1463:
2931:
3570:
1654:. Secretaries had remained to be chosen by the Chief Executive not from the Legislative Council, and their appointments need not be approved by the Legislative Council. Although essentially more presidential than parliamentary, the Legislative Council had inherited many elements of the Westminster system, including parliamentary powers, privileges and immunity, and the right to conduct inquiries, amongst others. Minutes are known as Hansards, and the theme colour of the meeting chamber is red as in other upper houses. Government secretaries and other officials are seated on the right hand side of the
1668:
3424:
33:
3290:
3338:
3588:
3552:
3364:
3260:
3537:
3246:
3234:
1250:
holds confidential weekly meetings with the prime minister to discuss governmental policy and to offer his or her opinions and advice on issues of the day. In India, the prime minister is constitutionally bound to hold regular sessions with the president, in a similar manner to the aforementioned
British practice. In essence, the head of state, as the theoretical executive authority, "reigns but does not rule". This phrase means that the head of state's role in government is generally ceremonial and as a result does not directly institute executive powers. The
1875:
2866:
1765:
rows, either with a perpendicular row of seats and desks at the furthermost point from the
Speaker's Chair at the opposite end of the chamber (e.g. UK House of Lords or Israel Knesset) or the rows of chairs and desks are rounded at the end, opposite to the Speaker's Chair (e.g. Australian chambers, Ireland, South Africa, India). The chairs in which both the government and opposition sit, are positioned so that the two rows are facing each other. This arrangement is said to have derived from an early Parliament which was held in a
1478:
3088:
1840:
3013:
2071:
3227:, unlike Commonwealth realms or parliamentary republics such as India, have a combined head of state and head of government but the President remains responsible to the lower house of parliament; it elects the President at the beginning of a new Parliament, or when there is a vacancy in the office, or when the sitting President is defeated on a vote of confidence. If the Parliament cannot elect a new President within a short period of time (a week to a month) the lower house is dissolved and new elections are called.
2122:
2831:
3147:
1455:
2896:
2751:
1944:
3439:
1979:
2981:
2690:
2330:
3509:
2003:
2625:
2194:
3048:
2794:
3350:
3467:
2551:
2242:
3302:
3191:
2582:
2152:
3409:
3316:
3121:
2438:
2036:
3392:
3523:
3495:
3453:
2957:
2714:
2666:
3481:
3378:
2218:
1642:. While the Legislative Councils in British Australasian and North American colonies were unelected upper houses and some of them had since abolished themselves, the Legislative Council of Hong Kong has remained the sole chamber and had in 1995 evolved into a fully elected house, yet only part of the seats are returned by universal suffrage. Responsible government was never granted during British colonial rule, and the
2376:
2480:
2277:
1062:, including the appointment and dismissal of cabinet members. This results in the situation where individual cabinet members in effect serve at the pleasure of the prime minister. Thus the cabinet is strongly subordinate to the prime minister as they can be replaced at any time, or can be moved ("demoted") to a different portfolio in a
1249:
The head of state will often hold meetings with the head of government and cabinet, as a means of keeping abreast of governmental policy and as a means of advising, consulting and warning ministers in their actions. Such a practice takes place in the United
Kingdom and India. In the UK, the sovereign
827:
However, uncodified conventions, practices, and precedents continue to play a significant role in most countries, as many constitutions do not specify important elements of procedure. For example, some older constitutions using the
Westminster system do not mention the existence of the cabinet or the
1764:
The
Westminster system has a very distinct appearance when functioning, with many British customs incorporated into day-to-day government function. A Westminster-style parliament is usually a long, rectangular room, with two rows of seats and desks on either side. Many chambers connect the opposing
1430:
is imminent, a lot of time is taken up in the conversations of politicians and in the news media, speculating on who will, or will not, be moved in and out of the
Cabinet by the Prime Minister, because the appointment of ministers to the Cabinet, and threat of dismissal from the Cabinet, is the
1383:
were an attempt to create a convention to cover similar situations, but have not been tested in practice. Because of differences in their written constitutions, the formal powers of monarchs, governors-general, and presidents vary greatly from one country to another. However, as sovereigns and
1776:, the number of government-party MPs is so large that it must use the "opposition" seats as well. In the lower house at Westminster (the UK's House of Commons) there are lines on the floor in front of the government and opposition benches that members may cross only when exiting the chamber.
1729:, which has since then been impossible, in the Westminster system. A government that has lost supply is severely restricted in its abilities to act; unless a solution can be negotiated and supply can be restored, such an occurrence would normally trigger a federal election. Since the
617:. While the head of state appoints the head of government, constitutional convention suggests that a majority of elected members of parliament must support the person appointed. If more than half of elected parliamentarians belong to the same political party, then the parliamentary
3218:
The
Westminster system was adopted by a number of countries which subsequently evolved or reformed their system of government departing from the original model. In some cases, certain aspects of the Westminster system were retained or codified in their constitutions. For instance
1560:
legislative body, while the upper house practices restraint in exercising its constitutional powers and serves as a consultative body. In other
Westminster countries, however, the upper house can sometimes exercise considerable power, as is the case for the Australian Senate.
1806:. Some legislatures retain Westminster's colour-coded chambers, with the upper houses associated with the colour red (after the House of Lords) and the lower with green (after the House of Commons). This is the case in India, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and Barbados.
1426:. All Cabinet decisions are made by consensus, a vote is rarely taken in a Cabinet meeting. All ministers, whether senior and in the Cabinet, or junior ministers, must support the policy of the government publicly regardless of any private reservations. When a
832:, and other influences collide in times of crisis and in such times the weaknesses of the unwritten aspects of the Westminster system, as well as the strengths of the Westminster system's flexibility, are put to the test. As an illustrative example, in the
1772:. Traditionally, the opposition parties will sit in one row of seats, and the government party will sit in the other. In some countries, the mace will face the government’s side whilst lying on the table of the House. In most
1658:
in the chamber. The Chief
Executive may dissolve the Legislative Council under certain conditions, and is obliged to resign, e.g., when a re-elected Legislative Council passes again a bill that he or she had refused to sign.
1737:). This is controversial because it conflicts with the Westminster tradition of government by a party with the confidence of the lower house (not an upper house like the Senate). Some political scientists have held that the
964:
Led by the leader of the opposition. A shadow cabinet is formed out of the elected members of the largest party or coalition in the legislature not in government, chosen by the party leader (the leader of the opposition).
1745:, especially since the Australian Senate is a powerful upper house like the US Senate; this notion is expressed in the nickname "the Washminster mutation". The ability of upper houses to block supply also features in the
1269:
in
Germany and did not speak English fluently. Over time, further arrangements continued to allow the execution of executive authority on the sovereign's behalf and more and more de facto power ended up lying in the
1156:
in order to attain such a wish. However, the sovereign in modern times has virtually always followed the advice of their prime minister without their own agency, this owes to the fact that the British sovereign is a
1384:
governors-general are not elected, and some presidents may not be directly elected by the people, they are often shielded from any public disapproval stemming from unilateral or controversial use of their powers.
3545:
between 1921 and 1958; during the monarchy, the Parliament of Iraq was a bicameral parliament made of an upper house of lords and a lower house of commons and was modelled after the Westminster system with some
1364:. Although the dissolution of the legislature and the call for new elections is formally performed by the head of state, the head of state, by convention, acts according to the wishes of the head of government.
659:
that advises on, and implements, decisions of the elected government. Civil servants hold permanent appointments and can expect merit-based selection processes and continuity of employment when governments
1415:
emphasised the divide of the constitution into two components, the Dignified (that part which is symbolic) and the Efficient (the way things actually work and get done), and called the Efficient "
1718:, which must be willing to pass all its legislation. Although government is formed in the lower house, the House of Representatives, the support of the Senate is necessary in order to govern.
1254:
of the head of state are sufficient to ensure compliance with some of their wishes. However, the extent of such powers varies from one country to another and is often a matter of controversy.
1714:
as well as from the traditions and conventions of the Westminster system and some indigenous features. Australia is exceptional because the government faces a fully elected upper house, the
1798:(or equivalent thereof) in which the head of state gives a special address (written by the government) to parliament about what kind of policies to expect in the coming year, and lengthy
1008:
source of executive power within the system. In practice, such a figure does not actively exercise executive powers, even though executive authority is nominally exercised in their name.
3976:
1791:
often sit at narrow tables between the two rows of seats, as well. These narrow tables in the centre of the chamber, is usually where ministers or members of the house come to speak.
1265:(reigned 1714 to 1727) was the first British monarch to delegate some executive powers to a prime minister and a cabinet of the ministers, largely because he was also the monarch of
1733:, technically speaking, can dismiss a federal government at any time, loss of supply is sometimes, controversially, considered a suitable trigger for a dismissal (such as with the
4270:
945:
Executive ministers are chosen (normally) from members of the government party or coalition, by the head of government. They may be from either house in bicameral systems.
1200:
such as Canada, Australia and New Zealand, the day-to-day functions that would be exercised by the sovereign personally in the United Kingdom are instead exercised by the
3930:
3651:
492:
4688:
4150:
1391:
a governor-general formally represents the monarch, who is usually absent from the realm. In such countries, the identity of the "head of state" may be unclear.
1503:
being elected entirely by nationwide Proportional Representation). Most also have a smaller upper house, which is made up of members chosen by various methods:
4210:
2418:
exercising identical powers; thus, a government must maintain majorities in both. The Chamber of Deputies and most of the Senate are directly elected through
2940:
1491:
In a Westminster system, some members of parliament are elected by popular vote, while others are appointed. Nearly all Westminster-based parliaments have a
973:
Politically independent and available to the people of the state, that will work for various government organisations (health, housing, education, defence).
1746:
4680:
4390:
770:, which allows the legislature to discuss any issue it deems relevant without fear of consequences stemming from defamatory statements or records thereof.
1929:
1655:
4476:
1780:
954:
Government sits in and is responsible to the legislature, to which it reports and is accountable (in particular, to the lower house, if bicameral).
17:
1140:
executive body in the system) generally must seek the permission of the head of state when carrying out executive functions. If, for instance the
4661:
4124:
3766:
792:. Exceptions to this include India, Quebec in Canada, and Scotland in the UK, among other countries who mix common law with other legal systems.
3180:
3106:
1858:
4669:
3980:
2858:
but by a majority vote in Parliament, then they are appointed by the monarch. Members are elected to the Parliament by instant-runoff voting.
350:
1284:, who distinguished between the separate "dignified" and "efficient" functions of government. The sovereign should be a focal point for the
2945:
2935:
1431:
single most powerful constitutional power which a Prime Minister has in the political control of the Government in the Westminster system.
4718:
1593:
496:
4080:
1050:, however, in effect, the head of government dominates the executive as the head of government is ultimately the person from whom the
2875:
1023:, will ideally have the support of a majority in the responsible house, and must, in any case, be able to ensure the existence of no
2771:
2356:
Dáil Éireann (the lower house) is elected by universal suffrage by single transferable vote from constituencies of 3 to 5 members.
1372:
1212:
3324:
following the end of British colonial rule in 1960, which resulted in the appointment of a Governor-General and then a President,
2888:, meaning that the power to govern the country and its people is shared and divided between national and subnational governments.
675:, which generally takes on an adversarial role, presenting arguments against the government's policies. In certain countries, the
3369:
3033:
2840:
2823:, meaning that the power to govern the country and its people is shared and divided between national and provincial governments.
1933:
1742:
1631:
1608:
828:
prime minister, because these offices were taken for granted by the authors of these constitutions. Sometimes these conventions,
634:
2306:, meaning that the power to govern the country and its people is shared and divided between national and state governments. The
2102:, meaning that the power to govern the country and its people is shared and divided between national and provincial governments.
4673:
4638:
3165:
3022:
2469:
2171:
Essentially identical to the Westminster system in function, but developed independently, though with inspiration from the UK.
4193:
4160:
4066:
3269:
3037:
1734:
833:
154:
2743:, meaning that the power to govern the country and its people is shared and divided between national and state governments.
4733:
4425:
How the Japanese became foreign to themselves : the impact of globalization on the private and public spheres in Japan
3066:
2851:
2656:, meaning that the power to govern the country and its people is shared and divided between national and state governments.
1906:, meaning that the power to govern the country and its people is shared and divided between national and state governments.
1321:
1271:
1141:
1070:
951:
In parliaments without political parties, ministers are either chosen by the prime minister or elected by members at large.
3032:
One significant deviation it has from the traditional Westminster model is that a person is nominated for the position of
2850:
One significant deviation it has from the traditional Westminster model is that a person is nominated for the position of
941:
Formed by the largest party/coalition in the lower house (legislature if unicameral), and led by the head of government.
644:
led by the head of government usually made up of members of the legislature with the senior members of the executive in a
3277:
2334:
1893:
516:
383:
4355:
Arian, Asher; Shamir, Michal (November 2008). "A Decade Later, the World Had Changed, the Cleavage Structure Remained".
4002:
4728:
4574:
4553:
4501:
4460:
4433:
3829:
3750:
3721:
3639:
3040:
but by a majority vote in Parliament, then they are appointed by the monarch, similar to neighboring Papua New Guinea.
2855:
1962:
1589:
1046:
Executive authority within a Westminster system is de jure exercised by the cabinet as a whole, along with more junior
809:
308:
2402:
Very similar to the Westminster system but developed independently, though with inspiration from the UK. Notably, the
2260:
4647:
4631:
4617:
4603:
4595:
4243:
3914:
3885:
3856:
3802:
3097:
2880:
2870:
2054:
1849:
1585:
1423:
1400:
1192:
This custom also occurs in other countries are regions around the world using the Westminster System, as a legacy of
649:
183:
92:
448:
in England and later the United Kingdom since the 13th century. The Westminster system is often contrasted with the
3693:
3156:
2930:
2914:
2732:
2498:
2131:
1639:
1612:
1325:
1301:
805:
472:
445:
199:
41:
1438:
and other major political parties not in the Government, will mirror the governmental organisation with their own
4723:
3176:
3092:
3027:
1863:
1844:
1581:
124:
4048:. Birch. The British System of Government. 10th Edition. Routledge. 1998. Taylor & Francis e-Library. 2006.
3329:
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2390:
2136:
2126:
2111:
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2966:
2699:
2203:
2021:
1730:
1707:
1074:
630:
626:
484:
3579:
1958:
1462:
3444:
3102:
2845:
2835:
2812:
2779:
2494:
2141:
1854:
727:
512:
345:
87:
4713:
3017:
2723:
2605:
2600:
2415:
2394:
2172:
1917:
1814:
Countries that use variations on the theme of the Westminster system, as of 2023, include the following:
1799:
1651:
695:
572:
159:
2368:
meaning roughly "captain" or "leader") and is appointed by the president on the nomination of the Dáil.
4738:
4152:
The constitution of a federal commonwealth : the making and meaning of the Australian constitution
3644:
3514:
3429:
3400:
3220:
2427:
2089:
2045:
1711:
1234:, where the respective prime ministers have the full legal power to implement executive decisions, and
664:
652:; such members execute executive authority on behalf of the nominal or theoretical executive authority.
555:
who functions as the nominal or legal and constitutional holder of executive power, and holds numerous
4256:
4044:
Alder and Syrett. Constitutional and Administrative Law. (Palgrave Law Masters). 11th Edition. 2017.
3606:
3273:
2905:
2728:
2658:
The Yang-di-Pertuan Agong shares characteristics of heads of state in both monarchies and republics.
1953:
1753:
1262:
1145:
1040:
757:
322:
303:
2256:
4743:
3673:
3561:
3265:
2460:
2407:
2315:
1925:
1913:
1577:
1496:
1467:
1422:
Members of the Cabinet are collectively seen as responsible for government policy, a policy termed
1407:
1276:
1227:
1096:
1043:
so that new general elections may be held in order to re-confirm or deny the government's mandate.
1039:, then the government must either resign so that a different government can be appointed or seek a
676:
672:
429:
317:
3958:
559:, but whose daily duties mainly consist of performing ceremonial functions. Examples include King
2990:
2919:
2900:
2765:
2755:
2521:
1967:
1948:
1884:
1540:
1305:
1231:
1186:
1092:
1055:
1028:
992:
The pattern of executive functions within a Westminster system is quite complex. In essence, the
813:
767:
746:
703:
468:
409:
376:
267:
3358:
from 1972 until 1978 when the constitution was remodelled into an Executive presidential system.
679:
is expected to be ready to form a government if the office of head of government becomes vacant.
3575:
3500:
3458:
2998:
2803:
2760:
2648:
2634:
2012:
1983:
1795:
1573:
1507:
Termless appointees, either lifetime or retiring, from successive prime ministers (such as the
1158:
1078:
789:
641:
425:
279:
60:
4244:
American and Australian Constitutions: Continuing Adventures in Comparative Constitutional Law
4045:
3902:
3819:
3254:
between 1961 and 1984. The 1983 constitution abolished the Westminster system in South Africa.
2144:, meaning ultimate authority for its government resides with the UK Parliament in Westminster
1667:
1288:("dignified"), while the PM and cabinet actually undertook executive decisions ("efficient").
1165:
in times of crisis. The sovereign's power to appoint and dismiss governments, appoint cabinet
1069:
In the United Kingdom, the sovereign theoretically holds executive authority, even though the
4491:
4450:
4423:
4049:
3873:
3846:
3738:
3678:
3611:
3486:
3321:
3239:
3200:
2985:
2910:
2865:
2694:
2591:
2560:
2251:
2105:
1909:
1898:
1879:
1738:
1643:
1349:
1193:
1166:
1047:
731:
723:
480:
441:
206:
37:
4062:
3792:
1360:
of the legislature and invites him or her to form a government. In the UK, this is known as
914:
Other titles include first minister, chief executive, president of the council of ministers.
4099:
3668:
3224:
3130:
3071:
3052:
2798:
2629:
2357:
2314:(upper house) is mostly elected by the members of state/union territory legislatures using
2198:
2080:
2007:
1769:
1380:
1376:
1152:
to take place, the prime minister is constitutionally bound to request permission from the
750:
645:
583:
405:
291:
179:
174:
904:
Usually the leader of the largest party in the lower house (legislature if unicameral).
8:
3688:
3634:
3624:
3396:
3195:
3087:
3002:
2675:
2586:
2570:
2555:
2456:
2329:
2286:
2265:
2246:
2166:
1839:
1788:
1773:
1726:
1700:
1688:
1604:
1435:
1388:
1317:
1235:
1220:
1116:
707:
691:
591:
587:
568:
524:
520:
449:
329:
1204:. In such nations, the prime minister is obligated to formally seek permission from the
948:
A Cabinet is formed from the most senior ministers, but may include some civil servants.
694:
from single-member districts, which is still more common, although some use a system of
4470:
4372:
3597:
3343:
3135:
3125:
3062:
2808:
2442:
2423:
2403:
2385:
2319:
2227:
2094:
2075:
2059:
2040:
2017:
1647:
1416:
1345:
1197:
1082:
1012:
817:
699:
668:
598:
488:
437:
369:
286:
211:
139:
112:
3610:
and the Westminster system. Influence from the Westminster system remained in Japan's
32:
4643:
4627:
4613:
4599:
4591:
4570:
4549:
4497:
4456:
4429:
4376:
4218:
4189:
4166:
4156:
4091:
3910:
3881:
3852:
3825:
3798:
3746:
3717:
3683:
3629:
3564:
the Parliament of Egypt was made to follow the exact model of the Westminster system.
3383:
2961:
2775:
2718:
2670:
2596:
2484:
2380:
2360:
is directly elected using instant-runoff voting. The prime minister has the title of
2348:
2281:
1889:
1766:
1715:
1672:
1522:
1499:(under various names), comprising local, elected representatives of the people (with
1427:
1313:
1258:
1257:
Such an executive arrangement first emerged in the United Kingdom. Historically, the
1182:
1063:
797:
719:
715:
504:
457:
187:
52:
3272:
assumed direct rule from London. Use of the Westminster system resumed in 1949 when
2344:
1794:
Other ceremonies sometimes associated with the Westminster system include an annual
4364:
4335:
4304:
3658:
3557:
2830:
2517:
2513:
2503:
2222:
2085:
1508:
1471:
1341:
1297:
1239:
1205:
1201:
1153:
1149:
777:, including an ability for the legislature to strike discussion from these minutes.
564:
421:
4639:
Westminster Legacies: Democracy and Responsible Government in Asia and the Pacific
1208:
when implementing executive decisions, in a manner similar to the British system.
4564:
4543:
3593:
3542:
3012:
2533:
2419:
2050:
1803:
1515:
1443:
1059:
895:
representative, such as a governor or governor-general) or ceremonial president.
875:
Elected lower house to represent the people and (normally) initiate legislation.
711:
543:
The Westminster system of government may include some of the following features:
359:
2783:
1528:
Election by electoral colleges or sub-national legislatures (such as the Indian
1477:
1161:; he or she abides by the advice of his or her ministers, except when executing
4587:
3848:
Settler self-government, 1840–1900 : the development of representative and
3325:
3161:
3146:
3077:
2525:
2509:
2365:
2121:
1988:
1722:
1536:
1454:
1439:
1412:
1309:
1281:
1251:
1016:
845:
829:
742:
614:
610:
602:
476:
149:
134:
129:
82:
4696:
4308:
3310:
between 1980 and 1987. The 1987 constitution abolished the Westminster system.
4707:
4517:
4452:
Partners for democracy : crafting the new Japanese state under MacArthur
4368:
4222:
4170:
4095:
3601:
2529:
2489:
1684:
1650:
until the transfer of sovereignty in 1997, when the role was replaced by the
1368:
1361:
1357:
1337:
1242:
approval is not required; the prime ministers of these nations are fully the
1162:
1051:
993:
841:
837:
781:
761:
687:
656:
556:
552:
453:
433:
67:
4340:
4323:
1367:
A president, monarch, or governor-general might possess clearly significant
1223:, where there is a president who functions similarly to a governor-general.
1000:
or president, is a ceremonial figurehead who is the theoretical, nominal or
851:
3251:
2643:
2639:
2455:
Modified Westminster system: Powers which would have been exercised by the
1696:
1680:
1627:
1547:
821:
683:
532:
1091:
executive, even though executive powers are essentially instituted by the
816:
British constitution, most countries that use the Westminster system have
3663:
3076:
One of five countries other than the UK to use a Westminster system with
2895:
2750:
2612:
One of five countries other than the UK to use a Westminster system with
2538:
One of five countries other than the UK to use a Westminster system with
2466:
2311:
2291:
2181:
One of five countries other than the UK to use a Westminster system with
1943:
1529:
1492:
1353:
738:
560:
548:
500:
413:
3767:"How the Westminster Parliamentary System was exported around the World"
3739:"A Globalizing Constitutionalism?, Views from the Postcolony, 1945–2000"
3183:), the Prime Minister did not have the ability to call early elections.
1741:
was consciously devised as a blend or hybrid of the Westminster and the
1725:
from the government of the day – a power similar to that held in the UK
3652:
History of the constitution of the United Kingdom § Worldwide influence
2885:
2820:
2740:
2653:
2613:
2339:
2303:
2182:
2099:
1978:
1921:
1903:
1784:
1565:
1032:
892:
785:
579:
253:
241:
119:
102:
4662:
How the Westminster parliamentary system was exported around the world
3268:
between 1907 and 1934, the year self-government was suspended and the
467:
The Westminster system is used, or was once used, in the national and
4271:"The Other Metropolis: The Australian Founders' Knowledge of America"
3472:
3355:
2980:
2689:
2361:
2307:
2295:
2176:
2161:
1874:
1623:
1485:
801:
796:
Most of the procedures of the Westminster system originated with the
40:, after which the Westminster system is named. It is the home of the
4681:
The Twilight of Westminster? Electoral Reform & its Consequences
4257:
A Comparison of the Constitutions of Australia and the United States
4211:"Analysis | Comparing Australian and American federal jurisprudence"
2114:
other than cabinet, and therefore have no leader of the opposition.
1721:
The Australian Senate is unusual in that it maintains an ability to
1597:
1185:, which in modern times is exercised by the sovereign solely on the
865:
Elected or appointed upper house to approve and/or scrutinise laws.
690:
systems also exist. Traditionally, the lower house is elected using
4069:, read with the definition of the Registration Acts in section 8(2)
3414:
3372:
following independence in 1948 until the 1962 military coup d'état.
3307:
3295:
3047:
2793:
2624:
2539:
2193:
2002:
1920:) with each state and territory treated as individual electorates.
1181:(among other powers de jure held by the sovereign) is known as the
1170:
1136:
1024:
788:. Another parallel system of legal principles also exists known as
575:
274:
262:
231:
4518:"Special Issue Constitutional Law in Japan and the United Kingdom"
2610:
Constitutional monarchy that operates under a Westminster system.
1783:. The speaker usually wears black robes, and in some countries, a
499:
between 1855 and 1890. It is the form of government bequeathed to
4188:(6 ed.). Leichhardt, NSW: Federation Press. pp. 77–88.
4186:
Blackshield and Williams Australian Constitutional Law and Theory
3190:
2581:
2550:
2447:
2241:
2156:
2151:
1616:
1514:
Appointees of the premier and the opposition leader (such as the
1500:
1481:
1266:
1020:
1003:
997:
774:
606:
528:
417:
144:
77:
3874:"5: Customary Law, Unwritten Law, and General Principles of Law"
2310:(lower house) is popularly elected via first past the post. The
878:
House of Commons, House of Representatives, Legislative Assembly
590:, whose presidents are de jure and de facto ceremonial, and the
3528:
3281:
3120:
2437:
2070:
2035:
1710:
is, in many respects, a unique hybrid with influences from the
1285:
1178:
1100:
1036:
622:
621:
of that party typically is appointed. An exception to this was
618:
508:
461:
523:. However, some former colonies have since adopted either the
4324:"A new political system model: Semi-parliamentary government"
3851:(1. publ. ed.). New York: Greenwood Press. p. xxi.
2956:
2713:
2665:
2479:
2375:
2276:
1635:
1216:
780:
The ability of courts to address silence or ambiguity in the
236:
3907:
Hong Kong's Legislature under China's Sovereignty: 1998–2013
1291:
911:
Premier/chief minister in provinces, states, or territories.
4689:
Westminster in the Caribbean: History, Legacies, Challenges
3604:
was a bicameral legislature modelled after both the German
2465:
The Prime Minister was directly elected from 1996 to 2001.
2217:
625:, in which direct prime-ministerial elections were made in
1802:
ceremonies that often involve the presentation of a large
1246:
source of executive authority, and not the head of state.
741:
of parliament with an ability to dismiss a government by "
1174:
852:
Summary of the typical structure of the Westminster model
4295:
Thompson, Elaine (1980). "The 'Washminster' mutation".
4184:
Williams, George; Brennan, Sean; Lynch, Andrew (2014).
2542:, along with Denmark, Lesotho, Malaysia, and Thailand.
1928:
while all other states have bicameral parliaments. The
1449:
4542:
Rhodes, R. A.W.; Wanna, John; Weller, Patrick (2009).
4125:"Chapter 2: The development of the Westminster system"
4090:(1). Canberra: Dept. of the Parliamentary Library: 1.
2520:
in an unmodified system are exercised directly by the
1832:
Notes/Differences from the standard Westminster model
1134:
As an example, the prime minister and cabinet (as the
4493:
Contested governance in Japan : sites and issues
2616:, along with Denmark, Japan, Malaysia, and Thailand.
2185:, along with Japan, Lesotho, Malaysia, and Thailand.
1752:
The Australian system has also been referred to as a
1603:
The parliaments of all other Canadian provinces, the
1261:
held and directly exercised all executive authority.
4183:
3931:"The Westminster System – Public Service Commission"
3824:. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 571.
3080:, along with Denmark, Japan, Lesotho, and Malaysia.
2426:, as well as previous Presidents of Italy, serve as
1546:
Any combination of the above (such as the Malaysian
1779:At one end of the room sits a large chair, for the
1580:, and the parliaments of the Canadian provinces of
1027:against the government. If the parliament passes a
424:made up of members of the legislature, and that is
4642:, Haig Patapan, John Wanna, Patrick Weller, 2005.
3818:Johnston, Douglas M.; Reisman, W. Michael (2008).
2463:, the Cabinet, and the speaker of the legislature.
1058:(by constitutional convention) on the exercise of
4566:Constitutional Conventions in Westminster Systems
4541:
2318:with a handful of members being appointed by the
1662:
1371:. Examples of the use of such powers include the
4705:
3844:
3417:(then known as Swaziland) between 1968 and 1973.
4562:
4025:
4023:
3817:
2774:to elect members to its unicameral Parliament.
4563:Galligan, Brian; Brenton, Scott, eds. (2015).
3797:. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 3.
3791:Seidle, F. Leslie; Docherty, David C. (2003).
3790:
3743:Constitutionalism and political reconstruction
3181:Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022
1701:Farewell Parliament House - Sunday May 8, 1988
4155:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
3845:Fieldhouse, David; Madden, Frederick (1990).
1077:effectively implement executive powers. In a
981:Defensive organisation of the state/country.
377:
4475:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4020:
3420:
3399:during its brief independence in 1960, with
1331:
862:Bicameral (unicameral in some circumstances)
808:, which form a part of what is known as the
4449:Moore, Ray A.; Robinson, Donald L. (2004).
4354:
4034:(1st ed.). London: Chapman & Hall.
2110:Two of its territorial parliaments operate
1555:
1126:
1120:
1110:
1104:
1086:
1001:
908:Prime minister in a sovereign state/country
868:Senate, Legislative Council, House of Lords
820:the system, at least in part, in a written
686:, with at least one elected house—although
571:, or the presidents of many countries, and
3977:"Reinvigorating The Westminster Tradition"
3786:
3784:
3769:. University of Cambridge. 2 December 2013
3386:between 1957 and 1960, then 1969 and 1972.
921:Presiding officers of legislative chambers
384:
370:
4339:
4208:
3821:The Historical Foundations of World Order
3736:
2472:is used to elect members to the Knesset.
1564:Some Westminster-derived parliaments are
1535:Hereditary nobility (such as the British
1292:Electoral system, ministers and officials
601:(or head of the executive), known as the
408:government that incorporates a series of
4294:
2772:mixed-member proportional representation
1666:
1476:
1461:
1453:
1373:Australian constitutional crisis of 1975
1274:hands. Such a concept was reinforced in
1213:republics in the Commonwealth of Nations
844:and replaced him with opposition leader
834:Australian constitutional crisis of 1975
31:
4624:Prime Minister & Cabinet Government
4496:. London: RoutledgeCurzon. p. 55.
4455:. Oxford University Press. p. 85.
4321:
4315:
4078:
4029:
3865:
3781:
2512:which would have been exercised by the
594:possesses no reserve powers whatsoever.
511:adopted a largely Westminster-inspired
420:. Key aspects of the system include an
14:
4706:
4674:Commonwealth Parliamentary Association
4328:European Journal of Political Research
4148:
4081:"Who is the Australian Head of State?"
3953:
3951:
3871:
3712:"Varieties of public representation".
2508:Modified Westminster system: many non-
2470:party-list proportional representation
1316:and government departments are run by
531:for example) or a hybrid system (like
4448:
4268:
4067:Representation of the People Act 1884
3403:as its first and only Prime Minister.
1747:parliaments of most Australian states
1735:1975 Australian constitutional crisis
1394:
1211:An analogous scenario also exists in
1103:, however, executive power is vested
836:, the Governor-General of Australia,
155:President of the Council of Ministers
4612:, Simon James, Pub Routledge, 1999.
4489:
4421:
4061:See, for example, the definition in
3969:
3716:. Cambridge University Press. 2010.
1809:
1450:Bicameral and unicameral parliaments
1304:. Common ministerial titles include
1169:to serve in the government, appoint
891:Monarch (sometimes represented by a
773:Minutes of meetings, often known as
428:to the legislature; the presence of
4246:, 30 J. Marshall L. Rev. 627 (1997)
3948:
3894:
3213:
1743:United States systems of government
1340:or their representative (such as a
491:), beginning with the first of the
460:system, based on the government of
24:
4719:Constitution of the United Kingdom
3900:
2108:for some parliamentary privileges.
1827:
1600:have abolished their upper houses.
1554:In the UK, the lower house is the
1495:with powers based on those of the
1031:, or refuses to pass an important
810:Constitution of the United Kingdom
745:" (rejecting a budget), passing a
538:
27:Parliamentary system of government
25:
4755:
4670:Module on Parliamentary Democracy
4654:
4209:Aroney, Nicholas; Kincaid, John.
3909:. Hotei Publishing. p. 215.
3794:Reforming parliamentary democracy
3596:between 1890 and 1940; under the
3560:between 1923 and 1953; after the
3023:Parliament of the Solomon Islands
2528:do not exist. Both houses of the
1424:cabinet collective responsibility
1401:Cabinet collective responsibility
650:cabinet collective responsibility
444:, which has been the seat of the
184:Cabinet collective responsibility
93:President of the council of state
3880:. Kluwer Law International B.V.
3741:. In Arjomand, Saïd Amir (ed.).
3694:Representation of the People Act
3586:
3568:
3550:
3535:
3521:
3507:
3493:
3479:
3465:
3451:
3437:
3422:
3407:
3390:
3376:
3362:
3348:
3336:
3314:
3300:
3288:
3258:
3244:
3232:
3189:
3145:
3119:
3086:
3046:
3011:
2979:
2955:
2936:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
2929:
2894:
2864:
2829:
2792:
2749:
2712:
2688:
2664:
2623:
2580:
2549:
2478:
2436:
2374:
2328:
2275:
2240:
2216:
2192:
2150:
2120:
2069:
2034:
2001:
1977:
1942:
1873:
1838:
1727:until 1911 by the House of Lords
1613:Legislative Council of Hong Kong
1302:Representation of the People Act
806:Parliament of the United Kingdom
743:withholding (or blocking) supply
18:Westminster parliamentary system
4697:What is the Westminster System?
4535:
4510:
4483:
4442:
4415:
4383:
4348:
4288:
4262:
4249:
4236:
4202:
4177:
4142:
4117:
4079:Ireland, Ian (28 August 1995).
4072:
4055:
4038:
3995:
3878:Constitutional Law in Hong Kong
3580:the end of the monarchy in 1973
3242:between 1910 and 1961, and the
3177:Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011
2422:. Five people appointed by the
1739:Australian system of government
1470:(Parliament House) building in
535:) as their form of government.
4569:. Cambridge University Press.
4269:Evans, Harry (December 2009).
3923:
3838:
3811:
3759:
3730:
3705:
1936:have unicameral legislatures.
13:
1:
4700:Parliament of Victoria video.
4259:, 4 Buff. L. Rev. 155 (1955).
3699:
1908:Lower house is elected using
1759:
1708:Australian constitutional law
1632:special administrative region
1521:Direct election (such as the
1312:. Ministers are supported by
655:An independent, non-partisan
648:adhering to the principle of
351:Heads of state and government
4490:Hook, Glenn D., ed. (2005).
4391:"CONSTITUTION OF NEPAL 2015"
4003:"The Role of the Opposition"
3328:. The system ended with the
1930:Australian Capital Territory
1912:. Upper house is elected by
1458:Canadian Parliament at night
987:
521:British Mandate of Palestine
440:. The term derives from the
7:
4734:Constitution of New Zealand
4548:. Oxford University Press.
4428:. Berlin: Lit. p. 72.
4275:Papers on Parliament No. 52
3618:
3346:between 1948 and 1972, and
3298:between 1965 and 1979, and
2782:for election by Indigenous
2173:Proportional representation
1918:proportional representation
1800:State Opening of Parliament
1609:Papua New Guinea Parliament
1344:) formally appoints as the
929:Speaker of the lower house
924:Speaker of the upper house
840:, dismissed Prime Minister
784:through the development of
696:proportional representation
483:(with the exception of the
160:President of the government
10:
4760:
4692:University College London.
4626:, Neil MacNaughton, 1999.
4610:British Cabinet Government
3645:History of parliamentarism
3401:Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal
2142:British Overseas Territory
1712:United States Constitution
1636:People's Republic of China
1398:
432:parties; and a ceremonial
4729:Constitution of Australia
4309:10.1080/00323268008401755
4149:Aroney, Nicholas (2009).
3745:. Brill. pp. 92–94.
2567:House of Representatives
1831:
1825:
1822:
1819:
1754:semi-parliamentary system
1332:Role of the head of state
1263:George I of Great Britain
1131:a ceremonial figurehead.
1041:parliamentary dissolution
933:
920:
884:
861:
858:
756:A parliament that can be
582:. Exceptions to this are
436:who is separate from the
4665:University of Cambridge.
4584:The English Constitution
4369:10.1177/1354068808093406
4032:The English Constitution
4030:Bagehot, Walter (1876).
3714:Political Representation
3674:Parliament in the Making
3640:His Majesty's Government
3562:1919 Egyptian Revolution
3270:Commission of Government
3266:Dominion of Newfoundland
3252:Republic of South Africa
3107:House of Representatives
3067:House of Representatives
2733:House of Representatives
2499:House of Representatives
2459:are divided between the
2316:single transferable vote
2261:House of Representatives
1914:single transferable vote
1894:House of Representatives
1859:House of Representatives
1578:Parliament of Queensland
1408:The English Constitution
1277:The English Constitution
1236:presidential (in Israel)
1226:An unusual case lies in
677:leader of the opposition
673:leader of the opposition
665:parliamentary opposition
430:parliamentary opposition
4341:10.1111/1475-6765.12224
4322:Ganghof, S (May 2018).
4129:Parliament of Australia
3001:is directly elected by
1619:never had upper houses.
1541:House of Lords Act 1999
1306:parliamentary secretary
1189:of the Prime Minister.
1115:in the cabinet and the
1066:for "underperforming".
1029:motion of no confidence
768:Parliamentary privilege
747:motion of no confidence
452:that originated in the
4724:Constitution of Canada
4422:Hein, Patrick (2009).
3872:Cooray, Anton (2019).
3576:Kingdom of Afghanistan
3531:between 1966 and 1980.
3517:between 1965 and 1970.
3503:between 1964 and 1966.
3489:between 1963 and 1964.
3475:between 1945 and 1966.
3461:between 1962 and 1963.
3447:between 1961 and 1971.
3433:between 1961 and 1962.
2412:Senate of the Republic
2391:Senate of the Republic
1796:Speech from the Throne
1787:. Robed parliamentary
1705:
1675:
1574:New Zealand Parliament
1556:
1488:
1474:
1459:
1300:is often set out in a
1159:constitutional monarch
1142:British prime minister
1127:
1121:
1111:
1105:
1087:
1079:parliamentary republic
1002:
517:declaring independence
446:Westminster Parliament
45:
4684:, Pippa Norris, 2000.
4545:Comparing Westminster
3679:Parliament of England
3330:military coup of 1966
3240:Union of South Africa
2871:Saint Kitts and Nevis
2778:in NZ Parliament are
2516:on the advice of the
2175:is used to elect the
2106:official party status
1910:instant-runoff voting
1677:
1670:
1480:
1465:
1457:
1348:whoever commands the
1322:principal secretaries
1318:permanent secretaries
1194:British colonial rule
1015:, usually called the
682:A legislature, often
471:legislatures of most
442:Palace of Westminster
416:, first developed in
38:Palace of Westminster
35:
3959:"OBA.org – Articles"
3669:Parliamentary system
3612:Postwar Constitution
2967:Legislative Assembly
2495:House of Councillors
2408:perfect bicameralism
2112:without any caucuses
1781:Speaker of the House
1774:majority governments
1663:"Washminster system"
1594:Prince Edward Island
1381:Lascelles Principles
1097:Council of Ministers
513:system of government
495:in 1848 and the six
346:National governments
180:Government formation
61:Executive government
4403:on 23 December 2015
3689:Presidential system
3635:Glorious Revolution
3625:Bill of Rights 1689
3397:State of Somaliland
3093:Trinidad and Tobago
3003:first-past-the-post
2649:Monarchy (elective)
2457:President of Israel
2416:Chamber of Deputies
2395:Chamber of Deputies
1845:Antigua and Barbuda
1689:Lake Burley Griffin
1640:Legislative Council
1638:, has a unicameral
1626:, a former British
1605:Parliament of Malta
1436:Official Opposition
1389:Commonwealth realms
1314:private secretaries
1240:imperial (in Japan)
1221:Trinidad and Tobago
1198:Commonwealth realms
1146:dissolve Parliament
764:called at any time.
724:preferential voting
692:first-past-the-post
671:) with an official
573:state or provincial
569:Commonwealth realms
525:presidential system
497:Australian colonies
450:presidential system
53:the Politics series
4714:Westminster system
4522:King's Law Journal
4242:James A. Thomson,
4105:on 17 January 2011
3935:www.psc.nsw.gov.au
3737:Julian Go (2007).
3598:Meiji Constitution
2532:are elected using
2424:President of Italy
2404:Italian Parliament
2386:Italian Parliament
2320:President of India
1934:Northern Territory
1679:The waters of the
1676:
1648:head of government
1617:Israeli Parliament
1501:the only exception
1489:
1475:
1460:
1417:Cabinet Government
1395:Cabinet government
1346:head of government
1013:head of government
900:Head of government
669:multi-party system
599:head of government
493:Canadian provinces
438:head of government
398:Westminster system
304:Semi-parliamentary
140:Minister-president
113:Head of government
46:
4739:Political systems
4195:978-1-86287-918-8
4162:978-1-139-12968-8
3684:Petition of Right
3630:English Civil War
3578:between 1964 and
3211:
3210:
3058:National Assembly
2941:House of Assembly
2915:House of Assembly
2876:National Assembly
2813:National Assembly
2729:National Assembly
2700:National Assembly
2601:National Assembly
2428:senators for life
2204:House of Assembly
2104:Caucuses require
2055:House of Assembly
2046:National Assembly
2022:House of Assembly
1963:House of Assembly
1924:has a unicameral
1810:Current countries
1673:Australian Senate
1568:for two reasons:
1523:Australian Senate
1428:Cabinet reshuffle
1375:and the Canadian
1326:chief secretaries
1259:British sovereign
1183:royal prerogative
1064:cabinet reshuffle
1025:absolute majority
985:
984:
800:, practices, and
751:confidence motion
749:, or defeating a
565:governors-general
505:British Hong Kong
458:semi-presidential
402:Westminster model
394:
393:
318:Semi-presidential
16:(Redirected from
4751:
4580:
4559:
4530:
4529:
4514:
4508:
4507:
4487:
4481:
4480:
4474:
4466:
4446:
4440:
4439:
4419:
4413:
4412:
4410:
4408:
4402:
4396:. Archived from
4395:
4387:
4381:
4380:
4352:
4346:
4345:
4343:
4319:
4313:
4312:
4292:
4286:
4285:
4283:
4281:
4266:
4260:
4253:
4247:
4240:
4234:
4233:
4231:
4229:
4206:
4200:
4199:
4181:
4175:
4174:
4146:
4140:
4139:
4137:
4135:
4121:
4115:
4114:
4112:
4110:
4104:
4098:. Archived from
4085:
4076:
4070:
4059:
4053:
4042:
4036:
4035:
4027:
4018:
4017:
4015:
4013:
4007:academic.oup.com
3999:
3993:
3992:
3990:
3988:
3983:on 27 March 2013
3979:. Archived from
3973:
3967:
3966:
3955:
3946:
3945:
3943:
3941:
3927:
3921:
3920:
3898:
3892:
3891:
3869:
3863:
3862:
3842:
3836:
3835:
3815:
3809:
3808:
3788:
3779:
3778:
3776:
3774:
3763:
3757:
3756:
3734:
3728:
3727:
3709:
3659:Loyal opposition
3592:
3590:
3589:
3574:
3572:
3571:
3558:Kingdom of Egypt
3556:
3554:
3553:
3541:
3539:
3538:
3527:
3525:
3524:
3513:
3511:
3510:
3499:
3497:
3496:
3485:
3483:
3482:
3471:
3469:
3468:
3457:
3455:
3454:
3443:
3441:
3440:
3432:
3428:
3426:
3425:
3413:
3411:
3410:
3395:
3394:
3393:
3382:
3380:
3379:
3368:
3366:
3365:
3354:
3352:
3351:
3342:
3340:
3339:
3320:
3318:
3317:
3306:
3304:
3303:
3294:
3292:
3291:
3264:
3262:
3261:
3250:
3248:
3247:
3238:
3236:
3235:
3214:Former countries
3194:
3193:
3166:House of Commons
3150:
3149:
3124:
3123:
3091:
3090:
3078:a native monarch
3051:
3050:
3034:Governor-General
3016:
3015:
2984:
2983:
2960:
2959:
2934:
2933:
2899:
2898:
2886:Federated nation
2869:
2868:
2852:Governor-General
2836:Papua New Guinea
2834:
2833:
2821:Federated nation
2797:
2796:
2754:
2753:
2741:Federated nation
2717:
2716:
2693:
2692:
2669:
2668:
2654:Federated nation
2628:
2627:
2614:a native monarch
2585:
2584:
2554:
2553:
2540:a native monarch
2514:Emperor of Japan
2483:
2482:
2441:
2440:
2379:
2378:
2333:
2332:
2304:Federated nation
2280:
2279:
2245:
2244:
2221:
2220:
2197:
2196:
2183:a native monarch
2155:
2154:
2125:
2124:
2100:Federated nation
2090:House of Commons
2074:
2073:
2039:
2038:
2006:
2005:
1982:
1981:
1947:
1946:
1926:state parliament
1904:Federated nation
1878:
1877:
1843:
1842:
1829:
1817:
1816:
1731:governor-general
1703:
1630:and currently a
1559:
1509:Senate of Canada
1497:House of Commons
1482:Knesset Building
1472:New Delhi, India
1444:Shadow Ministers
1377:King–Byng affair
1342:governor-general
1298:electoral system
1272:Prime Minister's
1206:governor-general
1202:governor-general
1150:general election
1130:
1124:
1114:
1108:
1090:
1081:like India, the
1007:
856:
855:
728:Papua New Guinea
642:executive branch
422:executive branch
412:for operating a
386:
379:
372:
326:
314:
300:
283:
271:
48:
47:
21:
4759:
4758:
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4752:
4750:
4749:
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4744:Western culture
4704:
4703:
4657:
4577:
4556:
4538:
4533:
4516:
4515:
4511:
4504:
4488:
4484:
4468:
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4463:
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4436:
4420:
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4406:
4404:
4400:
4393:
4389:
4388:
4384:
4353:
4349:
4320:
4316:
4293:
4289:
4279:
4277:
4267:
4263:
4254:
4250:
4241:
4237:
4227:
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4215:Washington Post
4207:
4203:
4196:
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4178:
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4073:
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4000:
3996:
3986:
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3970:
3957:
3956:
3949:
3939:
3937:
3929:
3928:
3924:
3917:
3903:"8: Conclusion"
3901:Yu, Gu (2015).
3899:
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3010:
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2893:
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2791:
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2657:
2642:
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2599:
2595:
2579:
2566:
2564:
2548:
2534:parallel voting
2524:, and Imperial
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2464:
2435:
2420:parallel voting
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2373:
2347:
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2088:
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2068:
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2033:
2020:
2016:
2000:
1976:
1961:
1957:
1941:
1907:
1892:
1888:
1872:
1857:
1853:
1837:
1812:
1804:ceremonial mace
1762:
1723:withhold supply
1704:
1695:
1687:both flow into
1665:
1652:Chief Executive
1516:Jamaican Senate
1452:
1403:
1397:
1334:
1310:under-secretary
1294:
1148:in order for a
1060:executive power
990:
854:
712:parallel voting
580:federal systems
541:
539:Characteristics
481:self-government
479:, upon gaining
473:former colonies
404:, is a type of
390:
360:Politics portal
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294:
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125:Chief executive
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4655:External links
4653:
4652:
4651:
4635:
4621:
4607:
4588:Walter Bagehot
4581:
4576:978-1107100244
4575:
4560:
4555:978-0191609817
4554:
4537:
4534:
4532:
4531:
4509:
4503:978-0415364980
4502:
4482:
4462:978-0195171761
4461:
4441:
4435:978-3643100856
4434:
4414:
4382:
4363:(6): 685–705.
4357:Party Politics
4347:
4334:(2): 261–281.
4314:
4287:
4261:
4255:Zelman Cowan,
4248:
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3831:978-9047423935
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3752:978-9004151741
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3723:978-0521128650
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3326:Nnamdi Azikiwe
3311:
3285:
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3209:
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3185:
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3175:Between 2011 (
3173:
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3152:United Kingdom
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2526:reserve powers
2522:Prime Minister
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1989:Jatiya Sangsad
1986:
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1440:Shadow Cabinet
1413:Walter Bagehot
1399:Main article:
1396:
1393:
1369:reserve powers
1333:
1330:
1293:
1290:
1282:Walter Bagehot
1252:reserve powers
1177:, and to sign
1163:reserve powers
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1017:prime minister
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762:snap elections
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615:first minister
611:chief minister
603:prime minister
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557:reserve powers
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456:, or with the
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4088:Research Note
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887:
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4536:Bibliography
4525:
4521:
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4492:
4485:
4451:
4444:
4424:
4417:
4405:. Retrieved
4398:the original
4385:
4360:
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4350:
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4327:
4317:
4303:(2): 32–40.
4300:
4296:
4290:
4278:. Retrieved
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4264:
4251:
4238:
4226:. Retrieved
4214:
4204:
4185:
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4151:
4144:
4132:. Retrieved
4128:
4119:
4107:. Retrieved
4100:the original
4087:
4074:
4063:section 8(1)
4057:
4040:
4031:
4010:. Retrieved
4006:
3997:
3985:. Retrieved
3981:the original
3971:
3962:
3938:. Retrieved
3934:
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3793:
3771:. Retrieved
3761:
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3605:
3546:adjustments.
3445:Sierra Leone
3274:Newfoundland
3221:South Africa
3217:
3179:) and 2022 (
2644:Dewan Rakyat
2640:Dewan Negara
2611:
2537:
2349:Dáil Éireann
2180:
1823:Legislature
1813:
1793:
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1751:
1720:
1706:
1697:James Killen
1678:
1628:crown colony
1622:
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1404:
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296:
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4407:18 February
3987:28 February
3963:www.oba.org
3773:16 December
3664:Magna Carta
3036:not by the
2901:Saint Lucia
2854:not by the
2756:New Zealand
2467:Closed list
2410:, with the
2312:Rajya Sabha
2292:Rajya Sabha
1949:The Bahamas
1916:(a form of
1683:and of the
1590:Nova Scotia
1530:Rajya Sabha
1493:lower house
1442:made up of
885:Leadership
798:conventions
739:lower house
704:New Zealand
561:Charles III
501:New Zealand
469:subnational
426:responsible
414:legislature
310:simul simul
297:Westminster
287:Directorial
4708:Categories
4528:(2). 2015.
4280:4 November
4228:4 November
4109:22 January
4012:18 October
3700:References
3515:The Gambia
3430:Tanganyika
3201:Parliament
3157:Parliament
3131:Parliament
3098:Parliament
2991:Parliament
2906:Parliament
2841:Parliament
2804:Parliament
2761:Parliament
2724:Parliament
2676:Parliament
2635:Parliament
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2561:Parliament
2340:Oireachtas
2287:Parliament
2252:Parliament
2228:Parliament
2132:Parliament
2081:Parliament
2013:Parliament
1984:Bangladesh
1954:Parliament
1922:Queensland
1885:Parliament
1850:Parliament
1826:System of
1760:Ceremonies
1566:unicameral
1539:until the
1358:sole house
1350:confidence
1280:(1876) by
1215:, such as
1173:, declare
1144:wished to
1054:will take
961:Opposition
937:Government
893:vice-regal
814:uncodified
802:precedents
786:common law
688:unicameral
410:procedures
242:Presidency
120:Chancellor
103:Government
4471:cite book
4377:144231226
4223:0190-8286
4171:774393122
4134:22 August
4096:1323-5664
3940:22 August
3607:Reichstag
3473:Indonesia
3356:Sri Lanka
3276:became a
3205:Republic
3111:Republic
2999:President
2995:Republic
2986:Singapore
2971:Republic
2817:Republic
2737:Republic
2704:Republic
2695:Mauritius
2680:Republic
2452:Republic
2399:Republic
2362:Taoiseach
2358:President
2353:Republic
2308:Lok Sabha
2300:Republic
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2232:Republic
2208:Republic
2177:Folketing
2162:Folketing
2026:Republic
1993:Republic
1880:Australia
1656:President
1624:Hong Kong
1486:Jerusalem
1171:diplomats
1167:ministers
1154:sovereign
1117:president
1083:president
1048:ministers
988:Operation
758:dissolved
732:Australia
684:bicameral
576:governors
549:sovereign
519:from the
212:Secretary
188:Secretary
88:President
4590:, 1876.
4297:Politics
3619:See also
3415:Eswatini
3308:Zimbabwe
3296:Rhodesia
3278:province
3225:Botswana
3171:Monarchy
3136:Monarchy
3072:Monarchy
3053:Thailand
3028:Monarchy
3005:voting.
2946:Monarchy
2920:Monarchy
2881:Monarchy
2846:Monarchy
2799:Pakistan
2786:voters.
2780:reserved
2766:Monarchy
2630:Malaysia
2606:Monarchy
2571:Monarchy
2504:Monarchy
2406:employs
2364:(in the
2266:Monarchy
2199:Dominica
2167:Monarchy
2137:Monarchy
2095:Monarchy
2060:Monarchy
2008:Barbados
1968:Monarchy
1932:and the
1899:Monarchy
1864:Monarchy
1820:Country
1694:—
1644:Governor
1615:and the
1582:Manitoba
1557:de facto
1387:In many
1179:treaties
1137:de facto
1128:de facto
1112:de facto
1095:and the
1073:and the
934:General
818:codified
275:Republic
263:Monarchy
232:Governor
207:Minister
200:Ministry
51:Part of
4065:of the
3322:Nigeria
3196:Vanuatu
2587:Lesotho
2556:Jamaica
2518:Cabinet
2448:Knesset
2335:Ireland
2247:Grenada
2157:Denmark
1685:Potomac
1634:of the
1352:of the
1267:Hanover
1244:de jure
1122:de jure
1106:de jure
1088:de jure
1085:is the
1075:cabinet
1021:premier
1004:de jure
998:monarch
804:of the
775:Hansard
708:Denmark
660:change.
646:cabinet
607:premier
584:Ireland
567:in the
529:Nigeria
475:of the
418:England
254:Systems
175:Cabinet
145:Premier
78:Monarch
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3282:Canada
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3126:Tuvalu
3103:Senate
3063:Senate
2911:Senate
2809:Senate
2597:Senate
2565:Senate
2443:Israel
2257:Senate
2086:Senate
2076:Canada
2051:Senate
2041:Belize
2018:Senate
1959:Senate
1890:Senate
1855:Senate
1789:clerks
1767:church
1716:Senate
1681:Thames
1611:, the
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1596:, and
1548:Senate
1286:nation
1228:Israel
1187:advice
1101:Israel
1056:advice
1037:budget
790:equity
726:(e.g.
722:), or
714:(e.g.
700:Israel
698:(e.g.
667:(in a
623:Israel
619:leader
605:(PM),
592:latter
588:Israel
563:, the
509:Israel
489:Cyprus
462:France
4401:(PDF)
4394:(PDF)
4373:S2CID
4103:(PDF)
4084:(PDF)
4046:p 294
3487:Kenya
3384:Ghana
3370:Burma
2962:Samoa
2784:Māori
2770:Uses
2719:Nepal
2671:Malta
2485:Japan
2381:Italy
2282:India
1828:govt.
1770:choir
1354:lower
1232:Japan
1217:India
1196:. In
1099:. In
859:Type
720:Italy
716:Japan
515:upon
400:, or
338:Lists
237:Mayor
226:Other
4644:ISBN
4628:ISBN
4614:ISBN
4600:ISBN
4592:ISBN
4571:ISBN
4550:ISBN
4498:ISBN
4477:link
4457:ISBN
4430:ISBN
4409:2016
4282:2020
4230:2020
4219:ISSN
4190:ISBN
4167:OCLC
4157:ISBN
4136:2017
4111:2011
4092:ISSN
4050:p 17
4014:2023
3989:2013
3942:2017
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