Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles

378: 685:

there would be no negotiations. Once the German delegation received the conditions of peace they would have fifteen days to reply. Following the drafting of the treaty, on 7 May the German and Allied delegations met and the Treaty of Versailles was handed off to be translated and for a response to be issued. At this meeting Brockdorff-Rantzau stated that "We know the intensity of the hatred which meets us, and we have heard the victors' passionate demand that as the vanquished we shall be made to pay, and as the guilty we shall be punished". However, he proceeded to deny that Germany was solely responsible for the war. Following the meeting, the German delegation retired to translate the 80,000 word document. As soon as the delegation realized the terms of peace, they agreed that they could not accept it without revision. They then proceeded to send their Allied counterparts, message after message attacking each part of the treaty. On 18 June, having disregarded the repeated explicit decisions of the government, Brockdorff-Rantzau declared that Article 231 would have Germany accept full responsibility for the war by force.

1258:

aggression of Austria-Hungary and her Allies". Article 161 of the Treaty of Trianon: "The Allied and Associated Governments affirm and Hungary accepts the responsibility of Hungary and her allies for causing the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Austria-Hungary and her allies." Article 121 of the Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine: "Bulgaria recognises that, by joining in the war of aggression which Germany and Austria-Hungary waged against the Allied and Associated Powers, she has caused to the latter losses and sacrifices of all kinds, for which she ought to make complete reparation". Article 231 of the Treaty of Sevres: "Turkey recognises that by joining in the war of aggression which Germany and Austria-Hungary waged against the Allied Powers she has caused to the latter losses and sacrifices of all kinds for which she ought to make complete reparation."

762:, Woodrow Wilson called for a "peace of reconciliation with Germany", what he dubbed a "peace without victory". His wartime speeches, however, rejected these earlier notions and he took an increasingly belligerent stance towards Germany. Following the war, on 4 September 1919, during his public campaign to rally American support for the Treaty of Versailles, Wilson commented that the treaty "seeks to punish one of the greatest wrongs ever done in history, the wrong which Germany sought to do to the world and to civilization, and there ought to be no weak purpose with regard to the application of the punishment. She attempted an intolerable thing, and she must be made to pay for the attempt." Regardless of the rhetoric, the American position was to create a balanced treaty that would appease everyone. Gordon Auchincloss, secretary to 810: 774:(an economic adviser of Wilson) emphasized this point, and stated: "...the preamble is useful. We are adopting an unusual method in not fixing a definite sum. The preamble tends to explain this, and further, prepares the public mind for disappointment as to what actually can be secured." In 1940, Dulles stated that he was surprised that the article "could plausibly be, and in fact was, considered to be a historical judgement of war guilt". He further noted that the "profound significance of this article ... came about through accident, rather than design". Dulles took it personally that the Treaty of Versailles failed in its intentions of creating a lasting peace and believed that the treaty was one of the 648:. Davis and Dulles produced a compromise between the Anglo-French and American positions, wording Article 231 and 232 to reflect that Germany "should, morally, pay for all war costs, but, because it could not possibly afford this, would be asked only to pay for civilian damages." Article 231, in which Germany accepted the responsibility of Germany and its allies for the damages resulting from the First World War, therefore served as a legal basis for the articles following it within the reparations chapter, obliging Germany to pay compensation limited to civilian damages. Similar clauses, with slight modification in wording, were present in the peace treaties signed by the other members of the Central Powers. 977:, wrote that German accusations of the article assigning war guilt were "ill-founded" and "mistaken". The article was more "an assumption of liability to pay damages than an admission of war guilt" and compared it with "a man who undertakes to pay all the cost of a motor accident than to the plea of guilty entered by an accused criminal". They wrote that "it is absurd" to charge the reparation articles of the treaty with any "political meaning" and the legal interpretation "is the only one that can stand". They concluded that German opposition "is based upon a text which has no legal validity whatsoever, and which Germany never signed at all." 959: 900:. German politicians seeking international sympathy would use the article for its propaganda value, convincing many who had not read the treaties that the article implied full war guilt. German revisionist historians who subsequently attempted to ignore the validity of the clause found a ready audience among 'revisionist' writers in France, Britain, and the United States. The objective of both the politicians and historians was to prove that Germany was not solely guilty for causing the war; if that guilt could be disproved the legal requirement to pay reparations would disappear. To that end, the German government funded the 662: 1068:, and Elisabeth Glaser wrote that "pragmatic requirements characteristically influenced the shaping of the much misunderstood Article 231. That paragraph reflected the presumed legal necessity to define German responsibility for the war in order to specify and limit the Reich's obligations". P.M.H. Bell wrote that despite the article not using the term 'guilt', and while "it may be that its drafters did not intend to convey a moral judgement of Germany", the article has "almost universally" became known as the war guilt clause of the treaty. 558: 4021: 730:"Reparations", the placing of Article 231 in numerical order after Articles 227-230, which dealt with war crimes trials and were based on the report of the Allied Commission for Responsibility, linked Article 231 in the mind of the Germans to this report and by extension their responsibility for the war, rather than to damages caused by Germany during the war. Article 231 was instead based on the report of the Commission on Reparation of Damage. 4049: 33: 604:

the many conciliatory proposals made by the Entente Powers and their repeated efforts to avoid war." This conclusion was duly incorporated into the Treaty of Versailles, led by Clemenceau and Lloyd George who were both insistent on the inclusion of an unequivocal statement of Germany's total liability. This left Wilson at odds with the other leaders of the conference. Instead, he proposed a repetition of a note sent by

581:, thought it appropriate that any just peace required Germany to pay reparations for the damage they had caused. He also saw reparations as a means to ensure that Germany could not again threaten France and as well to weaken the German ability to compete with France's industrialization. Reparations would also go towards the reconstruction costs in other countries, such as Belgium, also directly affected by the war. 931:, a view held by some historians, such as Tony Rea and John Wright, who wrote that "the harshness of the War Guilt Clause and the reparations demands made it easier for Hitler to gain power in Germany." Despite these views, the historical consensus is that the article and the treaty, did not cause the rise of Nazism but that an unconnected rise in extremism and the 1037:

In 1978, Marks re-examined the reparation clauses of the treaty and wrote that "the much-criticized 'war guilt clause', Article 231, which was designed to lay a legal basis for reparations, in fact makes no mention of war guilt" but only specified that Germany was to pay for the damages caused by the

729:

commented that despite the public outrage, German government officials were aware "that Germany's position on this matter was not nearly so favorable as the imperial government had led the German public to believe during the war." Additionally, although the article was in a different section entitled

591:

opposed harsh reparations in favour of a less crippling reparations settlement so that the German economy could remain a viable economic power and British trading partner. He furthermore argued that reparations should include war pensions for disabled veterans and allowances to be paid to war widows,

353:

article with the objective of subverting the entire treaty. The Allied leaders were surprised at the German reaction; they saw the article only as a necessary legal basis to extract compensation from Germany. The article, with the signatory's name changed, was also included in the treaties signed by

352:

Many German commentators viewed this clause as a national humiliation, forcing Germany to accept full responsibility for causing the war. German politicians were vocal in their opposition to the article in an attempt to generate international sympathy, while German historians worked to undermine the

1090:

wrote that the "national disgrace" felt over the territorial concession under the Versailles treaty and the "war guilt" article and "defeat, revolution, and the establishment of democracy", had "fostered a climate in which a counter-revolutionary set of ideas could gain wide currency" and "enhanced

769:

Historian William Keylor commented that initially both United States diplomats believed that they had "devised a brilliant solution to the reparation dilemma"; appeasing both the British and French, as well as Allied public opinion irrespective of the fact that Allied leaders were aware of concerns

738:

The Allied delegation initially thought Article 231 to be a mundane addition to the treaty intended to limit German liability with regard to reparations, and were surprised at the vehemence of the German protests. Georges Clemenceau rebuffed Brockdorff-Rantzau's allegations, arguing that "the legal

347:

The Allied and Associated Governments affirm and Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of

603:

was established to examine the background of the war. The Commission reasoned that the "war was premeditated by the Central Powers ... and was the result of acts deliberately committed to make it unavoidable", concluding that Germany and Austria-Hungary had "deliberately worked to defeat all

368:

The historical consensus is that responsibility or guilt for the war was not attached to the article. Rather, the clause was a prerequisite to allow a legal basis to be laid out for the reparation payments that were to be made. Historians have also highlighted the unintended offence created by the

989:

commented that "in the passion of the moment" the Allied Powers had "failed to realize that this extorted admission of guilt could prove nothing, and must excite bitter resentment in German minds." He concluded "German men of learning set to work to demonstrate the guiltlessness of their country,

943:

wrote that while there was a path from Versailles to Hitler, the former did not make "Hitler's takeover of power inevitable" and that "the Germans had a choice when they decided to take this path. In other words, they did not have to. Hitler's victory was not an unavoidable result of Versailles."

833:

wrote that the article "was designed to lay a legal basis for reparations" to be paid. Article 231 "established an unlimited theoretical liability" for which Germany would have to pay but the following article "in fact narrowed German responsibility to civilian damages". When the final reparation

684:

that Germany would have to pay reparations for the devastation caused by the war, but would not pay for actual war costs. The German government had also taken the position that it would be "inadvisable ... to elevate the question of war guilt". On 5 May, Brockdorff-Rantzau was informed that

742:

Lloyd George commented that "the English public, like the French public, thinks the Germans must above all acknowledge their obligation to compensate us for all the consequences of their aggression. When this is done we come to the question of Germany's capacity to pay; we all think she will be

724:

Initially, Article 231 was not correctly translated. Rather than stating "... Germany accepts responsibility of Germany and her allies causing all the loss and damage ...", the German Government's edition read "Germany admits it, that Germany and her allies, as authors of the war, are

1257:

Article 177 of the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye: "... Austria accepts the responsibility of Austria and her Allies for causing the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the

1076:

Stephen Neff wrote that "the term 'war guilt' is a slightly unfortunate one, since to lawyers, the term 'guilt' primarily connotes criminal liability" while "the responsibility of Germany envisaged in the Versailles Treaty ... was civil in nature, comparable to the indemnity obligation of

1072:

wrote that the German public's interpretation of Article 231 (together with Article 232) as unequivocally ascribing the fault for the war to Germany and her allies, "came to be the object of particular loathing in Germany and the cause of uneasy consciences among the Allies." The Allies never

876:

gold marks. Ferguson also wrote that this sum was only 2.4 per cent of German national income between 1919 and 1932, while Stephen Schuker places the figure at an average of 2 per cent of national income between 1919 and 1931, in cash and kind, making a total transfer equal to 5.3 per cent of

548:

where the signings took place. While 70 delegates from 26 nations participated in the Paris negotiations, representatives from Germany were barred from attending, nominally over fears that a German delegation would attempt to play one country off against the other and unfairly influence the

1063:

In 1986, Marks wrote that the German foreign office, supported by military and civilian notables, "focused on Article 231 ... hoping that, if one could refute German responsibility for the war, not only reparations but the entire treaty would collapse". Manfred Boemeke,

625:

accepts the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies."

611:

to the German Government on 5 November 1918, stating that the "Allied Governments ... understand that compensation will be made by Germany for all damage done to the civilian population of the Allies and their property by the aggression of Germany ..."

1009:

and concluded that Germany was primarily responsible for the outbreak of the war. Albertini's work, rather than spurring on new debate, was the culmination of the first research phase into the war guilt question. The issue came back between 1959 and 1969, when

1085:

wrote that "rather than being seen as an American lawyer's clever attempt to limit actual German financial responsibility by buying off French politicians and their public with the sop of a piece of paper" Article 231 "became an easily exploitable open sore".

1038:

war they imposed upon the allies and "that Germany committed an act of aggression against Belgium is beyond dispute". "Technically, Britain entered" the war and French troops entered Belgium "to honor" the "legal obligation" to defend Belgium under the

1269:

The Allied and Associated Governments, however, require, and Germany undertakes, that she will make compensation for all damage done to the civilian population of the Allied and Associated Powers and to their property during the period of the

721:, recommended that the Weimar National Assembly ratify the treaty. The Assembly did so by a large majority, and Clemenceau was informed nineteen minutes before the deadline expired. Germany unconditionally signed the peace treaty on 28 June. 743:

unable to pay more than this document requires of her.". Lloyd George further referred to the treaty as "firm, but just". When the treaty of Versailles was put to a vote in the House of Commons, only five votes were cast against it, and the

1102:" and more importantly failed "to dissociate itself from the old regime." In doing so "it undermined its claim that post-revolutionary Germany was a historic new democratic beginning deserving credit at the peace conference." 852:), a smaller amount than they had previously offered for terms of peace. Reparations were unpopular and strained the German economy but they were payable and from 1919 to 1931, when reparations ended, Germany paid fewer than 725:

responsible for all losses and damages ...". Germans felt that they the country had signed away her honor, and there was a prevailing belief of humiliation as the article was seen, overall, as an injustice. Historian

790:, he commented that "Efforts to bankrupt and humiliate a nation merely incite a people of vigor and of courage to break the bonds imposed upon them. ... Prohibitions thus incite the very acts that are prohibited." 981:

was the "most outspoken and influential critic" of the article. In 1928, he concluded that all of Europe shared the blame for the war and that Germany had no intention of launching a general European war in 1914.

689:, an advisor with the German delegation, agreed with Brockdorff-Rantzau, also challenging the Allies over the issue of war guilt. He preferred to reject the treaty than submit to what he called a "rotten peace". 572:

in the fighting. France's most industrialized region in the north-east had been laid to waste during the German retreat. Hundreds of mines and factories were destroyed along with railroads, bridges and villages.

881:

wrote that reparations were paid, towns were rebuilt, orchards replanted, mines reopened and pensions paid but the burden of repairs was shifted from the German economy to the damaged economies of the victors.

513:. The German government attempted to obtain a peace settlement based on the Fourteen Points, and maintained it was on this basis that Germany surrendered. Following negotiations, the Allied Powers and Germany 679:

on 18 April 1919, anticipating that the peace talks would soon start and that they and the Allied Powers would negotiate a settlement. Earlier, in February of that year, Brockdorff-Rantzau had informed the

1098:." Klaus Schwabe wrote that the article's influence went far beyond the discussion of war guilt. By "refusing to acknowledge Germany's 'war guilt' the new German government implicitly exonerated the 1081:." Louise Slavicek wrote that while "the article was an honest reflection of the treaty-writers' beliefs, including such a clause in the peace settlement was undiplomatic, to say the least." 377: 1034:

led a new wave of First World War research concluding "that the origins of the First World War were "complex and varied" although "by December 1912" Germany had decided to go to war.

3966: 766:(one of Wilson's advisers), sent a copy of the clause to the State Department and stated "you will note that the President's principles have been protected in this clause". 436:. This declaration of war was supported by the German government, who then declared war on and invaded France and neutral Belgium, ultimately leading to the outbreak of the 998:

argument "rested on her responsibility for the out-break of the war" and if that guilt could be disproved then the legal requirement to pay reparations would disappear.

1094:

Elazar Barkan argues that by "forcing an admission of war guilt at Versailles, rather than healing, the victors instigated resentment that contributed to the rise of

300: 1267:"The Allied and Associated Governments recognise that the resources of Germany are not adequate ... to make complete reparation for all such loss and damage. 568:

The Americans, British and French all differed on the issue of reparations settlement. The Western Front had been fought in France, and that countryside had been

544:

resulting from the conference dealt solely with Germany. This treaty, along with the others that were signed during the conference, each took their name from the

3737: 994:

wrote in May 1940, that "article 231 gave rise to an unfortunate controversy, unfortunate because it served to raise a false issue." He wrote that the German

817:

Compensation demanded from the defeated party was a common feature of peace treaties both before and after Versailles, and was explicitly permitted under the

1042:

and that "Germany openly acknowledged her responsibility in regard to Belgium on August 4, 1914, and May 7, 1919." Marks also wrote that "the same clause,

401: 1774: 692:

On 16 June, the Allied Powers demanded that Germany unconditionally sign the treaty within seven days or face the resumption of hostilities. The

2795: 901: 1026:"destroyed the consensus about shared responsibility for the First World War" and "placed the blame ... firmly on the shoulders of the 1111: 293: 3990: 3730: 953: 582: 452:—went to war. As the conflict progressed, additional countries from around the globe became drawn into the conflict on both sides. 703:

resigned rather than sign the treaty and was followed by Brockdorff-Rantzau and other members of the government. After being advised by

365:—one of the two authors of the article—later regretted the wording used, believing it further aggravated the German people. 3983: 533:

The text of the 11 November armistice include a commitment from Germany to pay "reparation for damage done" to the Allied countries.

834:

figure was established in 1921, it was based on an Allied assessment of German capacity to pay, not on the basis of Allied claims.

3997: 3353: 1016: 468: 2182: 1730: 1168: 286: 3951: 3875: 3767: 3746: 3723: 1161: 752: 669: 482:. In part, this speech called for the Central Powers to withdraw from the territories they had occupied, for the creation of a 262: 156: 54: 24: 1904: 3772: 3480: 3461: 3432: 3413: 3394: 3338: 3319: 3298: 3276: 3257: 3236: 3217: 3198: 3179: 3153: 3134: 3115: 3096: 3077: 3058: 3036: 3017: 2994: 2972: 2953: 2931: 2909: 2887: 2868: 2849: 2804: 2780: 2759: 2738: 2716: 2697: 2674: 2655: 2608: 1217: 1171: 896:

Domestic German opposition to Article 231 has been held to have created a psychological and political burden on the post-war

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elite." By the 1970s, his work "had emerged as the new orthodoxy on the origins of the First World War". In the 1980s,

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began. The conference aimed to establish peace between the war's belligerents and to establish the post-war world. The

133: 829:. The reparations were intended for reconstruction and as compensation for families who had been bereaved by the war. 490:. During the northern-hemisphere autumn of 1918, the Central Powers began to collapse. The German military suffered a 3762: 3375: 2634: 1150: 1115: 49: 1979: 1143: 1053: 605: 510: 1807: 1073:

expected such a hostile reaction, for "no one thought there would be any difficulty over the clauses themselves."

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The London Schedule of Payments, of 5 May 1921, established the full liability of the combined Central Powers at

759: 456: 394: 217: 111: 809: 3956: 3859: 3537:; Mahr, Dr. A. C. (June 1926). "A New Interpretation of the "Responsibility" Clause in the Versailles Treaty". 600: 472: 464: 267: 138: 4074: 1796: 1175: 821:. The financial burden of the Treaty of Versailles was labelled "reparations", which distinguished them from 672: 428:, a secret society founded by senior Serbian military and intelligence officials. The assassination caused a 340:

but it served as a legal basis under which Germany was to pay reparations for damages caused during the war.

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wrote that "Austria and Hungary, understandably paid no attention to this aspect of the draft treaty".

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the creation of a mood in which" extreme nationalist ideas could gain a wider audience and take hold.

384:, 1918, one of the many destroyed French villages, candidates for reconstruction funded by reparations 3920: 3789: 3627: 1350: 1011: 991: 990:

fondly believing that, if this could be established, the whole fabric of the treaty would collapse."

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gaining greater electoral popularity and then being maneuvered into office. The Marxist historian

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surrounding German willingness to pay reparations and the disappointment that could follow.

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The Birth of the New Justice: The Internationalization of Crime and Punishment, 1919–1950

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Article 231 was one of the most controversial points of the treaty. It specified:

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Trains, loaded with machinery, deliver their cargo as reparation payment in kind.

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interpretation was the correct one" and not a matter of political question.

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Serbia: Chief international law expert to the Serbian peace delegation and

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clause, which caused anger and resentment amongst the German population.

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which would reserve a larger share of the reparations for the

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headed the 180-strong German peace delegation. They departed

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2520: 2484: 2364: 2316: 2250: 2128: 1699: 1697: 1645: 1643: 1603: 1601: 1599: 1597: 1529: 1514: 1475: 1439: 1403: 1391: 4009: 3582:(3). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 231–255. 2340: 2291: 2289: 1882: 1709: 1565: 1541: 1415: 3471:

Tucker, Spencer C. & Roberts, Priscilla (2005).

2725: 2706: 2574: 2538: 2514: 2496: 2436: 2424: 2394: 2376: 2238: 2232: 2187: 2122: 2110: 2098: 1923: 1837: 1433: 1367: 710:

that Germany was in no condition to resume the war,

3670:(3). Thousand Oaks CA: Sage Publications: 487–506. 2840:Fassbender, Bardo & Peters, Anne, eds. (2012). 2328: 1694: 1640: 1594: 886:

Effects on German political opinion and revisionism

844:. Of this figure, Germany was only required to pay 3291:Armaments and the Coming of War: Europe, 1904–1914 3188: 3005: 2981: 2818: 2685: 2286: 2199: 2140: 2013: 1326: 644:, and Secretary of State Robert Lansing's nephew, 16:Beginning of the 1919 treaty's reparations section 3632:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 3456:. Vol. 1 (3rd ed.). London: Routledge. 3367:A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II 2028:"British Historians and the Treaty of Versailles" 1905:"Das Kabinett Scheidemann. Band 1, Einleitung, V" 4066: 3311:Ten Men of Minnesota and American Foreign Policy 2948:(2nd ed.). Long Grove IL: Waveland Pr Inc. 2839: 1673: 636:The actual wording of the article was chosen by 432:, resulting in Austria-Hungary declaring war on 3630:(Feb 1960). "The Peace Treaties of 1919–1920". 3496: 3314:. St Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press. 2310: 3245: 2268: 1984:Denver Journal of International Law and Policy 3731: 3662:(July 1982). 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Bloomington IN: iUniverse. 2877: 2796:Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory 2170: 2158: 2019: 301: 287: 3448: 3370:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3285: 3143: 3110:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2709:Versailles: A Reassessment after 75 Years 2664: 2466: 2358: 2280: 1977: 1469: 1048:" was incorporated "in the treaties with 872:estimated that Germany paid no more than 552: 3998:To the Unknown British Soldier in France 3403: 3360: 3354:United States Government Printing Office 3328: 3226: 3124: 3086: 3045: 2896: 2526: 2490: 2478: 2454: 2418: 2370: 2322: 2256: 2134: 1797:Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine, Article 121 1741: 1559: 1535: 1523: 1508: 1496: 1457: 1421: 957: 947: 808: 747:occupied only a day of time each in the 660: 656: 556: 376: 4034:Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles 3626: 3307: 3266: 3207: 2918: 2747: 2669:(2nd 2000 ed.). Chicago: Burnham. 2617: 2550: 2346: 1718: 1547: 1484: 1445: 1409: 1397: 1373: 564:, one of the two authors of Article 231 4067: 3984:A Peace Conference at the Quai d'Orsay 3952:American Commission to Negotiate Peace 3855:Possible cause of the Second World War 3162: 3067: 3026: 3003: 2940: 2789: 2683: 2650:(2nd 1997 ed.). London: Pearson. 2596: 2562: 2502: 2442: 2244: 1929: 1891: 1689:United States Department of State 1919 1635:United States Department of State 1919 1589:United States Department of State 1919 1576: 1361: 263:American Commission to Negotiate Peace 3719: 3573: 3422: 3384: 3144:Rea, Tony & Wright, John (1997). 2962: 2858: 2813: 2430: 2382: 2334: 2217: 2193: 2025: 1978:Bassiouni, M. Cherif (January 2002). 1941: 1849: 1818: 1762: 1649: 1607: 1017:Germany's Aims in the First World War 4038: 3105: 2825:(1st ed.). New York: Pantheon. 2667:A History of Nazi Germany: 1919–1945 2643: 2295: 2205: 2146: 2026:Cline, Catherine Ann (Spring 2010). 1703: 1199:Italy: Mr. Scialoja and Mr. Raimondo 388: 3408:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 3148:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 3012:(2nd ed.). London: Routledge. 2844:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1202:Japan: Expert in international law 673:Count Ulrich von Brockdorff-Rantzau 665:Count Ulrich von Brockdorff-Rantzau 336:. The article did not use the word 13: 3747:Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920) 3427:. Bloomington IN: iUniverse, Inc. 3070:The Great War: An Imperial History 2575:Boemeke, Feldman & Glaser 1998 2539:Boemeke, Feldman & Glaser 1998 2515:Boemeke, Feldman & Glaser 1998 2395:Boemeke, Feldman & Glaser 1998 2233:Boemeke, Feldman & Glaser 1998 2123:Boemeke, Feldman & Glaser 1998 2111:Boemeke, Feldman & Glaser 1998 2099:Boemeke, Feldman & Glaser 1998 1838:Boemeke, Feldman & Glaser 1998 965:, the second author of the article 862:Bank for International Settlements 14: 4091: 3763:Covenant of the League of Nations 3227:Slavicek, Louise Chipley (2010). 3146:International Relations 1914–1995 2183:Treaty of Versailles, Article 232 1731:Treaty of Versailles, Article 231 1220:and scholar of international law 1151:United States Department of State 1116:July 1932 German federal election 619:Allied and Associated Governments 50:Covenant of the League of Nations 4047: 4019: 3442: 1327:Simkins, Jukes & Hickey 2003 1144:United States Secretary of State 877:national income for the period. 606:United States Secretary of State 599:During the peace conference the 528: 334:the Allied and Associated Powers 31: 3904:Partition of the Ottoman Empire 3876:Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye 3828:Hague conference on reparations 3664:Journal of Contemporary History 3249:Daily Life During the Holocaust 3031:. Hoboken NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. 3029:A Companion to Europe 1900–1945 2861:Versailles and After: 1919–1933 2176: 1897: 1801: 1790: 1779: 1768: 1724: 1261: 1251: 1128: 864:gave a total German payment of 218:Partition of the Ottoman Empire 157:Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye 151:Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye 112:Hague conference on reparations 3957:Commission of Responsibilities 3860:International Opium Convention 3475:. Santa Barbara CA: ABC-CLIO. 3387:Justice and the Genesis of War 3089:Origins of the First World War 2882:. Cambridge University Press. 2629:. Octopus Books. p. 276. 2014:MacMillan & Holbrooke 2003 1786:Treaty of Trianon, Article 161 1344: 1007:The Origins of the War of 1914 868:gold marks, whereas historian 798: 268:Commission of Responsibilities 139:International Opium Convention 134:Possible cause of World War II 1: 3329:Thomsett, Michael C. (2007). 3193:. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. 2985:; Holbrooke, Richard (2003). 2665:Bendersky, Joseph W. (1984). 2584: 1808:Treaty of Sèvres, Article 231 1176:Prime Minister of New Zealand 372: 3027:Martel, Gordon, ed. (2010). 3004:Martel, Gordon, ed. (1999). 2688:A Concise History of Austria 1674:Fassbender & Peters 2012 1277: 7: 3926:Turkish War of Independence 3909:Conference of London (1920) 3881:Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine 3783:Little Treaty of Versailles 3499:Political Science Quarterly 3490: 3404:Yearwood, Peter J. (2009). 3333:. Jefferson NC: McFarland. 3210:The Western Front 1917–1918 3125:Phillips, David J. (2007). 1226:Poland: Constantin Skirmunt 1105: 760:American entry into the war 651: 455:Fighting would rage across 240:Turkish War of Independence 223:Conference of London (1920) 175:Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine 169:Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine 70:Little Treaty of Versailles 10: 4096: 3676:10.1177/002200948201700305 3551:10.1525/curh.1926.24.3.398 3087:Mulligan, William (2010). 2989:. New York: Random House. 2926:. New York: W. W. Norton. 2878:Hinrichsen, Simon (2024). 2603:. New York: W. W. Norton. 2269:Soumerai & Schulz 1998 951: 914:) became a major theme of 889: 802: 404:the heir to the throne of 3975: 3939: 3921:Turkish National Movement 3894: 3868: 3798: 3753: 3588:10.1017/s0008938900018707 3308:Stuhler, Barbara (1973). 3106:Neff, Stephen C. (2005). 1662:Tucker & Roberts 2005 1386:Tucker & Roberts 2005 1339:Tucker & Roberts 2005 1315:Tucker & Roberts 2005 1303:Tucker & Roberts 2005 1291:Tucker & Roberts 2005 793: 734:Allied opinion on article 420:nationalist organization 235:Turkish National Movement 3576:Central European History 3385:Welch, David A. (1995). 3229:The Treaty of Versailles 3068:Morrow, John H. (2005). 2924:Hitler: 1889–1936 Hubris 2748:Brezina, Corona (2006). 2597:Barkan, Elazar (2000) . 2590: 1877:Craig & Gilbert 1994 1121: 717:and the new Chancellor, 682:Weimar National Assembly 579:Prime Minister of France 410:Archduke Franz Ferdinand 3423:Young, William (2006). 3208:Simkins, Peter (2002). 2772:The Diplomats 1919–1939 2684:Beller, Steven (2007). 2457:, pp. 125 and 166. 2407:Binkley & Mahr 1926 2220:, pp. 233 and 237. 1966:Binkley & Mahr 1926 1954:Binkley & Mahr 1926 1865:Binkley & Mahr 1926 1511:, pp. 41–3 and 58. 805:World War I reparations 536:On 18 January 1919 the 473:United States President 348:Germany and her allies. 3267:Steiner, Zara (2005). 2627:History of World War 1 1351:Fourteen Points Speech 1270:belligerency ..." 1242:University of Belgrade 1114:, which met until the 966: 910: 814: 666: 628: 565: 553:Writing of the article 538:Paris Peace Conference 385: 350: 25:Paris Peace Conference 3818:Reparation Commission 3450:Osmańczyk, Edmund Jan 3072:. London: Routledge. 3053:. London: Routledge. 2859:Henig, Ruth (1995) . 2799:. London: Pan Books. 2644:Bell, P.M.H. (1986). 2359:Rea & Wright 1997 1293:, pp. xxv and 9. 1040:1839 Treaty of London 961: 952:Further information: 948:Historical assessment 922:United States Senator 918:'s political career. 890:Further information: 858:Reparation Commission 819:1907 Hague Convention 812: 664: 657:German interpretation 615: 560: 424:and supported by the 380: 345: 316:, often known as the 4075:Treaty of Versailles 3967:List of participants 3800:Treaty of Versailles 3362:Weinberg, Gerhard L. 2963:Lewis, Mark (2014). 2898:Immerman, Richard H. 2311:Albrecht-Carrié 1940 1460:, pp. 8 and 37. 1100:old monarchial order 992:René Albrecht-Carrié 823:punitive settlements 788:German reunification 542:Treaty of Versailles 504:Imperial German Navy 322:Treaty of Versailles 90:Treaty of Versailles 3914:San Remo conference 3869:Subsequent treaties 3838:Lausanne Conference 3628:Schmitt, Bernadotte 2983:MacMillan, Margaret 2553:, pp. 136–137. 2409:, pp. 398–400. 2113:, pp. 500–501. 2074:, pp. 490–491. 1956:, pp. 399–400. 1944:, pp. 136–137. 1852:, pp. 135–136. 1840:, pp. 537–538. 1821:, pp. 133–135. 1765:, pp. 231–232. 1196:Ferdinand Larnaude. 1184:France: Politician 1136:legal professionals 975:Stanford University 708:Paul von Hindenburg 701:Philipp Scheidemann 515:signed an armistice 228:San Remo conference 122:Lausanne Conference 4080:1919 controversies 3931:Treaty of Lausanne 3808:"War guilt" clause 3660:Trachtenberg, Marc 3535:Binkley, Robert C. 2821:In Hitler's Shadow 1364:, pp. 182–95. 1245:Slobodan Jovanović 1070:Margaret MacMillan 973:and A. C. Mahr of 967: 963:John Foster Dulles 906:war guilt question 892:War guilt question 815: 772:Vance C. McCormick 667: 646:John Foster Dulles 589:David Lloyd George 575:Georges Clemenceau 566: 442:variety of reasons 386: 363:John Foster Dulles 324:, which ended the 318:"War Guilt" clause 245:Treaty of Lausanne 97:"War Guilt" clause 4007: 4006: 3886:Treaty of Trianon 3778:Minority Treaties 3755:League of Nations 3482:978-1-85109-420-2 3463:978-0-415-93921-8 3434:978-0-595-40706-4 3415:978-0-199-22673-3 3396:978-0-521-55868-6 3340:978-0-7864-3027-7 3321:978-0-873-51080-6 3300:978-0-198-20208-0 3278:978-0-198-22114-2 3259:978-0-313-30202-2 3238:978-1-604-13277-9 3219:978-1-841-76348-4 3200:978-1-841-76738-3 3181:978-0-671-72868-7 3155:978-0-199-17167-5 3136:978-0-595-46288-9 3117:978-0-521-66205-5 3098:978-0-521-71394-8 3079:978-0-415-20440-8 3060:978-0-582-41872-1 3038:978-1-444-33840-9 3019:978-0-415-16325-5 2996:978-0-375-76052-5 2974:978-0-199-66028-5 2955:978-0-88133-954-3 2933:978-0-393-32035-0 2911:978-0-842-02601-7 2889:978-1-009-34397-8 2870:978-0-415-12710-3 2851:978-0-199-59975-2 2815:Evans, Richard J. 2806:978-0-330-35212-3 2782:978-0-691-03660-1 2761:978-1-404-20442-3 2740:978-0-547-22278-3 2718:978-0-521-62132-8 2699:978-0-521-47886-1 2676:978-0-830-41567-0 2657:978-0-582-30470-3 2610:978-0-393-04886-5 2481:, pp. 11–12. 2421:, pp. 19–20. 2084:Trachtenberg 1982 2072:Trachtenberg 1982 1591:, pp. 204–5. 1434:Boyer et al. 2009 1317:, pp. 11–13. 1204:Mineichirō Adachi 1194:Paris Law Faculty 1188:, as well as the 1169:Solicitor General 1155:James Brown Scott 971:Robert C. Binkley 911:Kriegsschuldfrage 825:usually known as 694:German government 511:German Revolution 488:League of Nations 430:diplomatic crisis 393:On 28 June 1914, 389:Course of the war 311: 310: 193:Treaty of Trianon 187:Treaty of Trianon 65:Minority Treaties 43:League of Nations 4087: 4060: 4052: 4051: 4050: 4040: 4024: 4023: 4015: 3896:Treaty of Sèvres 3740: 3733: 3726: 3717: 3716: 3711: 3655: 3623: 3570: 3530: 3486: 3467: 3438: 3419: 3400: 3381: 3357: 3344: 3325: 3304: 3287:Stevenson, David 3282: 3263: 3242: 3223: 3204: 3185: 3159: 3140: 3121: 3102: 3083: 3064: 3047:Mombauer, Annika 3042: 3023: 3011: 3000: 2978: 2959: 2942:Lafore, Laurence 2937: 2915: 2893: 2874: 2855: 2836: 2832:978-067972-348-6 2824: 2810: 2786: 2765: 2744: 2722: 2703: 2691: 2680: 2661: 2640: 2614: 2578: 2572: 2566: 2565:, p. xxiii. 2560: 2554: 2548: 2542: 2536: 2530: 2524: 2518: 2512: 2506: 2500: 2494: 2488: 2482: 2476: 2470: 2464: 2458: 2452: 2446: 2440: 2434: 2428: 2422: 2416: 2410: 2404: 2398: 2392: 2386: 2380: 2374: 2368: 2362: 2356: 2350: 2344: 2338: 2332: 2326: 2320: 2314: 2308: 2299: 2293: 2284: 2278: 2272: 2266: 2260: 2254: 2248: 2242: 2236: 2230: 2221: 2215: 2209: 2203: 2197: 2191: 2185: 2180: 2174: 2168: 2162: 2156: 2150: 2144: 2138: 2132: 2126: 2120: 2114: 2108: 2102: 2096: 2087: 2081: 2075: 2069: 2063: 2062: 2060: 2058: 2023: 2017: 2011: 2000: 1999: 1997: 1995: 1975: 1969: 1963: 1957: 1951: 1945: 1939: 1933: 1927: 1921: 1920: 1918: 1916: 1909:Das Bundesarchiv 1901: 1895: 1889: 1880: 1874: 1868: 1862: 1853: 1847: 1841: 1835: 1822: 1816: 1810: 1805: 1799: 1794: 1788: 1783: 1777: 1772: 1766: 1760: 1745: 1744:, pp. 8–10. 1739: 1733: 1728: 1722: 1716: 1707: 1701: 1692: 1686: 1677: 1671: 1665: 1659: 1653: 1647: 1638: 1632: 1611: 1605: 1592: 1586: 1580: 1574: 1563: 1557: 1551: 1545: 1539: 1533: 1527: 1521: 1512: 1506: 1500: 1494: 1488: 1482: 1473: 1467: 1461: 1455: 1449: 1443: 1437: 1431: 1425: 1419: 1413: 1407: 1401: 1395: 1389: 1383: 1377: 1371: 1365: 1359: 1353: 1348: 1342: 1336: 1330: 1324: 1318: 1312: 1306: 1300: 1294: 1288: 1271: 1265: 1259: 1255: 1249: 1218:Foreign Minister 1208:Harukazu Nagaoka 1162:Attorney General 1160:British Empire: 1132: 1058:Wolfgang Mommsen 1045:mutatis mutandis 1023:War of Illusions 933:Great Depression 925:Henrik Shipstead 913: 879:Gerhard Weinberg 875: 867: 856:gold marks. The 855: 851: 847: 840: 780:Second World War 727:Wolfgang Mommsen 670:Foreign Minister 632: 355:Germany's allies 303: 296: 289: 211:Treaty of Sèvres 198:Millerand letter 129:Locarno Treaties 35: 21: 20: 4095: 4094: 4090: 4089: 4088: 4086: 4085: 4084: 4065: 4064: 4063: 4059:from Wikisource 4053: 4048: 4046: 4043: 4039:sister projects 4036:at Knowledge's 4030: 4018: 4010: 4008: 4003: 3971: 3935: 3890: 3864: 3794: 3749: 3744: 3714: 3539:Current History 3511:10.2307/2143772 3493: 3483: 3464: 3445: 3435: 3416: 3397: 3378: 3341: 3322: 3301: 3279: 3260: 3239: 3220: 3201: 3182: 3164:Shirer, William 3156: 3137: 3118: 3099: 3080: 3061: 3039: 3020: 2997: 2975: 2956: 2934: 2912: 2890: 2871: 2852: 2833: 2807: 2783: 2762: 2741: 2719: 2700: 2677: 2658: 2637: 2619:Gilbert, Martin 2611: 2593: 2587: 2582: 2581: 2573: 2569: 2561: 2557: 2549: 2545: 2537: 2533: 2525: 2521: 2513: 2509: 2501: 2497: 2489: 2485: 2477: 2473: 2465: 2461: 2453: 2449: 2441: 2437: 2429: 2425: 2417: 2413: 2405: 2401: 2393: 2389: 2381: 2377: 2369: 2365: 2357: 2353: 2345: 2341: 2333: 2329: 2321: 2317: 2309: 2302: 2294: 2287: 2279: 2275: 2267: 2263: 2255: 2251: 2243: 2239: 2231: 2224: 2216: 2212: 2204: 2200: 2192: 2188: 2181: 2177: 2171:Hinrichsen 2024 2169: 2165: 2159:Hinrichsen 2024 2157: 2153: 2145: 2141: 2133: 2129: 2121: 2117: 2109: 2105: 2097: 2090: 2082: 2078: 2070: 2066: 2056: 2054: 2044:10.2307/4049797 2024: 2020: 2012: 2003: 1993: 1991: 1976: 1972: 1964: 1960: 1952: 1948: 1940: 1936: 1928: 1924: 1914: 1912: 1903: 1902: 1898: 1890: 1883: 1875: 1871: 1863: 1856: 1848: 1844: 1836: 1825: 1817: 1813: 1806: 1802: 1795: 1791: 1784: 1780: 1773: 1769: 1761: 1748: 1740: 1736: 1729: 1725: 1717: 1710: 1702: 1695: 1687: 1680: 1672: 1668: 1664:, p. 1159. 1660: 1656: 1648: 1641: 1633: 1614: 1606: 1595: 1587: 1583: 1575: 1566: 1558: 1554: 1546: 1542: 1534: 1530: 1522: 1515: 1507: 1503: 1495: 1491: 1483: 1476: 1472:, p. 1898. 1468: 1464: 1456: 1452: 1444: 1440: 1432: 1428: 1420: 1416: 1408: 1404: 1396: 1392: 1384: 1380: 1372: 1368: 1360: 1356: 1349: 1345: 1337: 1333: 1325: 1321: 1313: 1309: 1305:, p. 1078. 1301: 1297: 1289: 1285: 1280: 1275: 1274: 1268: 1266: 1262: 1256: 1252: 1222:Nicolas Politis 1206:, and diplomat 1142:United States: 1139: 1133: 1129: 1124: 1108: 1079:just-war theory 1003:Luigi Albertini 956: 950: 898:Weimar Republic 894: 888: 873: 865: 853: 849: 845: 838: 807: 801: 796: 764:Edward M. House 736: 715:Friedrich Ebert 659: 654: 634: 630: 570:heavily scarred 555: 546:suburb of Paris 531: 498:, while on the 492:decisive defeat 480:Fourteen Points 438:First World War 406:Austria-Hungary 399:Gavrilo Princip 391: 375: 326:First World War 307: 278: 277: 258: 250: 249: 213: 203: 202: 188: 180: 179: 170: 162: 161: 152: 144: 143: 92: 82: 81: 45: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4093: 4083: 4082: 4077: 4062: 4061: 4032: 4029: 4028: 4005: 4004: 4002: 4001: 3994: 3987: 3979: 3977: 3973: 3972: 3970: 3969: 3964: 3959: 3954: 3949: 3943: 3941: 3937: 3936: 3934: 3933: 3928: 3923: 3918: 3917: 3916: 3911: 3900: 3898: 3892: 3891: 3889: 3888: 3883: 3878: 3872: 3870: 3866: 3865: 3863: 3862: 3857: 3852: 3847: 3842: 3841: 3840: 3835: 3830: 3825: 3815: 3810: 3804: 3802: 3796: 3795: 3793: 3792: 3787: 3786: 3785: 3775: 3770: 3765: 3759: 3757: 3751: 3750: 3743: 3742: 3735: 3728: 3720: 3713: 3712: 3656: 3624: 3571: 3531: 3492: 3489: 3488: 3487: 3481: 3468: 3462: 3444: 3441: 3440: 3439: 3433: 3420: 3414: 3401: 3395: 3382: 3376: 3358: 3345: 3339: 3326: 3320: 3305: 3299: 3283: 3277: 3264: 3258: 3243: 3237: 3224: 3218: 3205: 3199: 3186: 3180: 3160: 3154: 3141: 3135: 3122: 3116: 3103: 3097: 3084: 3078: 3065: 3059: 3043: 3037: 3024: 3018: 3001: 2995: 2979: 2973: 2960: 2954: 2938: 2932: 2916: 2910: 2894: 2888: 2875: 2869: 2856: 2850: 2837: 2831: 2811: 2805: 2791:Davies, Norman 2787: 2781: 2766: 2760: 2745: 2739: 2727:Boyer, Paul S. 2723: 2717: 2704: 2698: 2681: 2675: 2662: 2656: 2641: 2635: 2615: 2609: 2592: 2589: 2588: 2586: 2583: 2580: 2579: 2567: 2555: 2543: 2541:, p. 524. 2531: 2519: 2507: 2495: 2483: 2471: 2469:, p. 410. 2467:Stevenson 1996 2459: 2447: 2435: 2433:, p. 271. 2423: 2411: 2399: 2397:, p. 220. 2387: 2385:, p. 107. 2375: 2363: 2351: 2339: 2327: 2315: 2300: 2285: 2281:Bendersky 1984 2273: 2261: 2249: 2237: 2235:, p. 424. 2222: 2210: 2198: 2196:, p. 237. 2186: 2175: 2163: 2151: 2139: 2127: 2125:, p. 501. 2115: 2103: 2101:, p. 500. 2088: 2086:, p. 491. 2076: 2064: 2018: 2016:, p. 193. 2001: 1970: 1968:, p. 400. 1958: 1946: 1934: 1922: 1896: 1894:, p. 290. 1881: 1879:, p. 141. 1869: 1867:, p. 399. 1854: 1842: 1823: 1811: 1800: 1789: 1778: 1767: 1746: 1734: 1723: 1708: 1706:, p. 289. 1693: 1691:, p. 205. 1678: 1676:, p. 740. 1666: 1654: 1639: 1637:, p. 204. 1612: 1593: 1581: 1579:, p. 272. 1564: 1562:, p. 127. 1552: 1540: 1528: 1513: 1501: 1499:, p. 152. 1489: 1487:, p. 103. 1474: 1470:Osmańczyk 2003 1462: 1450: 1448:, p. 273. 1438: 1436:, p. 526. 1426: 1414: 1412:, p. 102. 1402: 1400:, p. 101. 1390: 1388:, p. 638. 1378: 1366: 1354: 1343: 1341:, p. 429. 1331: 1319: 1307: 1295: 1282: 1281: 1279: 1276: 1273: 1272: 1260: 1250: 1248: 1247: 1234: 1227: 1224: 1216:Greece: Greek 1214: 1211: 1200: 1197: 1182: 1179:William Massey 1172:Ernest Pollock 1158: 1147:Robert Lansing 1126: 1125: 1123: 1120: 1119: 1118: 1107: 1104: 1066:Gerald Feldman 949: 946: 887: 884: 870:Niall Ferguson 866:20.598 billion 850:$ 12.5 billion 803:Main article: 800: 797: 795: 792: 786:in regards to 745:second reading 735: 732: 658: 655: 653: 650: 614: 609:Robert Lansing 594:British Empire 586:Prime Minister 554: 551: 530: 527: 476:Woodrow Wilson 450:Triple Entente 446:Central Powers 390: 387: 374: 371: 309: 308: 306: 305: 298: 291: 283: 280: 279: 276: 275: 270: 265: 259: 256: 255: 252: 251: 248: 247: 242: 237: 232: 231: 230: 225: 214: 209: 208: 205: 204: 201: 200: 195: 189: 186: 185: 182: 181: 178: 177: 171: 168: 167: 164: 163: 160: 159: 153: 150: 149: 146: 145: 142: 141: 136: 131: 126: 125: 124: 119: 114: 109: 99: 93: 88: 87: 84: 83: 80: 79: 74: 73: 72: 62: 57: 52: 46: 41: 40: 37: 36: 28: 27: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4092: 4081: 4078: 4076: 4073: 4072: 4070: 4058: 4057: 4045: 4044: 4041: 4035: 4027: 4022: 4017: 4016: 4013: 4000: 3999: 3995: 3993: 3992: 3988: 3986: 3985: 3981: 3980: 3978: 3974: 3968: 3965: 3963: 3960: 3958: 3955: 3953: 3950: 3948: 3945: 3944: 3942: 3938: 3932: 3929: 3927: 3924: 3922: 3919: 3915: 3912: 3910: 3907: 3906: 3905: 3902: 3901: 3899: 3897: 3893: 3887: 3884: 3882: 3879: 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Routledge. 2862: 2857: 2853: 2847: 2843: 2838: 2834: 2828: 2823: 2822: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2802: 2798: 2797: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2778: 2774: 2773: 2767: 2763: 2757: 2753: 2752: 2746: 2742: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2714: 2710: 2705: 2701: 2695: 2690: 2689: 2682: 2678: 2672: 2668: 2663: 2659: 2653: 2649: 2648: 2642: 2638: 2636:0-7064-0398-3 2632: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2606: 2602: 2601: 2595: 2594: 2577:, p. 48. 2576: 2571: 2564: 2559: 2552: 2547: 2540: 2535: 2529:, p. 57. 2528: 2527:Slavicek 2010 2523: 2517:, p. 16. 2516: 2511: 2505:, p. 19. 2504: 2499: 2493:, p. 14. 2492: 2491:Mulligan 2010 2487: 2480: 2479:Mulligan 2010 2475: 2468: 2463: 2456: 2455:Mombauer 2002 2451: 2445:, p. 21. 2444: 2439: 2432: 2427: 2420: 2419:Slavicek 2010 2415: 2408: 2403: 2396: 2391: 2384: 2379: 2373:, p. 94. 2372: 2371:Slavicek 2010 2367: 2361:, p. 39. 2360: 2355: 2349:, p. 92. 2348: 2343: 2337:, p. 52. 2336: 2331: 2325:, p. 13. 2324: 2323:Thomsett 2007 2319: 2313:, p. 15. 2312: 2307: 2305: 2298:, p. 21. 2297: 2292: 2290: 2283:, p. 10. 2282: 2277: 2271:, p. 17. 2270: 2265: 2259:, p. 16. 2258: 2257:Weinberg 1994 2253: 2247:, p. 43. 2246: 2241: 2234: 2229: 2227: 2219: 2214: 2208:, p. 38. 2207: 2202: 2195: 2190: 2184: 2179: 2172: 2167: 2160: 2155: 2149:, p. 22. 2148: 2143: 2137:, p. 10. 2136: 2135:Immerman 1998 2131: 2124: 2119: 2112: 2107: 2100: 2095: 2093: 2085: 2080: 2073: 2068: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2022: 2015: 2010: 2008: 2006: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1974: 1967: 1962: 1955: 1950: 1943: 1938: 1932:, p. 59. 1931: 1926: 1910: 1906: 1900: 1893: 1888: 1886: 1878: 1873: 1866: 1861: 1859: 1851: 1846: 1839: 1834: 1832: 1830: 1828: 1820: 1815: 1809: 1804: 1798: 1793: 1787: 1782: 1776: 1771: 1764: 1759: 1757: 1755: 1753: 1751: 1743: 1742:Immerman 1998 1738: 1732: 1727: 1721:, p. 59. 1720: 1715: 1713: 1705: 1700: 1698: 1690: 1685: 1683: 1675: 1670: 1663: 1658: 1652:, p. 43. 1651: 1646: 1644: 1636: 1631: 1629: 1627: 1625: 1623: 1621: 1619: 1617: 1610:, p. 42. 1609: 1604: 1602: 1600: 1598: 1590: 1585: 1578: 1573: 1571: 1569: 1561: 1560:Yearwood 2009 1556: 1550:, p. 21. 1549: 1544: 1538:, p. 44. 1537: 1536:Slavicek 2010 1532: 1526:, p. 14. 1525: 1524:Weinberg 1994 1520: 1518: 1510: 1509:Slavicek 2010 1505: 1498: 1497:Phillips 2007 1493: 1486: 1481: 1479: 1471: 1466: 1459: 1458:Slavicek 2010 1454: 1447: 1442: 1435: 1430: 1423: 1422:Weinberg 1994 1418: 1411: 1406: 1399: 1394: 1387: 1382: 1376:, p. 71. 1375: 1370: 1363: 1358: 1352: 1347: 1340: 1335: 1328: 1323: 1316: 1311: 1304: 1299: 1292: 1287: 1283: 1264: 1254: 1246: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1232: 1228: 1225: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1212: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1198: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1186:André Tardieu 1183: 1180: 1177: 1173: 1170: 1166: 1165:Gordon Hewart 1163: 1159: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1145: 1141: 1140: 1137: 1131: 1127: 1117: 1113: 1110: 1109: 1103: 1101: 1097: 1092: 1089: 1084: 1080: 1074: 1071: 1067: 1061: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1046: 1041: 1035: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1024: 1019: 1018: 1013: 1012:Fritz Fischer 1008: 1004: 999: 997: 993: 988: 983: 980: 976: 972: 964: 960: 955: 945: 942: 938: 934: 930: 929:rise to power 926: 923: 919: 917: 912: 907: 903: 899: 893: 883: 880: 871: 863: 859: 843: 835: 832: 828: 824: 820: 811: 806: 791: 789: 785: 781: 777: 773: 767: 765: 761: 758:Prior to the 756: 754: 750: 746: 740: 731: 728: 722: 720: 716: 713: 709: 706: 705:Field Marshal 702: 699: 695: 690: 688: 683: 678: 674: 671: 663: 649: 647: 643: 639: 633: 631:– Article 231 627: 624: 620: 613: 610: 607: 602: 597: 595: 590: 587: 584: 580: 576: 571: 563: 559: 550: 549:proceedings. 547: 543: 539: 534: 529:The armistice 526: 524: 520: 516: 512: 508: 505: 501: 497: 496:Western Front 493: 489: 485: 481: 477: 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 453: 451: 447: 443: 439: 435: 431: 427: 423: 419: 415: 411: 407: 403: 400: 396: 383: 379: 370: 366: 364: 360: 356: 349: 344: 341: 339: 335: 331: 330:German Empire 327: 323: 319: 315: 304: 299: 297: 292: 290: 285: 284: 282: 281: 274: 271: 269: 266: 264: 261: 260: 254: 253: 246: 243: 241: 238: 236: 233: 229: 226: 224: 221: 220: 219: 216: 215: 212: 207: 206: 199: 196: 194: 191: 190: 184: 183: 176: 173: 172: 166: 165: 158: 155: 154: 148: 147: 140: 137: 135: 132: 130: 127: 123: 120: 118: 115: 113: 110: 108: 105: 104: 103: 100: 98: 95: 94: 91: 86: 85: 78: 75: 71: 68: 67: 66: 63: 61: 58: 56: 53: 51: 48: 47: 44: 39: 38: 34: 30: 29: 26: 23: 22: 19: 4054: 4033: 3996: 3989: 3982: 3850:Stresa Front 3807: 3773:Organisation 3667: 3663: 3635: 3631: 3579: 3575: 3542: 3538: 3502: 3498: 3472: 3453: 3424: 3405: 3386: 3366: 3330: 3310: 3290: 3268: 3248: 3228: 3209: 3190: 3170:. New York: 3167: 3145: 3126: 3107: 3088: 3069: 3050: 3028: 3007: 2986: 2964: 2945: 2923: 2920:Kershaw, Ian 2901: 2879: 2860: 2841: 2820: 2794: 2771: 2750: 2730: 2708: 2687: 2666: 2646: 2626: 2599: 2570: 2558: 2551:Kershaw 2000 2546: 2534: 2522: 2510: 2498: 2486: 2474: 2462: 2450: 2438: 2426: 2414: 2402: 2390: 2378: 2366: 2354: 2347:Stuhler 1973 2342: 2330: 2318: 2276: 2264: 2252: 2240: 2213: 2201: 2189: 2178: 2173:, p. 3. 2166: 2161:, p. 5. 2154: 2142: 2130: 2118: 2106: 2079: 2067: 2055:. Retrieved 2038:(1): 43–58. 2035: 2031: 2021: 1992:. Retrieved 1987: 1983: 1973: 1961: 1949: 1937: 1925: 1913:. Retrieved 1908: 1899: 1872: 1845: 1814: 1803: 1792: 1781: 1770: 1737: 1726: 1719:Steiner 2005 1669: 1657: 1584: 1555: 1548:Brezina 2006 1543: 1531: 1504: 1492: 1485:Schmitt 1960 1465: 1453: 1446:Gilbert 1974 1441: 1429: 1424:, p. 8. 1417: 1410:Schmitt 1960 1405: 1398:Schmitt 1960 1393: 1381: 1374:Simkins 2002 1369: 1357: 1346: 1334: 1329:, p. 9. 1322: 1310: 1298: 1286: 1263: 1253: 1138:. They were: 1130: 1093: 1075: 1062: 1043: 1036: 1021: 1015: 1006: 1000: 984: 968: 920: 916:Adolf Hitler 895: 848:gold marks ( 836: 816: 784:Soviet Union 768: 757: 741: 737: 723: 719:Gustav Bauer 691: 668: 642:Norman Davis 635: 629: 616: 598: 567: 562:Norman Davis 535: 532: 484:Polish state 454: 422:Young Bosnia 402:assassinated 395:Bosnian Serb 392: 367: 351: 346: 342: 337: 328:between the 317: 313: 312: 96: 60:Organisation 18: 3962:The Inquiry 3813:Reparations 3127:On This Day 2623:Taylor, AJP 2563:Barkan 2000 2503:Martel 1999 2443:Lafore 1997 2245:Martel 1999 2057:23 February 1930:Shirer 1990 1911:(in German) 1892:Morrow 2005 1577:Martel 2010 1362:Beller 2007 1233:S. Rosental 1088:Ian Kershaw 941:Fritz Klein 935:led to the 839:132 billion 831:Sally Marks 827:indemnities 799:Reparations 621:affirm and 461:Middle East 314:Article 231 273:The Inquiry 102:Reparations 4069:Categories 3833:Young Plan 3823:Dawes Plan 2585:References 2431:Welch 1995 2383:Evans 1989 2335:Henig 1995 2218:Marks 1978 2194:Marks 1978 1942:Young 2006 1850:Young 2006 1819:Young 2006 1763:Marks 1978 1650:Lewis 2014 1608:Lewis 2014 1083:Diane Kunz 1077:classical 1032:James Joll 1028:Wilhelmine 1005:published 987:E. H. Carr 979:Sidney Fay 874:19 billion 854:21 billion 846:50 billion 842:gold marks 698:Chancellor 640:diplomats 500:Home Front 426:Black Hand 418:Pan-Slavic 397:youngster 373:Background 117:Young Plan 107:Dawes Plan 3976:Paintings 3708:154283533 3684:0022-0094 3644:0003-049X 3620:144072556 3596:1569-1616 3567:249693067 3519:0032-3195 2922:(2000) . 2731:From 1865 2296:Bell 1986 2206:Bell 1986 2147:Bell 1986 1915:30 August 1704:Neff 2005 1278:Citations 1229:Romania: 1001:In 1942, 996:inter-war 985:In 1937, 969:In 1926, 712:President 687:Max Weber 361:diplomat 4026:Politics 3947:Big Four 3790:Mandates 3612:47795498 3491:Journals 3452:(2003). 3364:(1994). 3289:(1996). 3166:(1990). 3049:(2002). 2944:(1997). 2900:(1998). 2817:(1989). 2793:(2007). 2621:(1974). 1990:(3): 256 1106:See also 860:and the 751:and the 652:Reaction 638:American 507:mutinied 448:and the 440:. For a 414:Sarajevo 382:Avocourt 359:American 77:Mandates 3845:Locarno 3768:Members 3700:1783199 3604:4545835 3559:1589080 3527:2143772 2625:(ed.). 2052:4049797 1994:2 March 1240:of the 1192:of the 1096:Fascism 1054:Hungary 1050:Austria 778:of the 753:Commons 623:Germany 583:British 523:Belgium 494:on the 55:Members 4012:Portal 3706: 3698: 3692:260557 3690: 3682: 3652:985606 3650: 3642: 3618: 3610: 3602: 3594: 3565: 3557: 3525: 3517: 3479: 3460: 3431: 3412: 3393: 3374: 3337: 3318: 3297: 3275: 3256: 3235: 3216: 3197: 3178: 3152: 3133: 3114: 3095: 3076: 3057: 3035: 3016: 2993: 2971: 2952: 2930: 2908: 2886: 2867: 2848: 2829: 2803: 2779: 2758: 2737: 2715: 2696: 2673: 2654: 2633: 2607: 2050: 1238:Rector 1231:Jurist 1174:, and 904:. The 794:Impact 776:causes 677:Berlin 577:, the 519:France 465:Africa 459:, the 457:Europe 434:Serbia 257:Others 4056:Texts 3940:Other 3704:S2CID 3688:JSTOR 3648:JSTOR 3616:S2CID 3600:JSTOR 3563:S2CID 3523:JSTOR 2591:Books 2048:JSTOR 1122:Notes 937:NSDAP 749:Lords 617:"The 412:, in 338:guilt 3696:OCLC 3680:ISSN 3640:ISSN 3608:OCLC 3592:ISSN 3555:OCLC 3515:ISSN 3477:ISBN 3458:ISBN 3429:ISBN 3410:ISBN 3391:ISBN 3372:ISBN 3335:ISBN 3316:ISBN 3295:ISBN 3273:ISBN 3254:ISBN 3233:ISBN 3214:ISBN 3195:ISBN 3176:ISBN 3150:ISBN 3131:ISBN 3112:ISBN 3093:ISBN 3074:ISBN 3055:ISBN 3033:ISBN 3014:ISBN 2991:ISBN 2969:ISBN 2950:ISBN 2928:ISBN 2906:ISBN 2884:ISBN 2865:ISBN 2846:ISBN 2827:ISBN 2801:ISBN 2777:ISBN 2756:ISBN 2735:ISBN 2713:ISBN 2694:ISBN 2671:ISBN 2652:ISBN 2631:ISBN 2605:ISBN 2059:2024 1996:2024 1917:2023 1190:Dean 1052:and 1020:and 521:and 502:the 469:Asia 467:and 332:and 3672:doi 3636:104 3584:doi 3547:doi 3507:doi 2040:doi 1014:in 4071:: 3702:. 3694:. 3686:. 3678:. 3668:17 3666:. 3646:. 3634:. 3614:. 3606:. 3598:. 3590:. 3580:11 3578:. 3561:. 3553:. 3543:24 3541:. 3521:. 3513:. 3503:55 3501:. 3352:. 3174:. 2303:^ 2288:^ 2225:^ 2091:^ 2046:. 2036:20 2034:. 2030:. 2004:^ 1988:30 1986:. 1982:. 1884:^ 1857:^ 1826:^ 1749:^ 1711:^ 1696:^ 1681:^ 1642:^ 1615:^ 1596:^ 1567:^ 1516:^ 1477:^ 1167:, 1153:, 525:. 463:, 408:, 4042:: 4014:: 3739:e 3732:t 3725:v 3710:. 3674:: 3654:. 3622:. 3586:: 3569:. 3549:: 3529:. 3509:: 3485:. 3466:. 3437:. 3418:. 3399:. 3380:. 3356:. 3343:. 3324:. 3303:. 3281:. 3262:. 3241:. 3222:. 3203:. 3184:. 3158:. 3139:. 3120:. 3101:. 3082:. 3063:. 3041:. 3022:. 2999:. 2977:. 2958:. 2936:. 2914:. 2892:. 2873:. 2854:. 2835:. 2809:. 2785:. 2764:. 2743:. 2721:. 2702:. 2679:. 2660:. 2639:. 2613:. 2061:. 2042:: 1998:. 1919:. 1210:. 1181:. 1157:. 908:( 302:e 295:t 288:v

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