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actions may be taken that deprive the company of certain rights or privileges or that impose certain obligations. Loss of rights may include ineligibility for public subsidies or to participate in public procurement processes. Sanctions may also impose monitoring of the company’s legal compliance policies, either by a court or by a court-appointed corporate monitor.’ The combined impact of these sanctions, taken together, is supposed to be deterrence — they should dissuade the sanctioned companies and others from engaging in crime. There is some doubt in many jurisdictions that sanctions are actually set in such a manner as to make them dissuasive.”
1261:
liability for bribery extinguished when it is acquired by another company? In the absence of successor rules, companies may be able to avoid liability through reorganisation or by otherwise altering corporate identity. The 2016 study of comparative corporate liability systems shows that successor liability is, in quite a few countries, an under-scrutinised area of law — in some jurisdictions, it may be the case that even cosmetic organisational changes can, from a corporate liability perspective, ‘wipe the slate clean.’
2806:
1203:(1987) 821 F2d 844, the Supreme Court sanctioned the use of the doctrine to uphold the conviction of the Bank of New England for wilfully failing to file reports relating to currency transactions. The Court confirmed the collective knowledge doctrine, arguing that, in the absence of such a principle, business entities could divide the duties of their employees so as to compartmentalise their knowledge, thereby avoiding liability.
24:
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systems were inadequate) or as an element of defence for the company (wherein the company must show that its systems were adequate). Some countries do not permit management and compliance systems to preclude liability, but nevertheless allow them to be considered as mitigating factors when imposing sanctions.
1269:
Sanctions for corporate crime can take a number of forms. First, there are fines, which, in many jurisdictions, are subject to maximum and (in fewer cases) minimum thresholds. Second, confiscation is designed to deprive the sanctioned companies of the proceeds of their crimes. Third, other, punitive
1234:
Before they will impose liability on a legal person, some countries require that the natural person who commits the offence does so with the intent to benefit the legal person. Across countries, numerous variations on the benefit test exist — notably, some require that the legal person actually does
1117:
to the corporation. But again, countries adopt a wide variety of approaches to this attribution. These vary from the all-encompassing approach of strict liability to those that look at the entity’s corporate culture and management systems in order to determine whether these ignored, tolerated or even
1337:
or co-conspirator with the employees. In general terms, most states permit companies to incur liability for such offences in the same way as natural persons so long as there are at least two natural persons involved in the conspiracy and one other accomplice to aid the commission of the offence by a
1260:
arises when a company does something that alters its organisation or identity, such as a name change or a merger or acquisition. Rules on successor liability determine when and how corporate liability is affected by various changes in a company’s organisation or identity. For example, is a company’s
1238:
A benefit test has been applied in the
Federal Court of Australia, the House of Lords (now the Supreme Court of England) and the Supreme Court of Canada. Put simply, the test proposes that where a company gains the benefit of an act, it is considered to be attributed with that act. The test is
1020:
Since corporations and other business entities are a major part of the economic landscape, corporate liability is a key element in effective law enforcement for economic crimes. A 2016 mapping of 41 countries’ corporate liability systems shows wide variations in approaches to liability, and that
1225:
Many corporate liability systems consider that corporate culture and the management and compliance systems adopted by companies are relevant to understanding culpability. Such considerations may enter as an element of the offense (so that prosecutors must prove that management and compliance
1096:
use criminal and civil systems in parallel, thereby expanding options for pursuing legal accountability for legal persons and for making political judgments on when to use the criminal law in order to maximise the impact of those cases that are prosecuted. The United States’ system of corporate
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This approach has been criticised because it restricts corporate liability to the acts of directors and a few high-level managers. It may therefore unfairly favour larger corporations because they may be able to escape criminal liability for the acts of employees who manage their day-to-day
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Standards of liability for legal persons help clarify when a legal person can be held liable for an unlawful act. This raises subtle questions: since business entities can only commit crime through the agency of the people (natural persons) they employ or otherwise contract with, under what
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This approach rejects the notion that corporations should be treated in the same way as natural persons (i.e. looking for a "guilty" mind), and advocates that different legal concepts should underpin the liability of fictitious legal persons. These concepts reflect the structures of modern
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originated in US law. It holds that the individual knowledge of a legal person’s agents can be aggregated into ‘collective knowledge’ in order to establish corporate liability. In effect, this doctrine is relevant to establishing the knowledge (but not the intent) aspect of
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Generally, countries’ approaches to this issue reflect long-standing and diverse legal traditions. For example, Australia and Canada anchor their corporate liability systems in criminal law, while the German and
Italian systems are based in administrative law. Some
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corporations which are more often decentralised and where crime is less to do with the misconduct by or incompetence of individuals, and more to do with management and compliance systems that fail to address problems of monitoring and controlling risk.
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Countries can base their corporate liability systems in criminal or non-criminal law (that is, administrative or civil law) or in both. They can also enact legislation that creates liability for legal persons in specific areas of law (e.g. covering
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Poorly designed or non-existent corporate liability systems can make it impossible to enforce laws effectively and can lead to profound injustices for individuals or entities seeking accountability and redress for wrongdoing.
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is usually admissible in civil proceedings. But criminal prosecutions take priority, so if civil proceedings uncover evidence of criminality, the civil action may be stayed pending the outcome of any criminal investigation.
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A 2016 study of 41 countries’ corporate liability systems shows that meeting the ‘controlling minds’ test is not usually required for liability, though it is almost always sufficient to attribute liability to a company.
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Under this standard, only the “acts of a senior person representing the company’s ‘controlling mind and will’ can be attributed to the company. This approach has its roots in
English law. In a seminal case,
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refers to a business entity (often a corporation, but possibly other legal entities, as specified by law) that has both legal rights (e.g. the right to sue) and legal obligations. Because, at a
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AC 153, the House of Lords found that a store manager was not a part of the "directing mind" of the corporation and therefore that his conduct was not attributable to the corporation.
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applied differently when an act is performed by a "mind and will", which usually prompts the use of the organic theory, as opposed to an agent which usually prompts the use of the
1214:
Many legal analysts (e.g. Gobert) argue that if a corporation fails to take precautions or to show due diligence to avoid committing a criminal offence, this will arise from its
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conditions should culpability be attached to the business entity? Indeed, what does culpability mean for such entities? Can the concepts of knowledge and intent required for
1973:
1502:
Capuano A, 'Catching the
Leprechaun: Company Liability and the Case for a Benefit Test in Organic Attribution', (2010) Vol 24 No 2 Australian Journal of Corporate Law
1151:, or vicarious liability which does not require proof that the accused knew or could reasonably have known that its act was wrong, and which does not recognise any
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1423:"The Identification Principle in the 21st Century - Chris Gillespie looks at the Law Commission's remit in its review of corporate criminal liability"
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Typically, companies are held liable when the acts and omissions, and the knowledge and intent of its employees or business partners can be
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under which a person (legal or natural) is legally responsible for the consequences flowing from an activity, even in the absence of
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Models for imposing corporate criminal liability: from adaptation and imitation toward aggregation and the search for self-identity
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Wells, Celia. "Corporate
Criminal Liability in Europe and Beyond. New South Wales Law Society Journal, 39 (2001) 62-66.
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1159:. When applied to corporate liability, strict liability eases the task of attaching liability to business entities.
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offence specifically attaches liability to the corporation as the principal or joint principal with a human agent.
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where attitudes and beliefs are demonstrated through its structures, policies, practices, and procedures.
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K.Gordon and B.Hickman (2016). "Is foreign bribery an attractive investment in some countries?".
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it employs and, in some legal systems, for those of other associates and business partners.
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Coping with
Corporate Criminality – Some Lessons from Italy” (2002) Criminal Law Review 619.
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liability is an example of one that incorporates both criminal and civil law elements.
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Aggregation has been applied in
Australian courts, but is rejected in England.
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1373:"Liability of Legal Persons for Foreign Bribery: A Stocktaking Report - OECD"
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corporate liability is a dynamic area of legal innovation and evolution.
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The
Liability of Legal Persons for Foreign Bribery: A Stocktaking Repor
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Attempting to choke, &c. in order to commit any indictable offence
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Important design elements of corporate liability systems include
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1290:. Most fraud is also a breach of the criminal law and any
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on the part of the defendant. The difficulty of proving a
1059:, related and unrelated entities as sources of liability,
1583:(2nd edition), Oxford University Press, Oxford (2001).
1567:
The
Criminal Liability of Corporations and Other Groups
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for "guilty act") of the full offence. One option for
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1110:(guilty mind) even be applied to business entities?
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Assaulting a constable in the execution of his duty
1984:
Assaulting a constable in the execution of his duty
1535:, (2002) Vol. 39 American Criminal Law Review, 327.
1398:"Hot Coffee, Cold Cash and Torts: Margaret Carlson"
1598:Corporations: Culture, Risk and Criminal Liability
2392:Assault with intent to resist lawful apprehension
1979:Assault with intent to resist lawful apprehension
2867:
1074:
1005:, determines the extent to which a company as a
16:Laws that create liability for business entities
1540:Corporate Criminality: New Crimes for the Times
1515:OECD Business and Financial Outlook, Chapter 7
2559:
1619:
1451:"The Collective Knowledge Doctrine Generally"
979:
2573:
1547:Corporate Criminality: Four Models of Fault
1476:"Willful Blindness and Corporate Liability"
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2552:
1626:
1612:
1186:Aggregation tests and collective knowledge
1036:depends to a large extent on the business
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972:
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1427:2 Hare Court | London Barristers Chambers
1163:Identification or ‘controlling mind’ test
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1946:Wounding or causing grievous bodily harm
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1581:Corporations and Criminal Responsibility
1562:(2000) 4 Buffalo Criminal Law Review 641
1319:, they anticipate the commission of the
1294:obtained for the purposes of a criminal
1210:Corporate culture and compliance systems
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2139:Preventing the lawful burial of a body
1951:Assault occasioning actual bodily harm
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1333:would be to treat a corporation as an
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2107:Incitement to ethnic or racial hatred
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2014:Offences Against the Person Act 1861
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1032:level, the growth and prosperity of
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1201:United States v Bank of New England
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13:
1396:Carlson, Margaret (13 July 2011).
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14:
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1439:
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1192:Doctrine of Collective Knowledge,
1171:Tesco Supermarkets Ltd v Nattrass
1147:is avoided by imposing absolute,
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2805:
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2407:Encouraging or assisting a crime
2367:Perverting the course of justice
1788:Encouraging or assisting a crime
1474:Freeman, Jason B. (2020-07-29).
1449:Freeman, Jason B. (2020-09-01).
1288:pierce the veil of incorporation
1118:encouraged criminal activity.
622:Perverting the course of justice
22:
2531:History of English criminal law
2422:Obstruction of a police officer
2085:Fear or provocation of violence
1600:(1993) Criminal Law Review 551.
1569:(1977) 9 Ottawa Law Review 247.
1542:(1994) Criminal Law Review 722.
1229:
517:Intellectual property violation
2432:Refusing to assist a constable
2248:Taking without owner's consent
1506:
1467:
1415:
1389:
1235:benefit from the illegal act.
1:
2452:Fabrication of false evidence
2164:Misconduct in a public office
2090:Harassment, alarm or distress
1664:Regulatory (lowered mens rea)
1525:
1075:Nature of corporate liability
2169:Misfeasance in public office
1769:Ignorantia juris non excusat
1549:(1994) 14 Legal Studies 393.
1533:Corporate Criminal Liability
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1264:
852:Ignorantia juris non excusat
7:
2336:Cheating the public revenue
2128:Effecting a public mischief
1974:Assault with intent to rape
1552:Gobert, J & Mugnai, E.
1307:Some crimes are considered
10:
2902:
2412:Escape from lawful custody
2298:Fraud by abuse of position
1964:Assault with intent to rob
1888:Category:Criminal defences
1190:This standard, termed the
1003:liability of legal persons
542:Possessing stolen property
190:Offense against the person
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2528:For obsolete aspects see
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2263:Misappropriation of funds
2195:Offences against property
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1877:Diminished responsibility
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1155:of honest and reasonable
1048:can be held liable.
836:Diminished responsibility
630:Crimes against the public
2823:Aspects of organizations
2350:Offences against justice
2123:Outraging public decency
2047:Sexual Offences Act 2003
1848:inc. participation in a
1758:Lesser included offences
1714:Intention in English law
1709:Intention (criminal law)
1273:
765:Crimes against the state
685:(such as prohibition of
2717:Social entrepreneurship
449:Crimes against property
139:(also called violation)
2818:Aspects of occupations
2467:Other common law areas
2417:Obstruction of justice
2159:Accessory (legal term)
1921:Corporate manslaughter
1199:for legal persons. In
1101:Standards of liability
1001:, also referred to as
901:Other common-law areas
734:Crimes against animals
602:Miscarriage of justice
584:Crimes against justice
2828:Aspects of workplaces
2727:Social responsibility
2382:Misprision of treason
2303:Conspiracy to defraud
2258:Handling stolen goods
2102:Public Order Act 1986
2057:Public order offences
1278:In some instances of
807:Defenses to liability
597:Malfeasance in office
2881:Corporate personhood
2402:Harboring a fugitive
2372:Witness intimidation
2322:Forgery, personation
1941:Concealment of birth
1635:English criminal law
653:Censorship violation
376:Cybersex trafficking
2457:Rescuing a prisoner
2427:Wasting police time
2185:Dereliction of duty
2144:Breach of the peace
1862:Prevention of crime
1724:Criminal negligence
1303:Secondary liability
1258:successor liability
1252:Successor liability
1057:successor liability
999:Corporate liability
831:Defense of property
683:Illegal consumption
219:Criminal negligence
119:Severity of offense
2809:See also templates
2523:English law portal
2509:Criminal procedure
2174:Abuse of authority
2004:False imprisonment
1855:Medical procedures
1683:Elements of crimes
1065:mitigating factors
752:Wildlife smuggling
742:Cruelty to animals
371:Child sexual abuse
323:Negligent homicide
234:False imprisonment
131:Indictable offense
75:Scope of criminal
2841:
2840:
2541:
2540:
2447:Contempt of court
2377:Witness tampering
2095:intent aggravates
2080:Unlawful assembly
1936:Child destruction
1780:Inchoate offences
1642:Classes of crimes
1129:is a standard of
1082:health and safety
996:
995:
396:Indecent exposure
264:Human trafficking
229:Domestic violence
157:Inchoate offenses
2893:
2886:Public liability
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2833:Corporate titles
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2642:Machiavellianism
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2313:Webcam blackmail
2134:disorderly house
2070:Violent disorder
1931:Unlawful killing
1899:Offences against
1737:Strict liability
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1311:because, like a
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1127:Strict liability
1122:Strict liability
988:
981:
974:
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816:Actual innocence
673:Ethnic cleansing
567:Trespass to land
462:Arms trafficking
26:
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2813:Aspects of jobs
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2118:Public nuisance
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2029:Sexual offences
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1999:Child abduction
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1839:Loss of control
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1256:The problem of
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1247:Specific issues
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1165:
1139:criminal intent
1124:
1103:
1077:
1046:business entity
1015:natural persons
992:
933:
497:False pretenses
426:Sex trafficking
352:Sexual offenses
311:Preterintention
147:Summary offense
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2387:Jury tampering
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2353:
2351:
2347:
2346:
2344:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2327:
2325:
2319:
2318:
2316:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2293:Fraud Act 2006
2290:
2288:Theft Act 1978
2285:
2283:Theft Act 1968
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2213:Cheating (law)
2210:
2205:
2199:
2197:
2191:
2190:
2188:
2187:
2182:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2154:Forcible entry
2151:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2098:
2097:
2087:
2082:
2077:
2072:
2067:
2061:
2059:
2053:
2052:
2050:
2049:
2044:
2042:Sexual assault
2039:
2033:
2031:
2025:
2024:
2022:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1958:
1956:Common assault
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1905:
1903:
1895:
1894:
1892:
1891:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1869:
1864:
1859:
1858:
1857:
1852:
1850:sporting event
1841:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1820:
1818:
1814:
1813:
1811:
1810:
1808:Common purpose
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1784:
1782:
1776:
1775:
1773:
1772:
1765:
1760:
1754:
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1645:
1643:
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1631:
1630:
1623:
1616:
1608:
1602:
1601:
1596:Wells, Celia.
1594:
1591:
1579:Wells, Celia.
1577:
1570:
1563:
1556:
1550:
1543:
1536:
1527:
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1520:
1505:
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1301:
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1161:
1123:
1120:
1102:
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1076:
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994:
993:
991:
990:
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976:
968:
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963:
962:
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931:
926:
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843:
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731:
730:
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728:
723:
718:
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708:
703:
698:
680:
675:
670:
668:Hostage-taking
665:
660:
655:
650:
645:
640:
632:
631:
627:
626:
625:
624:
619:
614:
609:
604:
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594:
586:
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569:
564:
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499:
494:
489:
484:
479:
474:
469:
464:
459:
451:
450:
446:
445:
444:
443:
438:
436:Sexual slavery
433:
431:Sexual assault
428:
423:
418:
413:
408:
403:
398:
393:
388:
383:
378:
373:
368:
363:
355:
354:
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347:
346:
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340:
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320:
319:
318:
308:
307:
306:
296:
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251:
246:
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236:
231:
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192:
186:
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178:
173:
168:
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121:
120:
116:
115:
114:
113:
108:
103:
98:
93:
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79:
72:
71:
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64:
59:
52:
42:
41:
35:
34:
28:
27:
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2:
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2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2617:Entertainment
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2602:Communication
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2592:Appointeeship
2590:
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2200:
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2167:
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2150:
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2140:
2137:
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2129:
2126:
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2121:
2119:
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2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2096:
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2054:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2034:
2032:
2030:
2026:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1907:
1906:
1904:
1902:
1896:
1890:
1889:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1868:
1867:Lawful excuse
1865:
1863:
1860:
1856:
1853:
1851:
1847:
1846:
1845:
1842:
1840:
1837:
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1609:
1606:
1599:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1589:0-19-826793-2
1586:
1582:
1578:
1576:t (2016) 162.
1575:
1571:
1568:
1564:
1561:
1558:Lederman, E.
1557:
1555:
1551:
1548:
1544:
1541:
1537:
1534:
1530:
1529:
1516:
1509:
1503:
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1374:
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1323:
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1314:
1310:
1300:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1271:
1262:
1259:
1244:
1242:
1241:agency theory
1236:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1217:
1207:
1204:
1202:
1198:
1193:
1183:
1179:
1178:activities.
1175:
1173:
1172:
1160:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1145:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1119:
1116:
1111:
1109:
1098:
1095:
1094:jurisdictions
1089:
1087:
1083:
1072:
1068:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1049:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1030:public policy
1027:
1022:
1018:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
989:
984:
982:
977:
975:
970:
969:
967:
966:
961:
958:
957:
956:
955:
951:
950:
944:
940:
936:
932:
930:
927:
925:
922:
920:
917:
915:
912:
910:
907:
906:
905:
904:
900:
899:
894:
891:
889:
886:
884:
881:
878:
874:
871:
869:
868:Justification
866:
864:
861:
859:
856:
854:
853:
849:
847:
844:
842:
839:
837:
834:
832:
829:
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822:
819:
817:
814:
813:
812:
811:
808:
805:
804:
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791:
789:
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781:
779:
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774:
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770:
769:
768:
764:
763:
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750:
748:
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743:
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737:
733:
732:
727:
724:
722:
719:
717:
714:
712:
709:
707:
704:
702:
701:Miscegenation
699:
696:
692:
688:
684:
681:
679:
676:
674:
671:
669:
666:
664:
661:
659:
656:
654:
651:
649:
646:
644:
641:
639:
636:
635:
634:
633:
629:
628:
623:
620:
618:
615:
613:
610:
608:
605:
603:
600:
598:
595:
593:
590:
589:
588:
587:
583:
582:
577:
573:
570:
568:
565:
563:
560:
558:
555:
553:
550:
548:
545:
543:
540:
538:
537:Pickpocketing
535:
533:
530:
528:
525:
523:
520:
518:
515:
513:
510:
508:
505:
503:
500:
498:
495:
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490:
488:
485:
483:
480:
478:
475:
473:
470:
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460:
458:
455:
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453:
452:
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439:
437:
434:
432:
429:
427:
424:
422:
419:
417:
414:
412:
409:
407:
404:
402:
399:
397:
394:
392:
389:
387:
386:Homosexuality
384:
382:
379:
377:
374:
372:
369:
367:
364:
362:
359:
358:
357:
356:
353:
350:
349:
344:
341:
339:
336:
334:
331:
329:
326:
324:
321:
317:
314:
313:
312:
309:
305:
302:
301:
300:
297:
295:
292:
289:
285:
282:
280:
277:
275:
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
260:
257:
255:
252:
250:
249:Home invasion
247:
245:
242:
240:
237:
235:
232:
230:
227:
225:
222:
220:
217:
215:
212:
210:
207:
205:
202:
200:
199:Assassination
197:
196:
195:
194:
191:
188:
187:
182:
179:
177:
174:
172:
169:
167:
164:
163:
162:
161:
158:
155:
154:
148:
144:
141:
138:
135:
132:
128:
125:
124:
123:
122:
118:
117:
112:
109:
107:
104:
102:
99:
97:
94:
92:
89:
87:
84:
83:
82:
81:
78:
74:
73:
68:
65:
63:
60:
58:
57:
53:
51:
50:
46:
45:
44:
43:
40:
37:
36:
33:
30:
29:
25:
21:
20:
2876:Criminal law
2772:Transparency
2722:Social media
2636:
2576:corporations
2529:
2521:
2324:and cheating
2308:Fare evasion
1917:Manslaughter
1886:
1882:Intoxication
1824:Self-defence
1767:
1728:
1719:Recklessness
1701:
1689:
1597:
1580:
1573:
1566:
1559:
1553:
1546:
1539:
1532:
1514:
1508:
1483:. Retrieved
1479:
1469:
1458:. Retrieved
1454:
1430:. Retrieved
1426:
1417:
1405:. Retrieved
1401:
1391:
1380:. Retrieved
1377:www.oecd.org
1376:
1320:
1306:
1277:
1268:
1255:
1237:
1233:
1230:Benefit test
1224:
1220:
1213:
1205:
1200:
1191:
1189:
1180:
1176:
1169:
1166:
1142:
1125:
1112:
1104:
1090:
1078:
1069:
1053:jurisdiction
1050:
1026:legal person
1023:
1019:
1007:legal person
1002:
998:
997:
893:Self-defense
850:
773:Lèse-majesté
487:Embezzlement
411:Prostitution
401:Masturbation
284:Manslaughter
269:Intimidation
181:Solicitation
100:
54:
47:
32:Criminal law
2682:Psychopathy
2657:Opportunity
2652:Nationalism
2597:Citizenship
2574:Aspects of
1925:Infanticide
1763:Concurrence
1545:Gobert, J.
1538:Gobert, J.
1480:Freeman Law
1455:Freeman Law
1338:principal.
1331:prosecution
1042:governments
888:Provocation
612:Obstruction
592:Compounding
557:Tax evasion
381:Fornication
214:Child abuse
143:Misdemeanor
67:Concurrence
2870:Categories
2697:Resolution
2677:Propaganda
2647:Narcissism
2632:Interlocks
2278:Cybercrime
2208:Dishonesty
2132:Keeping a
2009:Harassment
1994:Kidnapping
1901:the person
1793:Conspiracy
1691:Actus reus
1674:Common law
1654:Either way
1649:Indictable
1565:Leigh, L.
1531:Geraghty,
1526:References
1517:: 209–219.
1485:2021-04-01
1460:2021-04-01
1432:2021-04-01
1382:2021-03-27
1335:accomplice
1322:actus reus
1313:conspiracy
1115:attributed
846:Entrapment
821:Automatism
798:Subversion
757:Bestiality
726:War crimes
721:Usurpation
648:Corruption
607:Misprision
482:Cybercrime
274:Kidnapping
254:Hate crime
244:Harassment
224:Defamation
176:Incitement
171:Conspiracy
137:Infraction
96:Complicity
91:Accomplice
49:Actus reus
2860:Companies
2637:Liability
2612:Despotism
2442:Espionage
2273:Extortion
2268:Blackmail
2253:Deception
2238:Squatting
1834:Necessity
1798:Accessory
1751:Doctrines
1742:Omissions
1733:Vicarious
1729:Corporate
1697:Causation
1669:Statutory
1402:Bloomberg
1342:Footnotes
1265:Sanctions
1131:liability
1086:statutory
1061:sanctions
1038:community
1024:The term
1011:omissions
909:Contracts
883:Necessity
788:Secession
783:Espionage
716:Terrorism
678:Smuggling
572:Vandalism
552:Smuggling
492:Extortion
467:Blackmail
441:Voyeurism
421:Pederasty
406:Obscenity
288:corporate
111:Vicarious
106:Principal
101:Corporate
86:Accessory
77:liability
62:Causation
2757:Taxonomy
2732:Sourcing
2712:Services
2707:Security
2702:Scandals
2692:Recovery
2672:Promoter
2627:Identity
2504:Evidence
2485:Property
2475:Contract
2437:Sedition
2341:Uttering
2243:Trespass
2218:Burglary
2116:Causing
2112:Nuisance
1909:Homicide
1872:Insanity
1817:Defences
1703:Mens rea
1407:9 August
1309:inchoate
1292:evidence
1197:mens rea
1144:mens rea
1108:mens rea
924:Property
919:Evidence
914:Defenses
863:Insanity
793:Sedition
747:Poaching
711:Regicide
663:Genocide
638:Apostasy
576:Mischief
512:Gambling
477:Burglary
361:Adultery
338:Stabbing
333:Stalking
316:Homicide
279:Menacing
259:Homicide
56:Mens rea
39:Elements
2767:Trainer
2747:Synergy
2737:Statism
2499:estates
2362:Perjury
2357:Bribery
2331:Forgery
2223:Robbery
2181:of oath
2179:Perjury
2019:Treason
1989:Battery
1969:Robbery
1844:Consent
1803:Attempt
1659:Summary
1317:attempt
1216:culture
1157:mistake
1034:society
1013:of the
952:Portals
943:estates
875: (
873:Mistake
858:Infancy
826:Consent
778:Treason
695:smoking
691:alcohol
658:Dueling
643:Begging
617:Perjury
547:Robbery
527:Looting
522:Larceny
502:Forgery
472:Bribery
343:Torture
328:Robbery
286: (
239:Frameup
209:Battery
204:Assault
166:Attempt
2846:Portal
2777:Travel
2662:Pathos
2622:Ethics
2495:Trusts
2075:Affray
1913:Murder
1829:Duress
1587:
1572:OECD,
1282:, the
1153:excuse
939:trusts
877:of law
841:Duress
706:Piracy
693:, and
532:Payola
391:Incest
366:Bigamy
304:felony
299:Murder
294:Mayhem
127:Felony
2792:Video
2782:Trust
2762:Title
2667:Power
2607:Crime
2587:Abuse
2533:table
2490:Wills
2228:Theft
2203:Arson
1327:Latin
1325:(the
1296:trial
1284:court
1280:fraud
1274:Fraud
1135:fault
1067:.
935:Wills
929:Torts
687:drugs
562:Theft
507:Fraud
457:Arson
2787:Veil
2687:Raid
2497:and
2480:Tort
2149:Rout
2065:Riot
2037:Rape
1585:ISBN
1409:2013
1286:may
1063:and
941:and
416:Rape
145:(or
129:(or
2752:Tax
1315:or
1137:or
960:Law
2872::
1923:/
1919:/
1915:/
1735:/
1731:/
1494:^
1478:.
1453:.
1441:^
1425:.
1400:.
1375:.
1350:^
1243:.
1055:,
1040:,
937:,
689:,
574:,
2848::
2567:e
2560:t
2553:v
1927:)
1911:(
1627:e
1620:t
1613:v
1488:.
1463:.
1435:.
1411:.
1385:.
987:e
980:t
973:v
879:)
697:)
290:)
149:)
133:)
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