hatred". The German claims were made while Germany was waging a propaganda campaign to end the Allied blockade of Germany after the armistice. Germany also raised the issue of the Allied blockade to counter charges against the German use of submarine warfare.

1276:("war bread") and powdered milk. The food shortages caused looting and riots not only in Germany but also in Vienna and Budapest. The food shortages were so severe that by the autumn of 1918, Austria-Hungary hijacked barges on the Danube full of Romanian wheat bound for Germany, which in turn threatened military retaliation. Also, during the winter of 1916 to 1917, there was a failure of the potato crop, which resulted in the urban population having to subsist largely on 1466: 810: 774:, which attempted to establish the generally recognized rules of international law. While signed, it was never formally ratified by any country (the US Senate consented to, not in time for the start of the war). The British, in particular, did not wholly accept the Declaration, but did not disregard it entirely either. As well as specifying certain rules on the treatment of neutral ships, the declaration defined three categories of neutral cargo during war: 232: 1324:

harvest. The military was the true priority, with the 10% of the population in the armed forces allotted 30% of grain and 60% of meat supplies, in addition to foodstuffs looted from the occupied territories. Even as a food crisis loomed on the eve of the armistice, the army built up a reserve of 1.5 million tons of grain (equivalent to 7 months of pre-war imports), plus other foodstuffs, for a possible last-ditch battle.

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at the shortest notice. Germany is very near starvation. The evidence I have received from the officers sent by the War Office all over Germany shows, first of all, the great privations which the German people are suffering, and, secondly, the great danger of a collapse of the entire structure of German social and national life under the pressure of hunger and malnutrition. Now is therefore the moment to settle".

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contravention of much of the London Declaration. The British defended their actions by pointing out that they had never ratified the agreement, by arguing that they were retaliating for German actions, by suggesting the Declaration failed to anticipate the military use of some goods (such as rubber), and by referring to the German legal argument that coastal towns could be treated as fortifications and

1169:. Scrap was recycled from the battlefield and from the civilian population; for instance, a decree of March 1917 ordered church bells to be smelted for the war effort, resulting in the loss of 44% of Germany's bells. Other shortages were mitigated by substitution, aided by Germany's well-developed chemical industry and university research departments; an example is the extraction of saltpeter from 1222:, hypothesised that the blockade led to revolutionary movements but concluded that based on the evidence, "it is more than doubtful whether this is the proper explanation". Germans wanted to end the war because of the food shortage, but workers staged a revolution because of the long-term theory of socialism. The revolutionaries claimed in their slogans, for example, that they were 831:, Britain declared the North Sea a "military area". This meant that to ensure "commerce of all countries will be able to reach its destination in safety", traffic through the area was recommended to follow specific lanes (to avoid German mines and British mines, ostensibly placed to protect against German warships), forcing them to submit to British inspection. 1094:'s administration protested vigorously. Britain did not wish to antagonise the Americans and set up a program to buy American cotton, guaranteed that the price stayed above peacetime levels and mollified cotton traders. When American ships were stopped with contraband, the British purchased the entire cargo and released the cargoless ship. 1266:

metals, the blockade also deprived Germany of supplies of fertiliser that were vital to agriculture - exacerbated by the diversion of existing stocks to munitions production. That led to staples such as grain, potatoes, meat and dairy products becoming so scarce by the end of 1916 that many people were obliged to instead consume

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arguments, writing that even though German reports (including "freakish" photos of starving children) were exaggerated for political effect, even though some parts of Europe may have suffered worse, many millions undoubtedly did suffer intense nutritional deprivation to which intentional Allied policy played some part.

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The first English-language accounts of the effects of the blockade of foodstuffs were by humanitarians, diplomats and medical professionals, who were sympathetic to the suffering of the German people. The official German account, based on data about disease, growth of children, and mortality, harshly

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Ultimately, the British were more successful with neutral countries as their blockade was careful to limit inconveniences to neutrals, while German efforts at raiding traffic to the UK had the effect of alienating world opinion, aiding the British efforts. Dutch diplomats, for example, explained that

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From a more modern perspective, in 1985 C. Paul Vincent found that no reliable death toll data exist for the period immediately after the November 1918 armistice, but maintains that for the German people, they were the most devastating months, as "Germany's deplorable state further deteriorated." N.

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one of the figures who took notice. In March he stressed the need for a speedy settlement to the British House of Commons: "We are holding all our means of coercion in full operation, or in immediate readiness for use. We are enforcing the blockade with vigour. We have strong armies ready to advance

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Twenty-six - The existing blockade conditions set up by the allied and associated powers are to remain unchanged, and all German merchant ships found at sea are to remain liable to capture. The Allies and the United States should give consideration to the provisioning of Germany during the armistice

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However, not all of the shortages could be made good. Lack of rubber meant that trucks had to be fitted with iron tyres, limiting their speed to 12 miles per hour (19 km/h). The army was prioritised for textiles and leather, so that civilians were unable to obtain new clothes and shoes. Weapons

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and rubber. Although at the outbreak of war, stocks of strategic materials amounted to only three to six months of pre-war consumption, Germany was able to mitigate the effects of the blockade in a number of ways. Scrap and raw materials such as coal and iron ore were taken from occupied territories

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that were able to elude the Northern Patrol in periods of poor visibility. Neutral shipping was tempted by high prices to smuggle strategic materials such as rubber, cotton or metals, which could be hidden from inspection or listed as personal luggage. Some neutral ships colluded with the Germans in

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The German government made some attempts to counter the effects of the blockade, with questionable effectiveness. In 1914, statutory price controls on staple items encouraged farmers to switch to unregulated produce, thereby exacerbating shortages. In early 1915, a potato shortage was blamed on the

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as the "principal offender", as it was also increasing imports from America enormously so that it could export to Germany at a profit. Exports to Germany from Sweden, Denmark and Norway increased in 1915 to almost exactly equal the loss of trade with the US. The Entente could do little to intervene

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While militarily Britain kept a firm hold of the situation, the diplomatic situation was more fluid. Britain's blockade did not cover Germany's surrounding neutral countries, and so could not be truly effective without their cooperation. German markets could offer high prices, and thus imports from

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estimated that there were 300,000 excess deaths in Germany from the blockade, after subtracting deaths from the influenza epidemic. In 2014, Kramer calculated that paradoxically, British civilian excess mortality increased at a higher rate than Germans (1.3%, compared to Germany's ~1%). While the

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maintained that "it is very far from accurate to attribute to the blockade all of the excess deaths above pre-war mortality" and believed that the German figures were "somewhat exaggerated", while in 1985 C. Paul Vincent wrote that the estimate's methodology was "peculiar" and so the estimate was

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Indeed, negotiations had dragged on with little progress for the first four months. Though the armistice made mention of food supplies, the Entente dragged their feet on questions such as fishing rights and the how Germany was to pay for food. For the Germans, in negotiations from January 1919 to

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of economic was launched on 31 August 1916 and designed to raise war productivity by the compulsory employment of all men between the ages of 17 and 60, meeting only partial success. But German authorities allocated to urban civilians (representing 67% of the population) only a third of the grain

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or "pig massacre" which resulted a glut of pork products, the main protein source for working-class Germans. This was followed by a shortage of pork, as so many pigs had been slaughtered in a short time. A complicated rationing system, initially introduced in January 1915, aimed to ensure that a

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More recent studies also disagree on the severity of the blockade's impact on the affected populations at the time of the revolution and the armistice. Some hold that the blockade starved Germany and the Central Powers into defeat in 1918. Others hold that the armistice on 11 November was forced

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to British efforts). Sweden, as an example, was one of the last to give in. Even despite the sinking (by 1916) of almost 100 of their ships by German U-boats, even during the failed harvest of 1916 where Sweden suffered famine, Sweden had continued to export food and iron ore to Germany. But the

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The impact on childhood was assessed by Cox by using newly discovered data, based on heights and weights of nearly 600,000 German schoolchildren, who were measured between 1914 and 1924. The data indicate that children suffered severe malnutrition. Class was a major factor, as the working-class

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wanted guarantees that the food imports could be financed with foreign credit owed to German businesses. Leaders in industry and government feared that the Allies might confiscate the fleet as reparations so as to gain a competitive edge over German industries. Privately, German authorities had

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All scholars agree that the blockade made a large contribution to the outcome of the war. By 1915, Germany's imports had fallen by 55% from its prewar levels and the exports were 53% of what they had been in 1914. Apart from leading to shortages in vital raw materials such as oil and nonferrous

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became the biggest food supplier to Germany in 1915, with cheese exports tripling and some other products quintupling. Germany had prevented them from exporting to occupied Belgium, and Dutch traders found they could profit by consuming imports and exporting domestic production to bypass Allied

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Eventually, it became clear that the British measures all but prevented maritime neutral trade, including foodstuffs, with the Central Powers. While the British avoided the use of the word "blockade" in the above pronouncements, their actions presented an effective "distant blockade", in direct

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confident that the war would be over (at least in the west) long before food shortages might otherwise have become an issue. However, once it became clear that the Schlieffen Plan had failed and that Germany would have to fight a long war on two fronts, factors such as the conscription of farm

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Romania would be unaffected by any naval blockade. A key component of German military thinking was the realization that notwithstanding food supplies, Germany's prospect of winning a long war with relatively weak allies against the United Kingdom, France and Russia was dubious in any case. The

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Meanwhile, Germany had made no specific plans to manage its wartime food supplies since in peacetime, it produced about 80% of its total consumption. The Germans also expected to requisition supplies from occupied territories, furthermore, overland imports from the Netherlands, Scandinavia and

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The official German statistics estimated 763,000 civilian malnutrition and disease deaths were caused by the blockade of Germany. The statistics came from a German National Health Office report published in December 1918 that estimated the blockade to be responsible for the deaths of 762,796

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Sally Marks argues that accounts of a hunger blockade are a "myth" since worse conditions occurred at the same time in Belgium and the regions of Poland and of northern France that Germany had occupied, and notes known cases of fabricated accounts of starving children. Mary Cox rejects such

1226:(worker slaves) to the monarchy. Edmonds, on the other hand was supported by Colonel Irwin L. Hunt, who was in charge of civil affairs in the American occupied zone of the Rhineland, and held that food shortages were a post-armistice phenomenon caused solely by the disruptions of the 1333: 1365:. In early 1919, rations in German cities were on average 1,500 calories per day. In the short term Germany would stave off starvation by consuming reserves (often reallocated against governments attempts to secure them for military use) but such supplies could not last forever. 1118:

According to historian Alan Kramer, a related and perhaps more important issue for Germany was simply the fact that Germany ended up at war with most of its trading partners. Kramer notes that of the 2.5 million tons of wheat Germany imported in 1913, 0.85m tons came from

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during the war in the United Kingdom, a country that was much less affected by food shortages (although this can also be attributed to the influenza epidemic and diseases such as bronchitis and tuberculosis which were not strictly nutrition-related).

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and the American business community to intervene. German diplomats repeatedly pointed out that the blockade was hurting American exports. Under pressure, especially from commercial interests wishing to profit from wartime trade with both sides,

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Thus, German policy frequently served to make food shortages worse. Particularly resented was the effect of unequal distribution. Civilians were expected to compensate for the blockade by working harder than ever. For example, the

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Jutland and Trafalgar maintained Britain's command of the oceans and the economic blockade, which was its primary strategic weapon. The Grand Fleet anchored a British economic blockade that was slowly strangling the German war

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minimum nutritional need was met, with "war kitchens" providing cheap mass meals to impoverished civilians in larger cities. Yet at times, rations only amounted to 1,000 calories per day, requiring supplementation from the

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and disease caused by the blockade. An academic study done in 1928 put the death toll at 424,000, with similar or lower numbers given by more recent scholars, noting however complications with the degree of attribution of

882:. Despite protests, most neutral merchant vessels agreed to dock at British ports to be inspected and then escorted, less any "illegal" cargo destined for Germany, through the British minefields to their destinations. 745:

led to fears that blockading ships would be vulnerable. Therefore, by July 1914, the British had decided that in the event of war with Germany, a "distant blockade" controlling entry to the Atlantic Ocean through the

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11 March 1915, a Maritime Order in Council announced that the British would "seize all ships carrying goods of presumed enemy destination, ownership, or origin". This was in retaliation for the February 1915

634:. The blockade is considered one of the key elements in the eventual Allied victory in the war. In December 1918, the German Board of Public Health claimed that 763,000 German civilians had already died from 785:

Conditional contraband, which are dual purpose goods including foodstuffs. These could be captured if "shown to be destined for the use of the armed forces or of a government department of the enemy state".

854:. The owners of the cargo had issued a guarantee that the food would not be used by the German military, which was accepted by the British. However, while the ship was en route, on 26 January 1915, the 2152:

Britain still controlled the sea, and Germany never again attempted a full-scale naval confrontation. Germany was thus prevented from receiving vital war supplies and foodstuffs throughout the conflict

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elsewhere. Germany was initially able to use neutral countries as a conduit for global trade, but eventually British pressure, American involvement, and German missteps led to full economic isolation.

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The United Kingdom, with its overwhelming sea power, established a naval blockade of Germany immediately on the outbreak of war in August 1914. This was strengthened or weakened in a number of steps.

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laborers, the requisition of horses, poor weather and the diversion of nitrogen from fertilizer manufacture into military explosives all combined to cause a considerable drop in agricultural output.

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to Germany. A memorandum to the British War Cabinet on 1 January 1917 stated that very few supplies were reaching Germany or its allies via the North Sea or other areas such as Austria-Hungary's

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29 October 1914, due to American protests, a new Maritime Order in Council repealed the 20 August order, but put the onus on the owners of the goods to prove there was not a military destination.

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children suffered the most but were the quickest to recover after the war. Recovery to normality was made possible by massive food aid organized by the United States and other former enemies.

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March 1919, they refused to agree to the Allied demand to temporarily surrender its merchant ships to their control so as to provide transport. The head of the German armistice delegation,

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Anne Roerkohl, Hungerblockade und Heimatfront: Die kommunale Lebensmittelversorgung in Westfalen während des Ersten Weltkrieges, Stuttgart, Franz Steiner, 1991, p. 348; Wilfried Rudloff,

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criticised the Allies by calling the blockade a crime against innocent people. The first account commissioned by the Allies was written by Professor A. C. Bell and Brigadier-General Sir

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announced that the German government would seize all grain in Germany, a decree interpreted by the British as putting the food supply all under the control of the German Army. Thus the

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desiring an almost immediate end to the blockade so the US could sell its surplus. The French were the most hostile, fearful of a renewed invasion. Britain was somewhere between, with

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provided a thorough analysis of the German civilian deaths during the war. The study estimated 424,000 war-related deaths of civilians over the age of one in Germany, not including

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Mary Elisabeth Cox, "Hunger games: or how the Allied blockade in the First World War deprived German children of nutrition, and Allied food aid subsequently saved them".

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The German government regarded the blockade as an attempt to starve the country into defeat. Militarily, they attempted to retaliate in kind, in particular through the

1455: 1983: 4820: 2139: 1571:, 27 December 1918. Berlin: Reichsdruckerei. The report notes on page 17 that the figures for the second half of 1918 were estimated based on the first half of 1918. 450: 1073:. This was not initially successful, especially as Germany responded by torpedoing Dutch ships, forcing their exports to go to Germany. Other British officials saw 4457: 4281: 3621: 1760: 1454:(including influenza) into the postwar period, but attributes around 100,000 to incipient famine conditions in the first month. Conditions greatly improved after 5375: 4899: 4927: 3434: 2489: 1115:

government fell the next year, and combined Anglo-American pressure forced increasing restrictions on export to Germany until a full prohibition in May 1918.

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Before the war, more than 50% of German imports had been raw or semi-finished materials for German industry; chiefly textile fibres and yarn, animal hides,

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allowing themselves to be arrested in Danish waters. However, the desperation in Germany is illustrated by the building of two blockade-running submarines,

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from 9 February, while the British, Germans and Americans debated how the decree affected the original assurance. The 11 March Order in Council overtook

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epidemic in 1918 because the figures for the last six months of 1918 were estimated by the first six months. This estimate has been heavily criticised.

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Unlike the British November declaration, this was a pseudo-unrestricted submarine warfare campaign, where ships were liable to be sunk without warning.

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directing the British Government to purchase the cargo and pay damages to the ship owners, rejecting the Americans' claims of neutral trading rights.

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21 September 1914, the Contraband Proclamation reassigned many goods from the "not to be declared contraband" list to the Conditional Contraband list.

255:~500,000 civilians dead from excess mortality (excluding flu pandemic deaths) between 1914 and 1919, 763k according to 1918 German government estimate 4969: 552: 275: 3011: 1438:

in an April 1919 article claimed that 100,000 German civilians had died from the continuation of the blockade of Germany after the armistice. The

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Deutschland und die Reparation 1918/19: Die Genese des Reparationsproblems in Deutschland zwischen Waffenstillstand und Versailler Friedensschluß

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A history of the blockade of Germany and of the countries associated with her in the Great War, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey, 1914-1918

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A History of the Blockade of Germany and of the countries associated with her in the Great War, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey, 1914–1918

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Howard, N. P. "The social and political consequences of the allied food blockade of Germany, 1918-19." German History 11.2 (1993): 161–88.

718: 497: 492: 4894: 3785: 3239: 1188: 268: 3462: 1412: 894: 879: 2770: 1209:, the first production model of which was completed in October 1917, but only twenty tanks had reached combat units by the Armistice. 5420: 3792: 3105:

McKercher, B. J. C., and Keith E. Neilson. "‘The triumph of unarmed forces’: Sweden and the allied blockade of Germany, 1914–1917."

1238:, rather than any actions of the civilian population. The idea that a revolt of the home front forced the armistice was part of the 5355: 3444: 1131:. Further, more than half of Germany's exports, with which it might expect to pay for imports, were to Britain, Russia and France. 971: 5120: 904: 5370: 5052: 4890: 4877: 4834: 4743: 4469: 4271: 4178: 4080: 3838: 3485: 337: 311: 5360: 5244: 5234: 5102: 3033: 2135: 1979: 547: 5350: 5016: 4950: 4787: 4666: 4339: 3358: 3214: 3162: 3143: 2921: 1903: 1555: 542: 5191: 4611: 3396: 1975: 2530: 2330: 2127: 4286: 3914: 3419: 2857: 818:

20 August 1914, a Maritime Order in Council declared that Conditional Contraband would be treated as Absolute Contraband.

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raided large military food reserves (set aside for a continuation of the war) and gave them to the civilian population.

5161: 4451: 3853: 3611: 3064: 2916:"Hunger in War and Peace: Women and Children in Germany 1914-1924" Cox, Mary E. 2019. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2685: 2642: 2394: 2213: 2065: 1754: 1744: 1724: 1107: 647:

continuation of the blockade in 1919. However, it has been pointed out that there was an even slightly larger civilian

1102:(which meant a loss of neutral tonnage, both through ships sunk and Allied requisition of vessels) and the subsequent 5345: 5036: 4730: 4546: 3818: 3289: 1807: 1697: 813:

Official Royal Navy map showing approximate positions of naval minefields around the British Isles, 19th August 1918.

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McDermott, John. "Total War and the Merchant State: Aspects of British Economic Warfare against Germany, 1914-16."

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A "Weapon of Starvation": The Politics, Propaganda, and Morality of Britain's Hunger Blockade of Germany, 1914-1919

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Family Life in Germany under the Blockade (from Reports of Doctors, School Nurses, Children's Judges and Teachers)

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Goods not to be declared contraband, such as medical supplies, but also certain civilian raw materials and goods.

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relied heavily on imports to feed their population and supply their war industry. Imports of foodstuffs and war

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programmes were sometimes delayed or cancelled for lack of metals; one example is the production of the German

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proceedings which were originally planned for 31 March and the issue was eventually settled in July 1916 by

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British propaganda poster illustrating contradiction between German diplomatic stance and submarine attacks

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Kennedy, Greg. "Intelligence and the Blockade, 1914–17: A Study in Administration, Friction and Command."

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Schaedigung der deutschen Volkskraft durch die feindliche Blockade. Denkschrift des Reichsgesundheitsamtes

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Die Wohlfahrtsstadt: Kommunale Ernährungs-, Fürsorge, und Wohnungspolitik am Beispiel Münchens 1910-1933

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Official German figures for the death toll from the blockade do not cover the postwar period, though Dr.

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on 3 November 1918, which exposed Germany to an invasion from the south. On 29 September 1918, General

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Marks, Sally (2013). "Mistakes and Myths: The Allies, Germany, and the Versailles Treaty, 1918–1921".

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Cox, Mary Elizabeth (2019). "7. Nutritional Deprivation after the Fighting: November 1918–July 1919".

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failed dismally in its objectives), deaths came from diseases associated with bad wartime conditions.

1048: 5171: 4939: 4523: 4511: 4266: 4251: 3972: 3863: 3557: 3535: 3284: 3274: 3207: 2421:(London: National Labor Press, 1919); Ernest Starling, "The Food Supply of Germany during the War", 1074: 1035: 855: 420: 405: 4118: 1446:

issued a statement in June 1919 condemning continuation of the blockade and giving the same figure.

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https://www.bundesarchiv.de/aktenreichskanzlei/1919-1933/1000/sch/sch1p/kap1_2/kap2_17/para3_1.html

577: 567: 537: 351: 2843:, Stuttgart, Berlin Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt; New Haven, Yale University Press, 1928, p. 22 to 61 2718:

Verhandlung der verfassungsgebenden Nationalversammlung: Stenographische Berichte und Drucksachen

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The Americans were most concerned about the bad conditions in Germany, with US Food Administrator

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across German waters thereby limiting the passage of vessels to the outer seas to two exits". The

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in 1905–1906 concerning military co-operation with France in the event of a war with Germany. The

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in France and Belgium. Inside Germany, old mines were reopened and material was recovered from

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Mary Elisabeth Cox (2019). "1. The First World War and the Blockade of Germany, 1914–1919".

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Cox, Mary Elizabeth (2019). "1 The First World War and the Blockade of Germany, 1914–1919".

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as the Swedes also controlled the transit of goods to Russia. In 1916, German Chancellor

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civilians, and the report claimed that that figure did not include deaths caused by the

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and would allow the cargo to pass through the blockade without the need for inspection.

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Blockade and sea power; The Blockade, 1914–1919, and Its Significance for a World State

2264: 2102: 2026: 1954: 1876: 1622:"The Social and Political Consequences of the Allied Food Blockade of Germany, 1918-19" 1382: 1144: 863: 685: 522: 517: 365: 1296: 5299: 5293: 5254: 5156: 4989: 4572: 4427: 4410: 4211: 4033: 4013: 3848: 3833: 3763: 3751: 3452: 3429: 3376: 3189:(1967) pp 186–205; legal and diplomatic aspects of blockade from British perspective 3158: 3139: 3060: 2946: 2917: 2681: 2638: 2390: 2209: 2106: 2061: 1899: 1750: 1720: 1693: 1551: 1373: 1336:

Press image of a malnourished German child with tuberculosis. Photo marked 1918–1920.

1157: 1017: 738: 698: 435: 415: 86: 1808:"Exclusion Zones in the Law of Armed Conflict at Sea: Evolution in Law and Practice" 4357: 4327: 4321: 4231: 4060: 4028: 4018: 3757: 3681: 3676: 3604: 3424: 3324: 2994: 2752: 2578: 2567:"From Ludendorff to Lenin? World War I and the Origins of Soviet Economic Planning" 2309: 2256: 2094: 2018: 1946: 1868: 1685: 1636: 1621: 1497: 1291: 1251: 1182: 1177:. Supplies could also be obtained from within the Central Powers alliance, such as 1079: 1016:

and regain access to vital imports. The sea conflicts culminated in the indecisive

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to the local British embassy, which, if agreed, could issue a document known as a "

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The Maritime Blockade of Germany in the Great War: The Northern Patrol, 1914-1918

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declared that without the support of the neutrals, Germany would have collapsed.

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Mary Elisabeth Cox (2019). "6 Armistice and Blockade: November 1918–July 1919".

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The English Food Blockade in Its Effects on Juvenile Criminality and Degradation

2298:"Germany, Blockade and Strategic Raw Materials in the Era of the Two World Wars" 2169:"Jutland: Why World War I's only sea battle was so crucial to Britain's victory" 1680:

Kramer, Alan (2014). "18: Blockade and Economic Warfare". In Winter, Jay (ed.).

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The British would "modify" and "supplement" the Declaration in their blockade.

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A scrap of paper: breaking and making international law during the Great War

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Food Politics, and Everyday Life in World War I Berlin: Home Fires Burning

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The blockade would therefore continue until Germany would sign a formal

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Deutschlands Gesundheitsverhältnisse unter dem Einfluss des Weltkrieges

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the legal and diplomatic aspects of blockade from American perspective

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Planning Armageddon: British Economic Warfare and the First World War

2814: 2364:. 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War 1161: 1128: 997: 951: 747: 742: 714: 54: 2804:, by Maurice Parmelle New York, Thomas Y. Crowell Co. pages 221–226 1950: 1872: 1838:

Clapp, Edwin J. (1915). "Chapter IV: The Wilhelmina - A Test Case".

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also set out multiple times from 1914 to 1916 to reduce the British

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Mary Elisabeth Cox (2019). "2. German responses to food scarcity".

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The Economic Weapon: The Rise of Sanctions as a Tool of Modern War

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The Upheaval of War: Family, Work and Welfare in Europe, 1914-1918

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The Politics of Hunger: The Allied Blockade of Germany, 1915-1919

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The Politics of hunger: The Allied Blockade of Germany, 1915–1919

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