330:
31:
372:, the US had lost interest in the new conference because treaties already limited its navy, its army was so small that further reduction was ludicrous and the proposed measures of air limitation were so vague that they meant little. He wrote that the conference would "probably meet in February or March 1932 and, discouraging as it may sound, it will probably go on and on". He had come to believe that armaments would never be abolished completely but that treaties might maintain military balances.
489:
202:
584:
183:, underwent a vast development in arms. During the course of the war, technology surrounding weaponry development and new types of arms emerged: specifically, a focus on not only land equipment and personal but also the navy and the air force, which Borg described as having "considerable weight and influence".
375:
The negotiations can be split into five distinctive categories or periods. As classified by the military historian Arther
Steiner, "first period - emphasis on security, second period - appointment of commissions, third period - the general commissions, fourth period - the technical commission and the
639:
later wrote that
Americans regarded the Geneva Conference as "a European peace conference with European political questions to be settled. The necessary work of settling them must be done by the leaders of Europe". Stimson realised that Germany's position in European affairs could not be ignored, as
471:
In addition, other discussions were brought up during the
General Commission such as whether the agreements were still in place during wartime, whether other regulatory bodies should be established to monitor and to enforce it and whether there should be demilitarised zones. Those issues were agreed
418:
defined national armaments as referring to generalised military forces including personnel, equipment, technology etc. The conference intended to differentiate between offensive and defensive weapons. The negotiations centred largely on offensive weapons to stop future attacks, rather than reduce
384:
This specifically focused on the time's geopolitical relations, which included Russia, Turkey, Iran, France and
Germany. The main focus was France and developing relations that reassured that it could safely disarm, which involved a development of American-French and Anglo-French relationships.
273:
had sent: "If all nations will agree wholly to eliminate from possession and use the weapons which make possible a successful attack, defences automatically will become impregnable and the frontiers and independence of every nation will become secure". The League of
Nations failed to ensure the
659:
The exact reasons are not clear or agreed by historians for exactly why the conference failed. However, most academic sources and historians blame a combination of the rise of Hitler, the consequent withdrawal of
Germany from the conference, the general unwillingness of nations to disarm, the
337:
Article 8 of the
Covenant stated that "the members of the League recognise that the maintenance of peace requires the reduction of national armaments to the lowest point consistent with national safety and the enforcement by common action of international obligations".
640:
it had been at Geneva in 1927 or at London in 1930, but he did not know how to reconcile German military ambition with French fear of its neighbour. Stimson hoped the
Europeans to find a solution. He also hesitated over further naval disarmament because of the
197:
resulted in a general antiwar sentiment and encouraged the general sentiment of disarmament. The
British Women's Society received 8 million signatures for disarmament and was accredited with a driving force behind the convening of the conference.
507:, the proposal that Hoover presented to the conference on the 22 June 1932 was a "potential turning point" by suggesting that the US would abolish all aircraft, submarines, military aviation, tanks, poison gas and one third of the battleships.
631:
the French were unwilling to disarm. The conference was ultimately adjourned in
November 1934. The British Foreign Office stated that “the failure of the Disarmament Conference would have incalculable consequences for Europe and the League ”.
393:
This began of 25 February 1933 and involved finding a representative from each state. Together, they formed the General Commission, which delegated into the Naval and Air Commissions. This stage was concluded by 18 March 1933.
186:
The developments included aircraft for infantry support, photographing infantry positioning and bombing; naval warfare, with submarines and German U-boats, and land armaments, including gases, machine guns and grenades.
602:
and then the Geneva Conference in October 1933. He temporarily rejoined the Geneva Conference under the Five-Power Agreement but quickly withdrew Germany again as progressions with the conference began to halt.
606:
The military superiority of Germany was a defining element of Hitler's ideology and foreign policy, which made the idea of disarmament unacceptable. As soon as Hitler rose to power, he began the process of
434:
disagreed by arguing that the offensive capabilities of tanks were tremendous and outweighed any defensive capabilities. The turmoil and the inability to agree halted the progression of the conference.
325:
had been created with "the ideal of establishing a family of nations united by shared goals of peace".” The Covenant of the League of Nations had been published on 28 April 1919 by unanimous agreement.
430:, was present at the conference. He contended that tanks, a new development from the First World War, were both offensive and defensive weapons and so could not be classified as either. However,
472:
upon with the ideal that the agreements set about should apply to both wartime and peacetime, a nonpolitical body should monitor disarmament and there should be no specific demilitarised zones.
162:
The conference's main objectives included defining aggressively-offensive weapons, reasonably-defensive weapons, abolishing submarines, aviation and heavy-duty tanks and limiting land forces.
1670:
615:
and the objective of the Disarmament Conference. Hitler drew on the unwillingness of other countries to disarm as a justification that Germany should not be forced to do the same.
525:
There was a failure to obtain a German-French agreement on German arms, as the French did not want to disarm without a guaranteed alliance if war broke out with Germany again.
262:
A preparatory commission was initiated by the League in 1925. By 1931, there was sufficient support to hold a conference, which duly began under the chairmanship of former
148:. Aimed towards a global reduction in arms, the conference was organised and campaigned for by the League of Nations with the main objective to avoid another world war.
341:
The Geneva Conference was convened by the League of Nations in 1932 to fulfil the terms of Article 8 and to progress towards world peace by the process of disarmament.
522:
The General Commission made progress with having nations agree on a number of terms. However, it was unsuccessful in having individual nations implement its terms.
1735:
1441:
263:
480:
This period was known for its high levels of debate, disagreement and technical issues. Essentially no agreement or progress occurred during this session.
151:
The conference symbolised global co-operation to a combined goal of limiting arms, but it is generally perceived as a failure because of the onset of the
1340:
560:
talked about " growing danger of military intervention against the USSR". That meant that like many other countries, the USSR was hesitant to disarm.
402:
The third period, the General Commission, had the bulk of the negotiations take place. The conference began to attempt to enact the goals of the
1814:
575:
and became hesitant and hostile to the whole idea of disarmament. Its disagreement caused it not to be present or involved with negotiations.
1819:
1728:
510:
The involvement of the United States "injected life into a nearly dead conference". However, these proposals were never passed through the
503:
acknowledged the failure and the lack of progress for the conference and proposed for the US to take the lead on disarmament. As argued by
217:
Article 160 stated that the German Army was to have no more than 7 infantry divisions, 3 cavalry divisions, 100,000 men and 4000 officers.
1694:
1434:
1687:
1834:
1829:
1824:
1701:
1721:
1511:
240:
1655:
1579:
1471:
1450:
1427:
259:. A substantial international nongovernmental campaign to promote disarmament also developed in the 1920s and the early 1930s.
1476:
1323:
1290:
1257:
1213:
821:
714:
1466:
956:
415:
287:
256:
126:
1859:
1607:
1531:
1660:
1563:
1350:
548:. The USSR was occupied with national issues and was rarely present at the conference. In addition, during the
514:, and although they showed the promise and the spirit of disarmament, they did not resonate in the conference.
1129:"Foreign Relations of the United States Diplomatic Papers, 1932, General, Volume I - Office of the Historian"
537:, and the French feared that they would be attacked again with no way to defend themselves if they disarmed.
594:
came to power in January 1933 and quickly gained complete authority over the German government. He withdrew
1874:
1869:
1864:
1773:
545:
419:
nations' defensive weapons. However, nations often disagreed about the technicalities of certain weaponry.
239:
of 1899 and 1907, which had failed in their primary objective. Although many contemporary commentators and
1240:
MĂĽller, Rolf-Dieter; Ancker, Janice W. (15 August 2016). "The Military in the Totalitarian FĂĽhrer State".
1629:
1612:
1584:
1541:
1486:
880:
1809:
1799:
1778:
837:
Webster, Andrew (19 August 2006). "From Versailles to Geneva: The many forms of interwar disarmament".
306:
as permanent members of the League of Nations Council. It included all the Allies that had signed the
1854:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1624:
1493:
269:. The motivation behind the talks can be summed up by an extract from the message that US President
223:
Article 168 limited the manufacture of munitions, which was to be overseen by the League of Nations.
706:
1758:
1753:
1516:
556:. That included a peacetime size of 1,100,000 and compulsory military service. In December 1931,
213:
laid out the terms for the Germans' conditional surrender, including their national disarmament.
190:
The aim of the Geneva Conference was disarmament that would target land, air and naval programs.
1397:
1100:
1650:
1558:
1249:
1804:
1521:
1282:
295:
1374:
1128:
660:
highly-unstable political and economic climate and the looming threat of another world war.
357:, with the intention of implementing strategies to fulfill Article 8 of the Covenant of the
1503:
628:
612:
451:
that had not been developed before the war along borders would be abolished. Also, coastal
307:
210:
144:
The conference was a response to the militarisation of global powers during and after the
8:
1763:
1617:
885:
369:
329:
1599:
1634:
1414:
1219:
1181:
1082:
1074:
1024:
1016:
862:
758:
750:
557:
427:
423:
270:
244:
1393:
Noel-Baker, Philip John. "First World Disarmament Conference and Why It Failed" (1979)
1589:
1481:
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1319:
1286:
1253:
1209:
1173:
1086:
1028:
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624:
608:
599:
496:
The US then sent a delegate to Geneva and became heavily involved in the Conference.
431:
403:
358:
322:
236:
130:
733:
Borg, M. T (9 March 1992). "Reducing Offensive Capabilities - the Attempt of 1932".
255:
had committed themselves to disarmament in both the Treaty of Versailles and in the
30:
1548:
1311:
1278:
1245:
1165:
1066:
1008:
846:
809:
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275:
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152:
35:
426:, a British military historian who was known largely for his strategy surrounding
364:
The US ambassador to Belgium and minister to Switzerland and conference delegate,
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549:
448:
303:
176:
145:
1070:
746:
1273:
Edelstein, David M. (15 September 2017). "The Resurgence of Interwar Germany".
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534:
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A key negotiation of the conference involved the discussions surrounding armed
406:, which primarily involved classifying classes of weaponry and fortifications.
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311:
291:
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850:
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1177:
858:
541:
252:
138:
1223:
1156:
James, Alan (1986). "The League of Nations: its life and times, 1920–1946".
1057:
Borg, M. T (1992). "Reducing Offensive Capabilities - the Attempt of 1932".
583:
488:
1553:
999:
Steiner, Arthur (6 May 1933). "The Geneva Disarmament Conference of 1932".
595:
591:
156:
1369:
Davies, Thomas. "France and the World Disarmament Conference of 1932–34."
1315:
813:
697:
Stevenson, David (1 January 2016). "Land Armaments in Europe, 1866–1914".
1665:
553:
511:
354:
315:
122:
118:
201:
1536:
1526:
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447:. It was agreed unanimously that any fortifications remaining from the
1078:
754:
220:
Article 165 limited German guns, machine guns, ammunition, and rifles.
568:
460:
248:
194:
1169:
1396:
Schuman, Frederick L. Europe On The Eve 1933-1939 (1939) pp 28–54.
903:(United States Government Printing Office, Washington, 1943) pp. 10
653:
286:
The Geneva Conference involved all of the nations signatory to the
1342:
Peace and disarmament: naval rivalry & arms control, 1922-1933
1001:
The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science
235:
The first effort at international arms limitation was made at the
193:
After the war, the extensive death toll and the social effects of
129:. It was attended by 61 states, most of which were members of the
1404:
The Triumph of the Dark: European International History 1933-1939
645:
318:
that had vested interests in disarmament in Europe specifically.
1381:
Peace and Disarmament, Naval Rivalry and Arms Control, 1922-1933
808:. Columbia University Press. 31 December 1923. pp. 21–110.
530:
350:
180:
114:
533:
were vulnerable because of their geographical proximity to
134:
463:
could remain but not be worked on, extended or built up.
274:
success of the talks, which impacted the likelihood of a
1769:
Conference for the Reduction and Limitation of Armaments
121:, between February 1932 and November 1934 to accomplish
103:
Conference for the Reduction and Limitation of Armaments
247:, historians writing in the 1930s emphasised the quick
1449:
251:
before 1914. Also, all of the major powers except the
1101:"Sir Basil Liddell Hart | British military historian"
901:
Peace and War: United States Foreign Policy 1931-1941
1383:, The University Press of Kentucky, Lexington, 1995.
678:
First World Disarmament Conference and Why It Failed
113:, was an international conference of states held in
16:
1932–34 meeting in Switzerland on global disarmament
1743:
946:
623:Ultimately, when Hitler withdrew Germany from the
552:, Stalin led the modernisation and buildup of the
349:The conference convened on the 1 February 1932 in
806:The League of Nations and Miscellaneous Addresses
1791:
1390:, Palgrave MacMillan, Houndmills, New York, 2003
1244:. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 7–42.
1729:
1435:
1388:Britain and the Geneva Disarmament Conference
1345:. University Press of Kentucky. p. 150.
1206:The Stalin-Kaganovich Correspondence, 1931–36
804:"II. The Covenant of the League of Nations".
388:
38:speaking at the conference on 2 February 1932
1239:
777:"World War I | Facts, Causes, & History"
170:
1695:The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors
701:. Oxford University Press. pp. 41–60.
230:
1736:
1722:
1442:
1428:
1310:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
1308:German Rearmament and the West, 1932-1933
1272:
707:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198735267.003.0003
696:
466:
226:Article 170 limited importations of arms.
159:from both the conference and the League.
1702:To the Unknown British Soldier in France
582:
487:
328:
200:
1338:
1306:Bennett, Edward W. (31 December 2015).
1305:
1250:10.5810/kentucky/9780813167381.003.0001
998:
836:
578:
475:
409:
379:
241:Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles
155:five years later and the withdrawal of
1792:
1688:A Peace Conference at the Quai d'Orsay
1656:American Commission to Negotiate Peace
1559:Possible cause of the Second World War
1283:10.7591/cornell/9781501707568.003.0005
1203:
994:
992:
990:
988:
986:
984:
982:
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978:
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947:Gumbrecht, Hans U. (5 February 1998).
376:fifth period - the Hoover Proposals".
243:blamed the outbreak of the war on the
1815:Diplomatic conferences in Switzerland
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644:and particularly worried whether the
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949:In 1926 - Living on the Edge of Time
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699:Arms Races in International Politics
492:Portrait of President Herbert Hoover
1820:20th-century diplomatic conferences
1413:(1938), highly influential account
973:
899:United States Department of State,
540:In 1932 and 1933, the USSR, led by
281:
13:
1451:Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)
1230:
1192:
1146:
1118:
1035:
923:"League of Nations - The Covenant"
906:
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368:, had observed not long after the
314:and all neutral countries such as
14:
1886:
1467:Covenant of the League of Nations
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438:
416:Covenant of the League of Nations
333:Covenant of the League of Nations
288:Covenant of the League of Nations
257:Covenant of the League of Nations
127:Covenant of the League of Nations
1411:The Whispering Gallery Of Europe
29:
1835:1934 in international relations
1830:1933 in international relations
1825:1932 in international relations
1608:Partition of the Ottoman Empire
1580:Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye
1532:Hague conference on reparations
1332:
1299:
1266:
1093:
940:
587:Portrait of Adolf Hitler (1936)
571:on 18 September 1931 after the
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1744:Interwar Naval Arms Limitation
1661:Commission of Responsibilities
1564:International Opium Convention
893:
873:
830:
670:
276:second major European conflict
1:
1774:Anglo-German Agreement (1935)
1242:Hitler's Wehrmacht, 1935-1945
663:
652:for a possible action in the
165:
1339:Fanning, Richard W. (1995).
1277:. Cornell University Press.
951:. Harvard University Press.
839:Journal of Strategic Studies
618:
321:According to Gumbrecht, the
111:World Disarmament Conference
7:
1630:Turkish War of Independence
1613:Conference of London (1920)
1585:Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine
1487:Little Treaty of Versailles
1071:10.1177/0022343392029002003
747:10.1177/0022343392029002003
611:, clearly defying both the
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10:
1891:
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1013:10.1177/000271623316800128
881:"The Treaty of Versailles"
389:Appointment of commissions
179:, the world, particularly
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1679:
1643:
1625:Turkish National Movement
1598:
1572:
1502:
1457:
1208:. Yale University Press.
1059:Journal of Peace Research
851:10.1080/01402390600585050
735:Journal of Peace Research
544:underwent the widespread
264:British Foreign Secretary
171:Legacy of First World War
105:, generally known as the
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67:
59:
51:
43:
28:
23:
1759:Geneva Conference (1927)
1754:Washington Treaty (1922)
1371:Diplomacy and Statecraft
676:Philip John Noel-Baker,
231:Diplomatic preliminaries
205:The Treaty of Versailles
1379:Fanning, Richard Ward,
1373:15.4 (2004): 765-780.
1204:Shabad, Steven (2003).
1105:Encyclopedia Britannica
927:Encyclopedia Britannica
781:Encyclopedia Britannica
125:in accordance with the
1860:20th century in Geneva
635:US Secretary of State
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493:
467:Additional discussions
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1522:Reparation Commission
1316:10.1515/9781400871995
1158:International Affairs
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491:
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290:, which included the
204:
71:46.2044° N, 6.1432° E
1779:London Treaty (1936)
1764:London Treaty (1930)
1671:List of participants
1504:Treaty of Versailles
629:Treaty of Versailles
613:Treaty of Versailles
579:Departure of Germany
476:Technical Commission
410:Classifying weaponry
380:Emphasis on security
308:Treaty of Versailles
245:war guilt of Germany
211:Treaty of Versailles
1875:1934 in Switzerland
1870:1933 in Switzerland
1865:1932 in Switzerland
1618:San Remo conference
1573:Subsequent treaties
1542:Lausanne Conference
1386:Kitching, Carolyn,
886:Library of Congress
455:except between the
1635:Treaty of Lausanne
1512:"War guilt" clause
589:
558:Vyacheslav Molotov
494:
484:Hoover's proposals
428:mechanical warfare
424:Basil Liddell Hart
398:General Commission
335:
271:Franklin Roosevelt
207:
1810:Naval conferences
1800:League of Nations
1787:
1786:
1711:
1710:
1590:Treaty of Trianon
1482:Minority Treaties
1459:League of Nations
1325:978-1-4008-7199-5
1292:978-1-5017-0756-8
1259:978-0-8131-6738-1
1215:978-0-300-09367-4
1133:history.state.gov
823:978-0-231-89509-5
716:978-0-19-873526-7
650:aircraft carriers
642:Manchurian crisis
625:League of Nations
600:League of Nations
432:Winston Churchill
404:League of Nations
370:London Conference
359:League of Nations
323:League of Nations
237:Hague Conferences
131:League of Nations
107:Geneva Conference
99:
98:
95:League of Nations
24:Geneva Conference
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1855:Events in Geneva
1850:1934 conferences
1845:1933 conferences
1840:1932 conferences
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1600:Treaty of Sèvres
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609:rearming Germany
505:Marlies ter Borg
282:Nations involved
267:Arthur Henderson
153:Second World War
36:Arthur Henderson
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1406:(2011) pp 9–61.
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889:. 28 June 1919.
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563:Additionally,
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543:
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55:November 1934
54:
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37:
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27:
22:
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1805:Arms control
1768:
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1693:
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1554:Stresa Front
1477:Organisation
1410:
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780:
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592:Adolf Hitler
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345:Negotiations
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157:Nazi Germany
150:
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110:
106:
102:
100:
92:Organised by
84:Participants
18:
1666:The Inquiry
1517:Reparations
1007:: 212–219.
648:had enough
554:Soviet Army
512:US Congress
355:Switzerland
316:Switzerland
175:During the
123:disarmament
119:Switzerland
79:Switzerland
68:Coordinates
60:Location(s)
1794:Categories
1537:Young Plan
1527:Dawes Plan
1352:0813130557
967:1066536066
664:References
457:Baltic Sea
166:Background
133:, but the
87:31 nations
1680:Paintings
1178:1468-2346
1087:220982933
1029:145367431
867:154909587
859:0140-2390
763:220982933
619:Aftermath
598:from the
569:Manchuria
461:North Sea
249:arms race
195:total war
1651:Big Four
1494:Mandates
654:Far East
627:and the
567:invaded
518:Problems
459:and the
137:and the
1549:Locarno
1472:Members
1364:Sources
1186:2620241
1021:1019055
646:US Navy
596:Germany
535:Germany
312:Germany
76:Country
1415:online
1398:online
1375:online
1349:
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680:(1979)
531:Poland
351:Geneva
296:France
181:Europe
115:Geneva
63:Geneva
44:Begins
1644:Other
1220:JSTOR
1182:JSTOR
1083:S2CID
1075:JSTOR
1025:S2CID
1017:JSTOR
863:S2CID
759:S2CID
751:JSTOR
565:Japan
310:with
304:Japan
300:Italy
1347:ISBN
1320:ISBN
1287:ISBN
1254:ISBN
1210:ISBN
1174:ISSN
1140:2020
1112:2020
963:OCLC
953:ISBN
934:2020
855:ISSN
818:ISBN
788:2020
711:ISBN
529:and
422:Sir
414:The
302:and
209:The
135:USSR
101:The
52:Ends
1312:doi
1279:doi
1246:doi
1166:doi
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