426:
chemistry funding was a temporary redirection of a field largely driven by industry and later medicine, while physics grew closer to industry than to the military. The discipline of modern meteorology, however, was largely built from military funding. During World War I, the French civilian meteorological infrastructure was largely absorbed into the military. The introduction of military aircraft during the war as well as the role of wind and weather in the success or failure of gas attacks meant meteorological advice was in high demand. The French army (among others) created its own supplementary meteorological service as well, retraining scientists from other fields to staff it. At war's end, the military continued to control French meteorology, sending weathermen to French colonial interests and integrating weather service with the growing air corps; most of the early-twentieth century growth in
European meteorology was the direct result of military funding. World War II would result in a similar transformation of American meteorology, initiating a transition from an
139:'s 1987 article "Behind quantum electronics: National security as a basis for physical research in the United States, 1940-1960," there has been an ongoing historical debate over precisely how and to what extent military funding affected the course of scientific research and discovery. Forman and others have argued that military funding fundamentally redirected scienceâparticularly physicsâtoward applied research, and that military technologies predominantly formed the basis for subsequent research even in areas of basic science; ultimately the very culture and ideals of science were colored by extensive collaboration between scientists and military planners. An alternate view has been presented by
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492:. As the physicists convinced military leaders of the potential of nuclear weapons, funding for actual development was ratcheted up rapidly. A number of large laboratories were created across the United States for work on different aspects of the bomb, while many existing facilities were reoriented to bomb-related work; some were university-managed while others were government-run, but all were ultimately funded and directed by the military. The May 1945 surrender of Germany, the original intended target for the bomb, did virtually nothing to slow the project's momentum. After Japan's surrender immediately following the
386:, which remains a significant military research institution into the 21st century. Unlike many earlier military-funded scientific ventures, the research at Porton Down did not stop when the war ended or an immediate goal was achieved. In fact, every effort was made to create an attractive research environment for top scientists, and chemical weapons development continued apace—though in secret—through the interwar years and into World War II. German military-backed gas warfare research did not resume until the Nazi era, following the 1936 discovery of
595:—all physics, broadly speaking—each developed in different directions, becoming increasingly independent of parent disciplines as they grew and pursued defense-related research agendas. What began as interdepartmental laboratories became the centers for graduate teaching and research innovation thanks to the broad scope of defense funding. The need to keep up with corporate technology research (which was receiving the lion's share of defense contracts) also prompted many science labs to establish close relationships with industry.
516:; the technology as well as the personal expertise of the German rocketry community was absorbed by the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. rocket programs after the war, forming the basis of long-term military funded rocketry, ballistic missile, and later space research. Rocket science was only beginning to make impact by the final years of the war. German rockets created fear and destruction in London, but had only modest military significance, while air-to-ground rockets enhanced the power of American air strikes;
211:
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2019:
2007:
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790:, in his seminal 1987 article, proposed that not only had military funding of science greatly expanded the scope and significance of American physics, it also initiated "a qualitative change in its purposes and character." Historians of science were beginning to turn to the Cold War relationship between science and the military for detailed study, and Forman's âdistortionist critiqueâ (as
729:. After World War II (and to some extent before), the influx of new industrial and military funding opportunities for the physical sciences prompted philanthropies to divest from physics research—most early work in high-energy physics and biophysics had been the product of foundation grants—and refocus on biological and medical research.
1366:. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004. In Geiger's broad analysis of the relationship between political economy and academic research, the character and purpose of funding sources play little role, and there is no discussion of the distinctiveness of military funding. Rather, such funding is significant only in the context of â
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program to develop an automated radar shield. Virtually unlimited funds enabled two decades of research that only began producing useful technologies by the end of the 50s; even the final version of the SAGE command and control system had only marginal military utility. More so than with previously
541:
In the years immediately following World War II, the military was by far the most significant patron of university science research in the U.S., and the national labs also continued to flourish. After two years in political limbo (but with work on nuclear power and bomb manufacture continuing apace)
255:
Through the 19th century, science and technology grew closer together, particularly through electrical and acoustic inventions and the corresponding mathematical theories. The late 19th and early 20th centuries witnessed a trend toward military mechanization, with the advent of repeating rifles with
317:
made a tremendous psychological impact, but decisively favored neither side. The war ultimately turned on maintaining adequate supplies of materials, a problem also addressed by military-funded science—and, through the international chemical industry, closely related to the advent of chemical
239:
in the U.S.). During the
Revolution, even natural scientists participated directly, attempting to create âweapons more powerful than any we possessâ to aid the cause of the new French Republic, though there were no means for the revolutionary army to fund such work. Each of these efforts, however,
665:
grew from small sub-disciplines in into full-fledged independent disciplines as for several decades, virtually all funding in these fields came from the
Department of Defense. A central goal that tied these disciplines together (even while providing the means for intellectual independence) was the
53:
from the powerful German dye industry, was used extensively by the
Germans and the British; over the course of the war, scientists on both sides raced to develop more and more potent chemicals and devise countermeasures against the newest enemy gases. Physicists also contributed to the war effort,
724:
were also affected by military funding, but, with the exception of nuclear physics-related medical and genetic research, largely indirectly. The most significant funding sources for basic research before the rise of the military-industrial-academic complex were philanthropic organizations such as
166:
While there were numerous instances of military support for scientific work before the 20th century, these were typically isolated instances; knowledge gained from technology was generally far more important for the development of science than scientific knowledge was to technological innovation.
532:
radar systems that could resolve more detail in incoming flight formations. Further refinement of microwave technology led to proximity fuzes, which greatly enhanced the ability of the U.S. Navy to defend against
Japanese bombers. Microwave production, detection and manipulation also formed the
686:
was in fact a driving force. Even for geodetic data, new secrecy guidelines worked to restrict collaboration in a field that had formerly been fundamentally international; the Figure of the Earth had geopolitical significance beyond questions of pure geoscience. Still, geodesists were able to
562:
became an independent service branch from the Army and established its own research and development system, and the Army followed suit (though it was less invested in academic science than the Navy or Air Force). Meanwhile, the perceived communist menace of the Soviet Union caused tensionsâand
1095:
The extent to which
Heisenberg's team was devoted to aiding the Nazi's by producing an atomic bomb is a matter of some historical dispute. However, most recent scholarship suggests that the stagnation of the German project stemmed from Heisenberg's doubts about the feasibility rather than the
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also found limited military support from the 1940s to the 1960s, but much defense-minded social science research could beâand wasâpursued without extensive military funding. In the 1950s, social scientists tried to emulate the interdisciplinary organizational success of the physical sciences'
345:
and other industrial scientists were eager to contribute to the German cause; soon they were closely integrated into the military hierarchy as they tested the most effective ways of producing and delivering weaponized chemicals. Though the initial impetus for gas warfare came from outside the
421:
were decimating the crucial naval supply lines from the U.S. to
England. Edison's Board produced very few useful innovations, but NRC research resulted in a moderately successful sound-based methods for locating submarines and hidden ground-based artillery, as well as useful navigational and
425:
Many industrial and academic chemists and physicists came under military control during the Great War, but post-war research by the Royal
Engineers Experimental Station at Porton Down and the continued operation of the National Research Council were exceptions to the overall pattern; wartime
305:, however, reversed the traditional advantage of fast-moving offensive tactics; fortified positions supported by machine guns and artillery resulted in high attrition but strategic stalemate. Militaries turned to scientists and engineers for even newer technologies, but the introduction of
231:, French artillery officers were often trained as engineers, and military leaders from this mathematical tradition attempted to transform the process of weapons manufacture from a craft-based enterprise to an organized and standardized system based on engineering principles and
691:
had a military purpose hidden beneath official astrophysical research agenda. Quantum electronics permitted both revolutionary new methods of analyzing the universe and—using the same equipment and technology—the monitoring of Soviet electronic signals.
809:, deny that the military "seduced American physicists from, so to speak, a 'true basic physics'." Kevles, as well as Geiger, instead view the effects of military funding relative to such funding simply being absentârather than put to alternate scientific use.
221:
Even craft-based military technologies were not generally produced by military funding. Instead, craftsmen and inventors developed weapons and military tools independently and actively sought the interest of military patrons afterward. Following the rise of
487:
resulted in a much more extensive military-scientific venture, the scale of which dwarfed previous military-funded research projects. Theoretical work by a number of
British and American scientists resulted in significant optimism about the possibility of a
712:. But the military-funded growth of these disciplines continued even when no pressing military goals were driving them; as with other natural sciences, the military also found value in having âscientists on tap' for unforeseen future R&D needs.
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primarily funded what has been broadly described as âphysical research,â but to reduce this to merely chemistry and physics is misleading. Military patronage benefited a large number of fields, and in fact helped create a number of the modern
805:) view the influx of military money and the focus on applied rather than basic research as having had, at least partially, a negative impact on the course of subsequent research. In turn, critics of the distortionist thesis, beginning with
96:, radar and proximity fuzes, and the atomic bomb—were radically different from pre-war technology; military leaders came to view continued advances in technology as the critical element for success in future wars. The advent of the
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retain enough autonomy and subvert secrecy limitations enough to make use of the findings of their military research to overturn some of the fundamental theories of geodesy. Like geodesy and satellite photography research, the advent of
1417:
496:, many scientists returned to academia or industry, but the Manhattan Project infrastructure was too largeâand too effectiveâto be dismantled wholesale; it became the model for future military-scientific work, in the U.S. and elsewhere.
695:
Military interest in (and funding of) seismology, meteorology and oceanography was in some ways a result of the defense-related payoffs of physics and geodesy. The immediate goal of funding in these fields was to detect clandestine
704:, a necessary precondition for treaties to limit the nuclear weapon technology earlier military research had created. In particular, the feasibility of monitoring underground nuclear explosions was crucial to the possibility of a
240:
was ultimately unsuccessful in producing militarily useful results. A slightly different outcome came from the longitude prize of the 18th century, offered by the
British government for an accurate method of determining a ship's
226:
as a profession in the 18th century, governments and military leaders did try to harness the methods of both science and engineering for more specific ends, but frequently without success. In the decades leading up to the
1310:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000. For Project Camelot, see: Solovey, Mark. "Project Camelot and the 1960s Epistemological Revolution: Rethinking the Politics-Patronage-Social Science Nexus,"
361:
Following the first chlorine attack by the Germans in May 1915, the British quickly moved to recruit scientists for developing their own gas weapons. Gas research escalated on both sides, with chlorine followed by
611:
were shaped, in the first decades of digital computing, almost entirely by military funding. Most of the basic component technologies for digital computing were developed through the course of the long-running
422:
photographic equipment for aircraft. Because of the success of academic science in solving specific military problems, the NRC was retained after the war's end, though it gradually decoupled from the military.
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in the context of such a politicized research agenda; though natural sciences were not yet susceptible to implications of the corrupting influence of military and political factors, the social sciences were.
276:
battlefield communication. Still, independent inventors, scientists and engineers were largely responsible for these drastic changes in military technology (with the exception of the development of
244:
at sea (essential for the safe navigation of the powerful British navy): intended to promoteâand financially rewardâa scientific solution, it was instead won by a scientific outsider, the clockmaker
135:
The sheer scale of military funding for science since World War II has instigated a large body of historical literature analyzing the effects of that funding, especially for American science. Since
143:, that while military funding provided many new opportunities for scientists and dramatically expanded the scope of physical research, scientists by-and-large retained their intellectual autonomy.
464:. German and Allied investigations of the possibility of a nuclear bomb began in 1939 at the initiative of civilian scientists, but by 1942 the respective militaries were heavily involved. The
301:, but independent inventors and industrial firms predominated. Similarly in Europe, military-directed scientific research and development was minimal. The powerful new technologies that led to
812:
Most recent scholarship has moved toward a tempered version of Forman's thesis, in which scientists retained significant autonomy despite the radical changes brought about by military funding.
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In the United States, the established tradition of engineering was explicitly competing with the rising discipline of physics for World War I military largess. A host of inventors, led by
528:
was turned over to the U.S.; several thousand academic physicists and engineers not participating the Manhattan Project did radar work, particularly at MIT and Stanford, resulting in
476:; the latter was more explicitly aimed at producing a bomb (as opposed to a power reactor) and received much more funding from the Nazis, though neither was ultimately successful.
92:
were also central to the war effort, with military-funded wartime advances having a significant long-term effect on each discipline. The technologies employed at the end—
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military, further developments in chemical weapon technology might be considered military-funded, considering the blurring of lines between industry and nation in Germany.
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system for training weathermen (based on intimate knowledge of local trends and geography) to the university-based, science-intensive system that has predominated since.
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court in Florence. In general, craft-based innovation, disconnected from the formal systems of science, was the key to military technology well into the 19th century.
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also went into service by the end of the war. Radar work before and during the war provided even more of an advantage for the Allies. British physicists pioneered
1379:
Hounshell, David A. "Epilogue: Rethinking the Cold War; Rethinking Science and Technology in the Cold War; Rethinking the Social Study of Science and Technology,"
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and radar technology, was less significant in popular culture but much more significant for the outcome of the war. German rocketry was driven by the pursuit of
297:
marked the first large-scale mobilization of science for military purposes. Prior to the war, the American military ran a few small laboratories as well as the
4192:
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Atomic Energy for Military Purposes: The Official Report on the Development of the Atomic Bomb under the Auspices of the United States Government, 1940-1945
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van Keuren, David K. "Cold War Science in Black and White: US Intelligence Gathering and Its Scientific Cover at the Naval Research Laboratory, 1948-62,"
76:
was widespread and ultimately highly influential in the course of the war; radar enabled detection of enemy ships and aircraft, as well as the radar-based
525:
448:, it is difficult to draw a line between military funding and more spontaneous military-scientific collaboration during World War II. Well before the
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1535:
Turchin, Peter, et al. "Rise of the war machines: Charting the evolution of military technologies from the Neolithic to the Industrial Revolution."
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1233:, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp 371-404. 2000 Cloud, John. "Imaging the World in a Barrel: CORONA and the Clandestine Convergence of the Earth Sciences,"
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as well as fund a variety of university-based research. Military money following up the wartime radar research led to explosive growth in both
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405:, cranked out thousands of inventions to solve military problems and aid the war effort, while academic scientists worked through the
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Bolia, Robert, et al. "A history lesson on the use of technology to support military decision making and command and control." in
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compounds, and a host of complex organic chemicals. The British built from scratch what became an expansive research facility at
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3235:
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Cloud, John. "Crossing the Olentangy River: The Figure of the Earth and the Military-Industrial-Academic-Complex, 1947-1972,"
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Forman, Paul. "Behind quantum electronics: National security as basis for physical research in the United States, 1940-1960,"
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did help increase the number of capable astronomers and focus research on developing more powerful and versatile instruments.
1966:
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that was essential for accurate ballistic missiles. In the 1960s, geodesy was the superficial goal of the satellite program
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technical foundation to complement the institutional foundation of the Manhattan Project in much post-war defense research.
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Barth, Kai-Henrik. "The Politics of Seismology: Nuclear Testing, Arms Control, and the Transformation of a Discipline,"
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546:. The Navyâinspired by the success of military-directed wartime researchâcreated its own R&D organization, the
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and smaller labs across the country became part of the project as well. Among others, see: Smyth, Henry DeWolf.
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Burmaoglu, Serhat, and Ozcan SarÄątas. "Changing characteristics of warfare and the future of Military R&D."
741:. Social scientists actively sought to promote their usefulness to the military, researching topics related to
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524:, developing an effective system for detecting incoming German air forces. Work on potentially more precise
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108:, so that even during a period of nominal peace military funding continued to expand. Funding spread to the
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Gillispie, Charles Coulston. "Science and secret weapons development in Revolutionary France, 1792â1804."
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Innovation and the arms race: How the United States and the Soviet Union develop new military technologies
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detection was the most important problem that both the physicists and inventors hoped to solve, as German
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established disciplines receiving military funding, the culture of computer science was permeated with a
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marked a massive increase in the military funding of science, particularly physics. In addition to the
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34:, advanced science-based technologies have been viewed as essential elements of a successful military.
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Between flesh and steel: A history of military medicine from the middle ages to the war in Afghanistan
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Kevles, Daniel J. "Cold war and hot physics: Science, security, and the American state, 1945-56,"
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58:, resulting in the first tenuous long-term connections between academic science and the military.
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Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time
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171:, for example, is a science partly born from military technology: one of the many sources of the
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1293:, the strictly mechanistic approach to psychology promoted by B. F. Skinner. See: Robin, Ron.
374:. A wide array of research was conducted on the physiological effects of other gases, such and
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The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford
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The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford
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military perspective. Indirectly, the ideas of computer science also had a profound effect on
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Though somewhat related, "behavioral science" in this context should not be confused with the
773:. Project Camelot was ultimately canceled because of the concerns it raised about scientific
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Horowitz, Michael C., and Shira Pindyck. "What is a military innovation and why it matters."
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Geiger, âScience, Universities, and National Defense, 1945-1970.â See also: Geiger, Roger.
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solidified the links between military institutions and academic science, particularly in the
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Modernization as Ideology: American Social Science and "Nation-Building" in the Kennedy Era
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The Making of the Cold War Enemy: Culture and Politics in the Military-Intellectual Complex
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were also closely tied to military purposes and funding throughout the Cold War. American
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If World War I was the chemists' war, World War II was the physicists' war. As with other
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The gunpowder age: China, military innovation, and the rise of the West in world history
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Servants of Nature: A History of Scientific Institutions, Enterprises, and Sensibilities
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460:); the military mobilization of physicists was all but irresistible after the rise of
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For modernization theory, and its role in the Vietnam War, see: Latham, Michael E.
128:, military funding of science has decreased substantially, but much of the American
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developing wireless communication technologies and sound-based methods of detecting
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Hacker, Barton C. "The Machines of War: Western Military Technology 1850-2000."
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Knowledge & Money: Research Universities and the Paradox of the Marketplace
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A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret History of Chemical and Biological Warfare
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tried to promote the telescope as a military instrument to the military-minded
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The Medieval Military Engineer: From the Roman Empire to the Sixteenth Century
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The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America
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in large amounts. Industrial capacity was completely mobilized for war, and
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280:, which could only have been created through organized large-scale effort).
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26:, has had a powerful transformative effect on the practice and products of
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Geiger, Roger. "Science, Universities, and National Defense, 1945-1970,"
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Chin, Warren. "Technology, war and the state: past, present and future."
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The pursuit of power: Technology, armed force, and society since AD 1000
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World War I is often called "the chemists' war", both for the extensive
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3841:
3266:
2707:
2582:
2577:
975:
Galileo, Courtier: The Practice of Science in the Culture of Absolutism
914:
The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America
746:
742:
662:
626:
510:
277:
188:
4319:
1098:
Heisenberg and the Nazi Atomic Bomb Project: A Study in German Culture
542:
the Manhattan Project became a permanent arm of the government as the
3995:
3968:
3459:
3397:
3114:
2903:
2817:
2802:
2640:
2474:
2432:
2243:
1555:
802:
750:
671:
550:, which would preside over an expanded long-term research program at
529:
445:
414:
269:
249:
241:
200:
183:
barrels. Mathematics was important in the development of the Greek
4314:
3975:
3529:
3377:
2915:
2692:
2623:
2415:
2268:
2226:
2083:
2065:
2034:
761:; modernization theory found a home in the military in the form of
622:
367:
363:
334:
310:
184:
151:
97:
50:
42:
1138:. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1945. Rhodes, Richard.
3726:
3716:
3534:
3479:
3172:
3135:
3058:
3040:
3023:
3006:
2657:
2611:
2452:
2425:
2278:
2273:
2248:
2118:
1880:
721:
654:
379:
326:
192:
1512:
Medieval warfare: theory and practice of war in Europe, 300-1500
1451:
DeVries, Kelly Robert, Kelly DeVries, and Robert Douglas Smith.
1128:
were all created during the Manhattan Project, while Berkeley's
4030:
3959:
3778:
3733:
3387:
3372:
2864:
2504:
2387:
2128:
2123:
500:
418:
204:
180:
160:
55:
1504:(University of Chicago Press, 1982), a major scholarly survey
4289:
3788:
3329:
3324:
2662:
2587:
801:, Stuart Leslie, and for the history of the social sciences,
191:
was also important for the development of mathematics, while
73:
468:
had two independent teams, a civilian-controlled team under
2775:
2238:
2233:
306:
1351:
Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences
997:
Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences
927:
Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences
765:, a study of the process of revolution, as well as in the
456:
was a powerful force in the German physics community (see
3367:
3359:
2069:
1096:
desirability of a Nazi bomb. See: Rose, Paul Lawrence.
1086:. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1999. pp 309-311.
330:
794:
has described it) served to focus the ensuing debates.
321:
The Germans introduced gas as a weapon in part because
953:
Warmth Disperses and Time Passes: The History of Heat
942:, Vol. 21, No. 3, September 2005, pp 255-300. p 255.
283:
147:
Science and military technology before the modern era
999:, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp 35â152. Quote from excerpt of
1231:
Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics
214:Interchangeable gun parts, illustrated in the 1832
1100:. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.
120:, were born of military patronage. Following the
30:since the early 20th century. Particularly since
1194:Forman, "Behind quantum electronics," pp 159-160.
199:before turning it to the skies while seeking the
4413:
499:Other wartime physics research, particularly in
1404:Military food engineering and ration technology
1297:. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001.
1276:. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990.
916:. New York: Alfred K. Knopf, 1971. pp 137-138.
640:
1402:Barrett, Ann H., and Armand Vincent Cardello.
977:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.
179:'s observation of the heat produced by boring
2050:
1571:
1207:. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993.
558:research and electronics manufacturing. The
485:Office of Scientific Research and Development
1323:Forman, "Behind quantum electronics," p 150.
1263:, Vol. 33, No. 5, pp 743-781. October 2003.
536:
390:, the first nerve agent, through industrial
1433:Technological Forecasting and Social Change
2057:
2043:
1995:
1578:
1564:
1250:, Vol. 31, No. 2, pp 207-229. April 2001.
1237:, Vol. 31, No. 2, pp 231-251. April 2001.
1082:Pyenson, Lewis and Susan Sheets-Pyenson.
1034:Hacker, âThe Machines of War,â pp 256-257.
964:Hacker, "The Machines of War," footnote 1.
1383:, Vol. 31, No. 2, April 2001, pp 289-297.
1314:, Vol. 31, No. 2, April 2001, pp 171-206.
1274:A Fragile Power: Scientists and the State
494:atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
329:for explosives, while the massive German
3880:List of military strategies and concepts
1142:. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986.
877:Military Wireless Museum in the Midlands
348:
209:
150:
1414:Decision making in complex environments
887:
49:. Poison gas, beginning in 1915 with
4414:
1585:
955:. New York: The Modern Library, 1998.
715:
563:military budgetsâto escalate rapidly.
268:, and mechanized transport along with
2038:
1559:
1455:( University of Toronto Press, 2012)
986:Hacker, "The Machines of War," p 256.
737:Manhattan Project with the synthetic
4396:
2064:
1426:(Routledge, 2017) pp. 165â181.
1416:(CRC Press, 2017) pp. 191â200.
1353:, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp 239-264. 1990.
781:
4340:Idealism in international relations
1399:(Princeton University Press, 2017).
899:Harris, Robert and Jeremy Paxman.
637:through the mind-computer analogy.
187:and other weapons, but analysis of
13:
1495:Journal of Global Security Studies
1466:(Cornell University Press, 2020).
1389:
284:World War I and the interwar years
14:
4463:
1616:History and philosophy of science
882:
847:History of science and technology
472:and a military-controlled led by
248:. However, the naval utility of
4395:
4385:
4384:
2018:
2017:
2005:
1994:
1624:
1523:Encyclopedia of military science
313:had only a marginal impact; the
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1145:
1103:
1089:
1076:
1063:
1050:
1037:
1028:
1010:
710:Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
433:
353:Poison gas casualties from the
126:dissolution of the Soviet Union
72:, British and American work on
1514:(Bloomsbury Publishing, 2017)
1220:. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996.
1112:, the University of Chicago's
1110:Los Alamos National Laboratory
989:
980:
967:
958:
945:
932:
919:
906:
893:
440:Technology during World War II
333:industry could easily produce
1:
1532:(Boydell & Brewer, 2018).
1424:Technology and World Politics
1406:(DEStech Publications, 2012)
1140:The Making of the Atomic Bomb
1126:Oak Ridge National Laboratory
951:von Baeyer, Hans Christian.
929:, Vol. 18, Pt. 1, pp 149-229.
466:German nuclear energy project
290:Technology during World War I
1549:(Simon and Schuster, 2009).
1485:Journal of Strategic Studies
1453:Medieval military technology
1340:, Vol. 34 pp 629-631. 1994.
1181:(2nd series), Vol. 7, 1992,
641:Geosciences and astrophysics
598:
583:, for example, electronics,
7:
4442:Militaryâindustrial complex
3862:Operational manoeuvre group
1967:Neurology and neurosurgery
1332:Geiger, Roger. "Review of
1118:Argonne National Laboratory
857:Military-industrial complex
815:
739:behavioral science movement
670:, the model of the earth's
173:first law of thermodynamics
130:military-scientific complex
10:
4468:
4295:Peace and conflict studies
4184:Infantry fighting vehicles
2723:Front; Russian land forces
1525:(Sage Publications, 2013).
757:for the cause of Cold War
483:and other projects of the
437:
287:
116:. Emerging fields such as
4447:Military history by topic
4382:
4350:International cooperation
4282:
4257:
4124:
4117:
4039:
3958:
3870:
3822:
3697:
3573:
3358:
3320:Combat information center
3297:
3218:
3128:
2857:
2850:
2781:Infantry fighting vehicle
2731:
2563:Unified combatant command
2533:
2396:
2208:
2076:
1990:
1937:
1904:
1856:
1803:
1765:
1689:
1633:
1622:
1593:
1381:Social Studies of Science
1312:Social Studies of Science
1261:Social Studies of Science
1248:Social Studies of Science
1235:Social Studies of Science
837:Historiography of science
797:Forman and others (e.g.,
603:The complex histories of
552:Naval Research Laboratory
537:American Cold War science
407:National Research Council
22:, including the military
4265:Lists of wars by country
3707:List of military tactics
2825:Self-propelled artillery
2713:Special units by nation:
2156:Protocols and structure:
1539:16.10 (2021): e0258161.
1370:' other economic forces.
1114:Metallurgical Laboratory
1058:A Higher Form of Killing
647:history of earth science
548:Office of Naval Research
544:Atomic Energy Commission
325:limited their supply of
260:, long-range artillery,
235:(pre-dating the work of
4362:International relations
4355:Crimes against humanity
3002:Other infantry weapons:
2718:Battle Fleet; U.S. Navy
2289:Functional specialties:
1681:20th century in science
1676:19th century in science
1005:Claude-Louis Berthollet
651:history of astrophysics
216:Edinburgh Encyclopaedia
4330:Conscientious objector
2438:Special reconnaissance
2178:Awards and decorations
1601:Theories and sociology
1528:Purton, Peter Fraser.
1521:Piehler, G. Kurt, ed.
1476:(Potomac Books, 2013)
1462:Evangelista, Matthew.
1445:95.4 (2019): 765â783.
1338:Technology and Culture
940:History and Technology
767:Kennedy administration
727:Rockefeller Foundation
573:scientific disciplines
490:nuclear chain reaction
403:Naval Consulting Board
401:and his newly created
358:
218:
163:
41:and the importance of
4422:History of technology
3350:Torpedo Data Computer
3340:Ship gun fire-control
1661:Scientific Revolution
1547:Transformation of war
1545:Van Creveld, Martin.
1443:International Affairs
1435:116 (2017): 151â161.
852:History of technology
585:aerospace engineering
568:Department of Defense
352:
233:interchangeable parts
213:
154:
4211:Specific modern wars
4159:Vehicles and weapons
4084:Military occupations
2683:Carrier strike group
1914:Agricultural science
1666:Age of Enlightenment
1510:Nicholson, Helen J.
1500:McNeill, William H.
1497:6.3 (2021): ogaa046.
1472:Gabriel, Richard A.
1166:The Machines of War,
1130:Radiation Laboratory
903:. 2002. Chapter 1.
888:Notes and references
755:modernization theory
609:computer engineering
155:Replica catapult at
4452:Politics of science
4432:Military technology
4374:Peace organizations
3837:Operations research
3315:Director (military)
3305:Fire-control system
2216:Command and control
1952:Veterinary medicine
1646:Classical Antiquity
1287:behavioral sciences
1272:Mukerji, Chandra.
1124:(now defunct), and
1056:Harris and Paxman,
912:Kevles, Daniel J.
867:Military technology
769:'s approach to the
722:biological sciences
716:Biological sciences
668:figure of the Earth
509:, resulting in the
299:Bureau of Standards
122:end of the Cold War
28:scientific research
20:military technology
4437:Military economics
3832:Military operation
3799:Tactical objective
3310:Fire-control radar
3226:Military equipment
3168:Anti-ship missiles
2520:Electronic-warfare
2383:Military maneuvers
2368:Combat occupations
2144:Commanding officer
2104:Occupational roles
1587:History of science
1185:, pp 26-48. p 26.
973:Biagioli, Mario.
832:Funding of science
822:History of weapons
462:National Socialism
450:Invasion of Poland
359:
355:Battle of Estaires
219:
197:Republic of Venice
164:
132:remains in place.
68:and the resulting
24:funding of science
4409:
4408:
4335:Anti-war movement
4278:
4277:
4270:Conflicts by time
3895:Counter-offensive
3885:Military campaign
3804:Target saturation
3754:Counterinsurgency
3403:International law
3345:Gun data computer
3214:
3213:
2551:Armies by country
2515:Close air support
2480:Aircraft carriers
2149:Executive officer
2032:
2031:
1924:Materials science
1886:Political science
1651:Medieval European
1203:Leslie, Stuart.
1183:Science after '40
1025:. Penguin, 1996.
872:Military medicine
782:Historical debate
702:fallout radiation
682:, while military
631:cognitive science
593:materials science
514:ballistic missile
481:Manhattan Project
479:In the U.S., the
470:Werner Heisenberg
339:organic chemicals
315:use of poison gas
229:French Revolution
118:digital computing
66:Manhattan Project
39:use of poison gas
4459:
4427:Military science
4399:
4398:
4388:
4387:
4365:
4248:
4239:
4230:
4221:
4205:
4196:
4187:
4178:
4169:
4155:
4146:
4137:
4122:
4121:
4064:Military tactics
3905:Defence in depth
3759:Defeat in detail
3455:Armoured warfare
3393:Military science
3183:Close-in weapons
2855:
2854:
2766:Wheeled vehicles
2761:Tracked vehicles
2558:Chain of command
2221:Defense ministry
2059:
2052:
2045:
2036:
2035:
2025:
2021:
2020:
2013:
2009:
1998:
1997:
1919:Computer science
1767:Natural sciences
1732:Medieval Islamic
1628:
1580:
1573:
1566:
1557:
1556:
1395:Andrade, Tonio.
1384:
1377:
1371:
1360:
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923:
917:
910:
904:
897:
862:Military science
842:History of radar
605:computer science
526:short-wave radar
376:hydrogen cyanide
357:, April 10, 1918
258:smokeless powder
157:Château des Baux
114:natural sciences
80:. Mathematical
4467:
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4458:
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4410:
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4378:
4359:
4345:Humanitarianism
4274:
4253:
4242:
4233:
4224:
4218:Napoleonic Wars
4215:
4199:
4193:Modern warships
4190:
4181:
4172:
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4149:
4140:
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4118:Other namespace
4113:
4035:
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3784:Rapid dominance
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3293:
3210:
3156:Naval artillery
3136:Guided missiles
3124:
2846:
2727:
2529:
2392:
2388:Combat training
2336:Security forces
2326:Military police
2264:Airborne forces
2204:
2072:
2063:
2033:
2028:
2016:
2004:
1986:
1933:
1900:
1858:Social sciences
1852:
1799:
1761:
1685:
1629:
1620:
1589:
1584:
1392:
1390:Further reading
1387:
1378:
1374:
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1301:
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1228:
1224:
1216:Edwards, Paul
1215:
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1198:
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933:
924:
920:
911:
907:
898:
894:
890:
885:
818:
784:
763:Project Camelot
759:nation-building
745:(put to use in
734:social sciences
718:
698:nuclear testing
689:radio astronomy
643:
601:
589:nuclear physics
539:
522:long-wave radar
458:Deutsche Physik
442:
436:
411:Robert Millikan
366:, a variety of
323:naval blockades
292:
286:
262:high explosives
149:
112:as well as the
110:social sciences
47:high explosives
18:The history of
12:
11:
5:
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4325:Global studies
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4300:Peace movement
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4101:
4099:Related lists:
4096:
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4069:History lists:
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4049:Military lists
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4028:
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4016:Defense policy
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4011:Defense budget
4008:
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4001:Public policy:
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3991:United Nations
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3950:Scorched earth
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3852:Deep operation
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3565:Unconventional
3562:
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3522:
3517:
3515:Disinformation
3512:
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3423:Post-classical
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3298:Combat systems
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3289:Field hospital
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3066:Shoulder-fired
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2966:Service rifles
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2729:
2728:
2726:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2654:
2653:
2648:
2638:
2637:
2636:
2631:
2621:
2620:
2619:
2609:
2608:
2607:
2597:
2596:
2595:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2554:
2553:
2548:
2537:
2535:
2531:
2530:
2528:
2527:
2525:Reconnaissance
2522:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2490:Auxiliary ship
2487:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2471:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2429:
2428:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2402:
2400:
2394:
2393:
2391:
2390:
2385:
2380:
2378:Basic training
2375:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2359:
2358:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2317:
2316:
2309:Reconnaissance
2306:
2301:
2296:
2294:Communications
2291:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2259:Special forces
2256:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2223:
2218:
2212:
2210:
2206:
2205:
2203:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2191:
2190:
2185:
2175:
2170:
2169:
2168:
2158:
2152:
2151:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2101:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2080:
2078:
2074:
2073:
2062:
2061:
2054:
2047:
2039:
2030:
2029:
2027:
2026:
2014:
2002:
1991:
1988:
1987:
1985:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1947:Human medicine
1943:
1941:
1935:
1934:
1932:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1910:
1908:
1902:
1901:
1899:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1873:
1868:
1862:
1860:
1854:
1853:
1851:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1809:
1807:
1801:
1800:
1798:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1771:
1769:
1763:
1762:
1760:
1759:
1754:
1749:
1744:
1739:
1734:
1729:
1724:
1719:
1714:
1709:
1704:
1699:
1693:
1691:
1687:
1686:
1684:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1637:
1635:
1631:
1630:
1623:
1621:
1619:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1606:Historiography
1603:
1597:
1595:
1591:
1590:
1583:
1582:
1575:
1568:
1560:
1554:
1553:
1543:
1533:
1526:
1519:
1508:
1498:
1491:
1487:(2022): 1-30.
1481:
1470:
1460:
1449:
1439:
1429:
1420:
1410:
1400:
1391:
1388:
1386:
1385:
1372:
1355:
1342:
1325:
1316:
1299:
1278:
1265:
1252:
1239:
1222:
1209:
1196:
1187:
1170:
1157:
1155:, pp. 324-348.
1153:The Physicists
1144:
1102:
1088:
1075:
1071:The Physicists
1062:
1049:
1045:The Physicists
1036:
1027:
1009:
1001:Georges Cuvier
988:
979:
966:
957:
944:
931:
918:
905:
891:
889:
886:
884:
883:External links
881:
880:
879:
874:
869:
864:
859:
854:
849:
844:
839:
834:
829:
824:
817:
814:
783:
780:
717:
714:
684:reconnaissance
642:
639:
600:
597:
538:
535:
435:
432:
428:apprenticeship
303:trench warfare
285:
282:
169:Thermodynamics
148:
145:
90:rocket science
78:proximity fuze
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4464:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4445:
4443:
4440:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4419:
4417:
4404:
4403:
4393:
4392:
4381:
4375:
4372:
4370:
4367:
4363:
4358:
4356:
4353:
4351:
4348:
4346:
4343:
4341:
4338:
4336:
4333:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4323:
4321:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4308:
4306:
4305:Peace process
4303:
4301:
4298:
4296:
4293:
4291:
4288:
4287:
4285:
4281:
4271:
4268:
4266:
4263:
4262:
4260:
4256:
4246:
4241:
4237:
4232:
4228:
4223:
4219:
4214:
4213:
4212:
4209:
4203:
4198:
4194:
4189:
4185:
4180:
4176:
4171:
4167:
4162:
4161:
4160:
4157:
4153:
4148:
4144:
4139:
4135:
4130:
4129:
4127:
4123:
4120:
4116:
4110:
4107:
4105:
4102:
4100:
4097:
4095:
4092:
4090:
4087:
4085:
4082:
4080:
4077:
4075:
4072:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4055:
4052:
4050:
4047:
4046:
4044:
4042:
4038:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4009:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3992:
3989:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3970:
3966:
3965:
3963:
3961:
3957:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3921:
3918:
3916:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3893:
3891:
3888:
3886:
3883:
3881:
3878:
3877:
3875:
3873:
3869:
3863:
3860:
3858:
3855:
3853:
3850:
3848:
3847:Expeditionary
3845:
3843:
3840:
3838:
3835:
3833:
3830:
3829:
3827:
3825:
3821:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3800:
3797:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3749:Counterattack
3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3719:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3704:
3702:
3700:
3696:
3690:
3687:
3685:
3682:
3678:
3675:
3674:
3673:
3670:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3637:
3636:
3633:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3605:
3604:
3601:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3583:
3581:
3580:
3578:
3576:
3572:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3555:Psychological
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3495:Combined arms
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3435:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3421:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3365:
3363:
3361:
3357:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3302:
3300:
3296:
3290:
3287:
3283:
3280:
3279:
3278:
3277:Military base
3275:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3261:
3258:
3257:
3256:
3253:
3249:
3246:
3245:
3244:
3241:
3237:
3234:
3232:
3229:
3228:
3227:
3224:
3223:
3221:
3217:
3207:
3204:
3202:
3199:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3190:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3178:Depth charges
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3162:
3159:
3158:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3139:
3138:
3137:
3134:
3133:
3131:
3127:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3090:
3089:
3086:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3063:
3062:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3049:
3048:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3030:
3027:
3026:
3025:
3022:
3018:
3015:
3014:
3013:
3012:Anti-tank gun
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2991:
2988:
2987:
2986:
2985:Assault rifle
2983:
2979:
2976:
2975:
2974:
2973:Battle rifles
2971:
2969:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2956:
2955:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2942:
2941:Infantry guns
2938:
2934:
2931:
2930:
2929:
2926:
2922:
2919:
2918:
2917:
2914:
2910:
2907:
2906:
2905:
2902:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2884:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2871:
2868:
2867:
2866:
2863:
2862:
2860:
2856:
2853:
2849:
2843:
2840:
2836:
2835:Anti-aircraft
2833:
2831:
2828:
2827:
2826:
2823:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2810:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2773:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2750:
2747:
2746:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2736:
2734:
2730:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2643:
2642:
2639:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2626:
2625:
2622:
2618:
2615:
2614:
2613:
2610:
2606:
2603:
2602:
2601:
2598:
2594:
2591:
2590:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2568:General staff
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2543:
2542:
2539:
2538:
2536:
2532:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2485:Landing craft
2483:
2481:
2478:
2476:
2473:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2455:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2427:
2424:
2423:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2403:
2401:
2399:
2395:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2357:
2354:
2353:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2315:
2312:
2311:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2228:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2213:
2211:
2207:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2180:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2167:
2164:
2163:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2153:
2150:
2147:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2134:Enlisted rank
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2081:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2060:
2055:
2053:
2048:
2046:
2041:
2040:
2037:
2024:
2015:
2012:
2008:
2003:
2001:
1993:
1992:
1989:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1944:
1942:
1940:
1936:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1911:
1909:
1907:
1903:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1864:
1863:
1861:
1859:
1855:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1823:Combinatorics
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1810:
1808:
1806:
1802:
1796:
1793:
1791:
1790:Earth science
1788:
1786:
1783:
1781:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1772:
1770:
1768:
1764:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1743:
1740:
1738:
1735:
1733:
1730:
1728:
1725:
1723:
1720:
1718:
1715:
1713:
1710:
1708:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1695:
1694:
1692:
1688:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1667:
1664:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1641:Ancient world
1639:
1638:
1636:
1632:
1627:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1611:Pseudoscience
1609:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1598:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1581:
1576:
1574:
1569:
1567:
1562:
1561:
1558:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1531:
1527:
1524:
1520:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1496:
1492:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1421:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1398:
1394:
1393:
1382:
1376:
1369:
1365:
1359:
1352:
1346:
1339:
1335:
1329:
1320:
1313:
1309:
1303:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1282:
1275:
1269:
1262:
1256:
1249:
1243:
1236:
1232:
1226:
1219:
1213:
1206:
1200:
1191:
1184:
1180:
1174:
1167:
1161:
1154:
1148:
1141:
1137:
1136:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1106:
1099:
1092:
1085:
1079:
1072:
1066:
1059:
1053:
1047:, pp 103-104.
1046:
1040:
1031:
1024:
1023:
1018:
1013:
1006:
1003:'s eulogy of
1002:
998:
992:
983:
976:
970:
961:
954:
948:
941:
935:
928:
922:
915:
909:
902:
896:
892:
878:
875:
873:
870:
868:
865:
863:
860:
858:
855:
853:
850:
848:
845:
843:
840:
838:
835:
833:
830:
828:
825:
823:
820:
819:
813:
810:
808:
807:Daniel Kevles
804:
800:
799:Robert Seidel
795:
793:
789:
779:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
735:
730:
728:
723:
713:
711:
707:
706:comprehensive
703:
699:
693:
690:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
638:
636:
632:
628:
624:
619:
615:
610:
606:
596:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
569:
564:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
534:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
512:
508:
507:
502:
497:
495:
491:
486:
482:
477:
475:
471:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
441:
431:
429:
423:
420:
416:
412:
409:(NRC) led by
408:
404:
400:
399:Thomas Edison
395:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
356:
351:
347:
344:
340:
336:
332:
328:
324:
319:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
291:
281:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
253:
251:
247:
246:John Harrison
243:
238:
234:
230:
225:
217:
212:
208:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
177:Count Rumford
174:
170:
162:
158:
153:
144:
142:
141:Daniel Kevles
138:
133:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
102:United States
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
57:
52:
48:
45:and advanced
44:
40:
35:
33:
29:
25:
21:
16:
4400:
4389:
4368:
4364:}}
4360:{{
4247:}}
4243:{{
4238:}}
4236:World War II
4234:{{
4229:}}
4225:{{
4220:}}
4216:{{
4210:
4204:}}
4200:{{
4195:}}
4191:{{
4186:}}
4182:{{
4177:}}
4173:{{
4168:}}
4164:{{
4158:
4154:}}
4150:{{
4145:}}
4141:{{
4136:}}
4132:{{
4098:
4068:
4048:
4020:
4006:Conscription
4000:
3981:Peace treaty
3967:
3672:Subterranean
3560:Radiological
3500:Conventional
3449:
3428:Early modern
3407:
3334:
3271:
3187:
3147:
3109:
3092:
3057:
3046:Combat knife
3036:Flamethrower
3001:
2997:Sniper rifle
2964:
2953:Machine guns
2939:
2876:
2738:
2712:
2702:
2667:
2572:
2541:Organization
2494:
2448:Naval units:
2447:
2443:Signal corps
2405:
2373:Development:
2372:
2362:
2341:Border guard
2304:Intelligence
2288:
2227:Armed Forces
2225:
2194:
2155:
2113:
2098:
1962:Neuroscience
1866:Anthropology
1848:Trigonometry
1546:
1536:
1529:
1522:
1511:
1501:
1494:
1484:
1473:
1463:
1452:
1442:
1432:
1423:
1413:
1403:
1396:
1380:
1375:
1368:crowding out
1363:
1358:
1350:
1345:
1337:
1333:
1328:
1319:
1311:
1307:
1302:
1294:
1281:
1273:
1268:
1260:
1255:
1247:
1242:
1234:
1230:
1225:
1217:
1212:
1204:
1199:
1190:
1182:
1178:
1173:
1165:
1160:
1152:
1147:
1139:
1134:
1122:Hanford Site
1105:
1097:
1091:
1083:
1078:
1073:, pp 102-154
1070:
1065:
1060:, pp 11-12.
1057:
1052:
1044:
1039:
1030:
1020:
1012:
996:
991:
982:
974:
969:
960:
952:
947:
939:
934:
926:
921:
913:
908:
900:
895:
811:
796:
792:Roger Geiger
785:
731:
719:
708:rather than
694:
659:oceanography
644:
635:neuroscience
602:
565:
540:
518:jet aircraft
506:Wunderwaffen
504:
498:
478:
474:Kurt Diebner
443:
434:World War II
424:
396:
360:
320:
293:
266:machine guns
254:
220:
215:
165:
134:
106:Soviet Union
94:jet aircraft
82:cryptography
62:World War II
60:
36:
17:
15:
4369:Categories:
4310:Disarmament
4227:World War I
3986:Cooperation
3900:Culminating
3824:Operational
3769:Envelopment
3689:Information
3608:Cold-region
3575:Battlespace
3433:Late modern
3413:Prehistoric
3335:Historical:
3272:Facilities:
2798:Armored car
2673:Naval fleet
2411:Combat arms
2406:Land units:
2363:Categories:
2346:Coast guard
2331:Gendarmerie
2254:Space force
2195:Categories:
2109:Recruitment
1929:Engineering
1871:Archaeology
1838:Probability
1805:Mathematics
1671:Romanticism
1656:Renaissance
1291:behaviorism
1017:Sobel, Dava
827:Big Science
788:Paul Forman
775:objectivity
771:Vietnam War
676:gravitation
556:electronics
454:nationalism
392:insecticide
384:Porton Down
372:mustard gas
343:Fritz Haber
295:World War I
278:battleships
270:telegraphic
237:Eli Whitney
224:engineering
137:Paul Forman
86:meteorology
70:atomic bomb
32:World War I
4416:Categories
4258:Categories
4104:War crimes
4089:Operations
4026:Government
3842:Blitzkrieg
3814:Withdrawal
3665:Underwater
3640:Amphibious
3582:Aerospace
3525:Electronic
3475:Camouflage
3470:Biological
3443:fourth-gen
3438:industrial
3267:Body armor
3255:Camouflage
3236:By country
3081:By country
2892:By country
2877:Artillery:
2791:By country
2708:Combat box
2678:Task force
2646:By country
2629:By country
2583:Field army
2578:Army group
2546:By country
2495:Air units:
2475:Submarines
2356:By country
2183:By country
2099:Technology
1906:Technology
1891:Psychology
1843:Statistics
1690:By culture
1594:Background
786:Historian
743:propaganda
700:and track
663:seismology
627:psychology
446:total wars
438:See also:
394:research.
368:tear gases
288:See also:
272:and later
189:ballistics
4125:Templates
3996:Mediation
3976:Alliances
3969:Diplomacy
3945:Offensive
3925:Defensive
3920:Deception
3890:Attrition
3774:Guerrilla
3722:Airbridge
3540:Loitering
3460:Artillery
3398:Diplomacy
3219:Equipment
3173:Torpedoes
3115:Land mine
3071:Anti-tank
2904:Field gun
2882:Artillery
2818:Gun truck
2803:Scout car
2641:Battalion
2534:Structure
2433:Artillery
2351:Logistics
2299:Engineers
2244:Air force
2000:Timelines
1977:Pathology
1972:Nutrition
1896:Sociology
1876:Economics
1785:Chemistry
1775:Astronomy
1712:Byzantine
1707:Brazilian
1702:Argentine
803:Ron Robin
751:communism
672:geography
614:Whirlwind
599:Computing
560:Air Force
530:microwave
415:Submarine
318:warfare.
250:astronomy
242:longitude
201:patronage
4391:Category
4315:Pacifism
4245:Cold War
4202:Aircraft
4021:Related:
3872:Strategy
3857:Maneuver
3794:Swarming
3623:Mountain
3591:Airborne
3530:Infantry
3485:Chemical
3450:By type:
3378:Strategy
3201:Missiles
3129:Sea/Air:
3098:Infantry
3059:Missiles
2916:Howitzer
2732:Vehicles
2698:Squadron
2693:Flotilla
2688:Division
2624:Regiment
2600:Division
2500:Fighters
2463:Littoral
2453:Warships
2416:Infantry
2398:Branches
2284:Reserves
2269:Commando
2173:Uniforms
2084:Military
2077:Concepts
2066:Military
2023:Category
1982:Pharmacy
1939:Medicine
1828:Geometry
1818:Calculus
1737:Japanese
1537:PloS one
1164:Hacker,
1151:Kevles,
1069:Kevles,
1043:Kevles,
816:See also
649:and the
623:Cold War
577:Stanford
501:rocketry
364:phosgene
335:chlorine
311:aircraft
274:wireless
185:catapult
124:and the
104:and the
98:Cold War
51:chlorine
43:nitrates
4402:Commons
4320:DĂŠtente
4283:Related
4175:Weapons
4143:Weapons
4109:Writers
4079:Battles
4059:Weapons
3764:Foxhole
3739:Cavalry
3727:Airdrop
3717:Airlift
3699:Tactics
3660:Surface
3550:Nuclear
3535:Lawfare
3480:Cavalry
3465:Barrage
3418:Ancient
3408:By era:
3383:Tactics
3360:Warfare
3041:Bayonet
3024:Grenade
3007:Bazooka
2948:Pistols
2897:Battery
2865:Weapons
2851:Weapons
2739:Ground:
2658:Platoon
2651:By type
2634:By type
2617:By type
2612:Brigade
2510:Command
2505:Bombers
2458:Surface
2426:Cavalry
2321:Medical
2279:Militia
2274:Frogman
2249:Marines
2188:Highest
2139:Officer
2119:Soldier
2094:History
2089:Service
1957:Anatomy
1881:History
1813:Algebra
1795:Physics
1780:Biology
1757:Spanish
1752:Russian
1747:Mexican
1722:Chinese
1697:African
1168:p. 263.
1007:, p 35.
655:geodesy
419:U-boats
380:arsenic
327:nitrate
203:of the
193:Galileo
56:U-boats
4394:
4094:Sieges
4031:Nation
3960:Policy
3915:Mosaic
3910:Fabian
3809:Trench
3779:Morale
3744:Charge
3734:Battle
3712:Aerial
3677:Tunnel
3618:Jungle
3613:Desert
3510:Denial
3388:Combat
3373:Battle
3243:Helmet
3189:Aerial
3120:Shells
3110:Other:
3093:Lists:
3088:Mortar
2928:Rocket
2756:Combat
2744:Ground
2668:Naval:
2468:Patrol
2209:Forces
2129:Airman
2124:Sailor
2114:Roles:
2011:Portal
1742:Korean
1727:Indian
1717:French
1634:By era
1551:online
1541:online
1516:online
1506:online
1489:online
1478:online
1468:online
1457:online
1447:online
1437:online
1418:online
1408:online
1179:Osiris
680:CORONA
661:, and
591:, and
575:. At
370:, and
205:Medici
181:cannon
161:France
88:, and
4290:Peace
4166:Tanks
4152:Ranks
4041:Lists
3940:Naval
3930:Depth
3789:Siege
3684:Cyber
3655:Green
3650:Brown
3628:Urban
3596:Space
3545:Music
3520:Drone
3505:Cyber
3490:Class
3330:Radar
3325:Sonar
3282:Lists
3231:Lists
3206:Bombs
3149:Naval
3103:Heavy
2808:Truck
2786:Lists
2771:Armor
2663:Squad
2588:Corps
2573:Land:
2421:Armor
2200:Ranks
2161:Ranks
1833:Logic
1116:(now
747:Korea
388:tabun
307:tanks
74:radar
4074:Wars
4054:Wars
3935:Goal
3645:Blue
3603:Land
3260:List
3248:List
3196:Guns
3161:List
3141:List
3076:List
3051:List
3029:List
3017:List
2990:List
2978:List
2958:List
2933:List
2921:List
2909:List
2887:List
2870:List
2858:Land
2842:Rail
2830:List
2813:List
2776:Tank
2749:List
2703:Air:
2605:List
2593:List
2314:List
2239:Navy
2234:Army
2166:List
2068:and
732:The
725:the
720:The
674:and
645:The
633:and
618:SAGE
607:and
579:and
566:The
337:and
309:and
175:was
4134:War
3635:Sea
3586:Air
3368:War
2070:war
1336:,"
1289:or
1120:),
1019:.
581:MIT
511:V-2
413:.
331:dye
4418::
657:,
629:,
587:,
452:,
378:,
264:,
159:,
84:,
3971::
3191::
3151::
3061::
2968::
2943::
2229::
2058:e
2051:t
2044:v
1579:e
1572:t
1565:v
1518:.
1480:.
1459:.
616:-
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