1469:) to call "all ordinary people composing the masses. The reason justifying the choice of this noun, pejorative in a sense, is that an overwhelming majority of ʻordinary peopleʼ are unable to tell the difference between neutral, objective information (news) and propaganda intended to influence. As seen from the viewpoint of specialists, the whole population behaves as millions of 'sleepwalkers' ready to believe anything the media, authors, and agents of influence tell and write, indifferently. The reason explaining the naïveté is that people tend to believe at its face value everything is formally published and broadcast, by wrongly attributing some official and unanimously approved virtue to media such as print and audiovisual periodical publications, books, and similar. Then the greater the number of people truly or apparently involved in the publishing / broadcasting of a fact or fallacy is, the truer it seems to be in the understanding of the masses. Additionally, the greater the known number of people who watched, listened, or read the fact or fallacy is, the greater the probability is that ʻit is true indeed,ʼ still in the understanding of the masses. ... Moreover, in France, specialists in influence and counter-influence are tasked to prevent the masses of people / 'sleepwalkers' from "waking up" and understanding that they actually are thus fooled permanently, and by which methods and tricks they are so, since their own country fabricates and spreads fallacies for them either. In other words, about the latter explanation, teaching the masses on methods and techniques in foreign influence would be effective and salutary, doubtless, but at the same time it would reveal to them the influence and propaganda that their own government tailors and spreads for them. ... In the DGSE, a rule alluding colloquially to this particular definition of sleepwalker says,
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its legitimacy." In situations where the government is not being a good steward in protecting these values, the use of tools like literature, film, music can be used as a reminder of these values, as well as a forum to protest and question the government's legitimacy. Additionally, art and culture allow people to connect on an emotional level that could soften negative perceptions one may be believed to have. Once the stigma has been removed, the target may be more receptive to other messages conveyed. This individual or group would no longer be seen as being completely different from them. Another example of how culture can be subversive is seen in Iran. Western culture, media, art, etc. is popular among the country's youth, but certain elements are banned or curtailed. As the exportation of
Western culture continues, conflict between the state and its citizens is created. The government is then seen as unresponsive or out of touch with its people.
1570:, and it used as a subversive tool because it "implies the undermining of existing rules of political or moral conduct." It can also be one of the less reliable tools as well. Bribed officials are only useful if they take action. However, actions taken over a period of time draw suspicion from the public. The official must be able to carefully conceal their actions or perform only key functions and action. For these reasons, bribed officials are most effective when they are asked to take immediate action. In the case of external subversion, bribery is usually used for influence rather than for actions.
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that takes a longer period of time to implement and its effects are revealed over time, as opposed to those of a terrorist attack or civil unrest. Therefore, one could classify this tool as an element of strategic subversion. The targets of cultural subversive activities are traditionally film, literature, popular music, educational institutions, mass media, religious organizations, charitable organizations, and other forms of art. The intended results of these activities are to persuade or co-opt publics, discredit the ideas of enemies and splitting factions within the enemy's camp.
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other forms or persuasion in addition to cowering the people or leaders. Additionally, much like civil unrest and agitation, it raises the question of whether or not the state can provide security for the population. Terror also provides a practical motivation of physically removing political opponents. The assassination of an organization's leader may open the door to a successor that is more friendly to the subversives position or possibly someone that has successfully infiltrated the organization and is in fact one of the subversives.
1445:), otherwise used in the other field of epistemology in Soviet Union. In France, the latter Russian word was given definitively the translation 'sensibilisation' (without equivalent in English) circa March 1968, as this word, sounding similar, already existed with other meanings in this country. The latter facts explain why sensibilisation / 'awareness raising' is the same in its principle as the other method of 'minority influence' in agitprop." "An action of
1063:. Subversion can be described as an attack on the public morale and, "the will to resist intervention are the products of combined political and social or class loyalties which are usually attached to national symbols. Following penetration, and parallel with the forced disintegration of political and social institutions of the state, these tendencies may be detached and transferred to the political or ideological cause of the aggressor".
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provides the opportunity to plant false information, lead the government to misallocate resources, to steal funds, weapons, equipment, and other resources, and ultimately aid in weakening and delegitimizing the government. The targets of infiltration are not limited to the groups and institutions mentioned above. Economic industries and universities have also been the target for infiltration. In the case of universities, the
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of the major industrial and business companies and groups in this country, since a period he locates between 1980 and 1982. For all the latter would be logically called to partake in a common and coherent effort in intelligence, counterintelligence, influence, and counterinfluence on the French soil as abroad. Actually, the French intelligence community, and the DGSE in particular, always use the nouns "interference" (
1489:. Thus, Morin implied that, as taken collectively, ordinary people who constitute the masses are too stupid to make the difference between the truth, influence, propaganda, and disinformation. For the record, the exact and complete English translation of Morin's quote above is, "All men do walk in sleep, and all have faith in that they dream: for all things are as they seem to all, and all things flow like a stream."
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1097:, or working through traditional means in a political system to bring about change. Furthermore, external subversion is where, "the aggressor state attempts to recruit and assist indigenous political and military actors to overthrow their government by coup d’état". If subversion fails in its goal of bringing about a coup it is possible that the actors and actions of the subversive group could transition to
1360:, or "information warfare". Then information warfare subsumes a number of other nouns, sometimes of Russian origin, each denoting a specific action that may actually describe an action of subversion or counter-subversion. Coming to add to the latter difference in perception of the action of subversion, he further says that information warfare in the French intelligence community is ruled itself by
1354:, describes extensively subversion in a book on the practices and methods of this agency published in 2019, yet he rarely uses the noun "subversion", remarkably. While presenting and describing extensively the Russian and French methods of subversion and counter-subversion, he explains that the French intelligence community in particular uses the term
1329:." Infiltrating organizations is an important tool because these institutions are already seen as legitimate in the eyes of the people and provide a platform to express their ideas. When infiltrating, the dissident identifies needs of the organization and then links those needs to solutions that his ideology can provide. This was a technique that the
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the support of the population. Therefore, "to gain public credibility, attract new supporters, generate revenue, and acquire other resources, groups need to undertake political activities that are entirely separate, or appear separate, from the overtly violent activities of those groups. Sometimes this is achieved by infiltrating political parties,
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living. If the reduction is too great, the people may become willing to support a change in the government's leadership. The main objective of economic pressures is to make it difficult for the country to fulfill its basic obligations to the citizenry either by cutting off trade or by depriving it of resources.
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In order for a group to be successful in subverting a government, the group itself and its ideas must be seen as an acceptable alternative to the status quo. However, groups that work toward subverting a government, in many cases, follow ideas and promote goals that on their surface would not receive
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is the lending of aid, comfort, and moral support to individuals, groups, or organizations that advocate the overthrow of incumbent governments by force and violence. All willful acts that are intended to be detrimental to the best interests of the government and that do not fall into the categories
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The state is charged with the protection of the civilizational values of society (liberty, equality, comradeship, compassion, democracy, education, the family, religion, rule of law, human and civil rights, etc.), "including the cultural/aesthetic values that enhance the quality of life and maintain
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and political action and the targeting of cultural vehicles and institutions is another tool of subversion. The use of the arts or more broadly culture is primarily a tool for external subversives, as internal subversives are generally citizens of the country and share the same culture. It is a tool
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the government is the goal of these activities and the cause of the government's loss of power. Civil unrest depletes resources as the government is forced to spend more money on additional police. Additionally, civil unrest may be used to provoke a response from the government. In the 1940s, during
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campaign does. First of all it is an affront to government authority, and if the government is unable to quell the unrest it leads to an erosion of state power. This loss of power stems from the people's lack of trust in the government to maintain law and order. In turn, the people begin to question
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that the DGSE, acting as leading intelligence agency in France, adopted as an "all-encompassing" doctrine. Indeed, active measures in France would regulate not only all intelligence and counterintelligence activities, but also foreign affairs and diplomacy, domestic politics, and even the activities
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Other factors, while not specifically falling into these categories, may also be useful to subversive dissidents. Additionally, many tools may overlap into other groups of tools as well. As an example, subversives may infiltrate an organization for cultural subversion more so than for control. Civil
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State law that prohibited membership by professors in any organization that advocated the overthrow of the US government or any organization that was held by the
Regents to be "treasonous" or "seditious." The Regents also required teachers and employees to sign an oath that they were not members of
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in active measures may aim to influence the opinion of the public in one's own country or that of a foreign country or both, and its goal is to make masses of people receptive to a concern that may be either true and founded, or false and ill-founded in reality, or neither entirely true and founded
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Defining and understanding subversion means identifying entities, structures, and things that can be subverted. Furthermore, it may help to identify practices and tools that are not subversive. Institutions and morals can be subverted, but ideology on the other hand cannot. The fall of a government
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and subsequent propaganda can be useful in turning political and social groups against each other. The less violent forms of unrest, "such as worker absenteeism, passive resistance, boycotts, and deliberate attempts to cripple government agencies by 'overloading the system' with false reports, can
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or the creation of a new government as a result of an external war is not subversion. Espionage does not count as subversion because it is not an action that leads directly to an overthrow of a government. Information gathered from espionage may be used to plan and carry out subversive activities.
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Offensive terror can be defined as the killing of people, destruction of property, kidnapping, etc. It is usually a minor part of subversion and "is used not to exert force in the transfer of state power, but is meant to cower the people or ruler." Force used in this manner is meant to reinforce
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employed. Once the organization has been co-opted, the dissident can then move on to establishing ties with other groups. Furthermore, in addition to gaining possible legitimacy for its ideas the infiltration of these groups can "bolster political allies, attack government policies, and attract
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groups generally do not employ subversion as a tool to achieve their goals. Subversion is a manpower-intensive strategy and many groups lack the manpower and political and social connections to carry out subversive activities. However, actions taken by terrorists may have a subversive effect on
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The internal subversive can also use economics to put pressure on the government through use of the strike. An example of this is the
Chilean Truckers' Strike during the 1970s. The strike prevented the transport of food staples and forced nearly 50% of the national economy to cease production.
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removed from office, the United States tried to weaken the
Chilean economy. Chile received little foreign investments and the loss of credit prevented Chile from purchasing vital imports. An economic pressure of this kind prevents an economy from functioning and reduces a country's standard of
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The infiltration of state organizations can provide subversive groups the opportunity to do many things to achieve their goals. The infiltration of security forces can provide information about the government's capabilities and how they plan to address the group's activities. Infiltration also
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Subversion can generally be broken down into internal and external subversion, but this distinction is not meant to imply that each follows a specific set of unique and separate tools and practices. Each subversive campaign is different because of the social, political, economic, cultural, and
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using these laws. Of these, Articles 105 and 111 are the ones most commonly employed to silence political dissent. Article 105 criminalizes organizing, plotting, or carrying out subversion of the national order, or using rumor mongering or defamation or other means to incite subversion of the
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To gain an understanding of what is considered to be subversive requires understanding the intent of those taking action. This makes defining and identifying subversion a difficult process. As
Laurence Beilenson points out, "To criticize a government in an effort to reform it or to change its
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As defined by
Laurence Beilenson, agitation is "subversive propaganda by action such as mass demonstrations or the political strike, that is, a strike not intended to benefit the union or workers in the ordinary sense, but intended instead against the government." Furthermore, propaganda and
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and its shallow entertainment was a system by which society was controlled through a top-down creation of standardized culture that intensified the commodification of artistic expression; in 1938, he said that capitalism has colonized every aspect of life so much that "every pleasure which
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External subversion is actions taken by another country in cooperation with those inside the subverted country and can be used as a tool of statecraft. Foreign volunteers from another country are not enough to qualify for external subversion. The reason for this is that the individuals may
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described subversion as a term "so elastic as to be virtually devoid of meaning, and its use does little more than convey the enlarged sense of the vulnerability of modern systems to all kinds of covert assaults." What follows are some of the many attempts to define the term:
1417:. Additionally, the narrative, or "formal aims" of the action of subversion — when there is one, as behavioral biology focuses on acting on the unconscious, or id, locating in the reptilian brain as defined by Paul D. MacLean — is defined in accordance with fundamentals in
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historical differences that each country has. Subversive activities are employed based upon an evaluation of these factors. This breakdown merely clarifies who the actors are. While the subversive actors may be different, the soon to be subverted targets are the same. As
1082:" with respect to (and usually by) the government in power. Subversion is also often a goal of comedians, artists and people in those careers. In this case, being subversive can mean questioning, poking fun at, and undermining the established order in general.
1379:) to name "subversion" and "counter-subversion" respectively. The DGSE and one other intelligence agency of this country at least are particularly active in subversive activities abroad, often in a joint effort with the Russian foreign intelligence service,
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agitation, even when they are legal forms of freedom of speech, press, and assembly can still be classified as subversive activity. These tools further demonstrate the need to determine intent of those taking action to identify subversive activities.
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legitimately share the cause of the internal subversive dissidents and have legitimately volunteered. Only when the government itself furnishes a nation with money, arms, supplies, or other help to dissidents can it be called external subversion.
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The expression "awareness raising" "was a Soviet import that occurred in France during the preparatory stage of the riots and general strikes of May 1968. It happened in the early months of the latter year, first as a sophisticated technique in
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defined subversion as a term that could be lumped together under the name modern warfare, "as being interlocking systems of actions, political, economic, psychological and military that aims at the overthrow of established authority in a
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governments by force and violence is subversive and is engaged in subversive activity. All willful acts that are intended to be detrimental to the best interests of the government and that do not fall into the categories of treason,
1479:, French communist philosopher, sociologist, intelligence officer, and founder of modern methods and techniques of mass influence and manipulation is at the origin of this particular use of the word sleepwalker. Morin often said, "
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Economics can be both a tool of the internal and external subversive. For the external subversive simply cutting off credit can cause severe economic problems for a country. An example of this is the United States' relations with
1201:— A planned series of activities designed to accomplish political objectives by influencing, dominating, or displacing individuals or groups who are so placed as to affect the decisions and actions of another government."
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international support." If some organizations are too difficult to infiltrate, it may be necessary to create new organizations that appear to be independent but are actually under the direction of the subversive group.
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was formed in 1938 in order to investigate alleged disloyalty and subversive activities on the part of private citizens, public employees, and those organizations suspected of having
Communist ties. Senator
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policies is not subversion, even though such criticism may contribute to overthrow. But criticism intended to help a projected overthrow becomes subversive without regard to whether it is right or wrong."
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Lenczowski, John. "Cultural
Diplomacy, Political Influence and Integrated Strategy", in Waller, ed., Strategic Influence: Public Diplomacy, Counterpropaganda and Political Warfare (IWP Press, 2008), Pg
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prosecutes subversives under
Articles 102 through 112 of the state criminal law. These articles specify the types of behavior that constitute a threat to national security and China has prosecuted many
1544:, communists in France would "deliberately provoke the police and gendarmerie into acts of repressive violence in order to exploit the resulting 'martyrs to the cause' for propaganda purposes." These
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nor entirely false and ill-founded but "somewhere between these two absolutes." The latter hypothesis, which often is expected in active measures, is explained and ruled by the disciplines of
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writers) have prescribed a very broad form of subversion. It is not directly the parliamentary government which should be subverted in their view, but the dominant cultural forces, such as
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Internal subversion is actions taken by those within a country and can be used as a tool of power. In most cases the use or threat of force is the last step of internal subversion.
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is the undermining or detachment of the loyalties of significant political and social groups within the victimized state, and their transference, under ideal conditions, to the
1128:, though the connotations of the two words are rather different; sedition suggesting overt attacks on institutions, subversion something much more surreptitious, such as
1867:," coined in 1950 in reference to McCarthy's practices, including public attacks on the character or patriotism of political opponents, was soon applied to similar
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Rhyne, Russell. "Patterns of
Subversion by Violence." Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Vol. 341 (May 1962): Pg. 66.
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national order or the overthrow of the socialist system. Article 111 prohibits stealing, secretly collecting, purchasing, or illegally providing
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Activities of these kinds create human, economic, and political problems that, if not addressed, can challenge the competency of the government.
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identifies, the ruling and political elites are the ultimate targets of persuasion because they control the physical instruments of state power.
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society. Subversion can imply the use of insidious, dishonest, monetary, or violent methods to bring about such change. This is in contrast to
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1390:. In the latter context, the main methods of subversion he presents as "actions of influence" and their expected results are the followings.
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wrote in 1966 for a strongly divided court the majority opinion that the State could not require the oath and accompanying statutory gloss.
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Sigmund, Paul. The Overthrow of Allende and the Politics of Chile, 1964–1976. (Pittsburg: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1977), Pg. 228.
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Qureshi, Lubna. Nixon, Kissinger, and Allende: U.S. Involvement in the 1973 coup in Chile. (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2009), Pg. 115.
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Subversion is used as a tool to achieve political goals because it generally carries less risk, cost, and difficulty as opposed to open
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became the most visible public face of a period in which Cold War tensions fueled fears of widespread Communist subversion. The term "
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is something or someone carrying the potential for some degree of subversion. In this context, a "subversive" is sometimes called a "
1383:, with a focus on the United States, Dominique Poirier specifies from firsthand knowledge and experience spanning the years 1980 to
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origin, originally applying to such events as the military defeat of a city. As early as the 14th century, it was being used in the
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1174:— Actions designed to undermine the military, economic, psychological, or political strength or morale of a governing authority."
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1401:. However, the DGSE in particular designs all such actions in accordance with fundamentals of a scientific approach akin to
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Kapferer, Judith, ed. "The State and the Arts: Articulating Power and Subversion." (New York: Berghahn Books, 2008), Pg. 8.
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1458:, and generally aims to breed doubt, confusion, or inhibition, and then angst, discontent, or fear in the minds of people.
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were entrusted with the legal investigative powers for concerns of threats to national security by subversion, but in the
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1183:— Anyone lending aid, comfort, and moral support to individuals, groups, or organizations that advocate the overthrow of
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with reference to laws, and in the 15th century came to be used with respect to the realm. The term has taken over from '
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Most French and Russian actions of subversion, and of domestic influence alike, actually are governed by the notion of
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Kittell, Allan. "Subversion, Progress, and Higher Education." AAUP Bulletin. Vol. 51, No. 4 (September 1965): Pg. 363.
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As related above, members of the Communist Party were supposed by legislators to be subversives, especially after the
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Dominique Poirier, former employee and specialist in communication warfare in the French intelligence service,
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involved questions concerning the constitutionality of an Arizona Act requiring an oath from state employees.
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Remarkably, French experts in domestic influence and subversion use colloquially the noun "sleepwalkers" (
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Waller, J. Michael, ed. "The Public Diplomacy Reader" (Institute of World Politics Press, 2007), Pg. 198.
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Beilenson, Laurence, Power Through Subversion (Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1972), Pg. v –vi.
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Clutterbuck, Richard, Protest and the Urban Guerrilla, New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1973, Pg. 274.
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Bribery is one of the most common tools of subversion. Most societies see bribery as a form of
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prosecutes subversives under Articles 498 through 500, 507 and 508 of Iran's criminal laws.
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Budenz, Louis. The Techniques of Communism. (Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1954), Pg. 155.
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tested in 1964 whether a passport could be disallowed to a Communist. Aptheker won.
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the former; however, the veto was overridden in the Senate by a margin of 57 to 10.
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The Strategy of Subversion: Manipulating the Politics of Other Nations (Hardcover)
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and principles of a system in place are contradicted or reversed in an attempt to
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Subversive actions can generally be grouped into three interrelated categories:
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This article is about the political concept of subversion. For other uses, see
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2198:. Occasional Papers. Santa Monica, California: RAND Corporation. p. 5.
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emancipates itself from the exchange-value takes on subversive features."
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Policing politics: security intelligence and the liberal democratic state
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Silencing Critics by Exploiting National Security and State Secrets Laws
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1606:. This broadening of the target of subversion owes much to the ideas of
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have powerfully disruptive effects, both economically and politically."
1413:) initially established in the early 1980s by French military scientist
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3653:
3593:
3487:
3424:
3243:
3127:
3117:
3042:
3027:
3022:
2997:
2295:
2037:
2032:
1732:
1595:
1567:
1531:
1486:
1269:
1148:
is that there is not a single definition that is universally accepted.
1133:
1102:
977:
863:
670:
665:
499:
291:
271:
261:
241:
193:
113:
66:
2325:
The Strategy of Subversion: Manipulating the Politics of Other Nations
1535:
whether or not new leadership is needed. Discrediting, disarming, and
1312:
unrest may be used to provoke the government into a violent response.
3633:
3613:
3588:
3467:
3439:
3352:
3289:
3175:
3037:
3007:
2952:
1749:
1679:
1603:
1273:
1184:
1125:
1085:
1056:
1052:
1048:
805:
800:
774:
743:
733:
695:
589:
569:
509:
484:
458:
438:
423:
2287:
1209:— "A destructive, aggressive activity aimed to destroy the country,
27:
Attempt to transform the established social order and its structures
3764:
3540:
3364:
3347:
3284:
3147:
3065:
3057:
2042:
1803:
1675:
1667:
1591:
1426:
1304:
1189:
1121:
1036:
926:
858:
810:
764:
728:
680:
655:
593:
529:
494:
378:
355:
350:
333:
296:
276:
73:
1898:
ruled that an avowed publisher of the Communist doctrine could be
3880:
3865:
3749:
3666:
3384:
3152:
3082:
2195:
Subversion and Insurgency: RAND Counterinsurgency Study – Paper 2
1809:
1663:
1619:
1342:
departments are more prone to subversion than the hard sciences.
1162:
1129:
1090:
1079:
1071:
843:
795:
738:
685:
660:
634:
564:
544:
539:
519:
489:
360:
345:
256:
221:
183:
41:
2725:
On the Fetish-Character in Music and the Regression of Listening
1485:" ('Awaken, they sleep'), quoting his own way Greek philosopher
3807:
2329:(Hardcover) (1st ed.). Chicago: Quadrangle Books. p.
1883:, both of which were hotly contested in the law courts, and by
1705:
1545:
1519:
1380:
1294:
1210:
1032:
723:
549:
383:
316:
144:
2729:
Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung (Magazine for Social Research)
3847:
3447:
1671:
1499:
1315:
1303:
Generating civil unrest through demonstrations, strikes, and
1113:
579:
524:
474:
2845:"China passes controversial Hong Kong national security law"
2607:
The Fragments of the work of Heraclitus of Ephesus on Nature
2349:
DoD; Joint Education and Doctrine Division (November 2010).
1297:, and other institutions of the state, as well as important
3329:
1953:
1888:
1351:
1286:
and penetrating and manipulating existing political parties
946:
675:
433:
2888:
2493:
2491:
2117:. Notes. Santa Monica, California: RAND Corporation: 3–4.
1820:
1808:
There is no crime defined as "subversion" (as opposed to
1430:
2731:. This essay will be republished in the 1956 collection
2656:
2654:
1831:
and of associated political situations since the 1980s.
2948:
Yuri Bezmenov's complete 1983-84 lectures on subversion
1847:
covers "Treason, Sedition, and Subversive Activities."
2488:
2223:. notes. Santa Monica, California: RAND Corporation: 1
2651:
2454:
2452:
2095:(1st ed.). Chicago: Quadrangle Books. p. 56
1984:
2596:, Chapt. 12. "The All-encompassing Active Measures".
1031: 'overthrow') refers to a process by which the
2153:
Laughing in the Dark: A Decade of Subversive Comedy
1682:are placed in the category of subversive activity.
1074:that does not require large amounts of training. A
2449:
2322:
2317:
2150:
2085:
1530:Civil unrest creates many of the problems that an
3968:
2344:
2342:
2340:
1614:required the erosion of the particular form of '
1070:. Furthermore, it is a relatively cheap form of
1573:
2219:Hosmer, Stephen T.; Tanham, George K. (1986).
2113:Hosmer, Stephen T.; George, K. Tanham (1986).
2968:
2889:Military Intelligence 5 of the United Kingdom
2405:"Soviet subversion of Western Society (1983)"
2402:
2337:
1789:
1781:
1773:
1772:) under Article 283 of Italian criminal law (
1765:
1514:
1440:
1434:
1345:
997:
2813:. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 243.
2388:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2274:Spjut, R. J. (1979). "Defining Subversion".
2218:
2112:
1720:Government of the People's Republic of China
1480:
1470:
1397:as initially defined by social psychologist
1374:
1355:
2789:Congressional-Executive Commission on China
2733:Dissonanzen. Musik in der verwalteten Welt.
1230:
2975:
2961:
2308:Rosenau, Subversion and Insurgency, Pg. 4.
1316:Infiltration and establishing front groups
1004:
990:
2762:Lenczowski. Cultural Diplomacy. Pg 24–25.
1502:in the early 1970s. In an attempt to get
1213:, or geographical area of your enemy... .
1989:) is a crime in Iran. The government of
1518:
1472:Ils dorment ; ne les réveillez pas
1112:The word is present in all languages of
2808:
2779:
2777:
2269:
2267:
2191:
1881:Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952
14:
3969:
2982:
1856:House Un-American Activities Committee
1653:
1263:
1136:or setting people against each other.
2956:
2909:"Iran: Islamic Penal Code (PDF File)"
2843:Kuo, Lily; Yu, Verna (30 June 2020).
2842:
2273:
2148:
1586:traditions (including, particularly,
1475:('They sleep, don't wake them up').
2774:
2618:Poirier, Dominique (Aug. 21, 2019).
2584:Poirier, Dominique (Aug. 21, 2019).
2563:Poirier, Dominique (Aug. 21, 2019).
2542:Poirier, Dominique (Aug. 21, 2019).
2264:
1974:
1552:
1165:and institutions of the aggressor."
1144:The problem with defining the term
24:
2620:DGSE : The French Spy Machine
2609:. N. Murray pub., Baltimore, 1889.
2586:DGSE : The French Spy Machine
2565:DGSE : The French Spy Machine
2544:DGSE : The French Spy Machine
2276:British Journal of Law and Society
1902:a citizen of the United States in
1692:Inciting subversion of state power
25:
3988:
2921:
1797:
1685:
2943:lower-middle portion of web page
2605:G.T.W. Patrick (Aug. 21, 2019).
1834:
1764:Subversion is a crime in Italy (
640:Perverting the course of justice
40:
3619:Party platforms (or manifestos)
2901:
2882:
2862:
2836:
2827:
2802:
2765:
2756:
2747:
2737:
2717:
2708:
2699:
2690:
2681:
2672:
2663:
2642:
2633:
2612:
2599:
2578:
2557:
2536:
2527:
2518:
2509:
2500:
2479:
2470:
2461:
2440:
2431:
2422:
2411:from the original on 2021-11-17
2396:
2311:
2149:Stone, Laurie (1 August 1997).
1754:Hong Kong national security law
1748:Subversion was criminalised in
1405:, called "behavioral biology" (
535:Intellectual property violation
2302:
2255:
2221:"Countering Covert Aggression"
2212:
2185:
2171:
2142:
2115:"Countering Covert Aggression"
2106:
2079:
1924:Aptheker v. Secretary of State
1877:McCarran Internal Security Act
1710:
13:
1:
2524:Rosenau, Subversion, pg. 6–7.
2364:. p. 351. Archived from
2073:
2054:of subverting and advertising
1949:Keyishian v. Board of Regents
1905:Schneiderman v. United States
1384:
1373:) and "counterinterference" (
1139:
3707:Rally 'round the flag effect
2179:"Top 10 Subversive Comedies"
1743:
1574:Subverting cultural hegemony
1492:
1299:non-government organizations
870:Ignorantia juris non excusat
7:
2687:Rosenau, Subversion, pg. 8.
2622:. Amazon.com Services LLC,
2588:. Amazon.com Services LLC,
2567:. Amazon.com Services LLC,
2546:. Amazon.com Services LLC,
2497:Rosenau, Subversion, pg. 6.
1996:
1985:
1788:under Articles 270 and 270-
1768:Attentato alla Costituzione
1441:
1199:Subversive Political Action
1132:the basis of belief in the
32:Subversion (disambiguation)
10:
3993:
2660:Beilenson, 1972, pg. viii.
2515:Rosenau, Subversion, pg. 6
2476:Beilenson, 1972, pg. v–vi.
1814:British constitutional law
1801:
1689:
1561:
1515:Agitation and civil unrest
1346:Russian and French methods
1267:
1124:' as the name for illicit
560:Possessing stolen property
208:Offense against the person
29:
3901:
3846:
3778:
3720:
3652:
3569:
3486:
3438:
3328:
3239:
3166:
3056:
3048:Manipulation (psychology)
2990:
2678:Blackstock, 1964, pg. 84.
2485:Beilenson, 1972, pg. vii.
2403:Bezmenov (Ex-KGB), Yuri.
2192:Rosenau, William (2007).
1946:ruled by 5–4 majority in
1825:Security Service Act 1989
1701:
1435:
854:Diminished responsibility
648:Crimes against the public
3226:Criticism of advertising
2895:published online by the
2809:Coliver, Sandra (1999).
2446:Beilenson, 1972, pg. vi.
1991:Islamic Republic of Iran
1887:, who went so far as to
1759:
1411:biologie comportementale
1327:charitable organizations
1325:, community groups, and
1243:
1231:Conceptual understanding
783:Crimes against the state
703:(such as prohibition of
3888:Promotional merchandise
3599:Character assassination
3536:Narcotizing dysfunction
3410:Photograph manipulation
3123:Guerrilla communication
2714:Beilenson, 1972, pg 77.
2458:Beilenson, 1972, pg. v.
1964:
1784:Associazione sovversiva
1648:
1578:Recent writers, in the
1357:guerre de l’information
467:Crimes against property
157:(also called violation)
3871:Product demonstrations
3300:Historical negationism
2897:Security Service (MI5)
2833:Coliver, 1999, p. 245.
2358:Joint Publication 1-02
2243:Cite journal requires
2130:Cite journal requires
1790:
1782:
1776:Codice penale italiano
1774:
1766:
1523:
1481:
1471:
1466:
1410:
1375:
1370:
1356:
1228:
1215:
1203:
1194:
1176:
1167:
1043:and its structures of
1025:
919:Other common-law areas
752:Crimes against animals
620:Miscarriage of justice
602:Crimes against justice
3977:Political terminology
3803:Reputation management
3722:Psychological warfare
3571:Political campaigning
3380:Firehose of falsehood
2872:. Routledge. p. 119.
2467:Blackstock, 1964, 57.
2362:Department of Defense
2028:Psychological warfare
1961:the Communist Party.
1522:
1482:Eveillés, ils dorment
1216:
1204:
1195:
1177:
1168:
1155:
825:Defenses to liability
615:Malfeasance in office
3838:Corporate propaganda
2868:Gill, Peter (1994).
2696:Kitson, 1971, Pg. 4.
2428:Kitson, 1971, Pg. 5.
1932:Elfbrandt v. Russell
1871:activities. Senator
1612:communist revolution
1610:, who stressed that
1540:strikes against the
1429:known in the Soviet
671:Censorship violation
394:Cybersex trafficking
3926:Media concentration
3798:Non-apology apology
3788:Cult of personality
3516:Emotive conjugation
3270:Burying of scholars
2068:Little rabbit jokes
2023:Information Warfare
1752:on 30 June 2020 by
1659:Subversive activity
1654:Subversive activity
1331:Communist Party USA
1264:Tools and practices
1181:Subversive Activity
849:Defense of property
701:Illegal consumption
237:Criminal negligence
137:Severity of offense
3909:Influence-for-hire
3702:National mythology
3672:Crowd manipulation
3561:Tabloid journalism
3430:Video manipulation
3375:Fictitious entries
3098:Civil disobedience
2984:Media manipulation
2939:Allen Welsh Dulles
2933:2014-04-29 at the
2319:Paul W. Blackstock
2157:. The Ecco Press.
2087:Paul W. Blackstock
2018:Counter-insurgency
2003:Agent of influence
1937:William O. Douglas
1852:Russian Revolution
1584:post-structuralist
1524:
1442:siencibilizatz’iya
1395:minority influence
1251:Paul W. Blackstock
770:Wildlife smuggling
760:Cruelty to animals
389:Child sexual abuse
341:Negligent homicide
252:False imprisonment
149:Indictable offense
93:Scope of criminal
3964:
3963:
3730:Airborne leaflets
3609:Election promises
3463:Product placement
3338:Alternative facts
3078:Alternative media
2878:978-0-7146-3490-6
2820:978-90-411-1191-3
2407:. Yuri Bezmenov.
2205:978-0-8330-4123-4
2008:Agent provocateur
1983:
1956:) to strike down
1729:Nobel Peace Prize
1638:political warfare
1616:cultural hegemony
1447:awareness raising
1289:Infiltrating the
1150:Charles Townshend
1014:
1013:
414:Indecent exposure
282:Human trafficking
247:Domestic violence
175:Inchoate offenses
16:(Redirected from
3984:
3956:Media proprietor
3780:Public relations
3760:Public diplomacy
3745:Information (IT)
3624:Name recognition
3249:Media regulation
3231:Annoyance factor
3088:Call-out culture
3003:Crowd psychology
2977:
2970:
2963:
2954:
2953:
2916:
2915:
2913:
2905:
2899:
2886:
2880:
2866:
2860:
2859:
2857:
2855:
2840:
2834:
2831:
2825:
2824:
2806:
2800:
2799:
2797:
2796:
2781:
2772:
2769:
2763:
2760:
2754:
2751:
2745:
2741:
2735:
2721:
2715:
2712:
2706:
2703:
2697:
2694:
2688:
2685:
2679:
2676:
2670:
2667:
2661:
2658:
2649:
2646:
2640:
2637:
2631:
2616:
2610:
2603:
2597:
2582:
2576:
2561:
2555:
2540:
2534:
2531:
2525:
2522:
2516:
2513:
2507:
2504:
2498:
2495:
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2483:
2477:
2474:
2468:
2465:
2459:
2456:
2447:
2444:
2438:
2435:
2429:
2426:
2420:
2419:
2417:
2416:
2400:
2394:
2393:
2387:
2379:
2377:
2376:
2370:
2355:
2346:
2335:
2334:
2328:
2315:
2309:
2306:
2300:
2299:
2271:
2262:
2259:
2253:
2252:
2246:
2241:
2239:
2231:
2229:
2228:
2216:
2210:
2209:
2189:
2183:
2182:
2175:
2169:
2168:
2156:
2146:
2140:
2139:
2133:
2128:
2126:
2118:
2110:
2104:
2103:
2101:
2100:
2083:
1988:
1978:
1976:
1879:of 1950 and the
1839:In federal law,
1793:
1787:
1779:
1771:
1714:) is a crime in
1712:
1703:
1630:culture industry
1628:argued that the
1588:environmentalist
1553:Offensive terror
1504:Salvador Allende
1484:
1474:
1444:
1438:
1437:
1389:
1386:
1378:
1376:contre-ingérence
1359:
1118:English language
1107:guerilla warfare
1039:the established
1006:
999:
992:
963:
834:Actual innocence
691:Ethnic cleansing
585:Trespass to land
480:Arms trafficking
44:
37:
36:
21:
3992:
3991:
3987:
3986:
3985:
3983:
3982:
3981:
3967:
3966:
3965:
3960:
3951:Media influence
3946:Media franchise
3931:Media democracy
3897:
3842:
3774:
3716:
3697:Loaded language
3648:
3565:
3482:
3434:
3324:
3253:
3235:
3162:
3103:Culture jamming
3052:
2986:
2981:
2935:Wayback Machine
2924:
2919:
2911:
2907:
2906:
2902:
2887:
2883:
2867:
2863:
2853:
2851:
2841:
2837:
2832:
2828:
2821:
2807:
2803:
2794:
2792:
2783:
2782:
2775:
2770:
2766:
2761:
2757:
2752:
2748:
2742:
2738:
2722:
2718:
2713:
2709:
2704:
2700:
2695:
2691:
2686:
2682:
2677:
2673:
2668:
2664:
2659:
2652:
2647:
2643:
2638:
2634:
2617:
2613:
2604:
2600:
2583:
2579:
2562:
2558:
2541:
2537:
2532:
2528:
2523:
2519:
2514:
2510:
2505:
2501:
2496:
2489:
2484:
2480:
2475:
2471:
2466:
2462:
2457:
2450:
2445:
2441:
2436:
2432:
2427:
2423:
2414:
2412:
2401:
2397:
2381:
2380:
2374:
2372:
2368:
2353:
2347:
2338:
2316:
2312:
2307:
2303:
2288:10.2307/1409771
2272:
2265:
2260:
2256:
2244:
2242:
2233:
2232:
2226:
2224:
2217:
2213:
2206:
2190:
2186:
2177:
2176:
2172:
2165:
2147:
2143:
2131:
2129:
2120:
2119:
2111:
2107:
2098:
2096:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2063:Active measures
2013:Destabilisation
1999:
1967:
1861:Joseph McCarthy
1837:
1806:
1800:
1762:
1746:
1694:
1688:
1656:
1651:
1608:Antonio Gramsci
1576:
1564:
1555:
1517:
1495:
1433:under the name
1399:Serge Moscovici
1387:
1362:active measures
1348:
1318:
1276:
1266:
1246:
1233:
1223:Roger Trinquier
1142:
1010:
951:
515:False pretenses
444:Sex trafficking
370:Sexual offenses
329:Preterintention
165:Summary offense
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3990:
3980:
3979:
3962:
3961:
3959:
3958:
3953:
3948:
3943:
3938:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3922:
3921:
3911:
3905:
3903:
3899:
3898:
3896:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3884:
3883:
3873:
3868:
3863:
3858:
3852:
3850:
3844:
3843:
3841:
3840:
3835:
3830:
3828:Understatement
3825:
3820:
3815:
3810:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3790:
3784:
3782:
3776:
3775:
3773:
3772:
3767:
3762:
3757:
3752:
3747:
3742:
3737:
3732:
3726:
3724:
3718:
3717:
3715:
3714:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3692:Indoctrination
3689:
3684:
3679:
3677:Disinformation
3674:
3669:
3664:
3658:
3656:
3650:
3649:
3647:
3646:
3641:
3639:Smear campaign
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3575:
3573:
3567:
3566:
3564:
3563:
3558:
3556:Sensationalism
3553:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3496:Agenda-setting
3492:
3490:
3484:
3483:
3481:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3444:
3442:
3436:
3435:
3433:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3370:False document
3367:
3362:
3361:
3360:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3334:
3332:
3326:
3325:
3323:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3275:Catch and kill
3272:
3267:
3262:
3256:
3254:
3252:
3251:
3246:
3240:
3237:
3236:
3234:
3233:
3228:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3208:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3172:
3170:
3164:
3163:
3161:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3108:Demonstrations
3105:
3100:
3095:
3093:Cancel culture
3090:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3074:
3073:
3062:
3060:
3054:
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3113:Deplatforming
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3018:False balance
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2371:on 2014-08-24
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2058:Yuri Bezmenov
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1919: (1943).
1918:
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1896:Supreme Court
1894:In 1943, the
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1819:Historically
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1738:state secrets
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1542:Marshall Plan
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1415:Henri Laborit
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1282:Establishing
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886:Justification
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720:
719:Miscegenation
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583:
581:
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576:
573:
571:
568:
566:
563:
561:
558:
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555:Pickpocketing
553:
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435:
432:
430:
427:
425:
422:
420:
417:
415:
412:
410:
407:
405:
404:Homosexuality
402:
400:
397:
395:
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390:
387:
385:
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380:
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371:
368:
367:
362:
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357:
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267:Home invasion
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217:Assassination
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19:
3941:Media ethics
3861:Door-to-door
3856:Cold calling
3833:Weasel words
3769:
3740:Fifth column
3634:Push polling
3584:Astroturfing
3546:Pseudo-event
3526:Infotainment
3501:Broadcasting
3420:Urban legend
3343:April Fools'
3216:Testimonials
3186:Infomercials
3013:Dumbing down
2942:
2903:
2893:"What We Do"
2884:
2864:
2852:. Retrieved
2849:the Guardian
2848:
2838:
2829:
2810:
2804:
2793:. Retrieved
2788:
2767:
2758:
2749:
2739:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2719:
2710:
2701:
2692:
2683:
2674:
2665:
2644:
2635:
2630:, pp. 50-51.
2619:
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2543:
2538:
2529:
2520:
2511:
2502:
2481:
2472:
2463:
2442:
2433:
2424:
2413:. Retrieved
2398:
2373:. Retrieved
2366:the original
2357:
2324:
2313:
2304:
2279:
2275:
2257:
2236:cite journal
2225:. Retrieved
2214:
2194:
2187:
2173:
2152:
2144:
2123:cite journal
2108:
2097:. Retrieved
2091:
2081:
2048:Subvertising
1969:Subversion (
1968:
1947:
1944:Warren court
1941:
1930:
1929:
1922:
1921:
1903:
1893:
1885:Harry Truman
1873:Pat McCarran
1849:
1838:
1829:the Cold War
1818:
1807:
1763:
1747:
1709:
1696:Subversion (
1695:
1658:
1657:
1643:
1635:
1624:
1577:
1565:
1556:
1537:demoralizing
1529:
1525:
1509:
1496:
1460:
1456:chaos theory
1446:
1423:
1419:epistemology
1392:
1349:
1340:liberal arts
1336:
1323:labor unions
1319:
1310:
1291:armed forces
1284:front groups
1277:
1258:
1255:
1247:
1238:
1234:
1218:
1217:
1206:
1205:
1198:
1196:
1180:
1178:
1171:
1169:
1158:
1156:
1145:
1143:
1111:
1099:insurrection
1084:
1075:
1068:belligerency
1065:
1061:social norms
1041:social order
1024:
1016:
1015:
911:Self-defense
868:
815:
791:Lèse-majesté
505:Embezzlement
429:Prostitution
419:Masturbation
302:Manslaughter
287:Intimidation
199:Solicitation
72:
65:
50:Criminal law
3813:Sound bites
3793:Doublespeak
3644:Wedge issue
3604:Dog whistle
3579:Advertising
3405:Lying press
3390:Gaslighting
3168:Advertising
3143:Occupations
3033:Obfuscation
3023:Half-truths
2052:portmanteau
1900:naturalized
1865:McCarthyism
1580:post-modern
1477:Edgar Morin
1467:somnanbules
1452:fuzzy logic
1403:behaviorism
1388: 2001
1095:coup d'état
906:Provocation
630:Obstruction
610:Compounding
575:Tax evasion
399:Fornication
232:Child abuse
161:Misdemeanor
85:Concurrence
18:Subversives
3914:Media bias
3770:Subversion
3735:False flag
3712:Techniques
3654:Propaganda
3614:Lawn signs
3594:Canvassing
3488:News media
3244:Censorship
3176:Billboards
3128:Hacktivism
3118:Grassroots
3043:Persuasion
2795:2015-03-11
2415:2016-09-27
2375:2011-06-21
2227:2015-03-11
2099:2015-03-11
2074:References
2038:Revolution
2033:Red terror
1733:Liu Xiaobo
1727:including
1725:dissidents
1690:See also:
1596:patriarchy
1568:corruption
1532:insurgency
1487:Heraclitus
1270:Propaganda
1268:See also:
1219:Subversion
1207:Subversion
1172:Subversion
1159:Subversion
1146:subversion
1140:Definition
1134:status quo
1103:insurgency
1076:subversive
1027:subvertere
1019:(from
1017:Subversion
864:Entrapment
839:Automatism
816:Subversion
775:Bestiality
744:War crimes
739:Usurpation
666:Corruption
625:Misprision
500:Cybercrime
292:Kidnapping
272:Hate crime
262:Harassment
242:Defamation
194:Incitement
189:Conspiracy
155:Infraction
114:Complicity
109:Accomplice
67:Actus reus
3876:Promotion
3755:Political
3662:Bandwagon
3589:Attack ad
3468:Publicity
3440:Marketing
3353:Fake news
3315:Religious
3310:Political
3290:Euphemism
3285:Cover-ups
3280:Corporate
3148:Petitions
3038:Orwellian
3008:Deception
2941:(1959) –
1986:barandāzi
1980:romanized
1841:18 U.S.C.
1750:Hong Kong
1744:Hong Kong
1731:laureate
1680:espionage
1672:diversion
1618:' within
1604:scientism
1493:Economics
1371:ingérence
1274:Deception
1226:country."
1185:incumbent
1126:rebellion
1105:, and/or
1086:Terrorist
1057:hierarchy
1053:tradition
1049:authority
927:Contracts
901:Necessity
806:Secession
801:Espionage
734:Terrorism
696:Smuggling
590:Vandalism
570:Smuggling
510:Extortion
485:Blackmail
459:Voyeurism
439:Pederasty
424:Obscenity
306:corporate
129:Vicarious
124:Principal
119:Corporate
104:Accessory
95:liability
80:Causation
3971:Category
3823:Transfer
3765:Sedition
3629:Negative
3541:Newspeak
3531:Managing
3473:Research
3448:Branding
3400:Literary
3365:Fakelore
3358:websites
3348:Deepfake
3305:Internet
3196:Modeling
3153:Protests
3133:Internet
3066:Advocacy
3058:Activism
2931:Archived
2791:(Report)
2575:, p. 47.
2409:Archived
2384:cite web
2321:(1964).
2089:(1964).
2043:Sedition
1997:See also
1975:براندازی
1958:New York
1804:Sedition
1676:sabotage
1668:sedition
1592:feminist
1427:agitprop
1305:boycotts
1190:sedition
1122:sedition
1037:sabotage
942:Property
937:Evidence
932:Defenses
881:Insanity
811:Sedition
765:Poaching
729:Regicide
681:Genocide
656:Apostasy
594:Mischief
530:Gambling
495:Burglary
379:Adultery
356:Stabbing
351:Stalking
334:Homicide
297:Menacing
277:Homicide
74:Mens rea
57:Elements
3902:Related
3881:Spaving
3866:Pricing
3808:Slogans
3750:Lawfare
3687:Framing
3667:Big lie
3458:Product
3453:Loyalty
3385:Forgery
3330:Hoaxing
3211:Slogans
3191:Mobiles
3083:Boycott
2991:Context
2854:10 July
2296:1409771
1982::
1971:Persian
1854:. The
1845:ch. 115
1810:treason
1698:Chinese
1664:treason
1620:society
1562:Bribery
1546:martyrs
1163:symbols
1130:eroding
1091:protest
1080:traitor
1072:warfare
970:Portals
961:estates
893: (
891:Mistake
876:Infancy
844:Consent
796:Treason
713:smoking
709:alcohol
676:Dueling
661:Begging
635:Perjury
565:Robbery
545:Looting
540:Larceny
520:Forgery
490:Bribery
361:Torture
346:Robbery
304: (
257:Frameup
227:Battery
222:Assault
184:Attempt
3506:Circus
3415:Racial
2876:
2817:
2626:
2592:
2571:
2550:
2294:
2202:
2161:
1780:) and
1718:. The
1711:Diānfù
1708::
1706:pinyin
1700::
1602:, and
1463:French
1407:French
1381:SVR RF
1367:French
1295:police
1293:, the
1211:nation
1059:, and
1033:values
957:trusts
895:of law
859:Duress
724:Piracy
711:, and
550:Payola
409:Incest
384:Bigamy
322:felony
317:Murder
312:Mayhem
145:Felony
3848:Sales
3551:Scrum
3511:Cycle
3425:Virus
3295:Films
3260:Books
3201:Radio
3181:False
3158:Youth
3138:Media
3071:group
3028:Media
2912:(PDF)
2369:(PDF)
2354:(PDF)
2292:JSTOR
1912:
1843:
1812:) in
1760:Italy
1678:, or
1500:Chile
1244:Types
1114:Latin
1045:power
1023:
1021:Latin
953:Wills
947:Torts
705:drugs
580:Theft
525:Fraud
475:Arson
3818:Spin
3395:List
3320:Self
2998:Bias
2874:ISBN
2856:2020
2815:ISBN
2624:ISBN
2590:ISBN
2569:ISBN
2548:ISBN
2390:link
2249:help
2200:ISBN
2159:ISBN
2136:help
2050:, a
1965:Iran
1954:SUNY
1952:(of
1942:The
1914:U.S.
1889:veto
1649:Laws
1590:and
1582:and
1454:and
1352:DGSE
1272:and
1093:, a
959:and
434:Rape
163:(or
147:(or
3206:Sex
2937:by
2744:24.
2284:doi
1917:118
1910:320
1821:MI5
1791:bis
1662:of
1431:KGB
978:Law
3973::
3221:TV
2891:–
2847:.
2787:.
2776:^
2727:,
2653:^
2490:^
2451:^
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2234:{{
2127::
2125:}}
2121:{{
1977:,
1973::
1908:,
1794:.
1756:.
1704:;
1702:颠覆
1674:,
1670:,
1666:,
1622:.
1598:,
1465::
1409::
1385:c.
1369::
1221:—
1109:.
1101:,
1055:,
1051:,
1047:,
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2962:v
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1439:(
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