Mens rea - Knowledge

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insufficient or needing revision. Scholars' allegations include incoherency from conflicted philosophical commitments, or the federal governments' failure to explicitly adopt the Model Penal Code resulting in departure from common law precedents. Since the publication of the MPC, confusion has also occurred where norms towards crimes have also changed: especially regarding sexual crimes, hate crimes, drug crimes, and digital crimes. But while some scholarship argues that commitment to reforms gave way to "cynicism and fatigue," others argue the original commitment of the MPC to "imprisonment as a last result" should be preserved in potential revisions to the Code and criminal law.

2996:"In particular, the original MPCS' bold and forceful commitment to imprisonment as a last resort and least-preferred reality, both at the time of sentencing and at all times thereafter, is a refreshing and needed perspective in an era of mass incarceration and extreme punishment terms. A fitting sense of imprisonment's horrible human realities, not to mention its inefficacies, is palpable in the original MPCS. In the MPCS revision, sentencing and imprisonment has the feel of a technical government challenge, rather than a necessary evil within a society committed to human liberty and personal freedoms." Douglas A. Berman, 1958:

During the course of the conduct, the accused foresees that he may be putting another at risk of injury: A choice must be made at that point in time. By deciding to proceed, the accused actually intends the other to be exposed to the risk of that injury. The greater the probability of that risk maturing into the foreseen injury, the greater the degree of recklessness and, subsequently, sentence rendered. In common law, for example, an unlawful homicide committed recklessly would ordinarily constitute the crime of

2841:"On the other hand, there is no uniform code that actually exists as law in all fifty states. While the Model Penal Code (MPC) may serve as a useful stand-in for such a uniform law, few, if any, states have adopted the MPC in its entirety, and most have rung interesting changes on it, accepting some parts and rejecting or modifying others. The result is that, as one wag has put it, criminal law professors are presented with the choice of teaching dead law (the common law) or mythical law (the MPC)." Chad Flanders, 1730:

meanings to be given to provisions in the Act that are open to various interpretations. Furthermore, it is accepted that one may legitimately structure one's affairs so as to minimize tax liability. Considered in this legislative context, I have no difficulty in holding that a mistake or ignorance as to one's liability to pay tax under the Act may negate the fault requirement in the provision, regardless of whether it is a factual mistake, a legal mistake, or a combination of both.

1667:', 'reason to believe', 'criminal knowledge or intention', 'intentional cooperation', 'voluntarily', 'malignantly', 'wantonly', 'maliciously'. All these words indicate the blameworthy mental condition required at the time of commission of the offence, nowhere found in the IPC, its essence is reflected in almost all the provisions of the Indian Penal Code 1860. Every offence created under the IPC virtually imports the idea of criminal intent or mens rea in some form or other. 27: 2422:, 444 U.S. 394, 403–04 (1980) ("At common law, crimes generally were classified as requiring either "general intent" or "specific intent." This venerable distinction, however, has been the source of a good deal of confusion. . . . This ambiguity has led to a movement away from the traditional dichotomy of intent and toward an alternative analysis of mens rea. See id., at 202. This new approach, exemplified in the American Law Institute's Model Penal Code . . .") 1808:). Thus, when a person plans what to do and what not to do, they will understand the range of likely outcomes from given behaviour on a sliding scale from "inevitable" to "probable" to "possible" to "improbable". The more an outcome shades towards the "inevitable" end of the scale, the more likely it is that the accused both foresaw and desired it, and, therefore, the safer it is to impute intention. If there is clear subjective evidence that the accused did 2813:"Yet, because there are several areas of the criminal law in which there may be good reason for distinguishing between one's objectives and knowledge, the modern approach is to define separately the mental states of knowledge and intent (sometimes referred to as purpose, most likely to avoid confusion with the word 'intent' as traditionally defined)." The modern view: intent and knowledge distinguished, 1 Subst. Crim. L. § 5.2(b) (3d ed.). 89: 1263:) became varied among different types of crimes. Such crimes and mental states might include, for example, "malice" for murder, "fraudulence" for fraud, "willfulness and corruption" for perjury, and so on. The crime of manslaughter, further, might not even require a "bad mind" but simply a "negligent" one. Regardless of how the requirements are categorized, the Supreme Court has explained 1637:(see, He Kaw Teh v R - case from the Australian High Court regarding importance of establishment of the element of mens rea). Some offences exist whereby an act can be proven but there is lack of the necessary guilt of mind, such can be seen in instances where courts are unable to establish criminal intent due to persistent mental health or cognitive impairment (see, 1345:("MPC") was completed in 1962, and received praise from legal scholars for its reformulation of criminal law. Although not all states follow the criminal law as constructed within the MPC, over 34 states had adopted part or substantially all of the MPC as law by 1983. The federal government has not adopted the MPC, although it has attempted to do so for many decades. 2458:," "knowingly," "recklessly," or "criminal negligence," or by use of terms, such as "with intent to defraud" and "knowing it to be false," describing a specific kind of intent or knowledge. 35 N.Y. Jur. 2d Criminal Law: Principles and Offenses § 26 (specifying "intentionally" as a state opposed to "purposefully" and including mental states like "fraud") 2245:"Under the common-law doctrine of 'transferred intent,' if an accused attempts to injure one person and an unintended victim is injured because of the act, the accused's intent to injure the intended victim is transferred to the injury of the unintended victim, even though the wounding was accidental or unintentional." 21 Am. Jur. 2d Criminal Law § 115 2964:"However, the law of mens rea is riddled with exceptions and qualifications, and some clarity is badly needed. The Supreme Court continues to confront the doctrine, and it is apparent that a bright line rule is needed to bring coherence to the doctrine of criminal intent and provide guidance to the federal judiciary." Connor B. McDermott, 1642:

35, where s33(3) states s 35 as an alternate sentence for a finding of Grievous Bodily Harm in the event whereby the Jury is not satified that the accused held the necessary element of specific intent required for criminal liability under s 33. In such instances, s 35 being a charge of recklessness instead of intent, is prescribed.

2378:"Much of the existing uncertainty as to the precise meaning of the word 'intent' is attributable to the fact that courts have often used such phrases as 'criminal intent,' 'general intent,' 'specific intent,' 'constructive intent,' and 'presumed intent.' 'Criminal intent,' for example, is often taken to be synonymous with 1654:

1860 sets out the definition of offences, the general conditions of liability, the conditions of exemptions from liability and punishments for the respective offences. Legislatures had not used the common law doctrine of mens rea in defining these crimes. However, they preferred to import it by using

1976:

Here, the test is both subjective and objective. There is credible subjective evidence that the particular accused neither foresaw nor desired the particular outcome, thus potentially excluding both intention and recklessness. But a reasonable person with the same abilities and skills as the accused

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is absent no matter what degree of probability might otherwise have been present. For these purposes, therefore, where the relevant statutes are silent and it is for the common law to form the basis of potential liability, the reasonable person must be endowed with the same intellectual and physical

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Rather than dwell on philosophical or normative arguments, some scholars have looked to evidence-based arguments to update the Code. In an empirical study, participants were presented with scenarios and asked to rate how deserving of punishment the scenario was. The results showed that participants'

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concept are the product of an ongoing historical process of accommodating within a single system of criminal law the virtues of two sometimes conflicting philosophical traditions: retributivism and utilitarianism. That the meaning of the 'guilty mind' requirement vacillates and evolves over time is

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The general rule under common law and statutory law is that ignorance of the law or a mistake of law is no defense to criminal prosecution. However, in some cases, courts have held that if knowledge of a law, or if intent to break a law, is a material element of an offense, then a defendant may use

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s 30). Mens rea can be established both through common law (see R v Morgan) or through statute law. Often in cases where the full guilty mind can not be established, statute law in Australia will provide an alternative sentencing option, such relationship can be seen in the Crimes Act 1900, s33 and

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6 Wheat. 264, 428, 5 L.Ed. 257 (1821); it may enact only those criminal laws that are connected to one of its constitutionally enumerated powers, such as the authority to regulate interstate commerce. As a result, most federal offenses include, in addition to substantive elements, a jurisdictional

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Section 239(1)(d) is part of an Act which is necessarily and notoriously complex. It is subject to ongoing revision. No lay person is expected to know all the complexities of the tax laws. It is accepted that people will act on the advice of professionals and that the advice will often turn on the

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purpose or desire for it to occur. By contrast with traditional common law, the Model Penal Code specifically distinguishes purpose and knowledge to avoid confusion regarding "intent" elements. Many states still adhere to older terminology, relying on the terms "intentional" to cover both types of

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In such cases, there is clear subjective evidence that the accused foresaw but did not desire the particular outcome. When the accused failed to stop the given behavior, he took the risk of causing the given loss or damage. There is always some degree of intention subsumed within recklessness.

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The MPC also recognizes culpability not because of a mental state, but for crimes that are legislatively proscribed due to the imposition of "absolute liability." Strict liability crimes will require evidence of such legislative intent, and courts seriously examine such evidence before assuming a

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Not all states have adopted the MPC, and for states that have, application of the Model Code varies. Despite its attempt to standardize criminal law, this variance has resulted in confusion and criticism. Some scholars have criticized the levels of culpability in the current Model Penal Code as

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test. But a significant proportion of those accused of crimes makes no such admission. Hence, some degree of objectivity must be brought to bear as the basis upon which to impute the necessary components. It is always reasonable to assume that people of ordinary intelligence are aware of their

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in, the death of another human being. "Purposeful" in this sense means the actor possessed a conscious purpose or objective that the result (i.e. the death of another human being) be achieved. "Knowing" means that the actor was aware or practically certain that a death would result, but had no

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The proliferation of statutes and regulations has sometimes made it difficult for the average citizen to know and comprehend the extent of the duties and obligations imposed by the tax laws. Thus, the Court almost 60 years ago interpreted the statutory term "willfully" as used in the federal

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2781:"Absent statutory language expressly imposing absolute liability, the states of mind denominated in HRS § 702–204 will generally apply because we will not lightly discern a legislative purpose to impose absolute liability." State v. Eastman, 913 P.2d 57, 66, 81 Hawai'i 131, 140 (Hawai i,1996) 2331:"As this Court has explained, the understanding that an injury is criminal only if inflicted knowingly 'is as universal and persistent in mature systems of law as belief in freedom of the human will and a consequent ability and duty of the normal individual to choose between good and evil.'" 1316:

like that of the states, the scope of its criminal statutes is necessarily circumscribed. Ordinary prosecutions are the province of the states, and only crimes connected to the constitutional powers may be pursued by the federal government. Nevertheless, the Supreme Court holds that required

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guarantees a minimum requirement for the mental state of various crimes. For example, the crime of murder must include a mental requirement of at least subjective foresight of death. For crimes where imprisonment is a sanction, there is a requirement of at least a defence of due diligence.

2444:"In criminal law, mental states run from bad to worse roughly in order of negligence, recklessness, knowledge, and purpose, with willfulness, maliciousness, and similar adjunct mental states interspersed at various levels in that hierarchy." 17 Cal. Jur. 3d Criminal Law: Core Aspects § 129 1910:). But if there is clear evidence that the accused had a different motive, this may decrease the probability that he or she desired the actual outcome. In such a situation, the motive may become subjective evidence that the accused did not intend, but was reckless or willfully blind. 2519:

In determining Congress' intent, we start from a longstanding presumption, traceable to the common law, that Congress intends to require a defendant to possess a culpable mental state regarding "each of the statutory elements that criminalize otherwise innocent conduct."

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as the highest: a finding of purposefully/intentional establishes a state of knowingness, recklessness, and negligence; a finding of knowingness establishes a finding of recklessness and negligence, and a finding of recklessness establishes a state of negligence.

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was widely acknowledged to be a slippery, vague, and confused mess. This was one of several factors that led to the development of the Model Penal Code. Nevertheless, states continue to use mental states beyond or besides those listed in the Model Penal Code.

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Mens Rea: The Need for a Meaningful Intent Requirement in Federal Criminal Law: Hearing before the Over-Criminalization Task Force of 2013 of the Committee on the Judiciary, House of Representatives, One Hundred Thirteenth Congress, First Session, July 19,

1499:. Modern criminal law approaches the analysis somewhat differently. Using a framework from the American Law Institute's Model Penal Code, homicide is a "results" offense in that it forbids any "purposeful" or "knowing" conduct that causes, and therefore 1270:

Within the United States, there is no single encompassing criminal law. Criminal laws are passed and enforced by the states‚ or the federal government, but each of these criminal "codes" vary and may or may not draw from the same theoretical sources.

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Guilt in respect to almost all offences created under the IPC is fastened either on the ground of intention, knowledge or reason to believe. Almost all the offences under the IPC are qualified by one or other words such as 'wrongful gain or loss',

2715:"We begin by setting out four states of mind, as described in modern statutes and cases, that may give rise to criminal liability. Those mental states are, in descending order of culpability: purpose, knowledge, recklessness, and negligence." 2453:

The Penal Law provides that when the commission of an offense, or some element of an offense, requires a particular culpable mental state, such mental state is ordinarily designated in the statute defining the offense by use of the terms

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terms diverged from those of English law and from each other. Concepts like "general intent" and "specific intent" dominated classifications of mental states in state common law, but by the late 1950s to early 1960s, the common law of

1383:: the actor is "practically certain" that his conduct will lead to the result, or is aware to a high probability that his conduct is of a prohibited nature, or is aware to a high probability that the attendant circumstances exist. 1921:, i.e. intention to enter and cause the damage. That the person might have had a clearly articulated political motive to protest such testing does not affect liability. If motive has any relevance, this may be addressed in the 1932:

Rarely, a motive may amount to a defence if it is specifically allowed in law, or is protected as a right (for example, if a conviction for crimes committed during a protest would unduly interfere with free speech rights; see

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A good-faith belief that a law is unjust or unconstitutional is no excuse, but "reasonable reliance upon an official statement of law, afterward determined to be invalid or erroneous" does not constitute a criminal act.

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the general notion that except for strict liability offenses some form of mental state is a prerequisite to guilt." § 5.2(e) 'Criminal,' 'constructive,' 'general,' and 'specific' intent, 1 Subst. Crim. L. § 5.2(e) (3d

3411: 2181:". . . a person is not guilty of an offense unless he acted purposely, knowingly, recklessly or negligently, as the law may require, with respect to each material element of the offense." Model Penal Code § 2.02(1) 1632:

Mens rea is an element of the offence that the prosecution needs to assert beyond a reasonable doubt for the accused to be found fully liable of the offence, assuming the offence is one that requires an element of

1906:. If the accused admits to having a motive consistent with the elements of foresight and desire, this will add to the level of probability that the actual outcome was intended (it makes the prosecution case more 1540:

and the distinction between them vary among jurisdictions. Although common law originated from England, the common law of each jurisdiction with regard to culpability varies as precedents and statutes vary.

1962:. One committed with "extreme" or "gross" recklessness as to human life would constitute murder, sometimes defined as "depraved heart" or "abandoned and malignant heart" or "depraved indifference" murder. 1183:

crimes. Moreover, when a person intends a harm, but as a result of bad aim or other cause the intent is transferred from an intended victim to an unintended victim, the case is considered to be a matter of

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In the United States, a law must be reasonably clear; it must be worded so that a reasonable layman can comprehend the specific prohibited acts. Otherwise, the law may be unconstitutional pursuant to the

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must have a high degree of certainty before convicting, defined as "beyond a reasonable doubt" in the United States and "sure" in the United Kingdom. It is this reasoning that justifies the defenses of

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Motive cannot normally be a defense. If, for example, a person breaks into a laboratory used for the testing of pharmaceuticals on animals, the question of guilt is determined by the presence of an

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subjective, where the court must be satisfied that the accused actually had the requisite mental element present in their mind at the relevant time (for purposely, knowingly, recklessly etc.) (see

2163:(an act does not make one guilty unless his mind is guilty) had become well ingrained in the common law, and it remains a central precept of Anglo-American criminal law today." Martin R. Gardner, 1341:(which issues "restatements" of American legal jurisprudence) declined to issue a restatement of criminal law in favor of a "model" code for states to issue new, standardized criminal law. This 2435:, Shaw, C.J. described malice as a state of mind which includes not only anger, hatred and revenge, but every other unlawful motive." § 106. Malice, 32 Mass. Prac., Criminal Law § 106 (3d ed.) 2679:"As all criminal law scholars understand, the Model Penal Code is one of the great intellectual accomplishments of American legal scholarship of the mid-twentieth century." Gerard E. Lynch, 1894:

Under s. 8(b), therefore, the jury is allowed a wide latitude in applying a hybrid test to impute intention or foresight (for the purposes of recklessness) on the basis of all the evidence.

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engages in conduct and "desires" the result. The Supreme Court has not found a large difference between purposeful and knowing conduct, not only in theory but also in application.

1887:(b) shall decide whether he did intend or foresee that result by reference to all the evidence, drawing such inferences from the evidence as appear proper in the circumstances. 1884:(a) shall not be bound in law to infer that he intended or foresaw a result of his actions by reasons only of its being a natural and probable consequence of those actions; but 2348:

Markus Dubber, "The American Law Institute's Model Penal Code and European Criminal Law" in André Klip ed., Substantive Criminal Law of the European Union (Maklu, 2011), at 2.

2790:"The only proof required to convict an individual of an absolute liability offense is that an individual engaged in the prohibited conduct." 21 Am. Jur. 2d Criminal Law § 127 3792: 1267:

requirements for crimes are "universal" and essential to "mature systems of law", even going so far as to say that this belief undergirds notions of free will and morality.

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criminal tax statutes as carving out an exception to the traditional rule. This special treatment of criminal tax offenses is largely due to the complexity of the tax laws.

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criminal tax statutes as carving out an exception to the traditional rule. This special treatment of criminal tax offenses is largely due to the complexity of the tax laws.

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person, and a "defendant's actions are compared unfavorably to what a normal, innocent person would have done, with the implication that the discrepancy indicates guilt".

2305:"he mental state element that is part of the definition of most criminal offenses, is crucial to culpability and central to our value as moral beings." Stephen J. Morse, 2407:"Mens Rea: An Overview of State-of-Mind Requirements for Federal Criminal Offenses", Michael A. Foster, June 30, 2021, Congressional Research Service, R46836, p.3, 2357:"Mens Rea: An Overview of State-of-Mind Requirements for Federal Criminal Offenses", Michael A. Foster, June 30, 2021, Congressional Research Service, R46836, p.4, 1553:: the actor has a clear foresight of the consequences of his actions, and desires those consequences to occur. It is his aim or purpose to achieve this consequence. 1528:

in the MPC, but also found that participants struggled most with "recklessness" scenarios. As a result, the study suggests revising the language of the categories.

1559:: the result is a virtually certain consequence or a 'virtual certainty' of the defendant's actions, and that the defendant appreciates that such was the case. 4275: 2482: 1573:: the actor foresees that particular consequences may occur and proceeds with the given conduct, not caring whether those consequences actually occur or not. 4215: 3802: 1360:

are found in the MPC §2.02(2), and are considered by the United States Supreme Court to be the four states of mind that give rise to criminal liability:

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on this form of evidence. Deceptive statements, failure to cooperate with authorities, or evasive actions made by a defendant after the commission of a

1602:: the accused was aware the criminal act could be potentially dangerous but did not give a second thought to its consequences, for example, involuntary 1436:

The elements constituting a crime vary between codes that draw on common law principles and those that draw from the Model Penal Code. For example, the

1989:

for guilt, those practising in most legal systems rely heavily on objective tests to establish the minimum requirement of foresight for recklessness.

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has been highly influential throughout the United States in clarifying the discussion of the different modes of culpability. The following levels of

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would have foreseen and taken precautions to prevent the loss and damage being sustained. Only a small percentage of offences are defined with this

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qualities as the accused, and the test must be whether an accused with these specific attributes would have had the requisite foresight and desire.

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does not use the aforementioned culpability scheme but relies instead on more traditional definitions of crimes taken from common law. For example,

4225: 3606: 1313: 2568: 3444: 1854:– that is, that the accused did not have sufficient understanding of the nature and quality of his actions – then the requisite 1679:) is a criterion for determining whether a criminal act is punishable or pardonable, or whether the penalty for such a crime is predetermined ( 1369:: a "reasonable person" ought to be aware of a "substantial and unjustifiable risk" that is a "gross deviation" from a normal standard of care. 37: 3219: 1596:: the accused willingly committed a criminal act entirely aware of his actions and their consequences. Necessary for murder and for assault. 3128:

For example, in England and Wales, parking on a cycle path is normally illegal, but not for the purpose of responding to an emergency:

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to the accused, on the basis that a reasonable person would have had the mental element in the same circumstances (for negligence); or

3913: 2823: 2318:"The existence of a mens rea is the rule of, rather than the exception to, the principles of Anglo-American criminal jurisprudence." 4349: 3695: 2951:

therefore hardly surprising given the dynamics of the relationship between retributive and utilitarian theory." Martin R. Gardner,

1620: 3957: 3769: 3140: 2533:". . . we must construe the statute in light of the background rules of the common law . . . in which the requirement of some 1985:

prefer to base liability on either intention or recklessness and, faced with the need to establish recklessness as the default

1050: 1377:: the actor "consciously disregards a substantial and unjustifiable risk" in "gross deviation" from a normal standard of care. 1214:, for example. But if a tort is intentionally committed or a contract is intentionally breached, such intent may increase the 3925: 3847: 3739: 1329:

is used as a requirement for committing capital murder, and the Supreme Court has applied mental states such as "willfully."

2190:"A crime ordinarily is not committed if the mind of the person doing the act is innocent." 21 Am. Jur. 2d Criminal Law § 112 4210: 3832: 3797: 1721:

Crimes like tax evasion are specific intent crimes and require intent to violate the law as an element of the offense. In

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Under the tradition of common law, judges would often require a "bad state of mind" in addition to an action or omission (

3827: 1687:). The offender cannot be found guilty until their intention in committing the crime has been taken into consideration. 1191:

The types of mental states that apply to crimes vary depending on whether a jurisdiction follows criminal law under the

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have foresight, but a reasonable person would have, the hybrid test may find criminal negligence. In terms of the

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Gibson, David R; Fox, Matthew P (May 2, 2021). "Facts into faults: The grammar of guilt in jury deliberations".

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26 Ohio Jur. 3d Criminal Law: Procedure § 886 (categorizing mens rea according to general and specific intent)

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in accordance with the laws of the state in question. Historically, the states (with the partial exception of

3982: 3908: 3430: 3241: 932: 445: 4382: 3987: 3587: 3196: 1007: 916: 4154: 3946: 3735: 3700: 3642: 3555: 2071: 1579:: the actor did not actually foresee that the particular consequences would flow from his actions, but a 1569: 1476: 1180: 3273: 4392: 4377: 4116: 3782: 3717: 3706: 3215:"In what circumstances can 'consciousness of guilt' be used as evidence in international criminal law?" 1655:

different terms indicating the required evil intent or mens rea as an essence of a particular offence.

1043: 606: 254: 3192: 1867: 900: 4071: 3941: 3865: 3532: 3527: 2011: 1959: 1845: 1565:: the actor knows, or should know, that the results of his conduct are reasonably certain to occur. 1284: 947: 170: 53: 4036: 3930: 3727: 3657: 3576: 2800: 2141: 2007: 1616: 765: 4235: 3977: 3662: 2758: 2477: 2208:"Strict liability crimes are the exception and not the rule." 21 Am. Jur. 2d Criminal Law § 130 2060: 2003: 1998: 1704: 1338: 1203: 937: 676: 666: 352: 201: 150: 103: 3158: 3116: 2843:

The One-State Solution to Teaching Criminal Law, or, Leaving the Common Law and the Mpc Behind

2293: 2145: 1206:, it is usually not necessary to prove a subjective mental element to establish liability for 4372: 4200: 4121: 4076: 3920: 3731: 3680: 3647: 3362: 3214: 3200: 3175: 2486: 2272: 1813: 1036: 957: 661: 581: 2953:

The Mens Rea Enigma: Observations on the Role of Motive in the Criminal Law Past and Present

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The Mens Rea Enigma: Observations on the Role of Motive in the Criminal Law Past and Present

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In the common law approach as under 18 U.S.C. §1111, the definition of murder includes an

8: 4245: 4003: 3962: 3855: 3611: 3547: 3542: 2699: 2408: 2358: 2023: 1971: 1496: 1469: 1365: 895: 283: 235: 165: 155: 3084: 3051: 1294:

similar to those extant in England, but over time American understandings of common law

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The vast majority of criminal prosecutions in the United States are carried out by the

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is an essential element of federal criminal offenses. Consequently, Title 18 of the

4240: 4131: 4081: 3952: 3888: 3749: 3387: 3316: 3034: 3022: 2919: 2911: 2868: 2646: 2638: 2233: 2086: 2065: 1772: 1449: 1424: 1415: 1353: 1342: 1196: 1078: 927: 885: 880: 737: 631: 526: 221: 45: 3936: 3817: 3807: 3515: 3477: 3381: 3356: 3312: 2980: 2693: 2227: 2039: 1805: 1796: 1215: 1154: 871: 561: 490: 416: 375: 273: 211: 141: 126: 2998:

The Enduring (and Again Timely) Wisdom of the Original MPC Sentencing Provisions

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unless the mind is guilty". As a general rule, someone who acted without mental

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Since the federal government of the United States does not have a generalized

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that judges, prosecutors, and juries may consider when weighing the relative

1935: 747: 601: 313: 263: 49: 1423:

may only be applied where the forbidden conduct is a mere violation, i.e. a

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A court or jury, in determining whether a person has committed an offense,

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physical surroundings and of the ordinary laws of cause and effect (see

1419:: the actor engaged in conduct and his mental state is irrelevant. This 4341: 4308: 4285: 4096: 4026: 3812: 3509: 3422: 3280: 1926: 1664: 1660: 1487: 1431: 1280: 1255: 1150: 1137: 1128: 1024: 910: 862: 717: 712: 546: 338: 318: 308: 288: 240: 160: 113: 3779:

Attempting to choke, &c. in order to commit any indictable offence

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Mental Health and Cognitive Impairment (Forensic Provisions) Act (NSW)

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Because the landscape of criminal law varied from state to state, the

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The Model Penal Code: Is It Like A Classic Movie in Need of A Remake?

2501:"In our federal system, 'Congress cannot punish felonies generally,' 2043: 2019: 1287: 1223: 1116: 852: 847: 821: 790: 780: 742: 636: 616: 556: 531: 505: 485: 470: 2824:"Why Can't Jurors Distinguish 'Knowing' From 'Reckless' Misconduct?" 2541:, 511 U.S. 600, 605, 114 S. Ct. 1793, 1797, 128 L. Ed. 2d 608 (1994) 1583:, in the same circumstances, would have foreseen those consequences. 4293: 4255: 4159: 4061: 973: 905: 857: 811: 775: 727: 702: 640: 576: 541: 425: 402: 397: 380: 343: 323: 1795: – for instance, if the accused made an admissible 4180: 4175: 4149: 4041: 3997: 3837: 3787: 3621: 1531: 1219: 890: 842: 785: 732: 707: 681: 611: 591: 586: 566: 536: 407: 392: 303: 268: 230: 88: 1259:) to find a criminal guilty. Over time, culpable mental states ( 3893: 3240: 3030: 2904:"Should the Model Penal Code's Mens Rea Provisions Be Amended?" 2828: 2137: 1841: 770: 596: 430: 363: 191: 1902:

One of the mental components often raised in issue is that of

1244: 4046: 4021: 2391: 2389: 2031: 1784: 1725:, for example, the Ontario Court of Appeal found as follows: 1158: 626: 571: 521: 3085:"John L. CHEEK, Petitioner, v. UNITED STATES (498 U.S. 192)" 3052:"John L. CHEEK, Petitioner, v. UNITED STATES (498 U.S. 192)" 1690: 4298: 3967: 3883: 3274:"Judicial Council of California Criminal Jury Instructions" 1917:, i.e. entry without consent and damage to property, and a 1817: 1211: 1107: 1104: 1087: 993: 722: 480: 2386: 2217:§ 5.5. Strict liability, 1 Subst. Crim. L. § 5.5 (3d ed.) 1491:(the unlawful killing of a human being) and a common law 1141:("guilty act") before the defendant can be found guilty. 2552:"Office of the Law Revision Counsel, United States Code" 1778:

hybrid, where the test is both subjective and objective.

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A person commits an offense if he: (1) intentionally or

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of a defendant who is accused of committing a crime. In

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crime permits strict liability rather than a mens rea.

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The above mental states also work in a hierarchy, with

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https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R46836/1

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https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R46836/1

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Smith, Hogan, and Ormerod's Essentials of Criminal Law

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Smith, Hogan, and Ormerod's Essentials of Criminal Law

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The Concept of Mens Rea in International Criminal Law

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Murder is the unlawful killing of a human being with

1093: 1090: 3354: 3246:"Relevant Evidence (4.24): "Consciousness of Guilt"" 3174:, 15th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019), 3115:, 15th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), 2946:"To a large extent, the ambiguities surrounding the 2670:

American Law Institute. Model Penal Code. "Forward."

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Differences between common law crimes and MPC crimes

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Assaulting a constable in the execution of his duty

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Assaulting a constable in the execution of his duty

1098: 1084: 1081: 2309:, 27 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 51, 51–52 (2003). 4211:Assault with intent to resist lawful apprehension 3798:Assault with intent to resist lawful apprehension 2968:, 25 Lewis & Clark L. Rev. 607, 643–44 (2021) 2801:"Texas Penal Code Title 5, Chapter 19, Section 2" 2627:"The American Model Penal Code: A Brief Overview" 1943:Recklessness (United States: "willful blindness") 1925:part of the trial, when the court considers what 1746: 1131:jurisdictions, most crimes require proof both of 4364: 3379: 2719:, 141 S. Ct. 1817, 1823, 210 L. Ed. 2d 63 (2021) 2105:MENS REA, Black's Law Dictionary (11th ed. 2019) 3294: 3187:Carlan, P., Nored, L. S., & Downey, R. A., 1241:have been replaced by alternative terminology. 1195:or, within the United States, according to the 2681:Revising the Model Penal Code: Keeping It Real 2624: 2369:INTENT, Black's Law Dictionary (11th ed. 2019) 2322:, 361 U.S. 147, 150, 80 S. Ct. 215, 217 (1959) 1532:Modes of culpability outside the United States 1452:(which adopted the Model Penal Code in 1974): 3438: 3220:Case Western Reserve University School of Law 2987:, 1 Ohio St. J. Crim. L. 157, 158-159 (2003). 2625:Robinson, Paul; Dubber, Markus (2007-07-27). 1044: 34:The examples and perspective in this article 3383:Mens Rea at the International Criminal Court 3262: 3206: 2042:. These are not the typical behaviors of an 1870:provides a statutory framework within which 1787:will have little difficulty in establishing 1440:required of murder in federal law under the 3234: 2158: 1825:, and of lack of mental capacity under the 1524:judgments matched up with the hierarchy of 1236: 1230: 1164:actus reus non facit reum nisi mens sit rea 1162: 1069: 3445: 3431: 2320:Smith v. People of the State of California 1348:Since its publication, the formulation of 1051: 1037: 3345: 3300: 3157:(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 3155:Philosophical Foundations of Criminal Law 2923: 2650: 2581: 2395: 1992: 1702:In the 1991 US Supreme Court opinion for 72:Learn how and when to remove this message 3765:Wounding or causing grievous bodily harm 3452: 3113:Smith, Hogan, and Ormerod's Criminal Law 3027:The Philosophy of Jurisprudence in Islam 2160:'actus non facit reum nisi mens sit rea' 1836:), and one of various statutes defining 3212: 3131:"Road Traffic Act 1998: Section 21" 3079: 3046: 2335:, 139 S. Ct. 2191, 2196 (2019) (citing 1621:Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms 1307: 4365: 3958:Preventing the lawful burial of a body 3770:Assault occasioning actual bodily harm 3013:, 67 Vanderbilt Law Review 1327 (2019) 2901: 2563: 2561: 1965: 1897: 1829:, an alternate common law rule (e.g., 3926:Incitement to ethnic or racial hatred 3426: 2976: 2974: 2854: 2742: 2740: 2727: 2725: 2666: 2664: 2662: 2620: 2618: 2616: 2614: 2177: 2175: 2173: 2119: 2117: 2115: 2113: 2111: 1274: 3833:Offences Against the Person Act 1861 3153:Duff, R. A., & Green, S., eds., 1544: 20: 3242:New York State Unified Court System 2955:, 1993 Utah L. Rev. 635, 640 (1993) 2845:, 8 Ohio St. J. Crim. L. 167 (2010) 2683:, 1 Ohio St. J. Crim. L. 219 (2003) 2558: 2167:, 1993 Utah L. Rev. 635, 636 (1993) 2123:1 Subst. Crim. L. § 5.1(a) (3d ed.) 1751:A hybrid test for the existence of 1699:good faith ignorance as a defense. 1479:causes the death of an individual. 1332: 13: 3412:Criminal Responsibility and Intent 3339: 3000:, 61 Fla. L. Rev. 709, 722 (2009). 2971: 2737: 2722: 2659: 2611: 2170: 2134:Strategic Indeterminacy in the Law 2108: 16:In criminal law, the "guilty mind" 14: 4409: 3405: 3170:Allen, M. J., & Edwards, I., 2537:for a crime is firmly embedded." 2199:21 Am. Jur. 2d Criminal Law § 127 2193: 1691:Ignorance of law contrasted with 1229:In some jurisdictions, the terms 4226:Encouraging or assisting a crime 4186:Perverting the course of justice 3607:Encouraging or assisting a crime 2762:, Tex. Penal Code Ann. § 6.02(e) 2157:"By the time of Coke, the maxim 2080:Flores-Figueroa v. United States 2034:or other wrongdoing are seen as 1077: 687:Perverting the course of justice 87: 25: 4350:History of English criminal law 4241:Obstruction of a police officer 3904:Fear or provocation of violence 3189:An Introduction to Criminal Law 3181: 3164: 3147: 3122: 3102: 3073: 3040: 3016: 3003: 2990: 2958: 2940: 2895: 2848: 2835: 2816: 2807: 2793: 2784: 2775: 2766: 2752: 2749:, 141 S. Ct. 1817, 1823 (2021). 2734:, 141 S. Ct. 1817, 1824 (2021). 2709: 2686: 2673: 2599: 2587: 2544: 2527: 2524:, 139 S. Ct. 2191, 2195 (2019). 2513: 2495: 2470: 2461: 2447: 2438: 2425: 2413: 2401: 2372: 2363: 2351: 2342: 2325: 2312: 2299: 2278: 2257: 2248: 2239: 2220: 1767:objective, where the requisite 1401:as the lowest mental state and 1144: 582:Intellectual property violation 4251:Refusing to assist a constable 4067:Taking without owner's consent 3348:Criminal Law: Model Penal Code 3270:Judicial Council of California 2211: 2202: 2184: 2151: 2126: 2099: 1747:Subjective and objective tests 1670: 1508:: "purposeful" and "knowing". 1290:) applied common law rules of 1: 4271:Fabrication of false evidence 3983:Misconduct in a public office 3909:Harassment, alarm or distress 3483:Regulatory (lowered mens rea) 3355:Badar, Mohamed Elewa (2013). 2092: 2026:, and judges are required to 1512:Limits and criticisms of MPC 3988:Misfeasance in public office 3588:Ignorantia juris non excusat 2855:Baron, Marcia (2019-09-28). 1816:, the requirement is that a 1627: 917:Ignorantia juris non excusat 7: 4155:Cheating the public revenue 3947:Effecting a public mischief 3793:Assault with intent to rape 3089:Legal Information Institute 3056:Legal Information Institute 2902:Simons, Kenneth W. (2003). 2861:Criminal Law and Philosophy 2608:, 524 U.S. 184, 192 (1998). 2510:, 578 U.S. 452, 457 (2016). 2072:Morissette v. United States 2049: 1844:. Moreover, if there is an 1675:In Islamic law, intention ( 1587: 48:, discuss the issue on the 10: 4414: 4231:Escape from lawful custody 4117:Fraud by abuse of position 3783:Assault with intent to rob 3707:Category:Criminal defences 3346:Dubber, Markus D. (2002). 3011:"The Language of Mens Rea" 2873:10.1007/s11572-019-09509-5 2643:10.1525/nclr.2007.10.3.319 2229:Criminal Law and Procedure 1996: 1969: 1946: 1929:, if any, is appropriate. 1179:. Exceptions are known as 607:Possessing stolen property 255:Offense against the person 4347:For obsolete aspects see 4336: 4284: 4168: 4140: 4082:Misappropriation of funds 4014:Offences against property 4012: 3874: 3846: 3716: 3696:Diminished responsibility 3635: 3597: 3569: 3501: 3460: 3380:Knoops, G.-J. A. (2017). 3321:10.1177/14614456211001605 3143:, 1998 c. 52 (s. 21) 1868:Criminal Justice Act 1967 1610: 901:Diminished responsibility 695:Crimes against the public 4169:Offences against justice 3942:Outraging public decency 3866:Sexual Offences Act 2003 3667:inc. participation in a 3577:Lesser included offences 3533:Intention in English law 3528:Intention (criminal law) 2539:Staples v. United States 1960:involuntary manslaughter 1874:is assessed. It states: 1846:irrebuttable presumption 1645: 1463:Texas Penal Code §19.02 1249:within the United States 830:Crimes against the state 750:(such as prohibition of 4388:Latin legal terminology 3213:Paulett, Sarah (2007). 2908:SSRN Electronic Journal 2772:Model Penal Code § 2.05 2747:Borden v. United States 2732:Borden v. United States 2717:Borden v. United States 2631:New Criminal Law Review 2522:Rehaif v. United States 2433:Commonwealth v. Webster 2420:United States v. Bailey 2333:Rehaif v. United States 2142:Oxford University Press 2008:circumstantial evidence 1799:. This would satisfy a 1617:Supreme Court of Canada 1167:, i.e. "the act is not 514:Crimes against property 204:(also called violation) 4286:Other common law areas 4236:Obstruction of justice 3978:Accessory (legal term) 3740:Corporate manslaughter 2606:Bryan v. United States 2596:, 548 U.S. 1, 5 (2006) 2594:Dixon v. United States 2569:"18 USC §1111: Murder" 2478:United States v. Lopez 2159: 2061:Command responsibility 2004:Consciousness of guilt 1999:Consciousness of guilt 1993:Consciousness of guilt 1892: 1732: 1719: 1705:Cheek v. United States 1339:American Law Institute 1237: 1231: 1163: 1070: 966:Other common-law areas 799:Crimes against animals 667:Miscarriage of justice 649:Crimes against justice 4201:Misprision of treason 4122:Conspiracy to defraud 4077:Handling stolen goods 3921:Public Order Act 1986 3876:Public order offences 3141:The National Archives 1876: 1727: 1714: 1444:is distinct from the 872:Defenses to liability 662:Malfeasance in office 4221:Harboring a fugitive 4191:Witness intimidation 4141:Forgery, personation 3760:Concealment of birth 3454:English criminal law 3272:Advisory Committee. 3029:, trans. F. Ziadeh ( 3009:Matthew R. Ginther, 1683:) or discretionary ( 1448:of murder under the 1308:Federal criminal law 1193:common law tradition 1157:is expressed in the 718:Censorship violation 441:Cybersex trafficking 54:create a new article 46:improve this article 36:may not represent a 4383:Forensic psychology 4276:Rescuing a prisoner 4246:Wasting police time 4004:Dereliction of duty 3963:Breach of the peace 3681:Prevention of crime 3543:Criminal negligence 3350:. Foundation Press. 3111:, & Laird, K., 2916:10.2139/ssrn.397642 2832:, January 11, 2012. 2706:, 2007), pp. 60–62. 2700:Alphen aan den Rijn 2503:Cohens v. Virginia, 2339:, 342 U.S. at 250). 2307:Inevitable Mens Rea 2236:, 2015), pp. 63–64. 2024:admissible evidence 1972:Criminal negligence 1966:Criminal negligence 1898:Relevance of motive 1791:if there is actual 1619:has found that the 1577:Criminal negligence 1497:malice aforethought 1470:malice aforethought 1456: 1327:malice aforethought 896:Defense of property 748:Illegal consumption 284:Criminal negligence 184:Severity of offense 4342:English law portal 4328:Criminal procedure 3993:Abuse of authority 3823:False imprisonment 3674:Medical procedures 3502:Elements of crimes 3197:Jones and Bartlett 3136:legislation.gov.uk 2292:,, 3rd ed., 2019, 2018:or innocence of a 1981:requirement. Most 1949:Recklessness (law) 1741:vagueness doctrine 1455: 1442:United States Code 1323:United States Code 1275:State criminal law 1216:scope of liability 1208:breach of contract 1186:transferred intent 817:Wildlife smuggling 807:Cruelty to animals 436:Child sexual abuse 388:Negligent homicide 299:False imprisonment 196:Indictable offense 140:Scope of criminal 4393:Mental health law 4378:Elements of crime 4360: 4359: 4266:Contempt of court 4196:Witness tampering 3914:intent aggravates 3899:Unlawful assembly 3755:Child destruction 3599:Inchoate offences 3461:Classes of crimes 3304:Discourse Studies 3023:Maḥmaṣṣānī, S. R. 2398:, pp. 60–80. 2284:Child, J., & 2263:Child, J., & 2040:guilty conscience 1953:Willful blindness 1652:Indian Penal Code 1604:culpable homicide 1581:reasonable person 1557:Oblique intention 1545:England and Wales 1483: 1482: 1352:set forth in the 1175:is not liable in 1153:test of criminal 1061: 1060: 461:Indecent exposure 329:Human trafficking 294:Domestic violence 222:Inchoate offenses 82: 81: 74: 56:, as appropriate. 4405: 4132:Webcam blackmail 3953:disorderly house 3889:Violent disorder 3750:Unlawful killing 3718:Offences against 3556:Strict liability 3447: 3440: 3433: 3424: 3423: 3401: 3376: 3351: 3333: 3332: 3298: 3292: 3291: 3289: 3287: 3278: 3266: 3260: 3259: 3257: 3255: 3250: 3238: 3232: 3231: 3229: 3227: 3210: 3204: 3185: 3179: 3168: 3162: 3151: 3145: 3144: 3126: 3120: 3106: 3100: 3099: 3097: 3095: 3077: 3071: 3070: 3064: 3062: 3044: 3038: 3037:, 1961), p. 160. 3020: 3014: 3007: 3001: 2994: 2988: 2978: 2969: 2962: 2956: 2944: 2938: 2937: 2927: 2899: 2893: 2892: 2852: 2846: 2839: 2833: 2820: 2814: 2811: 2805: 2804: 2797: 2791: 2788: 2782: 2779: 2773: 2770: 2764: 2756: 2750: 2744: 2735: 2729: 2720: 2713: 2707: 2690: 2684: 2677: 2671: 2668: 2657: 2656: 2654: 2622: 2609: 2603: 2597: 2591: 2585: 2579: 2573: 2572: 2565: 2556: 2555: 2548: 2542: 2531: 2525: 2517: 2511: 2499: 2493: 2474: 2468: 2465: 2459: 2451: 2445: 2442: 2436: 2429: 2423: 2417: 2411: 2405: 2399: 2393: 2384: 2376: 2370: 2367: 2361: 2355: 2349: 2346: 2340: 2329: 2323: 2316: 2310: 2303: 2297: 2282: 2276: 2261: 2255: 2252: 2246: 2243: 2237: 2234:Cengage Learning 2224: 2218: 2215: 2209: 2206: 2200: 2197: 2191: 2188: 2182: 2179: 2168: 2162: 2155: 2149: 2130: 2124: 2121: 2106: 2103: 2087:Voluntas necandi 2066:Henry de Bracton 1650:Mens Rea in the 1551:Direct intention 1460:18 U.S.C. §1111 1457: 1454: 1450:Texas Penal Code 1425:civil infraction 1416:Strict liability 1354:Model Penal Code 1343:Model Penal Code 1333:Model Penal Code 1240: 1234: 1197:Model Penal Code 1181:strict liability 1166: 1114: 1113: 1110: 1109: 1106: 1103: 1100: 1096: 1095: 1092: 1089: 1086: 1083: 1073: 1053: 1046: 1039: 1010: 881:Actual innocence 738:Ethnic cleansing 632:Trespass to land 527:Arms trafficking 91: 84: 83: 77: 70: 66: 63: 57: 29: 28: 21: 4413: 4412: 4408: 4407: 4406: 4404: 4403: 4402: 4363: 4362: 4361: 4356: 4332: 4280: 4164: 4142: 4136: 4052:Criminal damage 4008: 3937:Public nuisance 3870: 3848:Sexual offences 3842: 3818:Child abduction 3719: 3712: 3658:Loss of control 3631: 3593: 3565: 3497: 3456: 3451: 3408: 3398: 3373: 3363:Hart Publishing 3342: 3340:Further reading 3337: 3336: 3313:Sage Publishing 3299: 3295: 3285: 3283: 3276: 3267: 3263: 3253: 3251: 3248: 3239: 3235: 3225: 3223: 3211: 3207: 3186: 3182: 3169: 3165: 3152: 3148: 3129: 3127: 3123: 3107: 3103: 3093: 3091: 3078: 3074: 3060: 3058: 3045: 3041: 3021: 3017: 3008: 3004: 2995: 2991: 2981:Joshua Dressler 2979: 2972: 2963: 2959: 2945: 2941: 2900: 2896: 2853: 2849: 2840: 2836: 2821: 2817: 2812: 2808: 2799: 2798: 2794: 2789: 2785: 2780: 2776: 2771: 2767: 2757: 2753: 2745: 2738: 2730: 2723: 2714: 2710: 2691: 2687: 2678: 2674: 2669: 2660: 2623: 2612: 2604: 2600: 2592: 2588: 2580: 2576: 2567: 2566: 2559: 2550: 2549: 2545: 2532: 2528: 2518: 2514: 2508:Torres v. Lynch 2500: 2496: 2475: 2471: 2466: 2462: 2452: 2448: 2443: 2439: 2430: 2426: 2418: 2414: 2406: 2402: 2394: 2387: 2377: 2373: 2368: 2364: 2356: 2352: 2347: 2343: 2330: 2326: 2317: 2313: 2304: 2300: 2283: 2279: 2262: 2258: 2253: 2249: 2244: 2240: 2225: 2221: 2216: 2212: 2207: 2203: 2198: 2194: 2189: 2185: 2180: 2171: 2156: 2152: 2131: 2127: 2122: 2109: 2104: 2100: 2095: 2052: 2028:instruct juries 2012:criminal intent 2001: 1995: 1974: 1968: 1955: 1947:Main articles: 1945: 1900: 1891: 1890: 1827:M'Naghten Rules 1814:burden of proof 1781: 1755:is as follows: 1749: 1696: 1673: 1648: 1630: 1613: 1590: 1547: 1534: 1517: 1434: 1335: 1310: 1277: 1251: 1222:payable to the 1147: 1097: 1080: 1076: 1057: 998: 562:False pretenses 491:Sex trafficking 417:Sexual offenses 376:Preterintention 212:Summary offense 78: 67: 61: 58: 43: 30: 26: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4411: 4401: 4400: 4395: 4390: 4385: 4380: 4375: 4358: 4357: 4355: 4354: 4345: 4337: 4334: 4333: 4331: 4330: 4325: 4320: 4311: 4306: 4301: 4296: 4290: 4288: 4282: 4281: 4279: 4278: 4273: 4268: 4263: 4258: 4253: 4248: 4243: 4238: 4233: 4228: 4223: 4218: 4213: 4208: 4206:Jury tampering 4203: 4198: 4193: 4188: 4183: 4178: 4172: 4170: 4166: 4165: 4163: 4162: 4157: 4152: 4146: 4144: 4138: 4137: 4135: 4134: 4129: 4124: 4119: 4114: 4112:Fraud Act 2006 4109: 4107:Theft Act 1978 4104: 4102:Theft Act 1968 4099: 4094: 4089: 4084: 4079: 4074: 4069: 4064: 4059: 4054: 4049: 4044: 4039: 4034: 4032:Cheating (law) 4029: 4024: 4018: 4016: 4010: 4009: 4007: 4006: 4001: 3995: 3990: 3985: 3980: 3975: 3973:Forcible entry 3970: 3965: 3960: 3955: 3949: 3944: 3939: 3933: 3928: 3923: 3918: 3917: 3916: 3906: 3901: 3896: 3891: 3886: 3880: 3878: 3872: 3871: 3869: 3868: 3863: 3861:Sexual assault 3858: 3852: 3850: 3844: 3843: 3841: 3840: 3835: 3830: 3825: 3820: 3815: 3810: 3805: 3800: 3795: 3790: 3785: 3780: 3777: 3775:Common assault 3772: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3752: 3747: 3724: 3722: 3714: 3713: 3711: 3710: 3703: 3698: 3693: 3688: 3683: 3678: 3677: 3676: 3671: 3669:sporting event 3660: 3655: 3650: 3645: 3639: 3637: 3633: 3632: 3630: 3629: 3627:Common purpose 3624: 3619: 3614: 3609: 3603: 3601: 3595: 3594: 3592: 3591: 3584: 3579: 3573: 3571: 3567: 3566: 3564: 3563: 3558: 3545: 3540: 3535: 3530: 3525: 3518: 3513: 3505: 3503: 3499: 3498: 3496: 3495: 3490: 3485: 3480: 3475: 3470: 3464: 3462: 3458: 3457: 3450: 3449: 3442: 3435: 3427: 3421: 3420: 3414: 3407: 3406:External links 3404: 3403: 3402: 3396: 3377: 3371: 3352: 3341: 3338: 3335: 3334: 3293: 3261: 3233: 3205: 3193:Burlington, MA 3180: 3163: 3146: 3121: 3101: 3072: 3039: 3015: 3002: 2989: 2970: 2957: 2939: 2894: 2847: 2834: 2815: 2806: 2792: 2783: 2774: 2765: 2751: 2736: 2721: 2708: 2704:Wolters Kluwer 2692:Blond, N. C., 2685: 2672: 2658: 2637:(3): 319–341. 2610: 2598: 2586: 2574: 2557: 2543: 2526: 2512: 2494: 2469: 2460: 2446: 2437: 2424: 2412: 2400: 2385: 2371: 2362: 2350: 2341: 2324: 2311: 2298: 2277: 2256: 2247: 2238: 2219: 2210: 2201: 2192: 2183: 2169: 2150: 2125: 2107: 2097: 2096: 2094: 2091: 2090: 2089: 2084: 2076: 2068: 2063: 2058: 2056:Animus nocendi 2051: 2048: 1997:Main article: 1994: 1991: 1970:Main article: 1967: 1964: 1944: 1941: 1899: 1896: 1889: 1888: 1885: 1881: 1880: 1838:mental illness 1780: 1779: 1776: 1765: 1757: 1748: 1745: 1695: 1689: 1672: 1669: 1647: 1644: 1629: 1626: 1612: 1609: 1608: 1607: 1597: 1589: 1586: 1585: 1584: 1574: 1566: 1560: 1554: 1546: 1543: 1536:The levels of 1533: 1530: 1516: 1510: 1481: 1480: 1473: 1465: 1464: 1461: 1433: 1430: 1429: 1428: 1395: 1394: 1384: 1378: 1370: 1334: 1331: 1309: 1306: 1281:several states 1276: 1273: 1250: 1243: 1146: 1143: 1059: 1058: 1056: 1055: 1048: 1041: 1033: 1030: 1029: 1028: 1027: 1019: 1018: 1014: 1013: 1012: 1011: 996: 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163: 158: 153: 145: 144: 137: 136: 135: 134: 129: 124: 117: 107: 106: 100: 99: 93: 92: 80: 79: 40:of the subject 38:worldwide view 33: 31: 24: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4410: 4399: 4396: 4394: 4391: 4389: 4386: 4384: 4381: 4379: 4376: 4374: 4371: 4370: 4368: 4353: 4351: 4346: 4344: 4343: 4339: 4338: 4335: 4329: 4326: 4324: 4321: 4319: 4315: 4312: 4310: 4307: 4305: 4302: 4300: 4297: 4295: 4292: 4291: 4289: 4287: 4283: 4277: 4274: 4272: 4269: 4267: 4264: 4262: 4259: 4257: 4254: 4252: 4249: 4247: 4244: 4242: 4239: 4237: 4234: 4232: 4229: 4227: 4224: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4214: 4212: 4209: 4207: 4204: 4202: 4199: 4197: 4194: 4192: 4189: 4187: 4184: 4182: 4179: 4177: 4174: 4173: 4171: 4167: 4161: 4158: 4156: 4153: 4151: 4148: 4147: 4145: 4139: 4133: 4130: 4128: 4125: 4123: 4120: 4118: 4115: 4113: 4110: 4108: 4105: 4103: 4100: 4098: 4095: 4093: 4090: 4088: 4085: 4083: 4080: 4078: 4075: 4073: 4070: 4068: 4065: 4063: 4060: 4058: 4055: 4053: 4050: 4048: 4045: 4043: 4040: 4038: 4035: 4033: 4030: 4028: 4025: 4023: 4020: 4019: 4017: 4015: 4011: 4005: 4002: 3999: 3996: 3994: 3991: 3989: 3986: 3984: 3981: 3979: 3976: 3974: 3971: 3969: 3966: 3964: 3961: 3959: 3956: 3954: 3950: 3948: 3945: 3943: 3940: 3938: 3934: 3932: 3929: 3927: 3924: 3922: 3919: 3915: 3912: 3911: 3910: 3907: 3905: 3902: 3900: 3897: 3895: 3892: 3890: 3887: 3885: 3882: 3881: 3879: 3877: 3873: 3867: 3864: 3862: 3859: 3857: 3854: 3853: 3851: 3849: 3845: 3839: 3836: 3834: 3831: 3829: 3826: 3824: 3821: 3819: 3816: 3814: 3811: 3809: 3806: 3804: 3801: 3799: 3796: 3794: 3791: 3789: 3786: 3784: 3781: 3778: 3776: 3773: 3771: 3768: 3766: 3763: 3761: 3758: 3756: 3753: 3751: 3748: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3726: 3725: 3723: 3721: 3715: 3709: 3708: 3704: 3702: 3699: 3697: 3694: 3692: 3689: 3687: 3686:Lawful excuse 3684: 3682: 3679: 3675: 3672: 3670: 3666: 3665: 3664: 3661: 3659: 3656: 3654: 3651: 3649: 3646: 3644: 3641: 3640: 3638: 3634: 3628: 3625: 3623: 3620: 3618: 3615: 3613: 3610: 3608: 3605: 3604: 3602: 3600: 3596: 3590: 3589: 3585: 3583: 3580: 3578: 3575: 3574: 3572: 3568: 3562: 3559: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3546: 3544: 3541: 3539: 3536: 3534: 3531: 3529: 3526: 3524: 3523: 3519: 3517: 3514: 3512: 3511: 3507: 3506: 3504: 3500: 3494: 3491: 3489: 3486: 3484: 3481: 3479: 3476: 3474: 3471: 3469: 3466: 3465: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3448: 3443: 3441: 3436: 3434: 3429: 3428: 3425: 3419: 3415: 3413: 3410: 3409: 3399: 3397:9789004307889 3393: 3389: 3385: 3384: 3378: 3374: 3372:9781782250661 3368: 3364: 3360: 3359: 3353: 3349: 3344: 3343: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3305: 3297: 3282: 3275: 3271: 3265: 3247: 3243: 3237: 3222: 3221: 3216: 3209: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3184: 3177: 3173: 3167: 3160: 3156: 3150: 3142: 3138: 3137: 3132: 3125: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3105: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3076: 3069: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3043: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3019: 3012: 3006: 2999: 2993: 2986: 2982: 2977: 2975: 2967: 2961: 2954: 2949: 2943: 2935: 2931: 2926: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2898: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2851: 2844: 2838: 2831: 2830: 2825: 2822:Colb, S. F., 2819: 2810: 2802: 2796: 2787: 2778: 2769: 2763: 2761: 2755: 2748: 2743: 2741: 2733: 2728: 2726: 2718: 2712: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2696: 2689: 2682: 2676: 2667: 2665: 2663: 2653: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2621: 2619: 2617: 2615: 2607: 2602: 2595: 2590: 2584:, p. 55. 2583: 2582:Dubber (2002) 2578: 2570: 2564: 2562: 2553: 2547: 2540: 2536: 2530: 2523: 2516: 2509: 2504: 2498: 2491: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2479: 2473: 2464: 2457: 2456:intentionally 2450: 2441: 2434: 2428: 2421: 2416: 2410: 2404: 2397: 2396:Dubber (2002) 2392: 2390: 2381: 2375: 2366: 2360: 2354: 2345: 2338: 2334: 2328: 2321: 2315: 2308: 2302: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2281: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2260: 2251: 2242: 2235: 2231: 2230: 2226:Hall, D. E., 2223: 2214: 2205: 2196: 2187: 2178: 2176: 2174: 2166: 2161: 2154: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2129: 2120: 2118: 2116: 2114: 2112: 2102: 2098: 2088: 2085: 2082: 2081: 2077: 2074: 2073: 2069: 2067: 2064: 2062: 2059: 2057: 2054: 2053: 2047: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2006:is a type of 2005: 2000: 1990: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1973: 1963: 1961: 1954: 1950: 1940: 1938: 1937: 1936:DPP v Ziegler 1930: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1911: 1909: 1905: 1895: 1886: 1883: 1882: 1879: 1875: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1860: 1857: 1853: 1852: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1833: 1828: 1824: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1777: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1763: 1759: 1758: 1756: 1754: 1744: 1742: 1736: 1731: 1726: 1724: 1723:R v. Klundert 1718: 1713: 1711: 1707: 1706: 1700: 1694: 1688: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1668: 1666: 1662: 1656: 1653: 1643: 1640: 1636: 1625: 1622: 1618: 1605: 1601: 1598: 1595: 1592: 1591: 1582: 1578: 1575: 1572: 1571: 1567: 1564: 1561: 1558: 1555: 1552: 1549: 1548: 1542: 1539: 1529: 1527: 1521: 1515: 1509: 1507: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1489: 1478: 1474: 1471: 1467: 1466: 1462: 1459: 1458: 1453: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1417: 1413: 1412: 1411: 1407: 1404: 1400: 1392: 1388: 1385: 1382: 1379: 1376: 1375: 1371: 1368: 1367: 1363: 1362: 1361: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1346: 1344: 1340: 1330: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1315: 1305: 1302: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1286: 1282: 1272: 1268: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1257: 1248: 1242: 1239: 1233: 1227: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1200: 1198: 1194: 1189: 1187: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1165: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1149:The standard 1142: 1140: 1139: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1112: 1074: 1072: 1066: 1054: 1049: 1047: 1042: 1040: 1035: 1034: 1032: 1031: 1026: 1023: 1022: 1021: 1020: 1016: 1015: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 995: 992: 990: 987: 985: 982: 980: 977: 975: 972: 971: 970: 969: 965: 964: 959: 956: 954: 951: 949: 946: 943: 939: 936: 934: 933:Justification 931: 929: 926: 924: 921: 919: 918: 914: 912: 909: 907: 904: 902: 899: 897: 894: 892: 889: 887: 884: 882: 879: 878: 877: 876: 873: 870: 869: 864: 861: 859: 856: 854: 851: 849: 846: 844: 841: 839: 836: 835: 834: 833: 829: 828: 823: 820: 818: 815: 813: 810: 808: 805: 804: 803: 802: 798: 797: 792: 789: 787: 784: 782: 779: 777: 774: 772: 769: 767: 766:Miscegenation 764: 761: 757: 753: 749: 746: 744: 741: 739: 736: 734: 731: 729: 726: 724: 721: 719: 716: 714: 711: 709: 706: 704: 701: 700: 699: 698: 694: 693: 688: 685: 683: 680: 678: 675: 673: 670: 668: 665: 663: 660: 658: 655: 654: 653: 652: 648: 647: 642: 638: 635: 633: 630: 628: 625: 623: 620: 618: 615: 613: 610: 608: 605: 603: 602:Pickpocketing 600: 598: 595: 593: 590: 588: 585: 583: 580: 578: 575: 573: 570: 568: 565: 563: 560: 558: 555: 553: 550: 548: 545: 543: 540: 538: 535: 533: 530: 528: 525: 523: 520: 519: 518: 517: 513: 512: 507: 504: 502: 499: 497: 494: 492: 489: 487: 484: 482: 479: 477: 474: 472: 469: 467: 464: 462: 459: 457: 454: 452: 451:Homosexuality 449: 447: 444: 442: 439: 437: 434: 432: 429: 427: 424: 423: 422: 421: 418: 415: 414: 409: 406: 404: 401: 399: 396: 394: 391: 389: 386: 382: 379: 378: 377: 374: 370: 367: 366: 365: 362: 360: 357: 354: 350: 347: 345: 342: 340: 337: 335: 332: 330: 327: 325: 322: 320: 317: 315: 314:Home invasion 312: 310: 307: 305: 302: 300: 297: 295: 292: 290: 287: 285: 282: 280: 277: 275: 272: 270: 267: 265: 264:Assassination 262: 261: 260: 259: 256: 253: 252: 247: 244: 242: 239: 237: 234: 232: 229: 228: 227: 226: 223: 220: 219: 213: 209: 206: 203: 200: 197: 193: 190: 189: 188: 187: 183: 182: 177: 174: 172: 169: 167: 164: 162: 159: 157: 154: 152: 149: 148: 147: 146: 143: 139: 138: 133: 130: 128: 125: 123: 122: 118: 116: 115: 111: 110: 109: 108: 105: 102: 101: 98: 95: 94: 90: 86: 85: 76: 73: 65: 55: 51: 47: 41: 39: 32: 23: 22: 19: 4373:Criminal law 4348: 4340: 4143:and cheating 4127:Fare evasion 3736:Manslaughter 3705: 3701:Intoxication 3643:Self-defence 3586: 3538:Recklessness 3521: 3520: 3508: 3382: 3357: 3347: 3308: 3302: 3296: 3284:. Retrieved 3264: 3252:. Retrieved 3236: 3224:. Retrieved 3218: 3208: 3188: 3183: 3172:Criminal Law 3171: 3166: 3154: 3149: 3134: 3124: 3112: 3104: 3092:. Retrieved 3088: 3075: 3066: 3059:. Retrieved 3055: 3042: 3026: 3018: 3005: 2997: 2992: 2984: 2965: 2960: 2952: 2947: 2942: 2907: 2897: 2867:(1): 69–89. 2864: 2860: 2850: 2842: 2837: 2827: 2818: 2809: 2795: 2786: 2777: 2768: 2759: 2754: 2746: 2731: 2716: 2711: 2695:Criminal Law 2694: 2688: 2680: 2675: 2634: 2630: 2605: 2601: 2593: 2589: 2577: 2546: 2538: 2534: 2529: 2521: 2515: 2507: 2502: 2497: 2492: (1995). 2476: 2472: 2463: 2455: 2449: 2440: 2432: 2427: 2419: 2415: 2403: 2379: 2374: 2365: 2353: 2344: 2336: 2332: 2327: 2319: 2314: 2306: 2301: 2289: 2280: 2268: 2259: 2250: 2241: 2228: 2222: 2213: 2204: 2195: 2186: 2164: 2153: 2133: 2132:Lanius, D., 2128: 2101: 2078: 2070: 2002: 1986: 1983:legislatures 1978: 1975: 1956: 1934: 1931: 1918: 1914: 1912: 1901: 1893: 1877: 1871: 1861: 1855: 1851:doli incapax 1849: 1831: 1809: 1800: 1788: 1782: 1768: 1752: 1750: 1737: 1733: 1728: 1722: 1720: 1715: 1703: 1701: 1697: 1692: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1674: 1665:fraudulently 1657: 1649: 1634: 1631: 1614: 1600:Recklessness 1599: 1593: 1576: 1570:Recklessness 1568: 1562: 1556: 1550: 1537: 1535: 1525: 1522: 1518: 1513: 1505: 1500: 1492: 1486: 1484: 1445: 1437: 1435: 1420: 1414: 1408: 1403:purposefully 1402: 1398: 1396: 1390: 1389:: the actor 1387:Purposefully 1386: 1380: 1372: 1364: 1357: 1349: 1347: 1336: 1326: 1318: 1314:police power 1311: 1300: 1295: 1291: 1278: 1269: 1264: 1260: 1254: 1252: 1246: 1228: 1201: 1190: 1177:criminal law 1148: 1145:Introduction 1136: 1132: 1125:mental state 1120: 1068: 1065:criminal law 1062: 958:Self-defense 915: 838:Lèse-majesté 552:Embezzlement 476:Prostitution 466:Masturbation 349:Manslaughter 334:Intimidation 246:Solicitation 120: 119: 112: 97:Criminal law 68: 59: 35: 18: 3744:Infanticide 3582:Concurrence 3315:: 474–496. 3254:January 31, 3117:pp. 876–877 3109:Ormerod, D. 3081:Byron White 3048:Byron White 3035:E. J. Brill 2286:Ormerod, D. 2265:Ormerod, D. 1864:English law 1771:element is 1762:concurrence 1710:Byron White 1671:Islamic law 1391:consciously 1366:Negligently 1121:guilty mind 953:Provocation 677:Obstruction 657:Compounding 622:Tax evasion 446:Fornication 279:Child abuse 208:Misdemeanor 132:Concurrence 4367:Categories 4097:Cybercrime 4027:Dishonesty 3951:Keeping a 3828:Harassment 3813:Kidnapping 3720:the person 3612:Conspiracy 3510:Actus reus 3493:Common law 3473:Either way 3468:Indictable 3281:LexisNexis 2925:1811/72582 2652:1807/87911 2337:Morissette 2093:References 1927:punishment 1923:sentencing 1915:actus reus 1801:subjective 1661:dishonesty 1488:actus reus 1399:negligence 1374:Recklessly 1256:actus reus 1245:Levels of 1238:actus reus 1151:common law 1138:actus reus 1129:common law 1123:") is the 911:Entrapment 886:Automatism 863:Subversion 822:Bestiality 791:War crimes 786:Usurpation 713:Corruption 672:Misprision 547:Cybercrime 339:Kidnapping 319:Hate crime 309:Harassment 289:Defamation 241:Incitement 236:Conspiracy 202:Infraction 161:Complicity 156:Accomplice 114:Actus reus 4398:Intention 4261:Espionage 4092:Extortion 4087:Blackmail 4072:Deception 4057:Squatting 3653:Necessity 3617:Accessory 3570:Doctrines 3561:Omissions 3552:Vicarious 3548:Corporate 3516:Causation 3488:Statutory 3329:1461-4456 3199:, 2011), 2934:1556-5068 2889:204394428 2881:1871-9791 2380:mens rea, 2232:(Boston: 2144:, 2019), 2020:defendant 1806:causation 1797:admission 1628:Australia 1594:Intention 1563:Knowingly 1477:knowingly 1381:Knowingly 1288:Louisiana 1285:civil-law 1224:plaintiff 1204:civil law 1155:liability 1117:Law Latin 974:Contracts 948:Necessity 853:Secession 848:Espionage 781:Terrorism 743:Smuggling 637:Vandalism 617:Smuggling 557:Extortion 532:Blackmail 506:Voyeurism 486:Pederasty 471:Obscenity 353:corporate 176:Vicarious 171:Principal 166:Corporate 151:Accessory 142:liability 127:Causation 62:July 2023 50:talk page 4323:Evidence 4304:Property 4294:Contract 4256:Sedition 4160:Uttering 4062:Trespass 4037:Burglary 3935:Causing 3931:Nuisance 3728:Homicide 3691:Insanity 3636:Defences 3522:Mens rea 3286:April 3, 3226:April 1, 2966:Mess Rea 2948:mens rea 2760:See e.g. 2535:mens rea 2050:See also 2044:innocent 2036:evidence 2022:. It is 1987:mens rea 1979:mens rea 1919:mens rea 1908:credible 1872:mens rea 1856:mens rea 1793:evidence 1789:mens rea 1769:mens rea 1753:mens rea 1693:mens rea 1635:mens rea 1588:Scotland 1538:mens rea 1526:mens rea 1514:mens rea 1506:mens rea 1493:mens rea 1446:mens rea 1438:mens rea 1421:mens rea 1358:mens rea 1350:mens rea 1319:mens rea 1301:mens rea 1296:mens rea 1292:mens rea 1265:mens rea 1261:mens rea 1247:mens rea 1232:mens rea 1218:and the 1169:culpable 1133:mens rea 1071:mens rea 989:Property 984:Evidence 979:Defenses 928:Insanity 858:Sedition 812:Poaching 776:Regicide 728:Genocide 703:Apostasy 641:Mischief 577:Gambling 542:Burglary 426:Adultery 403:Stabbing 398:Stalking 381:Homicide 344:Menacing 324:Homicide 121:Mens rea 104:Elements 44:You may 4318:estates 4181:Perjury 4176:Bribery 4150:Forgery 4042:Robbery 4000:of oath 3998:Perjury 3838:Treason 3808:Battery 3788:Robbery 3663:Consent 3622:Attempt 3478:Summary 1866:, s. 8 1823:infancy 1773:imputed 1712:wrote: 1501:results 1220:damages 1161:phrase 1017:Portals 1008:estates 940: ( 938:Mistake 923:Infancy 891:Consent 843:Treason 760:smoking 756:alcohol 723:Dueling 708:Begging 682:Perjury 612:Robbery 592:Looting 587:Larceny 567:Forgery 537:Bribery 408:Torture 393:Robbery 351: ( 304:Frameup 274:Battery 269:Assault 231:Attempt 4314:Trusts 3894:Affray 3732:Murder 3648:Duress 3394: 3369: 3327: 3159:p. 257 3031:Leiden 2932: 2887: 2879: 2829:Justia 2506:one." 2146:p. 113 2138:Oxford 2083:(2009) 2075:(1952) 1904:motive 1842:excuse 1840:as an 1832:Durham 1685:taʿzīr 1611:Canada 1004:trusts 942:of law 906:Duress 771:Piracy 758:, and 597:Payola 456:Incest 431:Bigamy 369:felony 364:Murder 359:Mayhem 192:Felony 4352:table 4309:Wills 4047:Theft 4022:Arson 3418:2013. 3388:Brill 3311:(4). 3277:(PDF) 3249:(PDF) 3201:p. 82 3176:p. 81 3094:5 May 3061:5 May 2885:S2CID 2485: 2294:p. 84 2273:p. 95 2038:of a 2032:crime 2016:guilt 1785:court 1677:niyya 1646:India 1173:fault 1159:Latin 1119:for " 1000:Wills 994:Torts 752:drugs 627:Theft 572:Fraud 522:Arson 52:, or 4316:and 4299:Tort 3968:Rout 3884:Riot 3856:Rape 3392:ISBN 3367:ISBN 3325:ISSN 3288:2024 3256:2024 3228:2024 3096:2022 3063:2022 2930:ISSN 2877:ISSN 2487:U.S. 2431:"In 2383:ed.) 1951:and 1834:rule 1818:jury 1783:The 1681:ḥadd 1663:', ' 1615:The 1235:and 1212:tort 1135:and 1006:and 481:Rape 210:(or 194:(or 3317:doi 2920:hdl 2912:doi 2869:doi 2647:hdl 2639:doi 2490:549 2483:514 2010:of 1939:). 1862:In 1848:of 1810:not 1210:or 1202:In 1063:In 1025:Law 4369:: 3742:/ 3738:/ 3734:/ 3554:/ 3550:/ 3390:. 3386:. 3365:. 3361:. 3323:. 3309:23 3307:. 3279:. 3244:. 3217:. 3195:: 3139:, 3133:, 3087:. 3083:. 3065:. 3054:. 3050:. 3033:: 3025:, 2983:, 2973:^ 2928:. 2918:. 2910:. 2906:. 2883:. 2875:. 2865:14 2863:. 2859:. 2826:, 2739:^ 2724:^ 2702:: 2661:^ 2645:. 2635:10 2633:. 2629:. 2613:^ 2560:^ 2481:, 2388:^ 2288:, 2267:, 2172:^ 2140:: 2110:^ 1764:); 1743:. 1708:, 1495:: 1472:. 1226:. 1199:. 1188:. 1115:; 1105:eɪ 1067:, 1002:, 754:, 639:, 3746:) 3730:( 3446:e 3439:t 3432:v 3400:. 3375:. 3331:. 3319:: 3290:. 3258:. 3230:. 3203:. 3191:( 3178:. 3161:. 3119:. 3098:. 2936:. 2922:: 2914:: 2891:. 2871:: 2803:. 2698:( 2655:. 2649:: 2641:: 2571:. 2554:. 2454:" 2296:. 2275:. 2148:. 2136:( 1659:' 1606:. 1427:. 1111:/ 1108:ə 1102:r 1099:ˈ 1094:z 1091:n 1088:ɛ 1085:m 1082:ˈ 1079:/ 1075:( 1052:e 1045:t 1038:v 944:) 762:) 355:) 214:) 198:) 75:) 69:( 64:) 60:( 42:.

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