Manhattan Project - Knowledge

1986: 2154:, Ohio, to build the thermal diffusion plant, which was designated S-50. Plans called for the installation of 2,142 48-foot-tall (15 m) diffusion columns arranged in 21 racks. Inside each column were three concentric tubes. Steam, obtained from the nearby K-25 powerhouse at a pressure of 100 pounds per square inch (690 kPa) and temperature of 545 °F (285 °C), flowed downward through the innermost 1.25-inch (32 mm) nickel pipe, while water at 155 °F (68 °C) flowed upward through the outermost iron pipe. The uranium hexafluoride flowed in the middle copper pipe, and isotope separation of the uranium occurred between the nickel and copper pipes. Work commenced on 9 July 1944, and S-50 began partial operation in September. Leaks limited production and forced shutdowns over the next few months, but in June 1945 the S-50 plant produced 12,730 pounds (5,770 kg) of slightly enriched product. 2542: 1139:) was larger and more advanced. Britain rebuffed attempts by Bush and Conant in August 1941 to strengthen cooperation because it was reluctant to share its technological lead and help the United States develop its own atomic bomb. But the British, who had made significant advances in research early in the war, did not have the resources to carry through such a research program into development while a large portion of their economy was engaged in fighting the war; Tube Alloys soon fell behind its American counterpart. The roles of the two countries were reversed, and in January 1943 Conant notified the British that they would no longer receive atomic information except in certain areas. The British investigated the possibility of an independent nuclear program but determined that it could not be ready in time to impact the 680: 3411:, lifted off with a Fat Man on board. This time, Ashworth served as weaponeer and Kokura was the primary target. When they reached Kokura, they found cloud cover had obscured the city, prohibiting the visual attack required by orders. After three runs and with fuel running low, they headed for the secondary target, Nagasaki. Ashworth decided that a radar approach would be used if the target was obscured, but a last-minute break in the clouds over Nagasaki allowed a visual approach as ordered. The Fat Man was dropped over the city's industrial valley midway between the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works in the south and the Mitsubishi-Urakami Ordnance Works in the north. The resulting explosion had a blast yield equivalent to 21 kilotons of TNT, roughly the same as the Trinity blast, but was confined to the 2776: 3850: 1058: 1098:, the chairman of the War Production Board, and asked for broad authority to issue a AAA rating whenever it was required. Nelson initially balked but quickly caved in when Groves threatened to go to the President. Groves promised not to use the AAA rating unless it was necessary. It soon transpired that for the routine requirements of the project the AAA rating was too high but the AA-3 rating was too low. After a long campaign, Groves finally received AA-1 authority on 1 July 1944. According to Groves, "In Washington you became aware of the importance of top priority. Most everything proposed in the Roosevelt administration would have top priority. That would last for about a week or two and then something else would get top priority". 202: 3067: 7881:, pp. 14–15: "On the basis of numbers alone, women were important at all the project sites. They accounted for 9 percent of the 51,000 employees at Hanford in 1944, when the site's staff was at its largest. At Los Alamos, when tight security made it difficult to hire people who did not already live on the site, opportunities for women may have been even greater. In September 1943, some sixty women worked in the Technical Area at Los Alamos. By October 1944, about 30 percent, or 200 members of the labor for in the Tech Area, the hospital, and the schools were women. Of these, twenty could be described as scientists and fifty as technicians. ... The number of women working on the Manhattan Project contrasts sharply with the 15876: 1237: 998: 2258: 2905: 2824: 2377:

television, something unheard of in 1943. Maintenance was carried out with the aid of an overhead crane and specially designed tools. The 224 buildings were smaller because they had less material to process, and it was less radioactive. The 224-T and 224-U buildings were completed on 8 October 1944, and 224-B followed on 10 February 1945. The purification methods that were eventually used in 231-W were still unknown when construction commenced on 8 April 1944, but the plant was complete and the methods were selected by the end of the year. On 5 February 1945, Matthias hand-delivered the first shipment of 80 g of 95%-pure plutonium nitrate to a Los Alamos courier in Los Angeles.

1013:. Reybold, Somervell, and Styer decided to call the project "Development of Substitute Materials", but Groves felt that this would draw attention. Since engineer districts normally carried the name of the city where they were located, Marshall and Groves agreed to name the Army's component the Manhattan District; Reybold officially created this district on 13 August. Informally, it was known as the Manhattan Engineer District, or MED. Unlike other districts, it had no geographic boundaries, and Marshall had the authority of a division engineer. Development of Substitute Materials remained as the official codename of the project as a whole but was supplanted over time by "Manhattan". 1192:. More scientists arrived in early 1944. While those assigned to gaseous diffusion left by the fall of 1944, the thirty-five working under Oliphant with Lawrence at Berkeley were assigned to existing laboratory groups and most stayed until the end of the war. The nineteen sent to Los Alamos also joined existing groups, primarily related to implosion and bomb assembly, but not the plutonium-related ones. The Quebec Agreement specified that nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without the mutual consent of the US and UK. In June 1945, Wilson agreed that the nuclear bombing of Japan would be recorded as a decision of the Combined Policy Committee. 2392: 3567: 2810:, and appointed as chief of the MED's Medical Section and Groves' medical advisor. Warren's initial task was to staff hospitals at Oak Ridge, Richland and Los Alamos. The Medical Section was responsible for medical research, but also for the MED's health and safety programs. This presented an enormous challenge, because workers were handling a variety of toxic chemicals, using hazardous liquids and gases under high pressures, working with high voltages, and performing experiments involving explosives, not to mention the largely unknown dangers presented by radioactivity and handling fissile materials. Yet in December 1945, the 946:. Teller proposed scheme after scheme, but Bethe refused each one. The fusion idea was put aside to concentrate on producing fission bombs. Teller raised the speculative possibility that an atomic bomb might "ignite" the atmosphere because of a hypothetical fusion reaction of nitrogen nuclei. Bethe calculated that it was "extremely unlikely". A postwar report co-authored by Teller concluded that "whatever the temperature to which a section of the atmosphere may be heated, no self-propagating chain of nuclear reactions is likely to be started." In Serber's account, Oppenheimer mentioned the possibility of this scenario to 3792: 2132:, which explained that when a mixed gas passes through a temperature gradient, the heavier one tends to concentrate at the cold end and the lighter one at the warm end. It was developed by US Navy scientists, but was not one of the enrichment technologies initially selected for use in the Manhattan Project. This was primarily due to doubts about its technical feasibility, but the inter-service rivalry between the Army and Navy also played a part. The Naval Research Laboratory continued the research under Philip Abelson's direction, but there was little contact with the Manhattan Project until April 1944, when 1606:

on-site. By July 1944, some 1,200 buildings had been erected and nearly 51,000 people were living in the construction camp. As area engineer, Matthias exercised overall control of the site. At its peak, the construction camp was the third most populous town in Washington state. Hanford operated a fleet of over 900 buses, more than the city of Chicago. Like Los Alamos and Oak Ridge, Richland was a gated community with restricted access, but it looked more like a typical wartime American boomtown: the military profile was lower, and physical security elements like high fences and guard dogs were less evident.

3485: 2348: 2791:(SED), with an authorized strength of 675. Technicians and skilled workers drafted into the Army were assigned to the SED. Another source was the Women's Army Corps (WAC). Initially intended for clerical tasks handling classified material, the WACs were soon tapped for technical and scientific tasks as well. On 1 February 1945, all military personnel assigned to the MED, including all SED detachments, were assigned to the 9812th Technical Service Unit, except at Los Alamos, where military personnel other than SED, including the WACs and Military Police, were assigned to the 4817th Service Command Unit. 1278: 2748: 1570: 2206: 1147: 3587:

wasteful gun method, and composite uranium-plutonium cores were needed now that plutonium was in short supply. However, uncertainty about the future of the laboratory made it hard to induce people to stay. Oppenheimer returned to his job at the University of California and Groves appointed Norris Bradbury as an interim replacement; Bradbury remained in the post for the next 25 years. Groves attempted to combat the dissatisfaction caused by the lack of amenities with a construction program that included an improved water supply, three hundred houses, and recreation facilities.

2024:, was assigned to Stone & Webster in June 1942. The design called for five first-stage processing units, known as Alpha racetracks, and two units for final processing, known as Beta racetracks. In September 1943 Groves authorized construction of four more racetracks, known as Alpha II. Construction began in February 1943. The second Alpha I was operational at the end of January 1944, the first Beta and first and third Alpha I's came online in March, and the fourth Alpha I was operational in April. The four Alpha II racetracks were completed between July and October 1944. 1916: 2009: 1105:, the group that would design and build the bomb. The obvious choice was one of the three laboratory heads, Urey, Lawrence, or Compton, but they could not be spared. Compton recommended Oppenheimer, who was already intimately familiar with the bomb design concepts. However, Oppenheimer had little administrative experience, and, unlike Urey, Lawrence, and Compton, had not won a Nobel Prize, which many scientists felt that the head of such an important laboratory should have. There were also concerns about Oppenheimer's security status, as many of his associates were 2633: 820: 2437: 2425:. Implosion used explosives to crush a subcritical sphere of fissile material into a smaller and denser form. The critical mass is assembled in much less time than with the gun method. When the fissile atoms are packed closer together, the rate of neutron capture increases, so it also makes more efficient use of fissionable material. Neddermeyer's 1943 and early 1944 investigations showed promise, but also made it clear that an implosion weapon was more complex than the gun-type design from both a theoretical and an engineering perspective. In September 1943, 1982:. In the electromagnetic process, a magnetic field deflected charged particles according to mass. The process was neither scientifically elegant nor industrially efficient. Compared with a gaseous diffusion plant or a nuclear reactor, an electromagnetic separation plant would consume more scarce materials, require more manpower to operate, and cost more to build. Nonetheless, the process was approved because it was based on proven technology and therefore represented less risk. Moreover, it could be built in stages, and rapidly reach industrial capacity. 3380:

of 1,750 feet (530 m) with a blast that was later estimated to be the equivalent of 13 kilotons of TNT. An area of approximately 4.7 square miles (12 km) was destroyed. Japanese officials determined that 69% of Hiroshima's buildings were destroyed and another 6–7% damaged. Early estimates were that 66,000 people were killed and 69,000 injured; later re-estimations that included people ignored by previous methods, like Korean slave laborers and additional soldiers, concluded there might have been 140,000 dead from the attack by December 1945.

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published, and the project at first avoided notifying the office. By early 1943 newspapers began publishing reports of large construction in Tennessee and Washington, and the office began discussing with the project how to maintain secrecy. In June it asked newspapers and broadcasters to avoid discussing "atom smashing, atomic energy, atomic fission, atomic splitting, or any of their equivalents. The use for military purposes of radium or radioactive materials, heavy water, high voltage discharge equipment, cyclotrons."

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rotors, assuming that 4-meter rotors could be built. The prospect of keeping so many rotors operating continuously at high speed appeared daunting, and when Beams ran his experimental apparatus, he obtained only 60% of the predicted yield, indicating that more centrifuges were required. Beams, Urey and Cohen then began work on a series of improvements which promised to increase efficiency. However, frequent failures of motors, shafts and bearings at high speeds delayed work on the pilot plant.

40: 2074: 2649: 15684: 2407:. Initial research on the properties of plutonium was done using cyclotron-generated plutonium-239, which was extremely pure but could only be created in very small amounts. Los Alamos received the first sample of plutonium from the Clinton X-10 reactor in April 1944 and within days Emilio Segrè discovered a problem: the reactor-bred plutonium had a higher concentration of plutonium-240, resulting in up to five times the spontaneous fission rate of cyclotron plutonium. 15864: 15900: 2143: 12260: 2641:

tons (194 t) of iron and steel. By the time it arrived, however, confidence in the implosion method was high enough, and the availability of plutonium was sufficient, that Oppenheimer decided not to use it. Instead, it was placed atop a steel tower 800 yards (730 m) from the weapon as a rough measure of the explosion's power. Jumbo survived, although its tower did not, adding credence to the belief that Jumbo would have successfully contained a

2739:, and Groves hastily prepared a lengthier report sent via courier. Truman was powerfully and positively affected by the news. Stimson noted in his diary that when he shared it with Churchill, Churchill remarked: "Now I know what happened to Truman yesterday. I couldn't understand it. When he got to the meeting after having read this report, he was a changed man. He told the Russians just where they got on and off and generally bossed the whole meeting." 1776: 498: 15962: 15945: 2062:, so in a box containing a semi-permeable membrane and a mixture of two gases, the lighter molecules will pass out of the container more rapidly than the heavier molecules. The idea was that such boxes could be formed into a cascade of pumps and membranes, with each successive stage containing a slightly more enriched mixture. Research into the process was carried out at Columbia University by a group that included Harold Urey, 1424: 2086:

and pumps had to be vacuum tight and enclosed in inert gas. The biggest problem was the design of the barrier, which had to be strong, porous and resistant to corrosion. Edward Adler and Edward Norris created a mesh barrier from electroplated nickel. A six-stage pilot plant was built at Columbia to test the process, but the prototype proved to be too brittle. A rival barrier was developed from powdered nickel by Kellex, the

3891:", became the official correspondent for the Manhattan Project in spring 1945. He witnessed both the Trinity test and the bombing of Nagasaki and wrote the official press releases on them. He went on to write a series of articles extolling the virtues of the new weapon. His reporting helped to spur public awareness of the potential of nuclear technology and motivated its development in the United States and Soviet Union. 2218:, a chemical separation plant, and support facilities. Because of the subsequent decision to construct water-cooled reactors at Hanford, only the chemical separation plant operated as a true pilot. The X-10 Graphite Reactor consisted of a huge block of graphite, 24 feet (7.3 m) per side, weighing around 1,500 short tons (1,400 t), surrounded by 7 feet (2.1 m) of high-density concrete as a radiation shield. 1358: 15852: 3827:, who had threatened to reveal the existence of the project if he was not told more about it, five additional Congressmen were permitted to visit the Oak Ridge site to assure themselves of "the reasonableness of the various living accommodations which had been provided, that they actually observe the size and scope of the installations and that some of the complexities of the project be demonstrated to them." 15928: 2365:, was subsequently developed by Seaborg and Stanly G. Thomson. Greenewalt favored the bismuth phosphate process due to the corrosive nature of lanthanum fluoride, and it was selected for the Hanford separation plants. Once X-10 began producing plutonium, the pilot separation plant was put to the test. The first batch was processed at 40% efficiency but over the next few months this was raised to 90%. 2158:

diffusion process in the K-25 plant, which produced a product enriched to about 23%. In turn, this was fed into Y-12, which boosted it to about 89%, sufficient for use in nuclear weapons. About 50 kilograms (110 lb) of uranium enriched to 89% was delivered to Los Alamos by July 1945. The entire 50 kg, along with some 50%-enriched, averaging out to about 85% enriched, were used in the first

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efforts helped raise production to 10% of the uranium-235 feed by January 1945. In February the Alpha racetracks began receiving slightly enriched (1.4%) feed from the new S-50 thermal diffusion plant, and the next month they received enhanced (5%) feed from the K-25 gaseous diffusion plant. By August, K-25 was producing uranium sufficiently enriched to feed directly into the Beta tracks.

910:. Even by December 1943, only two milligrams had been produced. There were many ways of arranging the fissile material into a critical mass. The simplest was shooting a "cylindrical plug" into a sphere of "active material" with a "tamper"—dense material to focus neutrons inward and keep the reacting mass together to increase its efficiency. They also explored designs involving 1393:"for so long as the military necessity continues". Wartime land purchases eventually came to 49,383 acres (19,985 ha), but only $ 414,971 was spent. Work commenced in December 1942. Groves initially allocated $ 300,000 for construction, three times Oppenheimer's estimate, but by the time Sundt finished on 30 November 1943, over $ 7 million had been spent. 3980:

underground storage tanks" that were intended to be temporary, awaiting a more permanent solution. Instead, they were neglected and eventually leaked. Issues of this kind resulted in Hanford becoming "one of the most contaminated nuclear waste sites in North America", and the subject of significant cleanup efforts after it was deactivated in the late Cold War.

2558:. The brittle α phase that exists at room temperature changes to the plastic β phase at higher temperatures. Attention then shifted to the even more malleable δ phase that normally exists in the 300 °C to 450 °C range. It was found that this was stable at room temperature when alloyed with aluminum, but aluminum emits neutrons when bombarded with 1049:, the deputy chief of staff at Services and Supply for requirements and resources, felt that the highest rating he could assign was AA-3, although he was willing to provide a AAA rating on request for critical materials if the need arose. Nichols and Marshall were disappointed; AA-3 was the same priority as Nichols' TNT plant in Pennsylvania. 1912:, most of which was carried out at Oak Ridge. The most obvious technology, the centrifuge, failed, but electromagnetic separation, gaseous diffusion, and thermal diffusion technologies were all successful and contributed to the project. In February 1943, Groves came up with the idea of using the output of some plants as the input for others. 2098:

on the main building began in October 1943, and the six-stage pilot plant was ready for operation on 17 April 1944. In 1945 Groves canceled the upper stages, directing Kellex to instead design and build a 540-stage side feed unit, which became known as K-27. Kellex transferred the last unit to the operating contractor,

3308:, Roosevelt instructed Groves and Stimson that if the atomic bombs were ready before the war with Germany ended, they should be ready to drop them on Germany, but Japan was regarded as more likely. In late April 1945, a targeting committee was established to determine which cities should be targets, and it recommended 3540:. The swelling damaged the charging tubes where the uranium was irradiated to produce plutonium, rendering them unusable. Production was curtailed and the oldest unit, B pile, was closed down so at least one reactor would remain available. Research continued, with DuPont and the Metallurgical Laboratory developing a 1084:, where Colonel Marshall had his liaison office. He assumed command of the Manhattan Project on 23 September 1942. Later that day, he attended a meeting called by Stimson, which established a Military Policy Committee, responsible to the Top Policy Group, consisting of Bush (with Conant as an alternate), Styer and 1635:, since 1930. Urey suggested in 1941 that it could produce heavy water. To the existing $ 10 million plant consisting of 3,215 cells consuming 75 MW of hydroelectric power, secondary electrolysis cells were added to increase the deuterium concentration in the water from 2.3% to 99.8%. For this process, 1121:. A long conversation in October 1942 convinced Groves and Nichols that Oppenheimer thoroughly understood the issues involved in setting up a laboratory in a remote area and should be appointed as its director. Groves personally waived the security requirements and issued Oppenheimer's clearance on 20 July 1943. 2756:

increased to 5,600. Procuring the required numbers of workers, especially highly skilled workers, in competition with other vital wartime programs proved very difficult. Due to high turnover, over 500,000 people worked on the project. Most African Americans were employed in low-level jobs, but there were a few

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was simpler, cheaper and quicker to build. The design did not become available until 4 October 1943; in the meantime, Matthias concentrated on improving the Hanford Site by erecting accommodations, improving the roads, building a railway switch line, and upgrading the electricity, water and telephone lines.

2418:). A higher-velocity gun was suggested but found to be impractical. The possibility of separating the isotopes was also considered and rejected, as plutonium-240 is even harder to separate from plutonium-239 than uranium-235 from uranium-238, and attempting it "would postpone the weapon indefinitely". 3787:

The project expenditure through 1 October 1945 was $ 1.845 billion, equivalent to less than nine days of wartime spending, and was $ 2.191 billion when the AEC assumed control on 1 January 1947. The total allocation was $ 2.4 billion. 84% of the costs through the end of 1945 were spent

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was approved by Marshall and Stimson on 25 July which specified that the "first special bomb" be used "after about 3 August 1945," and that "additional bombs" would be used "as soon as made ready by the project staff". The operational plan was to drop the first bomb on 2 August, the second bomb on 10

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This clashed with the norms of many of the scientists involved, who claimed that science could not operate successfully under such requirements. The Manhattan Project officials also had difficulty with journalists, Congressmen, federal officials who were not "in the know", residents near local sites,

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At Hanford, top priority was initially given to the installations in the 300 area: buildings for testing materials, preparing uranium, and assembling and calibrating instrumentation. One of the buildings housed the canning equipment for the uranium slugs, while another contained a small test reactor.

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of xenon-135, which turned out to be 30,000 times that of uranium. DuPont engineer George Graves had deviated from the Metallurgical Laboratory's original design in which the reactor had 1,500 tubes arranged in a circle, and had added an additional 504 tubes to fill in the corners. The scientists had

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under an argon atmosphere. Finally, they were tested to detect holes or faulty welds. Disappointingly, most canned slugs initially failed the tests, resulting in an output of only a handful per day. But steady progress was made and by June 1944 production increased to the point where it appeared that

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Kellex's design for K-25 called for a four-story 0.5-mile (0.80 km) long U-shaped structure containing 54 contiguous buildings. These were divided into nine sections containing cells of six stages. A survey party began construction by marking out the 500-acre (2.0 km) site in May 1943. Work

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The dispute did not delay work. Although progress on the reactor design at Metallurgical Laboratory and DuPont was not sufficiently advanced to accurately predict the scope of the project, a start was made in April 1943 on facilities for an estimated 25,000 workers, half of whom were expected to live

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through a subsidiary, the Roane-Anderson Company. Chemical engineers were part of "frantic efforts" to make 10% to 12% enriched uranium 235, with tight security and fast approvals for supplies and materials. The population of Oak Ridge soon expanded well beyond the initial plans, and peaked at 75,000

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The prospect of sabotage was always present, and sometimes suspected when there were equipment failures. While there were some problems believed to be the result of careless or disgruntled employees, there were no confirmed instances of Axis-instigated sabotage. However, on 10 March 1945, a Japanese

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Compartmentalization of knowledge, to me, was the very heart of security. My rule was simple and not capable of misinterpretation—each man should know everything he needed to know to do his job and nothing else. Adherence to this rule not only provided an adequate measure of security, but it greatly

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At its peak in June 1944, the Manhattan Project employed about 129,000 workers, of whom 84,500 were construction workers, 40,500 were plant operators and 1,800 were military personnel. As construction activity declined, the workforce fell to 100,000 a year later, but the number of military personnel

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For the actual test, the weapon, nicknamed "the gadget", was hoisted to the top of a 100-foot (30 m) steel tower, as detonation at that height would give a better indication of how the weapon would behave when dropped from a bomber. Detonation in the air maximized the energy applied directly to

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Early plans called for the construction of two separation plants in each of the areas known as 200-West and 200-East. This was subsequently reduced to two, the T and U plants, in 200-West and one, the B plant, at 200-East. Each separation plant consisted of four buildings: a process cell building or

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Although an air-cooled design was chosen for the reactor at Oak Ridge to facilitate rapid construction, this was impractical for the much larger production reactors. Initial designs by the Metallurgical Laboratory and DuPont used helium for cooling, before they determined that a water-cooled reactor

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accepted an offer to construct the plant, which was codenamed K-25. A separate corporate entity called Kellex was created for the project. The process faced formidable technical difficulties. The highly corrosive gas uranium hexafluoride had to be used as no substitute could be found, and the motors

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The calutrons initially enriched the uranium-235 content to between 13% and 15%, and shipped the first few hundred grams of this to Los Alamos in March 1944. Only 1 part in 5,825 of the uranium feed emerged as product. Much of the rest was splattered over equipment in the process. Strenuous recovery

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Groves appreciated the early British atomic research and the British scientists' contributions to the Manhattan Project but stated that the United States would have succeeded without them, although not in time for the August 1945 bombing of Hiroshima. The British wartime participation was crucial to

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was in London. Britain agreed to give the United States most of the Belgian ore, as it could not use most of the supply without restricted American research. In 1944, the Trust purchased 3,440,000 pounds (1,560,000 kg) of uranium oxide ore from companies operating mines in the Belgian Congo. To

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When cooperation resumed after the Quebec Agreement, the Americans' progress and expenditures amazed the British. Chadwick pressed for British involvement in the Manhattan Project to the fullest extent and abandoned hopes of an independent British project during the war. With Churchill's backing, he

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and his team in February 1941. The scientists at the July 1942 conference envisioned creating plutonium in nuclear reactors where uranium-238 atoms absorbed neutrons that had been emitted from fissioning uranium-235. At this point no reactor had been built, and only tiny quantities of plutonium were

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story is apparently from 1948. Oppenheimer at times translated it to "shatterer of worlds" as well. The quote with "destroyer of worlds" comes from a taped interview of Oppenheimer did with NBC in 1965. Oppenheimer's translation is not considered a standard or literal one, and was likely influenced

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The original project goal in 1942 was to acquire approximately 1,700 short tons (1,500 t) of uranium ore. By the time of the dissolution of the Manhattan District, it had acquired about 10,000 short tons (9,100 t) tons of uranium oxides, 72% of which came from the Congolese ores, 14% from

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These Congressional inquiries, along with the need for smooth budgetary approval, led to Bush, Groves, and Stimson agreeing in the spring of 1944 that a few high-ranking Congressmen should be told of the project's purpose. By March 1945, exactly seven Congressmen were officially informed. The funds

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and a port of embarkation, was the primary target, with Kokura and Nagasaki as alternatives. Parsons, the weaponeer in charge of the mission, completed the bomb assembly in the air to minimize the risks of a nuclear explosion in the event of a crash during takeoff. The bomb detonated at an altitude

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was created to advise on wartime and postwar use of nuclear energy. The Interim Committee in turn established a scientific panel consisting of Arthur Compton, Fermi, Lawrence, and Oppenheimer; the scientific panel offered its opinion not just on the likely physical effects of an atomic bomb, but on

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In December 1945 the US Army published a secret report assessing the security apparatus surrounding the Manhattan Project. The report states that the project was "more drastically guarded than any other highly secret war development." The surrounding security infrastructure was so vast and thorough

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The work proved dangerous. By the end of the war, half the chemists and metallurgists had to be removed from work with plutonium when unacceptably high levels of the element was detected in their urine. A minor fire at Los Alamos in January 1945 led to a fear that a fire in the plutonium laboratory

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Work began on 221-T and 221-U in January 1944, with the former completed in September and the latter in December. The 221-B building followed in March 1945. Because of the high levels of radioactivity involved, work in the separation plants had to be conducted by remote control using closed-circuit

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By March 1945, all 21 production racks were operating. Initially the output of S-50 was fed into Y-12, but starting in March 1945 all three enrichment processes were run in series. S-50 became the first stage, enriching the uranium from 0.71% to 0.89% uranium-235. This was then fed into the gaseous

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Scaling this up to a production plant presented a formidable technical challenge. Urey and Cohen estimated that producing a kilogram (2.2 lb) of uranium-235 per day would require up to 50,000 centrifuges with 1-meter (3 ft 3 in) rotors, or 10,000 centrifuges with 4-meter (13 ft)

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were posting notices to vacate on farmhouse doors, and construction contractors were moving in. Some families were given two weeks' notice to vacate farms that had been their homes for generations. The ultimate cost of the land acquisition, which was not completed until March 1945, was only about $

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During the war, the Manhattan Project ultimately produced the three bombs used (the Trinity gadget, Little Boy, and Fat Man), as well as an additional unused Fat Man bomb, making the average wartime cost per bomb around $ 500 million in 1945 dollars. By comparison, the project's total cost by

3803:. As plans were made to turn the work over to the Army Corps of Engineers, Bush wrote to Roosevelt in late 1942 that "it would be ruinous to the essential secrecy to have to defend before an appropriations committee any request for funds for this project." Instead, initial funding was done through 3562:

Nichols recommended that S-50 and the Alpha tracks at Y-12 be closed down. This was done in September. Although performing better than ever, the Alpha tracks could not compete with K-25 and the new K-27, which had commenced operation in January 1946. In December, the Y-12 plant was closed, cutting

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On 11 August, Groves phoned Warren with orders to organize a survey team to report on the damage and radioactivity at Hiroshima and Nagasaki as soon as the war ended. A party equipped with portable Geiger counters arrived in Hiroshima on 8 September headed by Farrell and Warren, with Japanese Rear

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Valley, and a major portion of the city, including the city center, was protected by the intervening hills. About 44% of the city was destroyed, and estimates of casualties range from 40,000 to 80,000 people killed and at least 60,000 injured. Overall, an estimated 35,000–40,000 people were killed

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office was urged to work at the Hanford Site. No other job was offered until the applicant definitively rejected the offer. Tolman and Conant, in their role as the project's scientific advisers, drew up a list of candidate scientists and had them rated by scientists already working on the project.

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Groves did not relish the prospect of explaining to a Senate committee the loss of a billion dollars worth of plutonium, so a cylindrical containment vessel codenamed "Jumbo" was constructed to recover the active material in the event of a failure. It was fabricated at great expense from 214 short

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The production plant commenced operation in February 1945, and as cascade after cascade came online, the quality of the product increased. By April 1945, K-25 had attained a 1.1% enrichment, and the output of the S-50 thermal diffusion plant began being used as feed. Some product produced the next

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was the government's codename for the heavy water production program. It was estimated that 3 short tons (2.7 t) of heavy water would be required per month. The plant at Trail, then under construction, could produce 0.5 short tons (0.45 t) per month. Groves therefore authorized DuPont to

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and other tribes using the area. A dispute arose with farmers over compensation for crops, which had already been planted. Where schedules allowed, the Army allowed the crops to be harvested, but this was not always possible. The land acquisition process dragged on and was not completed before the

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Marshall and Nichols began assembling the necessary resources. The first step was to obtain a high priority rating for the project. The top ratings were AA-1 through AA-4 in descending order, although there was a special AAA rating reserved for emergencies. Ratings AA-1 and AA-2 were for essential

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Following in the wake of the advancing Allied armies, the Alsos team interrogated scientists and searched facilities in liberated areas of France and Germany to learn about the German work. Goudsmit concluded in November 1944 that the German nuclear program had never made it beyond the laboratory

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estimated that before the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings "probably no more than a few dozen men in the entire country knew the full meaning of the Manhattan Project, and perhaps only a thousand others even were aware that work on atoms was involved." The magazine wrote that the more than 100,000

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for the test site. A base camp was constructed with barracks, warehouses, workshops, an explosive magazine and a commissary. A pre-test explosion was conducted on 7 May 1945 to calibrate the instruments. A wooden test platform was erected 800 yards (730 m) from future Trinity Ground Zero and

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of natural uranium. Its main job was to hold the critical mass together as long as possible, but it would also reflect neutrons into the core and some of its uranium would fission. To prevent predetonation by an external neutron, the tamper was coated in a thin layer of neutron-absorbing boron. A

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Its production sites, operating with new technologies, exotic substances, and under conditions of secrecy and haste, also left a vast legacy of waste and environmental damage. At Hanford, for example, corrosive and radioactive wastes were stored in "hastily fabricated, single-shell, steel-lined,

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Nowhere was demobilization more of a problem than at Los Alamos, where there was an exodus of talent. Much remained to be done. The bombs used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki needed work to make them simpler, safer and more reliable. Implosion methods needed to be developed for uranium in place of the

2306:

to initiate production. At first all appeared well but around 03:00 the power level started to drop and by 06:30 the reactor had shut down completely. The cooling water was investigated to see if there was a leak or contamination. The next day the reactor started up again, only to shut down once

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Work began on Reactor B, the first of six planned 250 MW reactors, on 10 October 1943. The reactor complexes were given letter designations A through F, with B, D and F sites developed first, as this maximized the distance between the reactors. They were the only ones constructed during the

3987:

Five years ago, the idea of Atomic Power was only a dream. You have made that dream a reality. You have seized upon the most nebulous of ideas and translated them into actualities. You have built cities where none were known before. You have constructed industrial plants of a magnitude and to a

2948:

The Manhattan Project operated under tight security lest its discovery induce Axis powers, especially Germany, to accelerate their own nuclear projects or undertake covert operations against the project. The Office of Censorship relied on the press to comply with a voluntary code of conduct it

2238:

The X-10 Graphite Reactor went critical on 4 November 1943 with about 30 short tons (27 t) of uranium. A week later the load was increased to 36 short tons (33 t), raising its power generation to 500 kW, and by the end of the month the first 500 mg of plutonium was created.

2831:

The Manhattan Project operated under a mandate of "absolute secrecy" from Roosevelt, meaning that the very existence of the project itself was to be kept secret. This proved a daunting task given the amount of knowledge and speculation about nuclear fission that existed prior to the Manhattan

2230:

tried canning, developing a new process for flux-less welding; 97% of the cans passed a standard vacuum test, but high temperature tests indicated a failure rate of more than 50%. Nonetheless, production began in June 1943. The Metallurgical Laboratory eventually developed an improved welding

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Somervell and Styer selected Groves for the post; General Marshall ordered that he be promoted to brigadier general, as it was felt that the title "general" would hold more sway with the academic scientists working on the project. Groves' orders placed him directly under Somervell rather than

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The ultimate task of the metallurgists was to determine how to cast plutonium into a sphere. The difficulties became apparent when attempts to measure the density of plutonium gave inconsistent results. At first contamination was suspected, but it was soon determined that there were multiple

1374:. Oppenheimer expressed a strong preference for the site, citing its natural beauty, which, it was hoped, would inspire those working on the project. The engineers were concerned about the poor access road, and whether the water supply would be adequate, but otherwise felt that it was ideal. 1337:

got its name. The Army presence at Oak Ridge increased in August 1943 when Nichols replaced Marshall as head of the Manhattan Engineer District. One of his first tasks was to move the district headquarters to Oak Ridge, although the name of the district did not change. In September 1943 the

563:. The office was empowered to engage in research and large engineering projects. The NDRC Committee on Uranium became the S-1 Section of the OSRD; the word "uranium" was dropped for security reasons. In July 1941, Briggs proposed spending $ 167,000 on researching uranium, particularly the 3019:

was their short supply of uranium ore. It may have saved the Soviets at least one or two years in the development of their own bomb, although some historians have argued the Soviets spent as much time vetting and reduplicating the information as they would have saved had they trusted it.

1993:

Marshall and Nichols discovered that the electromagnetic isotope separation process would require 5,000 short tons (4,500 tonnes) of copper, which was in desperately short supply. However, silver could be substituted, in an 11:10 copper to silver ratio. On 3 August 1942, Nichols met with

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hammered out a deal with Sengier and the Belgian government in May 1944 for the mine to be reopened and 1,720 short tons (1,560 t) of ore to be purchased at $ 1.45 a pound. To avoid dependence on the British and Canadians for ore, Groves also arranged for the purchase of US Vanadium

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Admiral Masao Tsuzuki, who acted as a translator. They remained in Hiroshima until 14 September and then surveyed Nagasaki from 19 September to 8 October. This and other scientific missions to Japan provided valuable data on the effects of the atomic bomb, and led to the creation of the

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the end of 1945 was about 90% of the total spent on the production of US small arms (not including ammunition) and 34% of the total spent on US tanks during the same period. It was the second most expensive weapons project undertaken by the United States during the war, behind only the

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Research into the Super was also pursued, although it was considered secondary to the development of a fission bomb. The effort was directed by Teller, who was its most enthusiastic proponent. The F-1 (Super) Group calculated that burning 1 cubic meter (35 cu ft) of liquid

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In contrast to the plutonium Fat Man, the uranium gun-type Little Boy weapon was straightforward if not trivial to design. Overall responsibility for it was assigned to Parsons's Ordnance (O) Division, with the design, development, and technical work at Los Alamos consolidated under

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would release the energy of 10 megatonnes of TNT (42 PJ), enough to devastate 1,000 square miles (2,600 km). In a final report on the Super in June 1946, Teller remained upbeat about the prospect of it being successfully developed, although that opinion was not universal.

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originally considered this overengineering a waste of time and money, but Fermi realized that by loading all 2,004 tubes, the reactor could reach the required power level and efficiently produce plutonium. Reactor D was started on 17 December 1944 and Reactor F on 25 February 1945.

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The key raw material for the project was uranium, which was used as fuel for the reactors, as feed that was transformed into plutonium, and, in its enriched form, in the atomic bomb itself. There were four known major deposits of uranium in 1940: in Colorado, in northern Canada, in

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The Manhattan Project became instantly famous after the bombing of Hiroshima and the partial lifting of its secrecy. It was widely credited with ending the war, and Groves worked to credit its contractors, whose work had hitherto been secret. Groves and Nichols presented them with

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told Stalin that the US had "a new weapon of unusual destructive force", without giving any details. As he showed "no special interest," Truman erroneously assumed that Stalin did not understand. In reality, Soviet spies had kept Stalin informed of the work and the planned test.

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at a cost of $ 3.5 million. An additional 3,000 acres (1,200 ha) was subsequently acquired. About 1,000 families were affected by the order, which came into effect on 7 October. Protests, legal appeals, and a 1943 Congressional inquiry were to no avail. By mid-November

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Map of the Hanford Site. Railroads flank the plants to the north and south. Reactors are the three northernmost red squares, along the Columbia River. The separation plants are the lower two red squares from the grouping south of the reactors. The bottom red square is the 300

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The greatest difficulty was encountered with the uranium slugs produced by Mallinckrodt and Metal Hydrides. These had to be coated in aluminum to avoid corrosion and the escape of fission products into the cooling system. The Grasselli Chemical Company attempted to develop a

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month reached nearly 7% enrichment. In August, the last of the 2,892 stages commenced operation. K-25 and K-27 achieved their full potential in the early postwar period, when they eclipsed the other production plants and became the prototypes for a new generation of plants.

1041:. Conant advised that it be acquired at once and Styer agreed but Marshall temporized, awaiting the results of Conant's reactor experiments. Of the prospective processes, only Lawrence's electromagnetic separation appeared sufficiently advanced for construction to commence. 3598:

in July 1946. Two Fat Man-type bombs were detonated — one as an airburst, one as an underwater burst — to investigate the effect of nuclear weapons on warships. Press and international observers were allowed to attend, making the tests an international spectacle.

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The Manhattan Project persisted until 31 December 1946, and the Manhattan District to 15 August 1947. During this time, it suffered from numerous difficulties caused by technical problems, the effects of rapid demobilization, and a lack of clarity on its long-term mission.

2373:"canyon" (known as 221), a concentration building (224), a purification building (231) and a magazine store (213). The canyons were each 800 feet (240 m) long and 65 feet (20 m) wide. Each consisted of forty 17.7-by-13-by-20-foot (5.4 by 4.0 by 6.1 m) cells. 2814:

presented the Manhattan Project with the Award of Honor for Distinguished Service to Safety in recognition of its safety record. Between January 1943 and June 1945, there were 62 fatalities and 3,879 disabling injuries—about 62 percent below the rate of private industry.

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Of these ores, those from the Belgian Congo contained the most uranium per mass of rock by far. Beyond their wartime needs, American and British leaders concluded that it was in their countries' interest to control as much of the world's uranium deposits as possible. The

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improved over-all efficiency by making our people stick to their knitting. And it made quite clear to all concerned that the project existed to produce a specific end product—not to enable individuals to satisfy their curiosity and to increase their scientific knowledge.

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one for the fourth stage tower. The final cost was $ 2.8 million. The Canadian Government did not officially learn of the project until August 1942. Trail's heavy water production started in January 1944 and continued until 1956. Heavy water from Trail was used for

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its probable military and political impact. In a meeting on 1 June, the Interim Committee resolved that "the bomb should be used against Japan as soon as possible; that it be used on a war plant surrounded by workers' homes; and that it be used without prior warning".

617:, flew to the US in late August 1941 and discovered that data provided by the MAUD Committee had not reached key American physicists. Oliphant set out to find out why the committee's findings were apparently being ignored. He met with the Uranium Committee and visited 2356:

Meanwhile, the chemists considered how plutonium could be separated from uranium when its chemical properties were not known. Working with the minute quantities of plutonium available at the Metallurgical Laboratory in 1942, a team under Charles M. Cooper developed a

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to coordinate the efforts of the US and UK; Canada was not a signatory, but the Agreement provided for a Canadian representative on the Combined Policy Committee in view of Canada's contribution to the effort. An agreement between Roosevelt and Churchill known as the

1880:. By July 1942, Mallinckrodt was producing a ton of highly pure oxide a day, but turning this into uranium metal initially proved more difficult. Production was too slow and quality was unacceptably low. A branch of the Metallurgical Laboratory was established at 4220:

mine had a uranium oxide content as high as 65% to 75%, which was many times higher than any other global sources. By comparison, the Canadian ores could be as high as 30%, and American sources, many of them byproducts of the mining of other minerals (especially

2448:, began in August 1944 when Oppenheimer implemented a sweeping reorganization of the Los Alamos laboratory to focus on implosion. Two new groups were created at Los Alamos to develop the implosion weapon, X (for explosives) Division headed by explosives expert 9198: 1471:, and Captain James F. Grafton was appointed Chicago area engineer. It soon became apparent that the scale of operations was too great for the area, and it was decided to build the pilot plant at Oak Ridge and keep a research and testing facility in Chicago. 1919:

Oak Ridge hosted several uranium separation technologies. The Y-12 electromagnetic separation plant is in the upper right. The K-25 and K-27 gaseous diffusion plants are in the lower left, near the S-50 thermal diffusion plant. The X-10 was for plutonium

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plant that Nichols had recently built in Pennsylvania had cost $ 128 million. Nor were they impressed with estimates to the nearest order of magnitude, which Groves compared with telling a caterer to prepare for between ten and a thousand guests. A

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and Fermi, who inserted the first slug, the reactor was powered up beginning on 13 September 1944. Over the next few days, 838 tubes were loaded and the reactor went critical. Shortly after midnight on 27 September, the operators began to withdraw the

1528:, ordered Chicago Pile-1 dismantled and reassembled at the Argonne Forest site, as he regarded the operation of a reactor as too hazardous for a densely populated area. The new site, still operated by the Metallurgical Laboratory, became known as ' 662:. Roosevelt chose the Army to run the project rather than the Navy, because the Army had more experience with managing large-scale construction. He agreed to coordinate the effort with the British and on 11 October sent a message to Prime Minister 1377:

Patterson approved the acquisition of the site on 25 November 1942, authorizing $ 440,000 for the purchase of pre-calculated 54,000 acres (22,000 ha), all but 8,900 acres (3,600 ha) of which were already owned by the Federal Government.

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on the plants at Oak Ridge and Hanford, producing the enriched uranium and plutonium needed to fuel the bombs. At both sites, the majority of the costs were for construction (74% at Oak Ridge, 87% at Hanford), with the rest being for operations.

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Voluntary censorship of atomic information began before the Manhattan Project. After the start of the European war in 1939 American scientists began avoiding publishing military-related research, and in 1940 scientific journals began asking the

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balked at the idea and convinced Oppenheimer that other scientists would object. Conant, Groves, and Oppenheimer then devised a compromise whereby the laboratory was operated by the University of California under contract to the War Department.

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contracts, they were built and operated by the Army Corps of Engineers. The American plants used a process different from Trail's; heavy water was extracted by distillation, taking advantage of the slightly higher boiling point of heavy water.

2767:. In March 1944, both the War Production Board and the War Manpower Commission gave the project their highest priority. The Kansas commission director stated that from April to July 1944 every qualified applicant in the state who visited a 1521:. The point at which a reaction becomes self-sustaining became known as "going critical". Compton reported the success to Conant in Washington, D.C., by a coded phone call, saying, "The Italian navigator has just landed in the new world." 3357:

August, and a third bomb around 24 August. However, due to weather conditions over Japan and the desire for visual bombing, the date of the first bombing mission was pushed back to 6 August, and the second was moved forward to 9 August.

2170:

The second line of development pursued by the Manhattan Project used plutonium. Although small amounts of plutonium exist in nature, the best way to obtain large quantities is via a reactor. Natural uranium is bombarded by neutrons and

263:. The Manhattan Project employed nearly 130,000 people at its peak and cost nearly US$ 2 billion (equivalent to about $ 27 billion in 2023), over 80 percent of which was for building and operating the plants that produced the 1596:

Under Secretary Patterson gave his approval on 9 February, allocating $ 5 million for the acquisition of 430,000 acres (170,000 ha). The federal government relocated some 1,500 residents of nearby settlements, as well as the

1688:(zero-energy experimental pile) became the first Canadian reactor, and the first to be completed outside the United States, when it went critical in September 1945; ZEEP remained in use by researchers until 1970. A larger 10 MW 2139:, the naval officer in charge of ordnance development at Los Alamos, brought Oppenheimer news of encouraging progress on thermal diffusion. Oppenheimer informed Groves, who approved construction of a thermal plant on 24 June 1944. 349:, Manhattan Project personnel served in Europe, sometimes behind enemy lines, where they gathered nuclear materials and documents, and rounded up German scientists. Despite the Manhattan Project's emphasis on security, Soviet 3815:. Appropriations requests were quietly slipped into other bills, but the project's mounting costs and large facilities (which appeared to many to produce nothing) attracted scrutiny from several Congressional auditors. The 3434:, Truman told his cabinet that "the thought of wiping out another 100,000 people was too horrible. He didn't like the idea of killing, as he said, 'all those kids.'" Groves suspended the third core's shipment on 13 August. 2290:

Manhattan Project. Some 390 short tons (350 t) of steel, 17,400 cubic yards (13,300 m) of concrete, 50,000 concrete blocks and 71,000 concrete bricks were used to construct the 120-foot (37 m) high building.

1672:, to provide residences and facilities for the team members. The site was chosen for its proximity to the industrial manufacturing area of Ontario and Quebec, and proximity to a rail head adjacent to a large military base, 1162:

and one or two other British scientists were important enough that the bomb design team at Los Alamos needed them, despite the risk of revealing weapon design secrets. In August 1943 Churchill and Roosevelt negotiated the

3810:

As it grew in size and cost, Congress was deliberately kept ignorant of the project, because of concerns that Congressmen were prone to leaking information, and because it was feared that the project would appear to be a

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were hidden into appropriation requests with the inconspicuous headings, frequently "Engineer Service Army" and "Expediting Production." In late May 1945, to further expedite budget issues and assure the cooperation of

862:

To review this work and the general theory of fission reactions, Oppenheimer and Fermi convened meetings at the University of Chicago in June and at the University of California in July 1942 with theoretical physicists

9206: 2005:. Ultimately 14,700 short tons (13,300 tonnes; 430,000,000 troy ounces) were used. The 1,000-troy-ounce (31 kg) silver bars were cast into cylindrical billets, extruded into strips, and wound onto magnetic coils. 811:, $ 31 million for research and development by OSRD and $ 5 million for contingencies in fiscal year 1943. They sent it on 17 June 1942, to the President, who approved it by writing "OK FDR" on the document. 3988:

precision heretofore deemed impossible. You built the weapon which ended the War and thereby saved countless American lives. With regard to peacetime applications, you have raised the curtain on vistas of a new world.

1852:. The matter was then taken up by the Combined Policy Committee. As 30 percent of Union Minière's stock was controlled by British interests, the British took the lead in negotiations. Sir John Anderson and Ambassador 1365:

The idea of locating Project Y at Oak Ridge was considered, but it was decided that it should be in a remote location. On Oppenheimer's recommendation, the search for a suitable site was narrowed to the vicinity of

929:

As the idea of the fission bomb was theoretically settled—at least until more experimental data was available—Edward Teller pushed for discussion of a more powerful bomb: the "super", now usually referred to as a

8674: 3627:(1946), which began as an emergency action undertaken by scientists who saw urgent need for an educational program about atomic weapons. In the face of the destructiveness of the bombs and in anticipation of the 1262:

A selection of US and Canadian sites important to the Manhattan Project. Research and production took place at more than thirty sites across the US, the UK, and Canada. Click on the location for more information.

2213:

In March 1943, DuPont began construction of a plutonium plant on a 112-acre (0.5 km) site at Oak Ridge. Intended as a pilot plant for the larger production facilities at Hanford, it included the air-cooled

3051:, OSRD, the Manhattan Project, and Army Intelligence (G-2), to investigate enemy scientific developments. It was not restricted to those involving nuclear weapons. The Chief of Army Intelligence, Major General 2589:'s group. The gun-type design now had to work with enriched uranium only, and this allowed the design to be greatly simplified. A high-velocity gun was no longer required, and a simpler weapon was substituted. 2464:. The final design resembled a soccer ball, with 20 hexagonal and 12 pentagonal lenses, each weighing about 80 pounds (36 kg). Getting the detonation just right required fast, reliable and safe electrical 2991:, a physicist and member of the British Mission who was intimately involved in work at Los Alamos on the design of the implosion bomb. His espionage activities were not identified until 1950, as a result of 2574:

might contaminate the whole town, and Groves authorized the construction of a new facility for plutonium chemistry and metallurgy, which became known as the DP-site. The hemispheres for the first plutonium

4277:

is revealing himself and his true form to Prince Arjuna, imploring Arjuna to fulfill his duty and take part in a war, and assuring him that the fate of those killed is really up to Krishna, not mortal men.

2995:. The revelation of his espionage activities damaged the United States' nuclear cooperation with Britain and Canada, and other instances of espionage were subsequently uncovered, leading to the arrest of 1216:, a special account not subject to the usual auditing and controls was used to hold Trust monies. Between 1944 and his resignation from the Trust in 1947, Groves deposited a total of $ 37.5 million. 4234:

It is necessary to distinguish between the K-25 gaseous diffusion plant and the K-25 power plant. The latter provided energy to both the K-25 gaseous diffusion plant and the S-50 thermal diffusion plant.

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was not far advanced because Japan had little access to uranium ore, but it was initially feared that Germany was very close to developing its own weapons. At the instigation of the Manhattan Project, a

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to prepare a sanitized technical history of the project for public consumption. The idea of releasing such information freely was controversial; the decision to do so was made by Truman personally. The

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Groves expected to have another atomic bomb ready for use on 19 August, with three more in September and a further three in October. Two more Fat Man assemblies were readied, and scheduled to leave

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of the 1960s, which was comparable in size and scope. At its peak in 1965, when Apollo engaged 5.4 percent of the national supply of scientists and engineers, women accounted for only 3 percent of

3559:. Nearby Kirtland Field was used as a B-29 base for aircraft compatibility and drop tests. As reservist officers were demobilized, they were replaced by about fifty hand-picked regular officers. 3324:. Stimson intervened, announcing that he would be making the targeting decision, and that he would not authorize the bombing of Kyoto on the grounds of its historical and religious significance. 2933:

of 7 September 1940, later learned that government officials asked librarians nationwide in 1943 to withdraw the issue. The Soviets noticed the silence, however. In April 1942 nuclear physicist

1076:

and Generals Marshall, Somervell, and Styer about his concerns, advocating that the project be placed under a senior policy committee, with a prestigious officer, preferably Styer, as director.

1396:

During the war, Los Alamos was referred to as "Site Y" or "the Hill". Initially it was to have been a military laboratory with Oppenheimer and other researchers commissioned into the Army, but

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at Albuquerque, New Mexico. Groves allocated $ 72 million to them for research activities in fiscal year 1946–1947. They would be in the vanguard of the kind of large-scale research that

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following the capture of the city in June 1944. Meanwhile, Pash formed a combined British and American Alsos mission in London under the command of Captain Horace K. Calvert to participate in

4273:, who translated the line as: "Death am I, and my present task / Destruction." A more common translation has the identification not as "Death," but as "Time." In the passage, the Hindu god 3941:

The Naval Research Laboratory had long been interested in the prospect of using nuclear power for warship propulsion, and sought to create its own nuclear project. In May 1946, Nimitz, now

494:

in October 1939. The committee reported back to Roosevelt in November that uranium "would provide a possible source of bombs with a destructiveness vastly greater than anything now known."

12135: 2757: 1804:. All but Joachimstal were in Allied hands. A 1942 survey determined that sufficient quantities of uranium were available to satisfy the project's requirements. Nichols arranged with the 1722:

Although DuPont's preferred designs for the nuclear reactors were helium cooled and used graphite as a moderator, DuPont still expressed an interest in using heavy water as a backup. The

16027: 2892: (equivalent to $ 169,000 in 2023), they monitored "dials and switches while behind thick concrete walls mysterious reactions took place" without knowing the purpose of their jobs. 16032: 3371:, a Boeing B-29 Superfortress of the 393d Bombardment Squadron, piloted by Tibbets, lifted off from North Field with a Little Boy in its bomb bay. Hiroshima, the headquarters of the 2968:

struck a power line, and the resulting power surge caused the three reactors at Hanford to be temporarily shut down. With so many people involved, security was difficult. A special

1072:

Vannevar Bush became dissatisfied with Colonel Marshall's failure to get the project moving forward expeditiously and felt that more aggressive leadership was required. He spoke to

1558:

By December 1942 there were concerns that even Oak Ridge was too close to a major population center (Knoxville) in the unlikely event of a major nuclear accident. Groves recruited

1016:

Marshall later conceded that, "I had never heard of atomic fission but I did know that you could not build much of a plant, much less four of them for $ 90 million." A single

2518:, known as an "urchin", was developed to start the chain reaction at precisely the right moment. This work on the chemistry and metallurgy of radioactive polonium was directed by 3476:, drafted in July 1945 and signed by dozens of scientists working on the Manhattan Project, was a late attempt at warning Truman about his responsibility in using such weapons. 4160:

In Bethe's account, the possibility of this ultimate catastrophe came up again in 1975 when it appeared in a magazine article by H.C. Dudley, who got the idea from a report by

4058:

Specifically at its Berkeley campus; however, as of 1940, the University of California had not yet established a formal distinction between the university as a whole and its

2369:

Notwithstanding its priority, work on the 300 area fell behind schedule due to the unique and complex nature of the facilities, and wartime shortages of labor and materials.

1820:

for the purchase of ore from its refinery in Port Hope, Ontario. The Canadian government subsequently bought up the company's stock until it acquired a controlling interest.

3430:

On 10 August, Truman was informed that another bomb was being prepared. He ordered that no additional atomic bombs could be used without his express authority. According to

1314:

2.6 million—around $ 47 an acre. When presented with a proclamation declaring Oak Ridge a total exclusion area that no one could enter without military permission, the

2980:, investigated suspected Soviet espionage at the Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley. Oppenheimer informed Pash that he had been approached by a fellow professor at Berkeley, 2760:. The unique labor and security requirements also resulted in the Manhattan Project having a higher percentage of women in technical roles than later government projects. 2456:

that focused the implosion into a spherical shape. The design of lenses turned out to be slow, difficult and frustrating. Various explosives were tested before settling on

843:, a physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory, was assigned to assist Oppenheimer by coordinating experimental physics groups scattered across the country. Oppenheimer and 9998: 3149:—the heart of the German nuclear effort. T-Force captured nuclear laboratories, documents, equipment and supplies, including heavy water and 1.5 tons of metallic uranium. 1297:

The day after he took over the project, Groves went to Tennessee with Colonel Marshall to inspect the proposed site there, and Groves was impressed. On 29 September 1942,

1068:

in September 1945, two months after the test blast and just after the end of World War II. The white overshoes prevented fallout from sticking to the soles of their shoes.

14103: 12197: 8838: 3228:

together. This became unnecessary after Thin Man was abandoned, as a Little Boy was short enough to fit into a B-29 bomb bay, but modifications were still required. The

13848: 602:, which unanimously recommended pursuing the development of an atomic bomb. In July 1940, Britain had offered to give the United States access to its research, and the 13456: 2972:

detachment was formed to handle the project's security issues. By 1943, it was clear that the Soviet Union was attempting to penetrate the project. Lieutenant Colonel

2502:. This allowed the taking of an X-ray movie of the implosion. The lenses were designed primarily using this series of tests. In his history of the Los Alamos project, 987:, the principal project contractor, and to Columbia University. He had permission to draw on his former command, the Syracuse District, for staff, and he started with 3795:

Manhattan Project monthly expenditures from January 1943 through the end of December 1946. In its peak month, August 1944, US$ 111.4 million was spent on the project.

15809: 15454: 13472: 8123: 3461: 1952:

design were instead developed in the Soviet Union after the war. It eventually became the preferred method of uranium isotope separation, being far more economical.

1593:, which could supply sufficient water to cool the reactors. Groves visited the site in January and established the Hanford Engineer Works (HEW), codenamed "Site W". 15585: 7725: 3895: 2239:

Gradual modifications raised the power to 4,000 kW in July 1944. X-10 operated as a production plant until January 1945, when it was turned over to research.

377: 13792: 3945:, decided that the Navy should instead work with the Manhattan Project. A group of naval officers were assigned to Oak Ridge, the most senior of whom was Captain 16022: 13395: 13367: 12511: 9125: 5607: 2888:

others employed with the project "worked like moles in the dark". Warned that disclosing the project's secrets was punishable by 10 years in prison or a fine of

1844:

mine was flooded and closed, and Nichols unsuccessfully attempted to negotiate its reopening and the sale of the entire future output to the United States with

1536:, the first heavy water reactor, also went critical at this site, on 15 May 1944. After the war, operations at Site A were moved about 6 miles (9.7 km) to 1037:

could supply ample electric power and the rivers could provide cooling water for the reactors. After examining several sites, the survey team selected one near

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attempted to ensure that every request from Groves for assistance was honored. The British Mission that arrived in the United States in December 1943 included

3297:

of the 509th Group's 320th Troop Carrier Squadron. Two Fat Man assemblies traveled to Tinian in specially modified 509th Composite Group B-29s, and the first

540:

created the first nuclear fission reaction in the Americas, verifying the work of Hahn and Strassmann. The same team subsequently built a series of prototype

16042: 14415: 13778: 13087: 12712: 11038:

Atomic Energy for Military Purposes: the Official Report on the Development of the Atomic Bomb under the Auspices of the United States Government, 1940–1945

3861:

became a principal repository for Manhattan Project waste for the Eastern United States. All of the radioactive materials stored at the LOOW site—including

3536:

At Hanford, plutonium production declined as Reactors B, D and F wore out, poisoned by fission products and swelling of the graphite moderator known as the

1005:

Because most of his task involved construction, Marshall worked in cooperation with the head of the Corps of Engineers Construction Division, Major General

15997: 13428: 13374: 12560: 9831: 2187:. As only a small amount will be transformed, the plutonium must be chemically separated from the remaining uranium, from any initial impurities, and from 11056:

Management of the Hanford Engineer Works In World War II: How the Corps, DuPont and the Metallurgical Laboratory Fast Tracked the Original Plutonium Works

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to head the Army's part of the project in June 1942. Marshall created a liaison office in Washington, D.C., but established his temporary headquarters at

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stage. As he put it later: "The evidence at hand proved definitely that Germany had no atom bomb and was not likely to have one in any reasonable time."

1517:

On 2 December 1942, a team led by Enrico Fermi initiated the first artificial self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction in an experimental reactor known as

1006: 11515: 1577:

DuPont recommended that the site be located far from the existing uranium production facility at Oak Ridge. In December 1942, Groves dispatched Colonel

16007: 12407: 719: 9590: 8146: 3427:. Although cast, it still needed to be pressed and coated, which would take until 16 August. It could therefore have been ready for use on 19 August. 310:. In parallel with the work on uranium was an effort to produce plutonium. After the feasibility of the world's first artificial nuclear reactor, the 15992: 13771: 13218: 13094: 6002: 2016:

were young women who monitored calutron control panels at Y-12. Gladys Owens, seated in the foreground, was unaware of what she had been involved in.

1985: 15968: 10942: 227:. It was led by the United States in collaboration with the United Kingdom and Canada. From 1942 to 1946, the project was directed by Major General 13071: 12451: 613:

As part of the scientific exchange, the MAUD Committee's findings were conveyed to the United States. One of its members, the Australian physicist

3610:

to take over the project's functions and assets. It established civilian control over atomic development. Military aspects were taken over by the

2509:

Within the explosives was an aluminum pusher, which provided a smooth transition from the relatively low-density explosive to the next layer, the

13508: 12820: 9202: 8846: 3293:

on 16 July and arrived on Tinian on 26 July. The remaining components, which included six highly enriched uranium rings, were delivered by three

1812:

and negotiated for the purchase of 1,200 short tons (1,100 t) of uranium ore from the Belgian Congo that was being stored in a warehouse on

1243: 2896:

that in the early days of the project in 1943, investigators vetted 400,000 potential employees and 600 companies for potential security risks.

610:

briefed American scientists on British developments. He discovered that the American project was smaller than the British, and not as advanced.

13327: 12629: 5606:

William J. (Bill) Wilcox Jr., Oak Ridge City Historian, Retired Technical Director for the Oak Ridge Y-12 & K-25 Plants, 11 November 2007,

1995: 1289:, on 11 August 1945. By May 1945, 82,000 people were employed at the Clinton Engineer Works. Photograph by the Manhattan District photographer 1257: 848: 15326: 3216:

The only Allied aircraft capable of carrying the 17-foot (5.2 m) long Thin Man or the 59-inch (150 cm) wide Fat Man was the British

1941:

produced a body of mathematical theory making it possible to design a centrifugal separation unit, which Westinghouse undertook to construct.

1254: 1247: 16037: 14119: 14082: 14059: 13580: 12502: 12472: 12150: 7498: 6129: 3800: 1966:

Electromagnetic isotope separation was developed at the University of California Radiation Laboratory. This method employed devices known as

1130: 556: 455:, which warned of the potential development of "extremely powerful bombs of a new type". It urged the United States to acquire stockpiles of 260: 13834: 6195: 16002: 15578: 14212: 14068: 14052: 14024: 13272: 12479: 1256: 950:, who "didn't have enough sense to shut up about it. It somehow got into a document that went to Washington" and was "never laid to rest". 8877: 2269:

As at Oak Ridge, the most difficulty was encountered while canning the uranium slugs, which commenced at Hanford in March 1944. They were

1255: 1251: 1250: 807:

Bush and Conant then took the recommendation to the Top Policy Group with a budget proposal for $ 54 million for construction by the

14969: 14036: 13948: 13892: 13855: 13137: 11715: 11577: 11485: 5506: 2833: 1135:

The British and Americans exchanged nuclear information but did not initially combine their efforts; during 1940-41 the British project (

10470: 3275:

was formed at Los Alamos under Parsons's command to assist in preparing and delivering the bombs. The 509th Composite Group deployed to

13941: 12673: 4066:. The process of transforming the University into a multi-campus university system began in March 1951 and was not complete until 1960. 3993: 2799: 2578:(or core) were produced and delivered on 2 July 1945. Three more hemispheres followed on 23 July and were delivered three days later. 2498:. The gamma ray source was placed in the center of a metal sphere surrounded by the explosive lenses, which in turn were inside in an 1258: 16017: 15447: 14075: 12465: 12423: 12042: 5800: 3819:

that investigated wartime waste and fraud attempted to audit the project several times, but each time their inquiries were rejected.

3185: 2772:

Groves then sent a personal letter to the head of their university or company asking for them to be released for essential war work.

1333:

developed a residential community for 13,000. The community was located on the slopes of Black Oak Ridge, from which the new town of

1248: 715: 640:

On 9 October 1941, President Roosevelt approved the atomic program after he convened a meeting with Vannevar Bush and Vice President

365: 146: 3983:

On handing over control to the Atomic Energy Commission, Groves bid farewell to the people who had worked on the Manhattan Project:

1562:

in November 1942 to be the prime contractor for the construction of the plutonium production complex. The President of the company,

15296: 13115: 12889: 12652: 12518: 12329: 3624: 2717:कालोऽस्मि लोकक्षयकृत्प्रवृद्धो लोकान्समाहर्तुमिह प्रवृत्तः। ऋतेऽपि त्वां न भविष्यन्ति सर्वे येऽवस्थिताः प्रत्यनीकेषु योधाः॥११- ३२॥ 2410:

This rendered it unsuitable for use in a gun-type weapon, for the plutonium-240 would start the chain reaction too soon, causing a

652: 2735:

The test was significantly more successful than had been anticipated; this was immediately cabled to Stimson, who was then at the

2724:

If the radiance of a thousand suns were to burst at once into the sky, that would be like the splendor of the mighty one ...

15571: 14191: 13988: 13025: 12525: 12437: 12373: 9466: 8039: 7911: 4039: 3640: 3271:, equipped with Silverplate B-29s, practiced long-distance flights over water and dropped pumpkin bombs. A special unit known as 2612:

Because of the complexity of an implosion-style weapon, it was decided that, despite the waste of fissile material, a full-scale

2081:

In November 1942 the Military Policy Committee approved the construction of a 600-stage gaseous diffusion plant. On 14 December,

1329:(CEW) in early 1943. While Stone & Webster concentrated on the production facilities, the architectural and engineering firm 1241: 9574:"The Community LOOW Project: A Review of Environmental Investigations and Remediation at the Former Lake Ontario Ordnance Works" 3464:. Some questioned whether "atomic diplomacy" would have attained the same goals, and the relative weight that the bombs and the 2688:(radioactive glass) in the desert 250 feet (76 m) wide. The shock wave was felt over 100 miles (160 km) away, and the 2102:

and Carbon, on 11 September 1945. The total cost, including the K-27 plant completed after the war, came to $ 480 million.

1244: 15819: 14394: 13906: 12756: 12294: 10015: 8851: 8709:"Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, The Conference of Berlin (The Potsdam Conference), 1945, Volume II" 3632: 3607: 3579: 3548:

technique to the bismuth phosphate process, which left unspent uranium in a state from which it could not easily be recovered.

1242: 637:. Oliphant's mission was therefore a success; key American physicists were now aware of the potential power of an atomic bomb. 389: 4443: 2866:

to investigate potential security violations. Ultimately over 1,500 "loose talk" cases were investigated during the war. Even

16047: 15769: 14990: 14895: 14422: 14168: 14043: 13129: 13103: 12960: 12666: 12583: 11357: 11063: 11009: 10865: 10824: 10785: 10758: 10718: 10626: 10596: 10521: 10451: 10392: 10365: 10250: 10170: 9388: 7584: 3949:, who became assistant director there. They immersed themselves in the study of nuclear energy, laying the foundations for a 3899: 3472:

was the most notable effort pushing for a demonstration but was turned down by the Interim Committee's scientific panel. The

3376: 1701: 1259: 1252: 1246: 1245: 808: 232: 1620:

Canada provided research, extraction and production of uranium and plutonium, and Canadian scientists worked at Los Alamos.

1240: 679: 15223: 14630: 14516: 13681: 13148: 13144: 13122: 12726: 3964:

The ability of the new reactors to create radioactive isotopes in previously unheard-of quantities sparked a revolution in

3611: 2583: 1468: 1298: 710:

The S-1 Committee meeting on 18 December 1941 was "pervaded by an atmosphere of enthusiasm and urgency" in the wake of the

8119: 3047:

was carried out against heavy water plants in German-occupied Norway. A small mission was created, jointly staffed by the

1948:

In November 1942 the centrifuge process was abandoned by the Military Policy Committee. Successful gas centrifuges of the

1370:, where Oppenheimer owned a ranch. On 16 November 1942, Oppenheimer, Groves, Dudley and others toured the vicinity of the 15916: 15138: 14602: 13934: 13920: 13133: 7574: 2421:

Work on an alternative method of bomb design, known as implosion, had begun earlier under the direction of the physicist

1080:

Reybold, with Colonel Marshall now answerable to Groves. Groves established his headquarters in Washington, D.C., in the

549: 338:

plutonium implosion-type weapon was developed in a concerted design and development effort by the Los Alamos Laboratory.

10134:. A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission, no. 2. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. 3643:(UNAEC) in June 1946, proposed the establishment of an international atomic development authority, but was not adopted. 901:

The properties of pure uranium-235 were relatively unknown, as were those of plutonium, which had only been isolated by

15347: 15216: 15094: 14672: 14387: 14338: 14096: 13651: 12903: 12742: 12590: 12444: 11025: 4251:(with the total explosive power of approximately 108 tons of TNT), actually a few tons more than the stated "100-tons". 4059: 3849: 3844: 3631:

several project members including Bohr, Bush and Conant expressed the view that it was necessary to reach agreement on

988: 759: 141: 20: 11525:

Chadwick, Mark B. (3 December 2021). "Nuclear Science for the Manhattan Project and Comparison to Today's ENDF Data".

9133: 3015:

remained unknown for decades. The value of the espionage is difficult to quantify, as the principal constraint on the

16052: 15728: 15463: 14345: 14317: 14134: 13716: 13435: 13402: 11595: 11327: 11297: 11267: 11233: 11179: 10544: 10424: 10338: 10277: 10223: 10189: 10139: 10105: 9929: 9895: 8093:"The Secret City/ Calutron operators at their panels, in the Y-12 plant at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, during World War II" 7857: 5832: 3619: 2784: 1933:

had developed such a process in the 1930s, but had encountered technical difficulties. In 1941 he began working with

798: 497: 401: 12618: 2832:

Project, the huge numbers of people involved, and the scale of the facilities. Groves adopted an extreme version of

1343:

in May 1945, by which time 82,000 people were employed at the Clinton Engineer Works, and 10,000 by Roane-Anderson.

15500: 14658: 14595: 13730: 13566: 12689: 10912:

Kemp, R. Scott (April 2012). "The End of Manhattan: How the Gas Centrifuge Changed the Quest for Nuclear Weapons".

9573: 7835: 3039: 2870:

was not informed about the project while he was vice president, and only learned about it after Roosevelt's death.

2807: 2768: 1511: 1253: 1140: 15875: 13243: 9508: 8745: 3169: 2696:, so Groves issued a cover story about an ammunition magazine explosion at Alamogordo Field involving gas shells. 2028:

was contracted to manage Y-12. The calutrons were turned over to trained Tennessee Eastman operators known as the

1849: 644:. He created a Top Policy Group consisting of himself—although he never attended a meeting—Wallace, Bush, Conant, 16012: 15934: 15774: 15024: 14865: 14854: 14690: 14449: 14408: 14301: 14239: 13626: 12896: 12765: 12733: 11570: 11381: 9888:

The Silverplate Bombers: A History and Registry of the Enola Gay and Other B-29s Configured to Carry Atomic Bombs

9614:

Jenks, Andrew (July 2002). "Model City USA: The Environmental Cost of Victory in World War II and the Cold War".

8989: 5715: 4375: 4181: 3976:

for cancer diagnosis and treatment. Isotopes were also used in biological, industrial and agricultural research.

3439: 1390: 15718: 13413: 12981: 3525:

were awarded to key contractors and scientists, including Bush and Oppenheimer. Military personnel received the

3034:

In addition to developing the atomic bomb, the Manhattan Project was charged with gathering intelligence on the

2850:

judges adjudicating land claims, and other sources of speculation, prying, and leaks, along with concerns about

2570:

into the desired spherical shape. As plutonium was found to corrode readily, the sphere was coated with nickel.

2020:

Responsibility for the design and construction of the electromagnetic separation plant, which came to be called

15743: 15594: 15410: 15382: 15260: 15053: 14290: 13741: 13667: 13463: 12834: 12553: 12458: 12343: 11470: 11001: 9857:

Bernstein, Barton J. (June 1976). "The Uneasy Alliance: Roosevelt, Churchill, and the Atomic Bomb, 1940–1945".

8813: 3919: 3903: 3518: 3489: 3465: 3220:, but using a British aircraft would have caused difficulties with maintenance. Groves hoped that the American 3044: 2904: 2469: 2121: 2021: 1310: 645: 15738: 15698: 1490:

blocks and uranium in both metallic and powdered oxide forms. At the time, there was a limited source of pure

270:

The project resulted in two types of atomic bombs, developed concurrently during the war: a relatively simple

15470: 15403: 15354: 15285: 15110: 14616: 14567: 14331: 14324: 13927: 13688: 13479: 12532: 11400: 10415: 9799:"Nuclear Waste: DOE's Efforts to Protect the Columbia River from Contamination Could Be Further Strengthened" 9199:"Petition to the President of the United States, 17 July 1945. Miscellaneous Historical Documents Collection" 4017: 3907: 3035: 2002: 1746: 1676:. Located on the Ottawa River, it had access to abundant water. The first director of the new laboratory was 1330: 1249: 595: 487: 342: 275: 9545: 8092: 7760: 6330: 6273: 3968:. Starting in mid-1946, Oak Ridge began distributing radioisotopes to hospitals and universities, primarily 548:

at Columbia but were not yet able to achieve a chain reaction. The Advisory Committee on Uranium became the

15713: 15544: 15440: 14815: 14776: 13695: 13530: 13515: 13442: 13421: 13239: 12917: 12703: 12696: 12680: 12391: 12350: 12322: 12202: 11415: 10513: 9597: 8708: 3953:. A similar group of Air Force personnel arrived at Oak Ridge in September 1946 with the aim of developing 3927: 3522: 3048: 2914: 2586: 2433:, proposed using a spherical configuration instead of the cylindrical one that Neddermeyer was working on. 2358: 1817: 1386: 1085: 1057: 483: 408: 99: 15748: 15708: 15703: 8899: 5333: 2541: 15779: 15507: 14831: 14783: 14401: 14373: 14226: 13841: 13820: 13341: 13004: 12910: 12400: 12170: 10954: 10780:. Swords of Armageddon: US Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945. Sunnyvale, CA: Chukelea Publications. 10753:. Swords of Armageddon: US Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945. Sunnyvale, CA: Chukelea Publications. 5048: 3958: 3911: 3854: 3245: 3079: 2788: 2515: 2503: 2146:

The S-50 plant is the dark building to the upper left behind the Oak Ridge powerhouse (with smokestacks).

2133: 2087: 1541: 1339: 1208: 452: 388:. It maintained control over American atomic weapons research and production until the formation of the 15987: 15842: 15814: 15305: 14801: 14720: 14665: 14553: 14509: 14159: 13785: 13709: 13611: 13488: 13360: 13353: 13313: 13286: 13018: 12951: 12546: 12357: 12287: 12263: 11563: 11434: 9547:

Manhattan District History, Book 1, Volume 4, Chapter 1 (Legislative Contacts of the Manhattan Project)

6155: 3268: 3229: 3016: 3004: 2969: 2908:

Security poster, warning office workers to close drawers and put documents in safes when not being used

2642: 2616:

was required. Oppenheimer codenamed it "Trinity". In March 1944, planning for the test was assigned to

1196: 1034: 797:. The S-1 Committee recommended pursuing all five technologies. This was approved by Bush, Conant, and 774: 731: 432: 7557: 2293:

Construction of the reactor itself commenced in February 1944. Watched by Compton, Matthias, DuPont's

15892: 15856: 15753: 15207: 15124: 14909: 14769: 14741: 14574: 14479: 14269: 13702: 12776: 12430: 12145: 12140: 9015: 3942: 3832: 3603: 3575: 3551:

Bomb engineering was carried out by the Z Division, initially located at Wendover Field but moved to

3221: 3066: 2929: 2362: 2129: 2050:

The most promising but also the most challenging method of isotope separation was gaseous diffusion.

1908:

it must be physically separated from the more plentiful isotope. Various methods were considered for

1730: 1168: 832: 763: 625:. Lawrence was sufficiently impressed to commence his own research into uranium. He in turn spoke to 361: 12974: 9052:(Spring 1991). "Eclipsed by Hiroshima and Nagasaki: Early Thinking about Tactical Nuclear Weapons". 1467:, southwest of Chicago. In July, Nichols arranged for a lease of 1,025 acres (415 ha) from the 1173: 15794: 15623: 14946: 14923: 14175: 13976: 13969: 13633: 13293: 13265: 13258: 12645: 12227: 11760: 11619: 10883:

Home, R. W.; Low, Morris F. (September 1993). "Postwar Scientific Intelligence Missions to Japan".

7490: 3791: 3617:

After the bombings at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, a number of Manhattan Project physicists founded the

3509: 3287: 3103: 2779:

Major General Leslie R. Groves Jr., speaks to service personnel Oak Ridge Tennessee in August 1945.

2621: 2510: 1661: 1418: 1379: 1189: 1081: 915: 786: 727: 594:

of 10 kilograms (22 lb), small enough to be carried by contemporary bombers. Their March 1940

583: 572: 315: 195: 131: 12990: 12967: 10564:. The Canadian Committee for the History of the Second World War, Department of National Defence. 3240:, the codename for the modification of the B-29, in November 1943. Test drops were carried out at 2732:

together with verse (XI,32), which he translated as "Now I am become Death, destroyer of worlds".

15368: 15312: 15182: 15042: 14727: 14380: 14276: 14182: 13750: 13618: 13588: 13552: 13537: 13409: 13301: 13279: 13225: 13211: 13193: 12857: 12638: 12366: 12315: 12222: 12119: 11674: 11221: 10296: 10092: 6199: 4011: 3858: 3420: 3260: 3209: 3118: 2977: 2811: 2764: 2626: 2563: 2555: 2404: 2400: 1937:, the only known gaseous compound of uranium, and was able to separate uranium-235. At Columbia, 1632: 1563: 1537: 1507: 1371: 1367: 1221: 980: 656: 279: 271: 10559: 10554:

Villa, Brian L. (1981). "Chapter 11: Alliance Politics and Atomic Collaboration, 1941–1943". In

6280:. An additional 5% came from "miscellaneous sources", which included some ores recovered by the 5645:"50th Anniversary Article: Oppenheimer's Better Idea: Ranch School Becomes Arsenal of Democracy" 15829: 15653: 15060: 14953: 14755: 14706: 14609: 14502: 14472: 14255: 14143: 13869: 13660: 13251: 13232: 13202: 12749: 12719: 12001: 11669: 11664: 11659: 11634: 9940: 9054: 3294: 3126: 2747: 2699:

Oppenheimer later claimed that, while witnessing the explosion, he thought of a verse from the

2653: 2607: 2534:

per month of polonium, which Monsanto was able to deliver. The whole assembly was encased in a

2331: 2248: 1734: 1652:, the first reactor using heavy water and natural uranium, which went critical on 15 May 1944. 1566:, wanted no profit of any kind; for legal reasons a nominal fee of one dollar was agreed upon. 1553: 1464: 1326: 1282: 1272: 1065: 880: 711: 464: 267:. Research and production took place at more than 30 sites across the US, the UK, and Canada. 45: 11500: 5510: 1904:

Natural uranium consists of 99.3% uranium-238 and 0.7% uranium-235, but as only the latter is

15673: 15658: 15551: 15274: 15117: 15013: 14983: 14939: 14679: 14644: 14637: 14560: 14458: 13899: 13876: 13723: 13334: 12871: 12611: 12597: 12280: 12242: 12067: 11810: 11755: 10535:

Secrets of Victory: The Office of Censorship and the American Press and Radio in World War II

10487: 8839:"U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey: The Effects of the Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki" 8066: 3555:, New Mexico, in September 1945 to be closer to Los Alamos. This marked the beginning of the 3493: 3256: 3204: 3113:

Interrogation of German prisoners indicated that uranium and thorium were being processed in

2415: 2335: 2215: 2200: 2172: 1949: 1750: 1499: 1478:

to authorize the Metallurgical Laboratory to construct the first nuclear reactor beneath the

1428: 1315: 1110: 1061: 828: 739: 475: 331: 323: 319: 240: 236: 13169: 10856:

Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945

10589:

The Road to Yucca Mountain: The Development of Radioactive Waste Policy in the United States

9664: 9643:"A Toxic Waste Capital Looks to Spread it Around; Upstate Dump is the Last in the Northeast" 5942: 3423:

for Tinian on 11 and 14 August. At Los Alamos, technicians worked 24 hours straight to cast

15375: 15230: 14881: 14838: 14808: 14734: 14544: 14523: 13449: 12926: 12604: 12052: 12047: 11906: 11780: 11120: 11096: 5881: 5267: 4869: 4295: 4194: 4063: 3591: 3545: 3505: 3276: 3241: 3099: 3091: 2878: 2674: 2575: 2562:, which would exacerbate the pre-ignition problem. The metallurgists then hit upon using a 2519: 2506:

wrote: "RaLa became the most important single experiment affecting the final bomb design".

2414:

that would disperse the critical mass after a minimal amount of plutonium had fissioned (a

1934: 1929:

The centrifuge process was regarded as the only promising separation method in April 1942.

1586: 1334: 1286: 1213: 1030: 1026: 618: 373: 364:

in New Mexico on 16 July 1945. Little Boy and Fat Man bombs were used a month later in the

109: 15951: 11411: 5807: 2636:

The explosives of "the gadget" were raised to the top of the tower for the final assembly.

1692:

reactor, which was designed during the war, was completed and went critical in July 1947.

1409:

ran the branch office in Santa Fe, where she met new arrivals and issue them with passes.

8: 15733: 15493: 15267: 15145: 15101: 14623: 13757: 13523: 13050: 12880: 12864: 12813: 11911: 11866: 11826: 11649: 10211: 4907: 3873:-226—were buried in an "Interim Waste Containment Structure" (in the foreground) in 1991. 3305: 3134: 3130: 3095: 2941:

on the absence of articles on nuclear fission in American journals; this resulted in the

2918: 2881:, ultimately designated the Manhattan Project "the best-kept secret of the war". In 1945 2473: 2449: 2294: 1758: 1669: 1665: 1644: 1615: 1486:

at the University of Chicago. The reactor required an enormous amount of highly purified

1301: 747: 525: 513: 151: 11395: 11124: 11100: 5885: 5644: 4485: 3877:

The political and cultural impacts of the development of nuclear weapons were profound.

3473: 979:

in New York, where he could draw on administrative support from the Corps of Engineers'

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the Tennessee Eastman payroll from 8,600 to 1,500 and saving $ 2 million a month.

3457: 3446: 3408: 3337: 3083: 2923: 2863: 2803: 2736: 2617: 2499: 2136: 1909: 1881: 1754: 1525: 1510:, produced in a rush with makeshift process. A large square balloon was constructed by 1088: 984: 964: 723: 684: 659: 622: 591: 295: 136: 15668: 3602:

Following a domestic debate over the peacetime management of the nuclear program, the

2391: 1325:

Initially known as the Kingston Demolition Range, the site was officially renamed the

1304:

authorized the Corps of Engineers to acquire 56,000 acres (23,000 ha) of land by

997: 15477: 15361: 15251: 15191: 15152: 15085: 15067: 15033: 14976: 14930: 14874: 14699: 14437: 14429: 14366: 14219: 13813: 13345: 12806: 12785: 12191: 12180: 12087: 11946: 11941: 11891: 11740: 11735: 11725: 11363: 11353: 11333: 11323: 11303: 11293: 11273: 11263: 11239: 11229: 11209: 11185: 11175: 11168: 11144: 11108: 11069: 11059: 11042: 11015: 11005: 10929: 10871: 10861: 10830: 10820: 10791: 10781: 10764: 10754: 10734: 10714: 10673: 10649: 10632: 10622: 10602: 10592: 10565: 10540: 10533: 10517: 10479: 10457: 10447: 10430: 10420: 10398: 10388: 10371: 10361: 10344: 10334: 10305: 10283: 10273: 10256: 10246: 10229: 10219: 10195: 10185: 10166: 10145: 10135: 10111: 10101: 10076: 10059: 10039: 10007: 9985: 9949: 9925: 9918: 9901: 9891: 9384: 9063: 8312: 8154: 7735: 7580: 7579:. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. p. 133. 6332:

Manhattan District History, Book 7, Volume 1 (Feed Materials and Special Procurement)

6275:

Manhattan District History, Book 7, Volume 1 (Feed Materials and Special Procurement)

5905: 5897: 5847: 4486:"Executive Order 8807 Establishing the Office of Scientific Research and Development" 4299: 4030: 3946: 3628: 3329: 3165: 3087: 2025: 1636: 1578: 1382: 1118: 972: 919: 819: 794: 743: 704: 688: 663: 630: 368:. In the immediate postwar years, the Manhattan Project conducted weapons testing at 303: 174: 11991: 11256: 10686: 10385:

The Tizard Mission: the Top-Secret Operation that Changed the Course of World War II

3566: 15868: 15396: 15389: 15333: 14997: 14762: 14748: 14651: 14588: 14539: 14352: 14205: 14152: 13962: 13913: 13827: 13057: 13034: 12567: 12212: 12011: 11996: 11961: 11936: 11790: 11745: 11544: 11345: 11320:

The Road to Trinity: A Personal Account of How America's Nuclear Policies Were Made

11128: 10921: 10892: 10845: 10812: 10648:. Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army. 10614: 10584: 9981: 9977: 9866: 9660: 9623: 9504: 9049: 9011: 8961:"Telephone conversation transcript, General Hull and Colonel Seeman (13 August 45)" 8809: 7831: 5889: 5839: 4451: 4311: 4287: 3965: 3954: 3878: 3816: 3484: 3431: 3372: 3133:. In April 1945, Pash, in command of a composite force known as T-Force, conducted 3052: 3000: 2981: 2523: 2426: 2422: 2327: 2270: 2232: 2188: 1873: 1858: 1805: 1742: 1452: 1406: 1164: 1095: 1025:

from Stone & Webster had already scouted a site for the production plants. The

801: 790: 648: 641: 634: 416: 264: 12576: 11548: 8579: 8552: 8540: 7432: 5893: 5690: 4168:

in 1959. The worry was not entirely extinguished in some people's minds until the

3283:

in July 1945. Most of the components for the Little Boy left San Francisco on the

2361:

which was chosen for the pilot separation plant. A second separation process, the

15904: 15663: 15618: 15563: 15419: 15131: 15046: 15004: 14902: 14845: 14713: 14495: 14486: 14015: 13597: 13573: 12827: 12217: 12057: 12021: 11951: 11886: 11876: 11851: 11750: 11730: 11705: 11315: 11132: 10507: 10051: 9148: 7765: 7730: 7721: 5053: 4861: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4005: 3923: 3915: 3824: 3571: 3526: 3497: 3349: 3341: 3272: 3264: 3161: 3060: 2883: 2670: 2666: 2559: 2546: 2495: 2484: 2311: 2094:

Corporation. In January 1944, Groves ordered the Kellex barrier into production.

2067: 2051: 1877: 1677: 1319: 1038: 1017: 991: 872: 839:, who had quit on 18 May 1942 because of concerns over lax operational security. 700: 696: 626: 541: 537: 533: 505: 471: 346: 179: 15531: 11966: 10446:. The Contemporary anthology series. Iowa City: The Spirit That Moves Us Press. 4356: 3961:

project ran into formidable technical difficulties and was ultimately canceled.

3121:

on 15 March 1945 to deny its capture by the Soviet Union. An Alsos team went to

883: 823:

Different fission bomb assembly methods explored during the July 1942 conference

590:

of uranium-235 in June 1939. Their calculations indicated that it was within an

255:, for the entire project. The project absorbed its earlier British counterpart, 15880: 15613: 15426: 14962: 14888: 12940: 12799: 12160: 12155: 11926: 11871: 11861: 11856: 11775: 11700: 11629: 11197: 10993: 10728: 10410: 7882: 6971: 4361: 4291: 4165: 4034: 3931: 3317: 3298: 3217: 2992: 2934: 2693: 2689: 2681: 2657: 2527: 2453: 2315: 2059: 2029: 2013: 1998: 1869: 1823: 1649: 1590: 1533: 1518: 1495: 1475: 1432: 1305: 1159: 1151: 1046: 968: 947: 935: 895: 891: 868: 840: 767: 755: 751: 607: 603: 599: 579: 311: 307: 224: 51: 11412:"The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II, A Collection of Primary Sources" 10636: 9627: 9149:"The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II, A Collection of Primary Sources" 4549: 2257: 1816:

and the remaining stocks of mined ore stored in the Congo. He negotiated with

356:

The first nuclear device ever detonated was an implosion-type bomb during the

15981: 15824: 15638: 15633: 15237: 13162: 13011: 12850: 12175: 12037: 12006: 11986: 11931: 11921: 11831: 11720: 11695: 11639: 11462:

Features hundreds of audio/visual interviews with Manhattan Project veterans.

11251: 10989: 10933: 10795: 10768: 10606: 10483: 10461: 10402: 10375: 10260: 10115: 10043: 10011: 9989: 9913: 9067: 8158: 7739: 6593: 6281: 5901: 4865: 4248: 3973: 3590:

Manhattan Project personnel participated in the first postwar nuclear tests,

3537: 3501: 3469: 3029: 3012: 2973: 2938: 2775: 2705: 2491: 2457: 2430: 2411: 2223: 2184: 2180: 2099: 2082: 2063: 1938: 1888:, under Frank Spedding to investigate alternatives. This became known as the 1845: 1813: 1809: 1801: 1788: 1738: 1681: 1673: 1397: 1204: 1146: 1010: 931: 923: 902: 898:. They tentatively confirmed that a fission bomb was theoretically possible. 856: 844: 836: 735: 692: 614: 587: 560: 491: 448: 228: 11337: 11189: 11073: 11019: 10875: 10738: 10569: 10434: 10309: 10233: 10199: 10080: 9905: 3407:, a second B-29 piloted by the 393d Bombardment Squadron's commander, Major 1207:

and Canada held much of the world's uranium outside Eastern Europe, and the

1200: 435:

would develop one first, especially among scientists who were refugees from

50:

test of the Manhattan Project on 16 July 1945 was the first detonation of a

15723: 15648: 15628: 15536: 15340: 13640: 13545: 13176: 12539: 12303: 12232: 12114: 11971: 11916: 11896: 11881: 11785: 11609: 11307: 11243: 11148: 11036: 10925: 10746: 10653: 10555: 10324: 10287: 10149: 10063: 9968:

Frisch, David H. (June 1970). "Scientists and the Decision to Bomb Japan".

9798: 7562:. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Technical Information Division. p. 1. 5909: 5838:. Office of Public Affairs, Argonne National Laboratory. 1996. p. 11. 4307: 4294:(Ranking minority member of the Sub-Committee on Military Appropriations), 4270: 4169: 3950: 3804: 3595: 3552: 3451: 3249: 3233: 3153: 3086:. Groves considered the risk that the Germans might attempt to disrupt the 3008: 2965: 2958: 2942: 2867: 2837: 2648: 2625:

piled with about 100 short tons (91 t) of high explosives spiked with

2613: 2567: 2531: 2488: 2125: 2115: 1961: 1893: 1889: 1832: 1582: 1444: 1436: 1114: 1073: 876: 501: 479: 460: 436: 420: 385: 369: 357: 350: 327: 220: 15683: 11367: 11277: 11213: 11046: 10677: 10348: 10330:

Brighter than a Thousand Suns: A Personal History of the Atomic Scientists

9953: 7576:

Birthplace of the Atomic Bomb: A Complete History of the Trinity Test Site

6000:

Fermi, Enrico (1946). "The Development of the first chain reaction pile".

3383: 3304:

At the end of December 1944, worried by the heavy losses occurring in the

555:

On 28 June 1941, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8807, which created the

15789: 15643: 15175: 15161: 14823: 13499: 13320: 13305: 12659: 12062: 12016: 11981: 11956: 11901: 11805: 11795: 11679: 11285: 10672:. Washington, DC: Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army. 4303: 4217: 4021: 3935: 3636: 3556: 3353: 3237: 3199: 3114: 2988: 2874: 2823: 2763:

In 1943, Groves obtained a special temporary priority for labor from the

2632: 2452:

and G (for gadget) Division under Robert Bacher. The new design featured

2395:

A row of Thin Man casings. Fat Man casings are visible in the background.

2347: 2303: 2298: 2278: 2176: 2008: 1930: 1915: 1865: 1853: 1841: 1784: 1724: 1717: 1705: 1483: 1460: 1448: 1440: 1401: 1290: 1225: 1185: 1136: 1091:. Tolman and Conant were later appointed as Groves' scientific advisers. 887: 782: 778: 564: 456: 444: 428: 424: 291: 256: 15899: 11449: 11091: 10998:

The Los Alamos Primer: The First Lectures on How to Build an Atomic Bomb

10478:. The Queen's Printer by authority of the Minister of National Defence. 4532: 4530: 2873:

Because of its relative success at keeping the story out of newspapers,

2692:

reached 7.5 miles (12.1 km) in height. It was heard as far away as

1797: 1729:

establish heavy water facilities at the Morgantown Ordnance Works, near

804:, who had been designated the Army's representative on nuclear matters. 14530: 14283: 14262: 13155: 12488: 12416: 12165: 12109: 11846: 11836: 11765: 11163: 11140: 11085:. Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of British Columbia. 10444:

Nuke-Rebuke: Writers & Artists Against Nuclear Energy & Weapons

10207: 9075: 8067:"Manhattan Project: Its Scientists Have Harnessed Nature's Basic Force" 7471: 6015: 4331: 4161: 3969: 3888: 3812: 3424: 3146: 3071: 3056: 2996: 2480: 2436: 2159: 1885: 1181: 864: 545: 509: 287: 11111:(21 July 1961). "Impact of Large-Scale Science on the United States". 10904: 10834: 9878: 3799:

Initial funding for the project was through the general budget of the

3078:

The Alsos Mission to Italy questioned physics laboratory staff at the

3059:

to command the unit, which was codenamed "Alsos" (Greek for "grove").

2783:

One source of skilled personnel was the Army itself, particularly the

2235:, which was incorporated into the production process in October 1943. 1680:. He was replaced by John Cockcroft in May 1944, who was succeeded by 1589:, was "ideal in virtually all respects". It was isolated and near the 1581:

and DuPont engineers to scout potential sites. Matthias reported that

934:", which would use the force of a detonating fission bomb to ignite a 15608: 14793: 14198: 13995: 13806: 13604: 13559: 12207: 12073: 11841: 11644: 11519: 10509:

The Prometheus Bomb: The Manhattan Project and Government in the Dark

9920:

109 East Palace: Robert Oppenheimer and the Secret City of Los Alamos

8732:

Red Cloud at Dawn: Truman, Stalin, and the End of the Atomic Monopoly

8673:. The Harry S Truman Library and Museum. pp. 8–9. Archived from 8354:

Red Cloud at Dawn: Truman, Stalin, and the End of the Atomic Monopoly

7788:

Hijiya, James A. (June 2000). "The 'Gita' of J. Robert Oppenheimer".

7459: 6278:. Vol. Book 7, Volume 1. 1947. pp. 2.14, 5.1, Appendix D.3. 5851: 4527: 3388: 3367: 3313: 3173: 3157: 3138: 3122: 3070:

Allied soldiers dismantle the German experimental nuclear reactor at

2851: 2795: 2751:

Manhattan Project contractors' employment, August 1942-December 1946.

2685: 2677:

on 13 July, and precariously winched up the tower the following day.

2594: 2535: 2465: 2386: 2323: 2319: 2283: 2262: 2151: 1780: 1503: 1352: 1106: 1102: 1022: 976: 939: 907: 568: 552:(NDRC) on Uranium when that organization was formed on 27 June 1940. 521: 412: 381: 283: 248: 201: 39: 13080: 11555: 10816: 10685:

Baker, Richard D.; Hecker, Siegfried S.; Harbur, Delbert R. (1983).

10619:

Restricted Data: The History of Nuclear Secrecy in the United States

6156:"Canada's contributions to the atomic bomb developed by Oppenheimer" 5691:"Secretary of Agriculture granting use of land for Demolition Range" 5429: 5427: 3094:

and send an officer to brief his chief of staff, Lieutenant General

2001:

and asked for the transfer of 6,000 tons of silver bullion from the

1775: 1573:

Hanford workers collect their paychecks at the Western Union office.

1277: 508:, and Dana P. Mitchell in front of the cyclotron in the basement of 376:, developed new weapons, promoted the development of the network of 15784: 13064: 12792: 12247: 12080: 11614: 11539: 10896: 10807:

Manhattan District history, Project Y, the Los Alamos story, Vol. 2

10304:. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. 9870: 9042: 8748:. Office of History and Heritage Resources, US Department of Energy 7699: 5843: 5507:"Oak Ridge National Laboratory Review, Vol. 25, Nos. 3 and 4, 2002" 4314:(Senate Minority Leader). The five allowed to tour Oak Ridge were: 4266: 4222: 3445:

In anticipation of the bombings, Groves had commissioned physicist

3403: 3394: 3325: 3225: 3142: 2855: 2468:, of which there were two for each lens for reliability. They used 2205: 2091: 2073: 2055: 1967: 1640: 1487: 1479: 911: 529: 299: 19:

This article is about the atomic bomb project. For other uses, see

10182:

Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939–1956

8878:"Life Arises from Hiroshima: Legacy of slavery still haunts Japan" 4505: 4503: 4402: 4400: 1569: 1423: 1199:

in June 1944, with Groves as its chairman, to procure uranium and

12237: 12104: 11430: 10803:

Hawkins, David; Truslow, Edith C.; Smith, Ralph Carlisle (1961).

9948:. Washington, DC: United States Army Center of Military History. 7491:"American Experience . Race for the Superbomb . Super Conference" 5981: 5801:"Site A/Plot M, Illinois, Decommissioned Reactor Site Fact Sheet" 5424: 4274: 3866: 3862: 3412: 3284: 2461: 2445: 2274: 2273:

to remove dirt and impurities, dipped in molten bronze, tin, and

1905: 1628: 1598: 1491: 1357: 943: 852: 835:—key to calculations of critical mass and weapon detonation—from 440: 335: 10971: 8943: 8941: 5475: 4243:

The charge consisted of 89.75 short tons (81.42 t) tons of

3934:, the director of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, would call 766:. Murphree also headed an unsuccessful separation project using 341:

The project was also charged with gathering intelligence on the

13674: 12272: 11623: 10472:

Arms, Men and Government: The War Policies of Canada, 1939–1945

8746:"Order to Drop the Atomic Bomb, Handy to Spaatz, July 25, 1945" 7249: 7247: 5487: 4500: 4397: 3870: 3309: 3280: 3252:

to test their ballistic, fuzing and stability characteristics.

3195: 1559: 1529: 11466: 10844: 10006:. Miamisburg, OH: Mound Laboratory, Atomic Energy Commission. 9596:. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 31 August 2011. Archived from 8947: 8900:"Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombing – Facts about the Atomic Bomb" 8793: 8585: 8558: 8546: 7662: 7650: 7638: 7626: 7614: 7438: 7426: 7414: 7402: 7366: 7306: 7294: 7265: 7253: 7238: 7214: 7202: 7190: 7154: 7142: 6394: 4824: 4800: 4764: 3918:. Two more were established by Groves soon after the war, the 2545:

Remote handling of a kilocurie source of radiolanthanum for a

859:—how the explosion produced by a chain reaction might behave. 15910: 13862: 11350:

The Price of Vision: The Diary of Henry A. Wallace, 1942–1946

10038:. Washington, DC: US Department of Energy, History Division. 8938: 8569: 8567: 6535: 4310:(Chair of the Sub-Committee on Military Appropriations), and 3541: 3321: 2700: 2227: 2058:

of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its

1828: 855:

diffusion—how neutrons moved in a nuclear chain reaction—and

243:

that designed the bombs. The Army program was designated the

7244: 5400: 5388: 5302: 5204: 4620: 4618: 4424: 4412: 3633:

international control of nuclear research and atomic weapons

3179: 2472:, a new invention developed at Los Alamos by a group led by 1281:

Shift change at the Y-12 uranium enrichment facility at the

12185: 11654: 11490: 10687:"Plutonium: A Wartime Nightmare but a Metallurgist's Dream" 9528: 9526: 8007: 8005: 7886: 3492:

at Los Alamos on 16 October 1945. Standing, left to right:

2142: 2045: 1685: 1664:, site was established to rehouse the Allied effort at the 831:

of the University of California to take over research into

16028:

Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II

9976:(6). Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science: 107–115. 9153:

National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 162

8968:

National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 162

8769:

Five Days in August: How World War II Became a Nuclear War

8627: 8591: 8564: 2209:

Workers load uranium slugs into the X-10 Graphite Reactor.

532:. A team of Columbia professors including Fermi, Szilard, 16033:

Military history of the United States during World War II

15810:

Military history of the United States during World War II

11520:

University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center

10731:

History of the Plutonium Production Facilities, 1943–1990

9942:

The Corps of Engineers: Construction in the United States

9796: 8953: 8671:"Notes of Meeting of the Interim Committee, June 1, 1945" 7700:"Bhagavad Gita As It Is, 11: The Universal Form, Text 12" 7494: 7449: 7447: 6335:. Vol. Book 7, Volume 1. 1947. pp. Appendix C1. 5352: 5340: 5290: 4942: 4615: 4603: 4244: 3224:

could be modified to carry a Thin Man by joining its two

2859: 2444:

An accelerated effort on the implosion design, codenamed

1689: 1643:

for the first three stages while Urey developed a nickel-

1338:

administration of community facilities was outsourced to

1101:

One of Groves' early problems was to find a director for

219:

was a research and development program undertaken during

10729:

Hanford Cultural and Historic Resources Program (2002).

10100:. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. 10073:

The Atomic Age: Scientists in National and World Affairs

9523: 8002: 6130:"Canada's historical role in developing nuclear weapons" 5945:. Argonne National Laboratory; U.S. Department of Energy 5766: 5278: 5240: 5216: 3090:

with radioactive poisons was sufficient to warn General

2277:, canned using hydraulic presses, and then capped using 1459:

An Army-OSRD council on 25 June 1942 decided to build a

1228:

of 1946 temporarily ended American nuclear cooperation.

1124: 11058:. New York: American Society of Civil Engineers Press. 10733:. Richland, WA: Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. 10243:

Inventing Los Alamos: The Growth of an Atomic Community

9665:"Drama of the Atomic Bomb Found Climax in July 16 Test" 2827:

A billboard encouraging secrecy among Oak Ridge workers

2656:

of the Manhattan Project was the first detonation of a

1848:, the director of the company that owned the mine, the 926:

to increase the efficiency of the bomb as it exploded.

251:; the name gradually superseded the official codename, 12934:

Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany

11258:

Now it Can be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project

9890:. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company. 9550:. Vol. Book 1, Volume 4. 1947. pp. 2.4–2.13. 9379:

Operation Crossroads: The Atomic Tests at Bikini Atoll

9250: 9248: 8639: 8615: 8603: 7444: 6868: 6866: 6853: 6851: 6513: 6511: 6198:. Canada Science and Technology Museum. Archived from 6051: 6049: 4860: 1757:. Although known as Ordnance Works and paid for under 1668:

away from an urban area. A new community was built at

1001:

The Manhattan Project Organizational Chart, 1 May 1946

773:

Meanwhile, there were two lines of investigation into

259:, and subsumed the program from the American civilian 15840: 10561:

The Second World War as a National Experience: Canada

9260: 7680: 5412: 5376: 5228: 5168: 3460:

on 15 August. The necessity of the bombings became a

2976:, the head of the Counter Intelligence Branch of the 2680:

At 05:30 on 16 July 1945 the gadget exploded with an

2150:

Groves contracted with the H. K. Ferguson Company of

666:, suggesting that they correspond on atomic matters. 443:

countries. In August 1939, Hungarian-born physicists

10270:

City Behind a Fence: Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 1942–1946

10216:

Their Day in the Sun: Women of the Manhattan Project

10071:

Grodzins, Morton; Rabinowitch, Eugene, eds. (1963).

9497: 8111: 7278: 7276: 7274: 6972:

Hanford Cultural and Historic Resources Program 2002

6178: 6176: 5364: 5314: 3894:

The Manhattan Project left a legacy of a network of

2669:. The gadget was assembled under the supervision of 789:

in early 1942 to study plutonium and reactors using

571:, which had been isolated for the first time at the 11516:

Manhattan Project and Allied Scientists Collections

10839:

Originally published as Los Alamos Report LAMS-2532

10802: 10539:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 10070: 9414: 9245: 7753: 7477: 7465: 7318: 7054: 7052: 7001: 6863: 6848: 6508: 6046: 5086: 5084: 4932: 4930: 4697: 4695: 4693: 3152:Alsos teams rounded up German scientists including 3063:was the scientific director of the Alsos mission. 15593: 11255: 11201: 11167: 10853: 10804: 10532: 9917: 9376: 8771:. Princeton University Press. pp. 80, 90, 99. 7836:"How many people worked on the Manhattan Project?" 6907: 6905: 5795: 5793: 5671: 4385: 4354: 3468:had on the Japanese willingness to surrender. The 2684:of around 20 kilotons of TNT, leaving a crater of 598:initiated the British atomic bomb project and its 528:$ 6,000, most of which Fermi and Szilard spent on 10684: 10184:. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. 10156: 9653: 9332: 7790:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 7598: 7596: 7390: 7271: 6564: 6562: 6173: 6003:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 5987: 5590: 5588: 5265: 4581: 4579: 4075:The reaction Teller was most concerned with was: 3652:Manhattan Project costs through 31 December 1945 2984:, about passing information to the Soviet Union. 2538:bomb casing to protect it from bullets and flak. 15979: 11467:"History Center: Los Alamos National Laboratory" 9579:. King Groundwater Science, Inc. September 2008. 7904: 7714: 7049: 5081: 5031: 5029: 4927: 4690: 4654: 4286:The seven Congressmen officially informed were: 4207:the Colorado plateau, and 9% from Canadian ores. 3454:" was released to the public on 12 August 1945. 2399:In 1943, development efforts were directed to a 1779:A sample of a high-quality uranium-bearing ore ( 1474:Delays in establishing the plant at Argonne led 785:at Columbia, while Arthur Compton organized the 431:theoretically possible. There were fears that a 10751:Volume I: The Development of US Nuclear Weapons 10713:. Westport, Connecticut & London: Meckler. 10206: 10087: 9818: 9712: 9491: 9441: 9338: 9326: 9314: 9203:Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum 9185: 8847:Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum 8356:. Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. pp. 153–156. 8313:"A Spy's Path: Iowa to A-Bomb to Kremlin Honor" 8120:"Oak Ridge Confidential, or Baseball for Bombs" 8058: 7878: 7531: 7378: 7342: 7226: 7178: 7166: 7130: 7082: 7070: 7019: 6995: 6983: 6947: 6902: 6896: 6884: 6836: 6830: 6794: 6722: 6686: 6674: 6580: 6478: 6466: 6454: 6442: 6406: 6370: 6358: 6293: 6236: 5790: 5760: 5445: 5096: 5075: 4996: 4870:"Ignition of the Atmosphere with Nuclear Bombs" 4749: 4648: 4597: 4585: 4536: 4509: 4430: 4418: 4406: 4355:Johnston, Louis; Williamson, Samuel H. (2023). 1602:end of the Manhattan Project in December 1946. 1385:granted about 45,000 acres (18,000 ha) of 1239: 282:gun-type design proved impractical to use with 16023:Military history of Canada during World War II 10267: 9383:, Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 9140: 8970:. George Washington University. 13 August 1945 8850:. 19 June 1946. pp. 9, 36. Archived from 8804: 8802: 8034: 8032: 7593: 6559: 5696:. Los Alamos National Laboratory. 8 April 1943 5585: 5567: 5555: 5543: 5481: 5433: 4576: 4348: 4193:The allusion here is to the Italian navigator 3176:, where they were surreptitiously surveilled. 722:. Work was proceeding on three techniques for 15579: 12288: 11571: 11041:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 10130:Hewlett, Richard G.; Duncan, Francis (1969). 10129: 10036:The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb 9938: 9772: 9760: 9748: 9736: 8814:"Counting the dead at Hiroshima and Nagasaki" 8298: 8286: 7858:"African Americans and the Manhattan Project" 6541: 5631: 5493: 5261: 5259: 5257: 5255: 5114: 5035: 5026: 5008: 4960: 4260:The first instance in print of Oppenheimer's 3959:Nuclear Energy for the Propulsion of Aircraft 3801:Office of Scientific Research and Development 3544:solvent extraction process as an alternative 3328:was ultimately substituted. In May 1945, the 3172:. They were taken to England and interned at 2314:, who identified the cause of the problem as 1955: 1361:Map of Los Alamos site, New Mexico, 1943–1945 1131:British contribution to the Manhattan Project 557:Office of Scientific Research and Development 261:Office of Scientific Research and Development 16043:Nuclear weapons program of the United States 10988: 10591:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 10272:. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. 9832:"Manhattan Project National Historical Park" 9437: 9435: 8046:. Associated Press. 8 August 1945. p. 5 7918:. Associated Press. 8 August 1945. p. 1 5334:"Hyde Park Aide-Mémoire (18 September 1944)" 4788: 4247:and 14.91 short tons (13.53 t) tons of 2927:, who wrote an article on atomic fission in 2566:, which stabilized the δ phase and could be 1684:in September 1946. A pilot reactor known as 1639:of Princeton developed a platinum-on-carbon 1524:In January 1943, Grafton's successor, Major 1212:avoid briefing US Secretary of the Treasury 1052: 683:March 1940 meeting at Berkeley, California: 419:in 1938, and its theoretical explanation by 15998:1946 disestablishments in the United States 11486:"ORNL: The first 50 Years: History of ORNL" 10613: 10355: 10268:Johnson, Charles; Jackson, Charles (1981). 9560: 9532: 9503: 9459: 9010: 8808: 8799: 8734:. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp. 7–10. 8117: 8029: 8011: 7830: 3869:, and the world's largest concentration of 3639:, unveiled in a speech to the newly formed 2758:African-American scientists and technicians 2282:enough canned slugs was available to start 2120:The thermal diffusion process was based on 1827:A uranium metal "biscuit" created from the 16:World War II Allied nuclear weapons program 15586: 15572: 12295: 12281: 11578: 11564: 10940: 10711:Atomic Bomb Scientists: Memoirs, 1939–1945 9939:Fine, Lenore; Remington, Jesse A. (1972). 6382: 5718:. Atomic Heritage Foundation. 26 July 2017 5252: 4908:"Why They Called It the Manhattan Project" 3994:Manhattan Project National Historical Park 2945:establishing its own atomic bomb project. 2800:University of Rochester School of Medicine 1195:The Combined Policy Committee created the 983:. It was close to the Manhattan office of 586:had made a breakthrough investigating the 38: 16008:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 11538: 11090: 10360:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10218:. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. 9856: 9432: 9048: 8147:"The Difficulties of Nuclear Containment" 8065:Wickware, Francis Sill (20 August 1945). 5833:"FRONTIERS Research Highlights 1946–1996" 5394: 5308: 5284: 5246: 5210: 4182:Natural self-sustaining nuclear reactions 3186:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 3180:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 716:United States declaration of war on Japan 366:atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 147:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 15993:1942 establishments in the United States 11220: 11107: 10860:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 10667: 10643: 10621:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 10505: 10245:. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. 10179: 9885: 9724: 9700: 9659: 9634: 9374: 9088: 8695: 8597: 8522: 8474: 8339: 8190: 8064: 5608:Early Days of Oak Ridge and Wartime Y-12 5266:Fakley, Dennis C. (Winter–Spring 1983). 4948: 4684: 3848: 3790: 3625:Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists 3565: 3483: 3382: 3248:in California with Thin Man and Fat Man 3194: 3065: 2903: 2822: 2774: 2746: 2647: 2631: 2540: 2435: 2390: 2346: 2256: 2204: 2194: 2141: 2072: 2007: 1984: 1914: 1822: 1774: 1695: 1568: 1422: 1356: 1276: 1235: 1145: 1056: 996: 818: 678: 496: 11344: 11314: 11196: 11156: 11080: 10882: 10848:; Henriksen, Paul W.; Meade, Roger A.; 10775: 10745: 10530: 10298:Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb 10033: 9996: 9688: 9640: 9453: 9426: 9350: 9302: 9290: 9278: 9227: 9100: 9036: 8214: 8178: 8144: 7972: 7354: 7330: 7282: 6842: 6650: 6553: 6490: 6317: 6305: 6196:"ZEEP – Canada's First Nuclear Reactor" 6182: 5963: 5716:"Civilian Displacement: Los Alamos, NM" 5198: 4972: 4760: 4758: 4713: 4184:have occurred in the very distant past. 4040:Timeline of nuclear weapons development 3641:United Nations Atomic Energy Commission 3462:subject of controversy among historians 3023: 2806:, was commissioned as a colonel in the 1435:, the first nuclear reactor, including 814: 15980: 15820:New Mexico World War II Army Airfields 14142: 14120:Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union 11250: 11053: 10969: 10778:Volume V: US Nuclear Weapons Histories 10708: 10668:Ahnfeldt, Arnold Lorentz, ed. (1966). 10661: 10583: 10468: 10409: 10382: 10240: 10050: 9967: 9912: 9784: 9607: 9591:"Niagara Falls Storage Site, New York" 9402: 9266: 9173: 9112: 8932: 8831: 8781: 8766: 8729: 8645: 8633: 8621: 8609: 8573: 8534: 8498: 8450: 8438: 8402: 8378: 8366: 8351: 8311:Broad, William J. (12 November 2007). 8274: 8085: 8023: 7806: 7787: 7572: 7559:100-ton Test: Piezo Gauge Measurements 7555: 7453: 7118: 7058: 7043: 6959: 6923: 6153: 6127: 6091: 6040: 6028: 5993: 5772: 5748: 5736: 5665: 5457: 5418: 5382: 5370: 5358: 5346: 5296: 5234: 5186: 5174: 5150: 5138: 5126: 5102: 4984: 4848: 4812: 4776: 4737: 4636: 4624: 4609: 4570: 4472: 4008: – 2015 American documentary film 3608:United States Atomic Energy Commission 3580:United States Atomic Energy Commission 1970:. The name was derived from the words 1631:had produced electrolytic hydrogen at 879:, and Eldred C. (Carlyle) Nelson, and 490:; Briggs met with Szilard, Wigner and 390:United States Atomic Energy Commission 330:, in which uranium was irradiated and 286:, so a simpler gun-type design called 15567: 14991:Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign 14423:Japanese invasion of French Indochina 14069:Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union 14025:Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union 13130:Rape during the occupation of Germany 12276: 11585: 11559: 11292:. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 11284: 11208:. New York: Oxford University Press. 11162: 11031: 10941:Ruhoff, John; Fain, Pat (June 1962). 10553: 10441: 10323: 10294: 9613: 9583: 9509:"Origins of the Nuclear Blcak Budget" 9362: 9254: 9239: 8920: 8657: 8510: 8486: 8462: 8426: 8414: 8390: 8310: 8262: 8250: 8238: 8226: 8202: 7996: 7984: 7960: 7948: 7936: 7898: 7889:'s scientific and engineering staff." 7818: 7702:. A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada 7686: 7674: 7602: 7543: 7519: 7106: 7094: 7031: 7007: 6935: 6911: 6872: 6857: 6818: 6806: 6782: 6770: 6758: 6746: 6734: 6710: 6698: 6662: 6638: 6626: 6614: 6568: 6529: 6517: 6430: 6418: 6346: 6260: 6248: 6224: 6212: 6128:Commission, Canadian Nuclear Safety. 6115: 6103: 6079: 6067: 6055: 5999: 5975: 5929: 5864: 5784: 5677: 5619: 5594: 5579: 5531: 5469: 5406: 5320: 5222: 5162: 5090: 5020: 4936: 4906:Broad, William J. (30 October 2007). 4905: 4893: 4836: 4725: 4701: 4672: 4660: 4521: 4391: 3996:was established on 10 November 2015. 3900:Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory 3401:On the morning of 9 August 1945, the 3263:, Utah, under the command of Colonel 3259:was activated on 17 December 1944 at 3102:, special equipment was prepared and 2342: 1899: 1125:Collaboration with the United Kingdom 958: 809:United States Army Corps of Engineers 544:(or "piles" as Fermi called them) in 16038:Nuclear history of the United States 15917: 14113:Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union 13145:Rape during the liberation of France 11352:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. 10911: 10163:Argonne National Laboratory, 1946–96 10056:Britain and Atomic Energy, 1935–1945 9467:"Atomic Bomb Seen as Cheap at Price" 9146: 9126:"Hirohito's "Jewel Voice Broadcast"" 8126:from the original on 17 January 2013 7483: 6502: 5708: 4755: 4197:, who reached the Caribbean in 1492. 3612:Armed Forces Special Weapons Project 2711: 2479:To study the behavior of converging 2109: 2039: 1808:for export controls to be placed on 1711: 1469:Cook County Forest Preserve District 1299:United States Under Secretary of War 1220:the success of the United Kingdom's 827:Compton asked theoretical physicist 247:, as its first headquarters were in 16003:American secret government programs 11322:. New York: William Morrow and Co. 10075:. New York: Basic Book Publishing. 8118:Wellerstein, Alex (16 April 2012). 7720: 7501:from the original on 28 August 2016 5336:. Atomic Heritage Foundation. 2022. 4899: 4552:. Berkeley Office of the Chancellor 3212:is painted on for security reasons. 2987:The most successful Soviet spy was 2242: 2179:, which rapidly decays, first into 1876:, which was reduced to highly pure 1623: 1506:. Three short tons was supplied by 1222:independent nuclear weapons program 550:National Defense Research Committee 326:and the production reactors at the 253:Development of Substitute Materials 13: 14339:German invasion of the Netherlands 12619:Weather events during World War II 12043:Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 10947:Mallinckrodt Uranium Division News 10811:. Los Angeles: Tomash Publishers. 10419:. New York: Simon & Schuster. 9924:. New York: Simon & Schuster. 9865:(2). University of Utah: 202–230. 9797:General Accounting Office (2006). 9641:DePalma, Anthony (10 March 2004). 8990:"Lawrence Litz's Interview (2012)" 8875: 8145:Roberts, Sam (29 September 2014). 4225:), contained less than 1% uranium. 3845:Nuclear weapons in popular culture 3129:and retrieved 11 tons of ore from 1158:By March 1943 Conant decided that 1154:, the head of the British Mission. 1045:weapons and equipment, so Colonel 760:Carnegie Institution of Washington 380:, supported medical research into 314:, was demonstrated in 1942 at the 294:. Three methods were employed for 200: 21:Manhattan Project (disambiguation) 14: 16064: 14970:Northern Burma and Western Yunnan 11450:"Voices of the Manhattan Project" 11375: 10356:O'Brien, Phillips Payson (2015). 9970:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 8818:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 7478:Hawkins, Truslow & Smith 1961 7466:Hawkins, Truslow & Smith 1961 7319:Hawkins, Truslow & Smith 1961 3620:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 2785:Army Specialized Training Program 1609: 1064:and Groves at the remains of the 621:, where he spoke persuasively to 402:Timeline of the Manhattan Project 384:and laid the foundations for the 16018:History of the Manhattan Project 15960: 15943: 15926: 15898: 15886: 15874: 15862: 15850: 15682: 15530: 12302: 12259: 12258: 11174:. New York: Simon and Schuster. 10165:. University of Illinois Press. 10058:. London: Macmillan Publishing. 10034:Gosling, Francis George (1994). 9824: 9812: 9790: 9778: 9766: 9754: 9742: 9730: 9718: 9706: 9694: 9682: 9566: 9554: 9538: 9485: 9447: 9420: 9408: 9396: 9368: 9356: 9344: 9320: 9308: 9296: 9284: 9272: 9233: 9221: 9191: 9179: 9167: 9147:Burr, William (13 August 1945). 9118: 9106: 9094: 9082: 9030: 9004: 8982: 8926: 8914: 8892: 8869: 8787: 8775: 8760: 8738: 8723: 8701: 8689: 8663: 8651: 8528: 8516: 8504: 8492: 8480: 8468: 8456: 8444: 8432: 8420: 8408: 8396: 8384: 8372: 8360: 8345: 8333: 8304: 8292: 8280: 8268: 8256: 8244: 8232: 8220: 8208: 8196: 8184: 8172: 8138: 8017: 7990: 7978: 7966: 7954: 7942: 7930: 7892: 7872: 7850: 7824: 7812: 7800: 7781: 7692: 7668: 7656: 7644: 7632: 7620: 7608: 7566: 7549: 7537: 7525: 7513: 7420: 7408: 7396: 7384: 7372: 7360: 7348: 7336: 7324: 7312: 7300: 7288: 7259: 7232: 7220: 7208: 7196: 7184: 7172: 7160: 7148: 7136: 7124: 7112: 7100: 7088: 7076: 7064: 7037: 7025: 7013: 6989: 6977: 6965: 6953: 6941: 6929: 6917: 6890: 6878: 6824: 6812: 6800: 6788: 6776: 6764: 6752: 6740: 6728: 6716: 6704: 6692: 6680: 6668: 6656: 6644: 6632: 6620: 6608: 6586: 6574: 6547: 6523: 6496: 6484: 6472: 6460: 6448: 6436: 6424: 6412: 6400: 6388: 6376: 6364: 6352: 6340: 6323: 6311: 6299: 6287: 6266: 6254: 6242: 6230: 6218: 6206: 6188: 6147: 6121: 6109: 6097: 6085: 6073: 6061: 6034: 6022: 5969: 5957: 5935: 5923: 5867:"A Manhattan Project Postscript" 5858: 5825: 5778: 5754: 5742: 5730: 5647:. Los Alamos National Laboratory 4875:. Los Alamos National Laboratory 4280: 4254: 4237: 4228: 4210: 4200: 4187: 4175: 3479: 3230:Army Air Forces Materiel Command 3137:, a sweep behind enemy lines of 3040:Japanese nuclear weapons program 2808:United States Army Medical Corps 2769:United States Employment Service 2380: 1463:for plutonium production in the 1231: 1094:On 19 September, Groves went to 11083:An Early History of Heavy Water 11081:Waltham, Chris (20 June 2002). 10943:"The First Fifty Critical days" 10709:Ermenc, Joseph J., ed. (1989). 9859:The Western Political Quarterly 9415:Grodzins & Rabinowitch 1963 8040:"No News Leaked Out About Bomb" 7391:Baker, Hecker & Harbur 1983 5988:Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997 5943:"CP-1 (Chicago Pile 1 Reactor)" 5683: 5659: 5637: 5625: 5613: 5600: 5573: 5561: 5549: 5537: 5525: 5499: 5463: 5451: 5439: 5326: 5192: 5180: 5156: 5144: 5132: 5120: 5108: 5069: 5041: 5014: 5002: 4990: 4978: 4966: 4954: 4887: 4854: 4842: 4830: 4818: 4806: 4794: 4782: 4770: 4743: 4731: 4719: 4707: 4678: 4666: 4642: 4630: 4591: 4564: 4542: 4515: 4376:Gross Domestic Product deflator 4216:Much of the mined ore from the 4154: 4069: 4052: 3887:, the first to use the phrase " 3807:to which Roosevelt had access. 3440:Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission 3397:, Japan, 9 August 1945 (right). 3190: 3106:teams were trained in its use. 2952: 2787:. In 1943, the MED created the 2470:exploding-bridgewire detonators 1996:Under Secretary of the Treasury 953: 726:: Lawrence and his team at the 459:and accelerate the research of 400:For a chronological guide, see 15744:Los Alamos National Laboratory 15595:New Mexico during World War II 15217:Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 12927:Territorial changes of Germany 12835:Indonesian National Revolution 11471:Los Alamos National Laboratory 11262:. New York: Harper & Row. 11002:University of California Press 9982:10.1080/00963402.1970.11457835 9155:. George Washington University 6154:Dawson, Tyler (24 July 2023). 4478: 4466: 4436: 3920:Brookhaven National Laboratory 3904:Los Alamos National Laboratory 3496:, unidentified, unidentified, 3391:, Japan, 6 August 1945 (left); 2665:the target and generated less 2440:An implosion-type nuclear bomb 1924: 1800:in Czechoslovakia, and in the 1540:, the current location of the 1331:Skidmore, Owings & Merrill 1203:on international markets. The 669: 1: 14617:Japanese invasion of Thailand 14568:Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran 14332:German invasion of Luxembourg 12713:Mediterranean and Middle East 11549:10.1080/00295450.2021.1901002 10416:The Making of the Atomic Bomb 10091:; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). 10000:History of the Dayton Project 9886:Campbell, Richard H. (2005). 9850: 9132:. August 2012. Archived from 5894:10.1126/science.212.4501.1369 4357:"What Was the U.S. GDP Then?" 4164:of an interview she had with 4018:Fat Man and Little Boy (film) 3908:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 3523:Presidential Medals for Merit 3458:Japan announced its surrender 3170:Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker 3045:bombing and sabotage campaign 3036:German nuclear energy project 2899: 2530:. Testing required up to 500 2487:, which used the short-lived 2003:West Point Bullion Depository 1864:The raw ore was dissolved in 1850:Union Minière du Haut-Katanga 1708:was a source of uranium ore. 1502:was able to produce only two 1346: 1033:, an isolated area where the 488:Advisory Committee on Uranium 343:German nuclear weapon project 276:implosion-type nuclear weapon 16048:Projects established in 1942 14524:Invasion of the Soviet Union 14213:Occupation of Czechoslovakia 13531:Independent State of Croatia 12203:Oppenheimer security hearing 11452:. Atomic Heritage Foundation 11431:"Atomic Heritage Foundation" 11416:George Washington University 11401:Resources in other libraries 11133:10.1126/science.134.3473.161 10976:. Sandia National Laboratory 10725:(1967 interview with Groves) 10531:Sweeney, Michael S. (2001). 10514:University of Nebraska Press 10333:. New York: Harcourt Brace. 6505:, pp. 281–287, 291–297. 5865:Walsh, John (19 June 1981). 5610:, Retrieved 22 November 2014 4341: 4151:(alpha particle) + 17.7 MeV. 3928:Sandia National Laboratories 3699:Special operating materials 3348:A strike order from General 3119:arranged for it to be bombed 3049:Office of Naval Intelligence 2915:National Academy of Sciences 2742: 2483:, Robert Serber devised the 2326:of 9.2 hours. Fermi, Woods, 2286:on schedule in August 1944. 2165: 1387:United States Forest Service 1266: 674: 484:National Bureau of Standards 409:discovery of nuclear fission 233:U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 100:U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 7: 15780:Arizona during World War II 15508:End of World War II in Asia 15348:Western invasion of Germany 14855:Chinese famine of 1942–1943 14832:Second Battle of El Alamein 14402:Hundred Regiments Offensive 14374:Battle of the Mediterranean 14227:Italian invasion of Albania 12401:Air warfare of World War II 11228:. New York: Henry Schuman. 10973:The History of the Mk4 Bomb 9819:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 9763:, pp. 490–493, 514–515 9713:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 9492:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 9442:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 9375:Weisgall, Jonathan (1994), 9339:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 9327:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 9315:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 9186:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 8352:Gordin, Michael D. (2009). 7879:Howes & Herzenberg 1999 7573:Loring, William S. (2019). 7556:Walker, Raymond L. (1950). 7532:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 7379:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 7343:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 7227:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 7179:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 7167:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 7131:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 7083:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 7071:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 7020:Howes & Herzenberg 1999 6996:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6984:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6948:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6897:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6885:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6831:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6795:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6723:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6687:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6675:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6581:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6479:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6467:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6455:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6443:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6407:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6371:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6359:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6294:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6237:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 5761:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 5446:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 5076:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 4997:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 4750:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 4649:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 4598:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 4586:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 4537:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 4510:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 4431:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 4419:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 4407:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 3999: 3912:Argonne National Laboratory 3855:Lake Ontario Ordnance Works 3360: 3246:Naval Ordnance Test Station 3038:. It was believed that the 2789:Special Engineer Detachment 2516:modulated neutron initiator 2231:technique with the help of 2088:Bell Telephone Laboratories 1872:, which was processed into 1857:Corporation's stockpile in 1735:Wabash River Ordnance Works 1542:Argonne National Laboratory 1340:Turner Construction Company 1209:Belgian Government in Exile 1082:New War Department Building 474:and delivered to President 322:, the project designed the 10: 16069: 15815:Nevada during World War II 15754:White Sands Proving Ground 15434:Naval bombardment of Japan 14802:First Battle of El Alamein 14721:Battle of Christmas Island 14666:Japanese invasion of Burma 14430:Italian invasion of Greece 14346:German invasion of Belgium 14318:German invasion of Denmark 14291:1939–1940 Winter Offensive 14160:Second Italo-Ethiopian War 12424:Comparative military ranks 11435:Atomic Heritage Foundation 10644:Williams, Mary H. (1960). 10506:Sullivan, Neil J. (2016). 10442:Sklar, Morty, ed. (1984). 10387:. Yardley, PA: Westholme. 10161:; Harris, Ruth R. (1997). 9997:Gilbert, Keith V. (1969). 9473:. 7 August 1945. p. 1 9016:"The Third Core's Revenge" 8992:. Manhattan Project Voices 5568:Johnson & Jackson 1981 5556:Johnson & Jackson 1981 5544:Johnson & Jackson 1981 5509:. ornl.gov. Archived from 5482:Johnson & Jackson 1981 5434:Johnson & Jackson 1981 5049:"Science:Atomic Footprint" 4290:(Senate Majority Leader), 3842: 3663:Cost (2023 USD, millions) 3660:Cost (1945 USD, millions) 3269:393rd Bombardment Squadron 3183: 3027: 3017:Soviet atomic bomb project 3005:Julius and Ethel Rosenberg 2970:Counter Intelligence Corps 2956: 2818: 2794:An associate professor of 2605: 2601: 2429:, who had experience with 2384: 2359:lanthanum fluoride process 2246: 2198: 2113: 2043: 1959: 1956:Electromagnetic separation 1896:became available in 1943. 1765: 1715: 1655: 1613: 1551: 1547: 1416: 1412: 1350: 1270: 1197:Combined Development Trust 1128: 1035:Tennessee Valley Authority 1009:, and his deputy, Colonel 775:nuclear reactor technology 732:electromagnetic separation 653:Chief of Staff of the Army 433:German atomic bomb project 399: 395: 362:White Sands Proving Ground 152:Allied occupation of Japan 142:Allied invasion of Germany 18: 15762: 15691: 15680: 15601: 15523: 15355:Bratislava–Brno offensive 15295: 15286:Dutch famine of 1944–1945 15023: 14910:Allied invasion of Sicily 14864: 14770:Aleutian Islands campaign 14742:Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign 14689: 14680:Greek famine of 1941–1944 14575:Second Battle of Changsha 14480:German invasion of Greece 14448: 14325:Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang 14300: 14238: 14133: 14014: 13740: 13650: 13498: 13201: 13192: 12950: 12775: 12667:North and Central Pacific 12628: 12390: 12383: 12310: 12256: 12146:Bismuth phosphate process 12141:Atomic Energy Act of 1946 12128: 12097: 12030: 11819: 11688: 11602: 11593: 11396:Resources in your library 10953:(3 and 4). Archived from 10670:Radiology in World War II 9773:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 9761:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 9749:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 9737:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 8711:. Office of the Historian 8299:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 8287:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 6542:Fine & Remington 1972 5632:Fine & Remington 1972 5494:Fine & Remington 1972 5115:Fine & Remington 1972 5036:Fine & Remington 1972 5009:Fine & Remington 1972 4961:Fine & Remington 1972 4302:(House Majority Leader), 4298:(House Minority Leader), 3943:Chief of Naval Operations 3838: 3833:Boeing B-29 Superfortress 3727:Research and development 3604:Atomic Energy Act of 1946 3576:Atomic Energy Act of 1946 3466:Soviet declaration of war 3387:Little Boy explodes over 3222:Boeing B-29 Superfortress 2930:The Saturday Evening Post 2363:bismuth phosphate process 1989:Alpha I racetrack at Y-12 1731:Morgantown, West Virginia 1169:Combined Policy Committee 1053:Military Policy Committee 1029:recommended sites around 994:, who became his deputy. 922:, and the possibility of 851:examined the problems of 833:fast neutron calculations 764:Naval Research Laboratory 596:Frisch–Peierls memorandum 392:(UNAEC) in January 1947. 193: 188: 165: 160: 137:Allied invasion of France 124: 116: 105: 95: 75: 67: 59: 37: 32: 16053:Secret military programs 15795:Escape from Fort Stanton 15729:Fort Sumner Army Aifield 15699:Alamogordo Army Airfield 14947:Allied invasion of Italy 14924:Solomon Islands campaign 14673:Third Battle of Changsha 14270:First Battle of Changsha 14176:Second Sino-Japanese War 13116:German military brothels 12982:United States war crimes 11170:The Road from Los Alamos 10696:(Winter/Spring): 142–151 10383:Phelps, Stephen (2010). 10180:Holloway, David (1994). 10132:Atomic Shield, 1947–1952 10094:The New World, 1939–1946 8902:. Hiroshimacommittee.org 8767:Gordin, Michael (2007). 8730:Gordin, Michael (2009). 7761:"The Eternal Apprentice" 4789:Serber & Rhodes 1992 4306:(Speaker of the House), 4045: 3510:William Sterling Parsons 3301:went in a special C-54. 3104:Chemical Warfare Service 2715: 2627:nuclear fission products 2622:Alamogordo Bombing Range 2526:and became known as the 2054:states that the rate of 1431:team that worked on the 1419:Metallurgical Laboratory 1380:Secretary of Agriculture 1167:, which established the 787:Metallurgical Laboratory 728:University of California 584:University of Birmingham 573:University of California 353:penetrated the program. 316:Metallurgical Laboratory 290:was developed that used 239:was the director of the 196:shoulder sleeve insignia 132:Allied invasion of Italy 15369:Second Guangxi campaign 15224:Philippines (1944–1945) 14728:Battle of the Coral Sea 14631:Fall of the Philippines 14277:Battle of South Guangxi 14183:Battles of Khalkhin Gol 13589:Italian Social Republic 12223:S-1 Executive Committee 12171:Einstein–Szilard letter 10776:Hansen, Chuck (1995b). 10295:Jones, Vincent (1985). 10212:Herzenberg, Caroline L. 9628:10.1093/envhis/12.3.552 7726:"J. Robert Oppenheimer" 7145:, pp. 226–229, 237 6677:, pp. 30–32, 96–98 5409:, pp. 90, 299–306. 4012:Oppenheimer (TV series) 3646: 3295:Douglas C-54 Skymasters 3261:Wendover Army Air Field 3210:444th Bombardment Group 3208:. The tail code of the 2978:Western Defense Command 2862:and his own autonomous 2858:. Groves relied on the 2812:National Safety Council 2765:War Manpower Commission 2564:plutonium-gallium alloy 2556:allotropes of plutonium 2401:gun-type fission weapon 2261:Aerial view of Hanford 1633:Trail, British Columbia 1564:Walter S. Carpenter Jr. 1514:to encase the reactor. 1508:Westinghouse Lamp Plant 1465:Argonne Forest preserve 1372:Los Alamos Ranch School 1368:Albuquerque, New Mexico 1224:after the war when the 981:North Atlantic Division 914:, a primitive form of " 881:experimental physicists 754:directed research into 578:In Britain, Frisch and 559:(OSRD), under director 465:nuclear chain reactions 453:Einstein–Szilard letter 272:gun-type fission weapon 16013:Explosives engineering 15714:Carlsbad Army Airfield 15692:Military installations 15654:Willard Varnell Oliver 14954:Armistice of Cassibile 14756:Battle of Dutch Harbor 14707:Battle of the Java Sea 14610:Attack on Pearl Harbor 14510:Syria–Lebanon campaign 14503:Battle of South Shanxi 14473:Invasion of Yugoslavia 14256:Battle of the Atlantic 13870:Korean Liberation Army 13583:(until September 1943) 13540:(until September 1944) 13518:(until September 1944) 11665:Salt Wells Pilot Plant 11316:Nichols, Kenneth David 11054:Thayer, Harry (1996). 10926:10.1353/tech.2012.0046 10914:Technology and Culture 10850:Westfall, Catherine L. 10469:Stacey, C. P. (1970). 9834:. Department of Energy 9055:International Security 8044:Lawrence Journal-World 7916:Lawrence Journal-World 6383:Ruhoff & Fain 1962 4539:, pp. 33–35, 183. 3990: 3874: 3796: 3583: 3513: 3425:another plutonium core 3398: 3393:Fat Man explodes over 3365:On 6 August 1945, the 3340:in Germany, President 3213: 3127:Soviet Occupation Zone 3075: 2909: 2847: 2828: 2780: 2752: 2722: 2661: 2637: 2608:Trinity (nuclear test) 2550: 2441: 2403:with plutonium called 2396: 2353: 2332:John Archibald Wheeler 2275:aluminum-silicon alloy 2266: 2249:Hanford Engineer Works 2210: 2147: 2078: 2017: 1990: 1921: 1836: 1792: 1770: 1747:Alabama Ordnance Works 1574: 1554:Hanford Engineer Works 1456: 1362: 1327:Clinton Engineer Works 1322:, angrily tore it up. 1294: 1283:Clinton Engineer Works 1273:Clinton Engineer Works 1263: 1188:, Rudolf Peierls, and 1174:Hyde Park Aide-Mémoire 1155: 1109:, including his wife, 1069: 1002: 849:University of Illinois 824: 712:attack on Pearl Harbor 707: 520:In February 1940, the 517: 478:. Roosevelt called on 470:They had it signed by 205: 15770:200th Coast Artillery 15749:Roswell Army Airfield 15674:Frank Tsosie Thompson 15659:J. Robert Oppenheimer 15118:Second Battle of Guam 15014:Bengal famine of 1943 14984:Second Battle of Kiev 14940:Battle of the Dnieper 14645:Battle of Wake Island 14517:East African campaign 14459:Battle of South Henan 14104:atrocities by Germans 13877:Korean Volunteer Army 12858:Occupation of Germany 12612:Music in World War II 12243:X-10 Graphite Reactor 12198:Nobel Prize laureates 12068:509th Composite Group 11286:Libby, Leona Marshall 9663:(26 September 1945). 9616:Environmental History 9136:on 10 September 2013. 7912:"1,000 were at Pasco" 5268:"The British Mission" 4020:- 1989 film starring 3985: 3896:national laboratories 3852: 3794: 3569: 3494:J. Robert Oppenheimer 3487: 3386: 3257:509th Composite Group 3198: 3098:. Under the codename 3069: 2907: 2864:G-2 intelligence unit 2842: 2826: 2778: 2750: 2651: 2635: 2544: 2494:, a potent source of 2439: 2394: 2350: 2336:nuclear cross section 2260: 2216:X-10 Graphite Reactor 2208: 2201:X-10 Graphite Reactor 2195:X-10 Graphite Reactor 2145: 2076: 2011: 1988: 1918: 1826: 1778: 1696:Northwest Territories 1572: 1500:Iowa State University 1443:in the front row and 1429:University of Chicago 1426: 1360: 1316:Governor of Tennessee 1280: 1261: 1149: 1060: 1000: 924:autocatalytic methods 829:J. Robert Oppenheimer 822: 740:Jesse Wakefield Beams 682: 500: 476:Franklin D. Roosevelt 378:national laboratories 324:X-10 Graphite Reactor 320:University of Chicago 241:Los Alamos Laboratory 237:J. Robert Oppenheimer 223:to produce the first 204: 15719:Deming Army Airfield 15709:Clovis Army Airfield 15404:Surrender of Germany 14882:Battle of West Hubei 14839:Guadalcanal campaign 14809:Battle of Stalingrad 14735:Battle of Madagascar 13509:Albania protectorate 13296:(formerly Swaziland) 13005:Wehrmacht war crimes 12821:Expulsion of Germans 12605:Art and World War II 12503:British contribution 12452:Governments in exile 12151:British contribution 12053:Operation Peppermint 12048:Operation Crossroads 11907:Maria Goeppert Mayer 11157:Participant accounts 10646:Chronology 1941–1945 10241:Hunner, Jon (2004). 9661:Laurence, William L. 9603:on 23 February 2017. 9050:Bernstein, Barton J. 8948:Hoddeson et al. 1993 8794:Hoddeson et al. 1993 8586:Hoddeson et al. 1993 8559:Hoddeson et al. 1993 8547:Hoddeson et al. 1993 8014:, pp. 43, 52–96 7663:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7651:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7639:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7627:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7615:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7439:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7427:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7415:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7403:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7367:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7307:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7295:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7266:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7254:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7239:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7215:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7203:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7191:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7155:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7143:Hoddeson et al. 1993 6594:"The Calutron Girls" 6395:Hoddeson et al. 1993 4825:Hoddeson et al. 1993 4801:Hoddeson et al. 1993 4765:Hoddeson et al. 1993 4448:physics.columbia.edu 4296:Joseph W. Martin Jr. 4265:by the style of his 4195:Christopher Columbus 4014:- 1980 TV miniseries 3951:nuclear-powered navy 3741:Government overhead 3592:Operation Crossroads 3546:plutonium extraction 3519:Army–Navy "E" Awards 3506:Robert Gordon Sproul 3488:Presentation of the 3416:and 60,000 injured. 3242:Muroc Army Air Field 3100:Operation Peppermint 3092:Dwight D. Eisenhower 3024:Foreign intelligence 2879:Office of Censorship 2834:compartmentalization 2675:McDonald Ranch House 2584:Lieutenant Commander 2520:Charles Allen Thomas 2334:then calculated the 2077:Oak Ridge K-25 plant 1935:uranium hexafluoride 1662:Chalk River, Ontario 1587:Richland, Washington 1287:Oak Ridge, Tennessee 1214:Henry Morgenthau Jr. 1150:Groves confers with 1031:Knoxville, Tennessee 1027:War Production Board 815:Bomb design concepts 742:'s team looked into 619:Berkeley, California 374:Operation Crossroads 334:into plutonium. The 235:. Nuclear physicist 110:Oak Ridge, Tennessee 15734:Hobbs Army Airfield 15494:Potsdam Declaration 15383:Italy (Spring 1945) 15146:Liberation of Paris 14603:Siege of Sevastopol 13621:(until August 1944) 13524:Wang Jingwei regime 13346:from September 1943 13306:from September 1944 13244:from September 1944 13104:Romanian war crimes 13095:Persecution of Jews 13081:Croatian war crimes 13051:Japanese war crimes 12865:Occupation of Japan 12814:First Indochina War 12526:Military production 12438:Declarations of war 11912:George Kistiakowsky 11867:Charles Critchfield 11499:(3). Archived from 11222:Goudsmit, Samuel A. 11125:1961Sci...134..161W 11101:2002physics...6076W 11033:Smyth, Henry DeWolf 10662:Technical histories 10358:How the War Was Won 10159:Hewlett, Richard G. 10089:Hewlett, Richard G. 9775:, pp. 252–253. 9715:, pp. 633–637. 9691:, pp. 204–205. 9507:(5 December 2011). 9444:, pp. 723–724. 9405:, pp. 394–398. 9329:, pp. 630, 646 9305:, pp. 216–217. 9293:, pp. 225–226. 9257:, pp. 592–593. 9188:, pp. 399–400. 9176:, pp. 107–115. 9115:, pp. 348–362. 9101:Home & Low 1993 9091:, pp. 886–889. 8935:, pp. 343–346. 8784:, pp. 315–319. 8698:, pp. 116–117. 8660:, pp. 530–532. 8636:, pp. 268–276. 8588:, pp. 386–388. 8576:, pp. 259–262. 8561:, pp. 380–381. 8549:, pp. 379–380. 8537:, pp. 333–340. 8525:, pp. 174–176. 8513:, pp. 289–290. 8489:, pp. 286–288. 8465:, pp. 283–285. 8453:, pp. 200–206. 8441:, pp. 194–196. 8381:, pp. 187–190. 8369:, pp. 191–192. 8342:, pp. 222–223. 8289:, pp. 312–314. 8277:, pp. 142–145. 8265:, pp. 261–265. 8253:, pp. 258–260. 8229:, pp. 263–264. 8217:, pp. 198–200. 8205:, pp. 253–255. 8181:, pp. 196–198. 8122:. Restricted Data. 7939:, pp. 349–350. 7834:(1 November 2013). 7809:, pp. 303–304. 7677:, pp. 514–517. 7546:, pp. 478–481. 7534:, pp. 318–319. 7480:, pp. 214–216. 7441:, pp. 245–249. 7381:, pp. 244–245. 7169:, pp. 312–313. 7133:, pp. 219–222. 7097:, pp. 214–216. 7085:, pp. 204–205. 7073:, pp. 184–185. 7034:, pp. 182–183. 7010:, pp. 220–223. 6998:, pp. 304–307. 6986:, pp. 216–217. 6950:, pp. 222–226. 6887:, pp. 208–210. 6875:, pp. 204–206. 6860:, pp. 130–132. 6833:, pp. 300–302. 6821:, pp. 180–183. 6809:, pp. 178–179. 6797:, pp. 170–172. 6785:, pp. 175–177. 6761:, pp. 161–162. 6749:, pp. 167–171. 6737:, pp. 158–165. 6725:, pp. 126–127. 6713:, pp. 154–157. 6701:, pp. 150–151. 6665:, pp. 143–148. 6629:, pp. 138–139. 6617:, pp. 126–132. 6532:, pp. 164–165. 6520:, pp. 117–119. 6421:, pp. 154–156. 6373:, pp. 291–292. 6361:, pp. 285–288. 6239:, pp. 201–202. 6227:, pp. 107–108. 6134:www.cnsc-ccsn.gc.ca 6118:, pp. 463–464. 6082:, pp. 452–457. 6058:, pp. 108–111. 5978:, pp. 195–196. 5932:, pp. 214–216. 5886:1981Sci...212.1369W 5880:(4501): 1369–1371. 5763:, pp. 230–232. 5680:, pp. 328–331. 5634:, pp. 664–665. 5597:, pp. 443–446. 5534:, pp. 327–328. 5496:, pp. 663–664. 5448:, pp. 116–117. 5436:, pp. 168–169. 5397:, pp. 223–224. 5361:, pp. 242–244. 5349:, pp. 340–342. 5311:, pp. 216–217. 5299:, pp. 168–173. 5225:, pp. 144–145. 5213:, pp. 206–208. 5117:, pp. 659–661. 5057:. 17 September 1945 4639:, pp. 372–374. 4627:, pp. 282–283. 4612:, pp. 126–128. 4573:, pp. 322–325. 4475:, pp. 337–338. 4444:"Fermi at Columbia" 4378:figures follow the 3805:discretionary funds 3755:Heavy water plants 3653: 3578:, establishing the 3490:Army–Navy "E" Award 3306:Battle of the Bulge 3135:Operation Harborage 3096:Walter Bedell Smith 3007:. Other spies like 2919:William L. Laurence 2917:to clear articles. 2620:, who selected the 2514:polonium-beryllium 2450:George Kistiakowsky 2295:Crawford Greenewalt 2224:hot dipping process 1818:Eldorado Gold Mines 1759:Ordnance Department 1670:Deep River, Ontario 1666:Montreal Laboratory 1616:Montreal Laboratory 1302:Robert P. Patterson 1117:; and his brother, 985:Stone & Webster 971:, selected Colonel 748:Columbia University 575:in February 1941. 526:Columbia University 514:Columbia University 274:and a more complex 194:Manhattan District 15893:History of science 15857:Nuclear technology 15800:Lordsburg Killings 15487:Surrender of Japan 15320:Battle of Iwo Jima 15169:Belgrade offensive 14582:Siege of Leningrad 14466:Battle of Shanggao 14395:British Somaliland 14360:Dunkirk evacuation 14311:Norwegian campaign 14249:Invasion of Poland 14076:Japanese prisoners 13044:Italian war crimes 12975:British war crimes 12890:Soviet occupations 12674:South-West Pacific 12561:Allied cooperation 12519:Military equipment 11977:Henry DeWolf Smyth 11756:Robert Oppenheimer 11711:Priscilla Duffield 11527:Nuclear Technology 11109:Weinberg, Alvin M. 10694:Los Alamos Science 9669:The New York Times 9647:The New York Times 9130:Air Force Magazine 9014:(16 August 2013). 8950:, pp. 396–397 8857:on 31 January 2012 8796:, pp. 392–393 8318:The New York Times 8151:The New York Times 7665:, pp. 372–374 7653:, pp. 367–370 7641:, pp. 365–367 7629:, pp. 174–175 7617:, pp. 360–362 7429:, pp. 330–331 7393:, pp. 144–145 7369:, pp. 308–310 7309:, pp. 148–154 7297:, pp. 301–307 7256:, pp. 294–296 7217:, pp. 245–248 7205:, pp. 130–131 7193:, pp. 129–130 7157:, pp. 242–244 5813:on 26 October 2014 5272:Los Alamos Science 4913:The New York Times 4896:, pp. xi, 30. 4550:"Past Chancellors" 4027:Oppenheimer (film) 3884:The New York Times 3875: 3797: 3651: 3584: 3514: 3447:Henry DeWolf Smyth 3409:Charles W. Sweeney 3399: 3338:Potsdam Conference 3214: 3084:Operation Overlord 3080:University of Rome 3076: 2924:The New York Times 2910: 2829: 2804:Stafford L. Warren 2781: 2753: 2737:Potsdam Conference 2662: 2638: 2618:Kenneth Bainbridge 2551: 2500:ionization chamber 2442: 2397: 2354: 2343:Separation process 2267: 2211: 2148: 2137:William S. Parsons 2079: 2018: 1991: 1922: 1910:uranium enrichment 1900:Isotope separation 1882:Iowa State College 1837: 1793: 1755:Sylacauga, Alabama 1575: 1526:Arthur V. Peterson 1457: 1363: 1295: 1264: 1156: 1113:; his girlfriend, 1089:William R. Purnell 1070: 1003: 989:Lieutenant Colonel 965:Chief of Engineers 959:Manhattan District 825: 724:isotope separation 708: 685:Ernest O. Lawrence 660:George C. Marshall 623:Ernest O. Lawrence 592:order of magnitude 518: 296:uranium enrichment 245:Manhattan District 206: 33:Manhattan District 15988:Manhattan Project 15913:Manhattan Project 15838: 15837: 15805:Manhattan Project 15561: 15560: 15519: 15518: 15362:Battle of Okinawa 15261:Burma (1944–1945) 15095:Mariana and Palau 14875:Tunisian campaign 14700:Fall of Singapore 14624:Fall of Hong Kong 14367:Battle of Britain 14220:Operation Himmler 14129: 14128: 13793:Dutch East Indies 13436:Southern Rhodesia 13188: 13187: 13088:Genocide of Serbs 12991:German war crimes 12968:Soviet war crimes 12961:Allied war crimes 12807:Division of Korea 12786:Chinese Civil War 12584:Strategic bombing 12496:Manhattan Project 12270: 12269: 12192:Los Alamos Primer 12181:Interim Committee 12136:African Americans 12088:The Great Artiste 11947:Isidor Isaac Rabi 11942:Norman Ramsey Jr. 11741:Franklin Matthias 11680:Heavy water sites 11587:Manhattan Project 11533:(sup1): S24–S61. 11387:Manhattan Project 11382:Library resources 11359:978-0-395-17121-9 11119:(3473): 161–164. 11065:978-0-7844-0160-6 11026:Wikimedia Commons 11011:978-0-520-07576-4 10867:978-0-521-44132-2 10846:Hoddeson, Lillian 10826:978-0-938228-08-0 10787:978-0-9791915-0-3 10760:978-0-9791915-1-0 10720:978-0-88736-267-5 10628:978-0-226-02038-9 10615:Wellerstein, Alex 10598:978-0-520-26045-0 10585:Walker, J. Samuel 10523:978-1-61234-815-5 10453:978-0-930370-16-9 10394:978-1-59416-116-2 10367:978-1-107-01475-6 10252:978-0-8061-3891-6 10172:978-0-252-02341-5 9751:, pp. 72–74. 9739:, pp. 74–76. 9703:, pp. 59–60. 9563:, pp. 47–48. 9511:. Restricted Data 9505:Wellerstein, Alex 9456:, pp. 34–35. 9429:, pp. 55–57. 9390:978-1-55750-919-2 9018:. Restricted Data 9012:Wellerstein, Alex 8812:(4 August 2020). 8810:Wellerstein, Alex 8600:, pp. 39–40. 8477:, pp. 70–71. 8193:, pp. 76–79. 7838:. Restricted Data 7832:Wellerstein, Alex 7769:. 8 November 1948 7586:978-1-4766-3381-7 7468:, pp. 95–98. 6926:, pp. 78–82. 6481:, pp. 96–97. 6445:, pp. 22–23. 6409:, pp. 87–88. 6296:, pp. 85–86. 6215:, pp. 8, 62. 6043:, pp. 68–69. 6031:, pp. 58–59. 5787:, pp. 67–71. 5775:, pp. 58–61. 5739:, pp. 31–32. 5668:, pp. 66–67. 5622:, pp. 83–84. 5570:, pp. 14–17. 5513:on 25 August 2009 5484:, pp. 39–43. 5460:, pp. 25–26. 5201:, pp. 72–73. 5189:, pp. 61–63. 5165:, pp. 80–82. 5153:, pp. 22–23. 5141:, pp. 44–45. 5129:, pp. 27–28. 5093:, pp. 74–77. 5023:, pp. 57–61. 4999:, pp. 76–78. 4951:, pp. 86–87. 4939:, pp. 41–44. 4728:, pp. 35–36. 4704:, pp. 37–39. 4663:, pp. 30–32. 4651:, pp. 43–44. 4600:, pp. 39–40. 4512:, pp. 40–41. 4409:, pp. 16–20. 4300:John W. McCormack 4031:Christopher Nolan 3947:Hyman G. Rickover 3785: 3784: 3629:nuclear arms race 3330:Interim Committee 3166:Werner Heisenberg 3088:Normandy landings 2730: 2729: 2682:energy equivalent 2643:fizzled explosion 2316:neutron poisoning 2226:without success. 2110:Thermal diffusion 2040:Gaseous diffusion 2026:Tennessee Eastman 1712:Heavy water sites 1579:Franklin Matthias 1383:Claude R. Wickard 1007:Thomas M. Robbins 973:James C. Marshall 920:Richard C. Tolman 875:, Robert Serber, 871:, Edward Teller, 799:Brigadier General 795:neutron moderator 756:thermal diffusion 744:gaseous diffusion 689:Arthur H. Compton 664:Winston Churchill 631:Arthur H. Compton 217:Manhattan Project 210: 209: 175:James C. Marshall 16060: 15973: 15965: 15964: 15963: 15956: 15948: 15947: 15946: 15939: 15931: 15930: 15929: 15919: 15903: 15902: 15891: 15890: 15889: 15879: 15878: 15867: 15866: 15865: 15855: 15854: 15853: 15846: 15775:American Theater 15686: 15588: 15581: 15574: 15565: 15564: 15554: 15547: 15540: 15537:World portal 15535: 15534: 15510: 15503: 15496: 15489: 15480: 15473: 15466: 15457: 15450: 15443: 15436: 15429: 15422: 15413: 15406: 15399: 15397:Prague offensive 15392: 15390:Battle of Berlin 15385: 15378: 15371: 15364: 15357: 15350: 15343: 15336: 15334:Vienna offensive 15329: 15322: 15315: 15313:Battle of Manila 15308: 15288: 15279: 15270: 15263: 15254: 15247: 15240: 15233: 15226: 15219: 15212: 15203: 15194: 15187: 15178: 15171: 15164: 15157: 15148: 15141: 15134: 15127: 15120: 15113: 15106: 15097: 15090: 15081: 15072: 15063: 15056: 15054:Korsun–Cherkassy 15049: 15038: 15016: 15007: 15000: 14993: 14986: 14979: 14972: 14965: 14956: 14949: 14942: 14935: 14926: 14919: 14912: 14905: 14898: 14896:Bombing of Gorky 14891: 14884: 14877: 14857: 14850: 14841: 14834: 14827: 14818: 14811: 14804: 14797: 14786: 14779: 14772: 14765: 14763:Battle of Midway 14758: 14751: 14749:Battle of Gazala 14744: 14737: 14730: 14723: 14716: 14709: 14702: 14682: 14675: 14668: 14661: 14659:Battle of Borneo 14654: 14652:Malayan campaign 14647: 14640: 14633: 14626: 14619: 14612: 14605: 14598: 14596:Bombing of Gorky 14591: 14589:Battle of Moscow 14584: 14577: 14570: 14563: 14556: 14549: 14533: 14526: 14519: 14512: 14505: 14498: 14489: 14482: 14475: 14468: 14461: 14441: 14432: 14425: 14418: 14411: 14404: 14397: 14390: 14383: 14376: 14369: 14362: 14355: 14353:Battle of France 14348: 14341: 14334: 14327: 14320: 14313: 14293: 14286: 14279: 14272: 14265: 14258: 14251: 14229: 14222: 14215: 14208: 14206:Munich Agreement 14201: 14194: 14185: 14178: 14171: 14162: 14155: 14140: 14139: 14122: 14115: 14106: 14099: 14092: 14091:Soviet prisoners 14085: 14078: 14071: 14062: 14055: 14046: 14039: 14032: 14031:German prisoners 14027: 14007: 13998: 13991: 13984: 13979: 13972: 13965: 13958: 13951: 13944: 13937: 13930: 13923: 13916: 13909: 13902: 13895: 13888: 13879: 13872: 13865: 13858: 13851: 13844: 13837: 13830: 13823: 13816: 13809: 13802: 13795: 13788: 13781: 13774: 13767: 13760: 13753: 13733: 13726: 13719: 13712: 13705: 13698: 13691: 13684: 13677: 13670: 13663: 13643: 13636: 13629: 13622: 13614: 13607: 13600: 13591: 13584: 13576: 13569: 13567:French Indochina 13562: 13555: 13548: 13541: 13533: 13526: 13519: 13511: 13491: 13482: 13475: 13466: 13459: 13452: 13445: 13438: 13431: 13424: 13417: 13414:from August 1944 13405: 13398: 13391: 13384: 13377: 13370: 13363: 13356: 13349: 13337: 13330: 13323: 13316: 13309: 13297: 13289: 13282: 13275: 13268: 13261: 13254: 13247: 13235: 13228: 13221: 13214: 13199: 13198: 13179: 13172: 13165: 13158: 13151: 13140: 13125: 13118: 13111: 13106: 13097: 13090: 13083: 13074: 13067: 13060: 13058:Nanjing Massacre 13053: 13046: 13037: 13035:Nuremberg trials 13028: 13021: 13014: 13007: 13000: 12993: 12984: 12977: 12970: 12963: 12943: 12936: 12929: 12920: 12913: 12906: 12899: 12892: 12885: 12876: 12867: 12860: 12853: 12846: 12837: 12830: 12823: 12816: 12809: 12802: 12795: 12788: 12768: 12759: 12752: 12745: 12736: 12729: 12722: 12715: 12706: 12699: 12692: 12683: 12676: 12669: 12662: 12655: 12648: 12641: 12639:Asia and Pacific 12621: 12614: 12607: 12600: 12593: 12586: 12579: 12570: 12568:Mulberry harbour 12563: 12556: 12549: 12542: 12535: 12528: 12521: 12514: 12505: 12498: 12491: 12482: 12475: 12468: 12461: 12454: 12447: 12440: 12433: 12426: 12419: 12410: 12403: 12388: 12387: 12376: 12369: 12360: 12353: 12346: 12339: 12332: 12325: 12318: 12297: 12290: 12283: 12274: 12273: 12262: 12261: 12213:Quebec Agreement 11997:John von Neumann 11937:George B. Pegram 11746:Dorothy McKibbin 11580: 11573: 11566: 11557: 11556: 11552: 11542: 11512: 11510: 11508: 11481: 11479: 11477: 11461: 11459: 11457: 11445: 11443: 11441: 11426: 11424: 11422: 11371: 11341: 11311: 11281: 11261: 11247: 11217: 11207: 11193: 11173: 11152: 11104: 11094: 11077: 11050: 11023: 10985: 10983: 10981: 10966: 10964: 10962: 10957:on 30 March 2015 10937: 10908: 10879: 10859: 10841: 10810: 10799: 10772: 10742: 10724: 10705: 10703: 10701: 10691: 10681: 10657: 10640: 10610: 10580: 10578: 10576: 10550: 10538: 10527: 10502: 10500: 10498: 10492: 10486:. Archived from 10477: 10465: 10438: 10406: 10379: 10352: 10320: 10318: 10316: 10303: 10291: 10264: 10237: 10203: 10176: 10153: 10126: 10124: 10122: 10099: 10084: 10067: 10052:Gowing, Margaret 10047: 10030: 10028: 10026: 10021:on 12 April 2019 10020: 10014:. Archived from 10005: 9993: 9964: 9962: 9960: 9947: 9935: 9923: 9909: 9882: 9844: 9843: 9841: 9839: 9828: 9822: 9816: 9810: 9809: 9807: 9805: 9794: 9788: 9782: 9776: 9770: 9764: 9758: 9752: 9746: 9740: 9734: 9728: 9722: 9716: 9710: 9704: 9698: 9692: 9686: 9680: 9679: 9677: 9675: 9657: 9651: 9650: 9638: 9632: 9631: 9611: 9605: 9604: 9602: 9595: 9587: 9581: 9580: 9578: 9570: 9564: 9558: 9552: 9551: 9542: 9536: 9535:, pp. 77–82 9533:Wellerstein 2021 9530: 9521: 9520: 9518: 9516: 9501: 9495: 9489: 9483: 9482: 9480: 9478: 9471:Edmonton Journal 9463: 9457: 9451: 9445: 9439: 9430: 9424: 9418: 9412: 9406: 9400: 9394: 9393: 9382: 9372: 9366: 9360: 9354: 9348: 9342: 9336: 9330: 9324: 9318: 9312: 9306: 9300: 9294: 9288: 9282: 9281:, p. V-152. 9276: 9270: 9264: 9258: 9252: 9243: 9237: 9231: 9225: 9219: 9218: 9216: 9214: 9205:. Archived from 9195: 9189: 9183: 9177: 9171: 9165: 9164: 9162: 9160: 9144: 9138: 9137: 9122: 9116: 9110: 9104: 9098: 9092: 9086: 9080: 9079: 9046: 9040: 9034: 9028: 9027: 9025: 9023: 9008: 9002: 9001: 8999: 8997: 8986: 8980: 8979: 8977: 8975: 8965: 8957: 8951: 8945: 8936: 8930: 8924: 8923:, pp. 22–29 8918: 8912: 8911: 8909: 8907: 8896: 8890: 8889: 8887: 8885: 8876:Buttry, Daniel. 8873: 8867: 8866: 8864: 8862: 8856: 8843: 8835: 8829: 8828: 8826: 8824: 8806: 8797: 8791: 8785: 8779: 8773: 8772: 8764: 8758: 8757: 8755: 8753: 8742: 8736: 8735: 8727: 8721: 8720: 8718: 8716: 8705: 8699: 8693: 8687: 8686: 8684: 8682: 8667: 8661: 8655: 8649: 8643: 8637: 8631: 8625: 8619: 8613: 8607: 8601: 8595: 8589: 8583: 8577: 8571: 8562: 8556: 8550: 8544: 8538: 8532: 8526: 8520: 8514: 8508: 8502: 8496: 8490: 8484: 8478: 8472: 8466: 8460: 8454: 8448: 8442: 8436: 8430: 8424: 8418: 8412: 8406: 8400: 8394: 8388: 8382: 8376: 8370: 8364: 8358: 8357: 8349: 8343: 8337: 8331: 8330: 8328: 8326: 8308: 8302: 8296: 8290: 8284: 8278: 8272: 8266: 8260: 8254: 8248: 8242: 8236: 8230: 8224: 8218: 8212: 8206: 8200: 8194: 8188: 8182: 8176: 8170: 8169: 8167: 8165: 8142: 8136: 8135: 8133: 8131: 8115: 8109: 8108: 8106: 8104: 8089: 8083: 8082: 8080: 8078: 8073:. pp. 2, 91 8062: 8056: 8055: 8053: 8051: 8036: 8027: 8021: 8015: 8012:Wellerstein 2021 8009: 8000: 7994: 7988: 7982: 7976: 7970: 7964: 7958: 7952: 7946: 7940: 7934: 7928: 7927: 7925: 7923: 7908: 7902: 7896: 7890: 7876: 7870: 7869: 7867: 7865: 7860:. Nuclear Museum 7854: 7848: 7847: 7845: 7843: 7828: 7822: 7816: 7810: 7804: 7798: 7797: 7785: 7779: 7778: 7776: 7774: 7757: 7751: 7750: 7748: 7746: 7722:Barnett, Lincoln 7718: 7712: 7711: 7709: 7707: 7696: 7690: 7684: 7678: 7672: 7666: 7660: 7654: 7648: 7642: 7636: 7630: 7624: 7618: 7612: 7606: 7600: 7591: 7590: 7570: 7564: 7563: 7553: 7547: 7541: 7535: 7529: 7523: 7517: 7511: 7510: 7508: 7506: 7487: 7481: 7475: 7469: 7463: 7457: 7451: 7442: 7436: 7430: 7424: 7418: 7412: 7406: 7400: 7394: 7388: 7382: 7376: 7370: 7364: 7358: 7352: 7346: 7340: 7334: 7333:, p. I-298. 7328: 7322: 7316: 7310: 7304: 7298: 7292: 7286: 7285:, p. V-123. 7280: 7269: 7263: 7257: 7251: 7242: 7236: 7230: 7224: 7218: 7212: 7206: 7200: 7194: 7188: 7182: 7176: 7170: 7164: 7158: 7152: 7146: 7140: 7134: 7128: 7122: 7116: 7110: 7104: 7098: 7092: 7086: 7080: 7074: 7068: 7062: 7056: 7047: 7041: 7035: 7029: 7023: 7017: 7011: 7005: 6999: 6993: 6987: 6981: 6975: 6969: 6963: 6957: 6951: 6945: 6939: 6933: 6927: 6921: 6915: 6909: 6900: 6894: 6888: 6882: 6876: 6870: 6861: 6855: 6846: 6845:, p. V-112. 6840: 6834: 6828: 6822: 6816: 6810: 6804: 6798: 6792: 6786: 6780: 6774: 6768: 6762: 6756: 6750: 6744: 6738: 6732: 6726: 6720: 6714: 6708: 6702: 6696: 6690: 6684: 6678: 6672: 6666: 6660: 6654: 6648: 6642: 6636: 6630: 6624: 6618: 6612: 6606: 6605: 6603: 6601: 6590: 6584: 6578: 6572: 6566: 6557: 6551: 6545: 6539: 6533: 6527: 6521: 6515: 6506: 6500: 6494: 6488: 6482: 6476: 6470: 6464: 6458: 6452: 6446: 6440: 6434: 6428: 6422: 6416: 6410: 6404: 6398: 6392: 6386: 6380: 6374: 6368: 6362: 6356: 6350: 6344: 6338: 6336: 6327: 6321: 6315: 6309: 6303: 6297: 6291: 6285: 6279: 6270: 6264: 6258: 6252: 6246: 6240: 6234: 6228: 6222: 6216: 6210: 6204: 6203: 6202:on 6 March 2014. 6192: 6186: 6180: 6171: 6170: 6168: 6166: 6151: 6145: 6144: 6142: 6140: 6125: 6119: 6113: 6107: 6101: 6095: 6089: 6083: 6077: 6071: 6065: 6059: 6053: 6044: 6038: 6032: 6026: 6020: 6019: 5997: 5991: 5985: 5979: 5973: 5967: 5961: 5955: 5954: 5952: 5950: 5939: 5933: 5927: 5921: 5920: 5918: 5916: 5871: 5862: 5856: 5855: 5837: 5829: 5823: 5822: 5820: 5818: 5812: 5806:. Archived from 5805: 5797: 5788: 5782: 5776: 5770: 5764: 5758: 5752: 5746: 5740: 5734: 5728: 5727: 5725: 5723: 5712: 5706: 5705: 5703: 5701: 5695: 5687: 5681: 5675: 5669: 5663: 5657: 5656: 5654: 5652: 5641: 5635: 5629: 5623: 5617: 5611: 5604: 5598: 5592: 5583: 5577: 5571: 5565: 5559: 5553: 5547: 5541: 5535: 5529: 5523: 5522: 5520: 5518: 5503: 5497: 5491: 5485: 5479: 5473: 5467: 5461: 5455: 5449: 5443: 5437: 5431: 5422: 5416: 5410: 5404: 5398: 5392: 5386: 5380: 5374: 5368: 5362: 5356: 5350: 5344: 5338: 5337: 5330: 5324: 5318: 5312: 5306: 5300: 5294: 5288: 5282: 5276: 5275: 5263: 5250: 5244: 5238: 5232: 5226: 5220: 5214: 5208: 5202: 5196: 5190: 5184: 5178: 5172: 5166: 5160: 5154: 5148: 5142: 5136: 5130: 5124: 5118: 5112: 5106: 5100: 5094: 5088: 5079: 5073: 5067: 5066: 5064: 5062: 5045: 5039: 5033: 5024: 5018: 5012: 5006: 5000: 4994: 4988: 4982: 4976: 4970: 4964: 4958: 4952: 4946: 4940: 4934: 4925: 4924: 4922: 4920: 4903: 4897: 4891: 4885: 4884: 4882: 4880: 4874: 4862:Konopinski, E. J 4858: 4852: 4846: 4840: 4834: 4828: 4827:, pp. 44–45 4822: 4816: 4810: 4804: 4803:, pp. 54–56 4798: 4792: 4786: 4780: 4774: 4768: 4767:, pp. 42–44 4762: 4753: 4747: 4741: 4735: 4729: 4723: 4717: 4711: 4705: 4699: 4688: 4682: 4676: 4670: 4664: 4658: 4652: 4646: 4640: 4634: 4628: 4622: 4613: 4607: 4601: 4595: 4589: 4583: 4574: 4568: 4562: 4561: 4559: 4557: 4546: 4540: 4534: 4525: 4519: 4513: 4507: 4498: 4497: 4495: 4493: 4482: 4476: 4470: 4464: 4463: 4461: 4459: 4450:. Archived from 4440: 4434: 4428: 4422: 4416: 4410: 4404: 4395: 4389: 4383: 4373: 4371: 4369: 4352: 4335: 4312:Wallace H. White 4288:Alben W. Barkley 4284: 4278: 4258: 4252: 4241: 4235: 4232: 4226: 4214: 4208: 4204: 4198: 4191: 4185: 4179: 4173: 4158: 4152: 4150: 4149: 4148: 4141: 4140: 4131: 4130: 4129: 4122: 4121: 4112: 4111: 4110: 4103: 4102: 4093: 4092: 4091: 4084: 4083: 4073: 4067: 4056: 3966:nuclear medicine 3955:nuclear aircraft 3879:William Laurence 3817:Truman Committee 3654: 3650: 3474:Szilárd petition 3432:Henry A. Wallace 3373:2nd General Army 3053:George V. Strong 3001:David Greenglass 2982:Haakon Chevalier 2891: 2712: 2524:Monsanto Company 2454:explosive lenses 2427:John von Neumann 2423:Seth Neddermeyer 2328:Donald J. Hughes 2310:Fermi contacted 2243:Hanford reactors 2233:General Electric 2189:fission products 1874:uranium trioxide 1859:Uravan, Colorado 1831:reaction of the 1806:State Department 1743:Newport, Indiana 1624:British Columbia 1407:Dorothy McKibbin 1238: 1190:Ernest Titterton 1165:Quebec Agreement 967:, Major General 802:Wilhelm D. Styer 705:Alfred L. Loomis 649:Henry L. Stimson 646:Secretary of War 642:Henry A. Wallace 635:George B. Pegram 542:nuclear reactors 463:and others into 417:Fritz Strassmann 265:fissile material 42: 30: 29: 16068: 16067: 16063: 16062: 16061: 16059: 16058: 16057: 15978: 15977: 15976: 15966: 15961: 15959: 15949: 15944: 15942: 15932: 15927: 15925: 15922: 15918:sister projects 15915:at Knowledge's 15909: 15897: 15887: 15885: 15873: 15863: 15861: 15851: 15849: 15841: 15839: 15834: 15758: 15687: 15678: 15669:Emilio G. Segrè 15664:Merril Sandoval 15619:John J. Dempsey 15597: 15592: 15562: 15557: 15550: 15543: 15529: 15527: 15515: 15506: 15499: 15492: 15485: 15476: 15469: 15462: 15453: 15448:Atomic bombings 15446: 15439: 15432: 15425: 15418: 15409: 15402: 15395: 15388: 15381: 15374: 15367: 15360: 15353: 15346: 15339: 15332: 15325: 15318: 15311: 15304: 15291: 15284: 15273: 15266: 15259: 15250: 15243: 15236: 15229: 15222: 15215: 15206: 15197: 15190: 15181: 15174: 15167: 15160: 15151: 15144: 15139:Eastern Romania 15137: 15132:Warsaw Uprising 15130: 15125:Tannenberg Line 15123: 15116: 15111:Western Ukraine 15109: 15100: 15093: 15084: 15075: 15066: 15059: 15052: 15041: 15032: 15019: 15012: 15003: 14996: 14989: 14982: 14975: 14968: 14961: 14952: 14945: 14938: 14929: 14922: 14915: 14908: 14903:Battle of Kursk 14901: 14894: 14887: 14880: 14873: 14860: 14853: 14844: 14837: 14830: 14821: 14814: 14807: 14800: 14791: 14782: 14775: 14768: 14761: 14754: 14747: 14740: 14733: 14726: 14719: 14714:St Nazaire Raid 14712: 14705: 14698: 14685: 14678: 14671: 14664: 14657: 14650: 14643: 14636: 14629: 14622: 14615: 14608: 14601: 14594: 14587: 14580: 14573: 14566: 14559: 14552: 14538: 14529: 14522: 14515: 14508: 14501: 14496:Anglo-Iraqi War 14494: 14487:Battle of Crete 14485: 14478: 14471: 14464: 14457: 14444: 14435: 14428: 14421: 14416:Eastern Romania 14414: 14407: 14400: 14393: 14386: 14379: 14372: 14365: 14358: 14351: 14344: 14337: 14330: 14323: 14316: 14309: 14296: 14289: 14282: 14275: 14268: 14261: 14254: 14247: 14234: 14225: 14218: 14211: 14204: 14197: 14190: 14181: 14174: 14167: 14158: 14151: 14125: 14118: 14111: 14102: 14095: 14090: 14081: 14074: 14067: 14058: 14051: 14042: 14035: 14030: 14023: 14010: 14003: 13994: 13987: 13982: 13977:Western Ukraine 13975: 13968: 13961: 13954: 13947: 13940: 13933: 13926: 13921:Northeast China 13919: 13912: 13905: 13898: 13891: 13884: 13875: 13868: 13861: 13854: 13847: 13840: 13833: 13826: 13819: 13812: 13805: 13798: 13791: 13784: 13777: 13770: 13763: 13756: 13749: 13736: 13729: 13722: 13715: 13708: 13701: 13694: 13687: 13680: 13673: 13666: 13659: 13646: 13639: 13632: 13627:Slovak Republic 13625: 13617: 13610: 13603: 13598:Empire of Japan 13596: 13587: 13579: 13572: 13565: 13558: 13551: 13544: 13536: 13529: 13522: 13514: 13507: 13494: 13487: 13478: 13471: 13462: 13455: 13448: 13441: 13434: 13427: 13420: 13408: 13401: 13394: 13387: 13380: 13373: 13366: 13359: 13352: 13340: 13333: 13326: 13319: 13312: 13300: 13292: 13285: 13278: 13271: 13264: 13257: 13250: 13238: 13231: 13224: 13217: 13210: 13184: 13175: 13168: 13161: 13154: 13143: 13128: 13121: 13114: 13110:Sexual violence 13109: 13102: 13093: 13086: 13079: 13070: 13063: 13056: 13049: 13042: 13033: 13024: 13017: 13010: 13003: 12996: 12989: 12980: 12973: 12966: 12959: 12946: 12939: 12932: 12925: 12916: 12909: 12902: 12895: 12888: 12879: 12870: 12863: 12856: 12849: 12840: 12833: 12828:Greek Civil War 12826: 12819: 12812: 12805: 12798: 12791: 12784: 12771: 12764: 12755: 12748: 12741: 12732: 12725: 12718: 12711: 12702: 12695: 12688: 12679: 12672: 12665: 12658: 12653:South-East Asia 12651: 12644: 12637: 12624: 12617: 12610: 12603: 12596: 12589: 12582: 12575: 12566: 12559: 12552: 12545: 12538: 12531: 12524: 12517: 12512:Military awards 12510: 12501: 12494: 12487: 12478: 12471: 12464: 12457: 12450: 12443: 12436: 12429: 12422: 12415: 12406: 12399: 12379: 12372: 12365: 12356: 12349: 12342: 12337: 12328: 12321: 12314: 12306: 12301: 12271: 12266: 12252: 12218:RaLa Experiment 12124: 12093: 12058:Project Alberta 12026: 12022:Chien-Shiung Wu 11952:James Rainwater 11887:Richard Feynman 11877:John R. Dunning 11852:Norris Bradbury 11815: 11801:Stafford Warren 11771:William Purnell 11751:Kenneth Nichols 11731:Ernest Lawrence 11706:James B. Conant 11684: 11598: 11589: 11584: 11524: 11506: 11504: 11484: 11475: 11473: 11465: 11455: 11453: 11448: 11439: 11437: 11429: 11420: 11418: 11410: 11407: 11406: 11405: 11390: 11389: 11385: 11378: 11360: 11330: 11300: 11270: 11236: 11198:Compton, Arthur 11182: 11159: 11092:physics/0206076 11066: 11012: 10994:Rhodes, Richard 10979: 10977: 10970:Sandia (1967). 10960: 10958: 10868: 10827: 10817:10.2172/1087645 10788: 10761: 10721: 10699: 10697: 10689: 10664: 10629: 10599: 10574: 10572: 10547: 10524: 10496: 10494: 10493:on 20 June 2019 10490: 10475: 10454: 10427: 10411:Rhodes, Richard 10395: 10368: 10341: 10314: 10312: 10301: 10280: 10253: 10226: 10192: 10173: 10157:Holl, Jack M.; 10142: 10120: 10118: 10108: 10097: 10024: 10022: 10018: 10003: 9958: 9956: 9945: 9932: 9898: 9853: 9848: 9847: 9837: 9835: 9830: 9829: 9825: 9817: 9813: 9803: 9801: 9795: 9791: 9783: 9779: 9771: 9767: 9759: 9755: 9747: 9743: 9735: 9731: 9723: 9719: 9711: 9707: 9699: 9695: 9687: 9683: 9673: 9671: 9658: 9654: 9639: 9635: 9612: 9608: 9600: 9593: 9589: 9588: 9584: 9576: 9572: 9571: 9567: 9559: 9555: 9544: 9543: 9539: 9531: 9524: 9514: 9512: 9502: 9498: 9490: 9486: 9476: 9474: 9465: 9464: 9460: 9452: 9448: 9440: 9433: 9425: 9421: 9413: 9409: 9401: 9397: 9391: 9373: 9369: 9361: 9357: 9349: 9345: 9337: 9333: 9325: 9321: 9313: 9309: 9301: 9297: 9289: 9285: 9277: 9273: 9265: 9261: 9253: 9246: 9238: 9234: 9226: 9222: 9212: 9210: 9197: 9196: 9192: 9184: 9180: 9172: 9168: 9158: 9156: 9145: 9141: 9124: 9123: 9119: 9111: 9107: 9099: 9095: 9087: 9083: 9047: 9043: 9035: 9031: 9021: 9019: 9009: 9005: 8995: 8993: 8988: 8987: 8983: 8973: 8971: 8963: 8959: 8958: 8954: 8946: 8939: 8931: 8927: 8919: 8915: 8905: 8903: 8898: 8897: 8893: 8883: 8881: 8874: 8870: 8860: 8858: 8854: 8841: 8837: 8836: 8832: 8822: 8820: 8807: 8800: 8792: 8788: 8780: 8776: 8765: 8761: 8751: 8749: 8744: 8743: 8739: 8728: 8724: 8714: 8712: 8707: 8706: 8702: 8694: 8690: 8680: 8678: 8669: 8668: 8664: 8656: 8652: 8644: 8640: 8632: 8628: 8620: 8616: 8608: 8604: 8596: 8592: 8584: 8580: 8572: 8565: 8557: 8553: 8545: 8541: 8533: 8529: 8521: 8517: 8509: 8505: 8497: 8493: 8485: 8481: 8473: 8469: 8461: 8457: 8449: 8445: 8437: 8433: 8425: 8421: 8413: 8409: 8401: 8397: 8389: 8385: 8377: 8373: 8365: 8361: 8350: 8346: 8338: 8334: 8324: 8322: 8309: 8305: 8297: 8293: 8285: 8281: 8273: 8269: 8261: 8257: 8249: 8245: 8237: 8233: 8225: 8221: 8213: 8209: 8201: 8197: 8189: 8185: 8177: 8173: 8163: 8161: 8143: 8139: 8129: 8127: 8116: 8112: 8102: 8100: 8091: 8090: 8086: 8076: 8074: 8063: 8059: 8049: 8047: 8038: 8037: 8030: 8022: 8018: 8010: 8003: 7995: 7991: 7983: 7979: 7971: 7967: 7959: 7955: 7947: 7943: 7935: 7931: 7921: 7919: 7910: 7909: 7905: 7897: 7893: 7877: 7873: 7863: 7861: 7856: 7855: 7851: 7841: 7839: 7829: 7825: 7817: 7813: 7805: 7801: 7786: 7782: 7772: 7770: 7759: 7758: 7754: 7744: 7742: 7734:. p. 133. 7719: 7715: 7705: 7703: 7698: 7697: 7693: 7685: 7681: 7673: 7669: 7661: 7657: 7649: 7645: 7637: 7633: 7625: 7621: 7613: 7609: 7601: 7594: 7587: 7571: 7567: 7554: 7550: 7542: 7538: 7530: 7526: 7518: 7514: 7504: 7502: 7489: 7488: 7484: 7476: 7472: 7464: 7460: 7452: 7445: 7437: 7433: 7425: 7421: 7413: 7409: 7401: 7397: 7389: 7385: 7377: 7373: 7365: 7361: 7357:, pp. 3–4. 7353: 7349: 7341: 7337: 7329: 7325: 7317: 7313: 7305: 7301: 7293: 7289: 7281: 7272: 7264: 7260: 7252: 7245: 7237: 7233: 7225: 7221: 7213: 7209: 7201: 7197: 7189: 7185: 7177: 7173: 7165: 7161: 7153: 7149: 7141: 7137: 7129: 7125: 7117: 7113: 7105: 7101: 7093: 7089: 7081: 7077: 7069: 7065: 7057: 7050: 7042: 7038: 7030: 7026: 7018: 7014: 7006: 7002: 6994: 6990: 6982: 6978: 6970: 6966: 6958: 6954: 6946: 6942: 6934: 6930: 6922: 6918: 6910: 6903: 6895: 6891: 6883: 6879: 6871: 6864: 6856: 6849: 6841: 6837: 6829: 6825: 6817: 6813: 6805: 6801: 6793: 6789: 6781: 6777: 6769: 6765: 6757: 6753: 6745: 6741: 6733: 6729: 6721: 6717: 6709: 6705: 6697: 6693: 6685: 6681: 6673: 6669: 6661: 6657: 6649: 6645: 6637: 6633: 6625: 6621: 6613: 6609: 6599: 6597: 6592: 6591: 6587: 6579: 6575: 6567: 6560: 6552: 6548: 6540: 6536: 6528: 6524: 6516: 6509: 6501: 6497: 6489: 6485: 6477: 6473: 6465: 6461: 6453: 6449: 6441: 6437: 6429: 6425: 6417: 6413: 6405: 6401: 6393: 6389: 6385:, pp. 3–9. 6381: 6377: 6369: 6365: 6357: 6353: 6345: 6341: 6329: 6328: 6324: 6316: 6312: 6304: 6300: 6292: 6288: 6272: 6271: 6267: 6259: 6255: 6247: 6243: 6235: 6231: 6223: 6219: 6211: 6207: 6194: 6193: 6189: 6185:, pp. 8–9. 6181: 6174: 6164: 6162: 6152: 6148: 6138: 6136: 6126: 6122: 6114: 6110: 6102: 6098: 6090: 6086: 6078: 6074: 6066: 6062: 6054: 6047: 6039: 6035: 6027: 6023: 5998: 5994: 5986: 5982: 5974: 5970: 5962: 5958: 5948: 5946: 5941: 5940: 5936: 5928: 5924: 5914: 5912: 5869: 5863: 5859: 5835: 5831: 5830: 5826: 5816: 5814: 5810: 5803: 5799: 5798: 5791: 5783: 5779: 5771: 5767: 5759: 5755: 5747: 5743: 5735: 5731: 5721: 5719: 5714: 5713: 5709: 5699: 5697: 5693: 5689: 5688: 5684: 5676: 5672: 5664: 5660: 5650: 5648: 5643: 5642: 5638: 5630: 5626: 5618: 5614: 5605: 5601: 5593: 5586: 5578: 5574: 5566: 5562: 5554: 5550: 5542: 5538: 5530: 5526: 5516: 5514: 5505: 5504: 5500: 5492: 5488: 5480: 5476: 5468: 5464: 5456: 5452: 5444: 5440: 5432: 5425: 5417: 5413: 5405: 5401: 5393: 5389: 5381: 5377: 5369: 5365: 5357: 5353: 5345: 5341: 5332: 5331: 5327: 5319: 5315: 5307: 5303: 5295: 5291: 5287:, pp. 213. 5283: 5279: 5264: 5253: 5245: 5241: 5233: 5229: 5221: 5217: 5209: 5205: 5197: 5193: 5185: 5181: 5173: 5169: 5161: 5157: 5149: 5145: 5137: 5133: 5125: 5121: 5113: 5109: 5105:, pp. 4–5. 5101: 5097: 5089: 5082: 5074: 5070: 5060: 5058: 5047: 5046: 5042: 5034: 5027: 5019: 5015: 5007: 5003: 4995: 4991: 4983: 4979: 4971: 4967: 4959: 4955: 4947: 4943: 4935: 4928: 4918: 4916: 4904: 4900: 4892: 4888: 4878: 4876: 4872: 4859: 4855: 4847: 4843: 4835: 4831: 4823: 4819: 4811: 4807: 4799: 4795: 4787: 4783: 4775: 4771: 4763: 4756: 4748: 4744: 4736: 4732: 4724: 4720: 4712: 4708: 4700: 4691: 4687:, pp. 3–4. 4683: 4679: 4671: 4667: 4659: 4655: 4647: 4643: 4635: 4631: 4623: 4616: 4608: 4604: 4596: 4592: 4584: 4577: 4569: 4565: 4555: 4553: 4548: 4547: 4543: 4535: 4528: 4520: 4516: 4508: 4501: 4491: 4489: 4484: 4483: 4479: 4471: 4467: 4457: 4455: 4454:on 21 June 2019 4442: 4441: 4437: 4429: 4425: 4417: 4413: 4405: 4398: 4390: 4386: 4367: 4365: 4353: 4349: 4344: 4339: 4338: 4328:J. Buell Snyder 4324:George H. Mahon 4320:Albert J. Engel 4316:Clarence Cannon 4285: 4281: 4259: 4255: 4242: 4238: 4233: 4229: 4215: 4211: 4205: 4201: 4192: 4188: 4180: 4176: 4159: 4155: 4147: 4145: 4144: 4143: 4139: 4136: 4135: 4134: 4133: 4128: 4126: 4125: 4124: 4120: 4117: 4116: 4115: 4114: 4109: 4107: 4106: 4105: 4101: 4098: 4097: 4096: 4095: 4090: 4088: 4087: 4086: 4082: 4079: 4078: 4077: 4076: 4074: 4070: 4060:flagship campus 4057: 4053: 4048: 4029:- 2023 film by 4006:The Bomb (film) 4002: 3924:Upton, New York 3916:Ames Laboratory 3847: 3841: 3825:Albert J. Engel 3649: 3594:, conducted at 3572:Harry S. Truman 3527:Legion of Merit 3498:Kenneth Nichols 3482: 3392: 3363: 3350:Thomas T. Handy 3342:Harry S. Truman 3273:Project Alberta 3265:Paul W. Tibbets 3193: 3188: 3182: 3162:Walther Gerlach 3061:Samuel Goudsmit 3032: 3026: 2961: 2955: 2902: 2889: 2821: 2745: 2726: 2719: 2703:holy book, the 2671:Norris Bradbury 2667:nuclear fallout 2610: 2604: 2560:alpha particles 2547:RaLa Experiment 2496:gamma radiation 2485:RaLa Experiment 2389: 2383: 2345: 2312:Chien-Shiung Wu 2265:site, June 1944 2251: 2245: 2203: 2197: 2168: 2118: 2112: 2068:John R. Dunning 2048: 2042: 1964: 1958: 1927: 1902: 1878:uranium dioxide 1773: 1768: 1720: 1714: 1698: 1678:Hans von Halban 1658: 1626: 1618: 1612: 1556: 1550: 1421: 1415: 1355: 1349: 1320:Prentice Cooper 1275: 1269: 1260: 1236: 1234: 1184:, Otto Frisch, 1133: 1127: 1055: 1039:Elza, Tennessee 992:Kenneth Nichols 961: 956: 918:" suggested by 906:available from 873:Emil Konopinski 817: 768:gas centrifuges 701:Karl T. Compton 697:James B. Conant 677: 672: 627:James B. Conant 534:Eugene T. Booth 506:John R. Dunning 472:Albert Einstein 405: 398: 360:, conducted at 347:Operation Alsos 300:electromagnetic 225:nuclear weapons 213: 184: 180:Kenneth Nichols 167: 156: 91: 55: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 16066: 16056: 16055: 16050: 16045: 16040: 16035: 16030: 16025: 16020: 16015: 16010: 16005: 16000: 15995: 15990: 15975: 15974: 15972:from Wikibooks 15957: 15955:from Wikiquote 15940: 15911: 15908: 15907: 15895: 15883: 15871: 15859: 15836: 15835: 15833: 15832: 15827: 15822: 15817: 15812: 15807: 15802: 15797: 15792: 15787: 15782: 15777: 15772: 15766: 15764: 15760: 15759: 15757: 15756: 15751: 15746: 15741: 15739:Kirtland Field 15736: 15731: 15726: 15721: 15716: 15711: 15706: 15704:Camp Lordsburg 15701: 15695: 15693: 15689: 15688: 15681: 15679: 15677: 15676: 15671: 15666: 15661: 15656: 15651: 15646: 15641: 15636: 15631: 15626: 15624:Thomas Farrell 15621: 15616: 15614:Jerry C. Begay 15611: 15605: 15603: 15599: 15598: 15591: 15590: 15583: 15576: 15568: 15559: 15558: 15556: 15555: 15548: 15541: 15524: 15521: 15520: 15517: 15516: 15514: 15513: 15512: 15511: 15504: 15497: 15483: 15482: 15481: 15467: 15464:South Sakhalin 15460: 15459: 15458: 15444: 15437: 15430: 15423: 15416: 15415: 15414: 15400: 15393: 15386: 15379: 15372: 15365: 15358: 15351: 15344: 15337: 15330: 15323: 15316: 15309: 15301: 15299: 15293: 15292: 15290: 15289: 15282: 15281: 15280: 15264: 15257: 15256: 15255: 15241: 15234: 15227: 15220: 15213: 15204: 15195: 15188: 15179: 15172: 15165: 15158: 15149: 15142: 15135: 15128: 15121: 15114: 15107: 15098: 15091: 15082: 15073: 15064: 15057: 15050: 15039: 15029: 15027: 15021: 15020: 15018: 15017: 15010: 15009: 15008: 15001: 14987: 14980: 14973: 14966: 14959: 14958: 14957: 14943: 14936: 14927: 14920: 14913: 14906: 14899: 14892: 14889:Battle of Attu 14885: 14878: 14870: 14868: 14862: 14861: 14859: 14858: 14851: 14842: 14835: 14828: 14819: 14812: 14805: 14798: 14789: 14788: 14787: 14780: 14766: 14759: 14752: 14745: 14738: 14731: 14724: 14717: 14710: 14703: 14695: 14693: 14687: 14686: 14684: 14683: 14676: 14669: 14662: 14655: 14648: 14641: 14638:Battle of Guam 14634: 14627: 14620: 14613: 14606: 14599: 14592: 14585: 14578: 14571: 14564: 14561:Battle of Kiev 14557: 14550: 14536: 14535: 14534: 14520: 14513: 14506: 14499: 14492: 14491: 14490: 14476: 14469: 14462: 14454: 14452: 14446: 14445: 14443: 14442: 14433: 14426: 14419: 14412: 14405: 14398: 14391: 14384: 14377: 14370: 14363: 14356: 14349: 14342: 14335: 14328: 14321: 14314: 14306: 14304: 14298: 14297: 14295: 14294: 14287: 14280: 14273: 14266: 14259: 14252: 14244: 14242: 14236: 14235: 14233: 14232: 14231: 14230: 14223: 14216: 14209: 14202: 14188: 14187: 14186: 14179: 14165: 14164: 14163: 14148: 14146: 14137: 14131: 14130: 14127: 14126: 14124: 14123: 14116: 14109: 14108: 14107: 14100: 14088: 14087: 14086: 14072: 14065: 14064: 14063: 14060:United Kingdom 14056: 14049: 14048: 14047: 14028: 14020: 14018: 14012: 14011: 14009: 14008: 14001: 14000: 13999: 13992: 13980: 13973: 13966: 13959: 13952: 13945: 13938: 13931: 13924: 13917: 13910: 13903: 13896: 13889: 13882: 13881: 13880: 13873: 13859: 13852: 13845: 13838: 13831: 13824: 13817: 13810: 13803: 13796: 13789: 13782: 13775: 13768: 13761: 13754: 13746: 13744: 13738: 13737: 13735: 13734: 13727: 13720: 13713: 13706: 13699: 13692: 13685: 13678: 13671: 13664: 13656: 13654: 13648: 13647: 13645: 13644: 13637: 13630: 13623: 13615: 13608: 13601: 13594: 13593: 13592: 13577: 13570: 13563: 13556: 13549: 13542: 13534: 13527: 13520: 13512: 13504: 13502: 13496: 13495: 13493: 13492: 13485: 13484: 13483: 13469: 13468: 13467: 13464:British Empire 13457:United Kingdom 13453: 13446: 13439: 13432: 13425: 13418: 13406: 13399: 13392: 13385: 13378: 13371: 13364: 13357: 13350: 13338: 13331: 13324: 13317: 13310: 13298: 13290: 13283: 13276: 13273:Czechoslovakia 13269: 13262: 13255: 13248: 13236: 13229: 13222: 13215: 13207: 13205: 13196: 13190: 13189: 13186: 13185: 13183: 13182: 13181: 13180: 13173: 13170:Rape of Manila 13166: 13159: 13152: 13141: 13126: 13119: 13107: 13100: 13099: 13098: 13091: 13077: 13076: 13075: 13068: 13061: 13047: 13040: 13039: 13038: 13031: 13030: 13029: 13022: 13008: 13001: 12987: 12986: 12985: 12978: 12971: 12956: 12954: 12948: 12947: 12945: 12944: 12941:United Nations 12937: 12930: 12923: 12922: 12921: 12914: 12907: 12900: 12886: 12877: 12868: 12861: 12854: 12847: 12838: 12831: 12824: 12817: 12810: 12803: 12800:Decolonization 12796: 12789: 12781: 12779: 12773: 12772: 12770: 12769: 12762: 12761: 12760: 12746: 12739: 12738: 12737: 12730: 12723: 12709: 12708: 12707: 12700: 12686: 12685: 12684: 12677: 12670: 12663: 12656: 12649: 12634: 12632: 12626: 12625: 12623: 12622: 12615: 12608: 12601: 12594: 12587: 12580: 12573: 12572: 12571: 12564: 12550: 12543: 12536: 12529: 12522: 12515: 12508: 12507: 12506: 12492: 12485: 12484: 12483: 12476: 12473:United Kingdom 12469: 12455: 12448: 12441: 12434: 12427: 12420: 12413: 12412: 12411: 12396: 12394: 12385: 12381: 12380: 12378: 12377: 12370: 12363: 12362: 12361: 12354: 12347: 12335: 12334: 12333: 12319: 12311: 12308: 12307: 12300: 12299: 12292: 12285: 12277: 12268: 12267: 12257: 12254: 12253: 12251: 12250: 12245: 12240: 12235: 12230: 12225: 12220: 12215: 12210: 12205: 12200: 12195: 12188: 12183: 12178: 12173: 12168: 12163: 12161:Chicago Pile-1 12158: 12156:Calutron Girls 12153: 12148: 12143: 12138: 12132: 12130: 12129:Related topics 12126: 12125: 12123: 12122: 12117: 12112: 12107: 12101: 12099: 12095: 12094: 12092: 12091: 12084: 12077: 12070: 12065: 12060: 12055: 12050: 12045: 12040: 12034: 12032: 12028: 12027: 12025: 12024: 12019: 12014: 12009: 12004: 11999: 11994: 11992:Stanisław Ulam 11989: 11984: 11979: 11974: 11969: 11964: 11959: 11954: 11949: 11944: 11939: 11934: 11929: 11927:Edwin McMillan 11924: 11919: 11914: 11909: 11904: 11899: 11894: 11889: 11884: 11879: 11874: 11872:Harry Daghlian 11869: 11864: 11862:John Cockcroft 11859: 11857:James Chadwick 11854: 11849: 11844: 11839: 11834: 11829: 11823: 11821: 11817: 11816: 11814: 11813: 11808: 11803: 11798: 11793: 11788: 11783: 11781:Charles Thomas 11778: 11776:Frank Spedding 11773: 11768: 11763: 11758: 11753: 11748: 11743: 11738: 11736:James Marshall 11733: 11728: 11723: 11718: 11716:Thomas Farrell 11713: 11708: 11703: 11701:Arthur Compton 11698: 11692: 11690: 11689:Administrators 11686: 11685: 11683: 11682: 11677: 11672: 11667: 11662: 11657: 11652: 11647: 11642: 11637: 11632: 11627: 11617: 11612: 11606: 11604: 11600: 11599: 11594: 11591: 11590: 11583: 11582: 11575: 11568: 11560: 11554: 11553: 11522: 11513: 11503:on 2 June 2016 11482: 11463: 11446: 11427: 11404: 11403: 11398: 11392: 11391: 11380: 11379: 11377: 11376:External links 11374: 11373: 11372: 11358: 11346:Wallace, Henry 11342: 11328: 11312: 11298: 11290:Uranium People 11282: 11268: 11252:Groves, Leslie 11248: 11234: 11218: 11194: 11180: 11164:Bethe, Hans A. 11158: 11155: 11154: 11153: 11115:. New Series. 11105: 11078: 11064: 11051: 11029: 11024:(Available on 11010: 10990:Serber, Robert 10986: 10967: 10938: 10920:(2): 272–305. 10909: 10897:10.1086/356550 10891:(3): 527–537. 10880: 10866: 10842: 10825: 10800: 10786: 10773: 10759: 10743: 10726: 10719: 10706: 10682: 10663: 10660: 10659: 10658: 10641: 10627: 10611: 10597: 10581: 10551: 10545: 10528: 10522: 10503: 10466: 10452: 10439: 10425: 10407: 10393: 10380: 10366: 10353: 10339: 10321: 10292: 10278: 10265: 10251: 10238: 10224: 10208:Howes, Ruth H. 10204: 10190: 10177: 10171: 10154: 10140: 10127: 10106: 10085: 10068: 10048: 10031: 9994: 9965: 9936: 9930: 9914:Conant, Jennet 9910: 9896: 9883: 9871:10.2307/448105 9852: 9849: 9846: 9845: 9823: 9821:, p. 655. 9811: 9789: 9787:, pp. 2–3 9777: 9765: 9753: 9741: 9729: 9727:, p. 161. 9717: 9705: 9693: 9681: 9652: 9633: 9606: 9582: 9565: 9553: 9537: 9522: 9496: 9494:, pp. 723 9484: 9458: 9446: 9431: 9419: 9417:, p. vii. 9407: 9395: 9389: 9367: 9365:, p. 594. 9355: 9353:, p. 234. 9343: 9341:, p. 625. 9331: 9319: 9317:, p. 624. 9307: 9295: 9283: 9271: 9259: 9244: 9242:, p. 600. 9232: 9230:, p. 226. 9220: 9209:on 18 May 2015 9190: 9178: 9166: 9139: 9117: 9105: 9103:, p. 537. 9093: 9081: 9062:(4): 149–173. 9041: 9029: 9003: 8981: 8952: 8937: 8925: 8913: 8891: 8868: 8830: 8798: 8786: 8774: 8759: 8737: 8722: 8700: 8688: 8677:on 14 May 2011 8662: 8650: 8648:, p. 308. 8638: 8626: 8624:, p. 184. 8614: 8612:, p. 341. 8602: 8590: 8578: 8563: 8551: 8539: 8527: 8515: 8503: 8501:, p. 237. 8491: 8479: 8467: 8455: 8443: 8431: 8429:, p. 282. 8419: 8417:, p. 285. 8407: 8405:, p. 191. 8395: 8393:, p. 281. 8383: 8371: 8359: 8344: 8332: 8321:. pp. 1–2 8303: 8301:, p. 472. 8291: 8279: 8267: 8255: 8243: 8241:, p. 267. 8231: 8219: 8207: 8195: 8183: 8171: 8137: 8110: 8099:. 25 June 2012 8084: 8057: 8028: 8026:, p. 140. 8016: 8001: 7999:, p. 430. 7989: 7987:, p. 410. 7977: 7975:, p. 123. 7965: 7963:, p. 361. 7953: 7951:, p. 358. 7941: 7929: 7903: 7901:, p. 353. 7891: 7883:Apollo Project 7871: 7849: 7823: 7821:, p. 344. 7811: 7799: 7780: 7752: 7713: 7691: 7689:, p. 201. 7679: 7667: 7655: 7643: 7631: 7619: 7607: 7605:, p. 512. 7592: 7585: 7565: 7548: 7536: 7524: 7522:, p. 465. 7512: 7482: 7470: 7458: 7456:, p. 541. 7443: 7431: 7419: 7407: 7395: 7383: 7371: 7359: 7347: 7345:, p. 235. 7335: 7323: 7321:, p. 203. 7311: 7299: 7287: 7270: 7258: 7243: 7231: 7229:, p. 311. 7219: 7207: 7195: 7183: 7181:, p. 246. 7171: 7159: 7147: 7135: 7123: 7111: 7109:, p. 212. 7099: 7087: 7075: 7063: 7061:, p. 141. 7048: 7036: 7024: 7012: 7000: 6988: 6976: 6974:, p. 1.16 6964: 6962:, p. 139. 6952: 6940: 6938:, p. 210. 6928: 6916: 6914:, p. 209. 6901: 6899:, p. 211. 6889: 6877: 6862: 6847: 6835: 6823: 6811: 6799: 6787: 6775: 6773:, p. 172. 6763: 6751: 6739: 6727: 6715: 6703: 6691: 6689:, p. 108. 6679: 6667: 6655: 6653:, p. 131. 6643: 6641:, p. 140. 6631: 6619: 6607: 6585: 6583:, p. 153. 6573: 6571:, p. 133. 6558: 6546: 6544:, p. 684. 6534: 6522: 6507: 6495: 6483: 6471: 6459: 6447: 6435: 6433:, p. 157. 6423: 6411: 6399: 6387: 6375: 6363: 6351: 6349:, p. 295. 6339: 6322: 6310: 6298: 6286: 6265: 6253: 6241: 6229: 6217: 6205: 6187: 6172: 6146: 6120: 6108: 6106:, p. 401. 6096: 6084: 6072: 6070:, p. 342. 6060: 6045: 6033: 6021: 5992: 5990:, p. 428. 5980: 5968: 5966:, p. 144. 5956: 5934: 5922: 5857: 5844:10.2172/770687 5824: 5789: 5777: 5765: 5753: 5741: 5729: 5707: 5682: 5670: 5658: 5636: 5624: 5612: 5599: 5584: 5572: 5560: 5548: 5536: 5524: 5498: 5486: 5474: 5462: 5450: 5438: 5423: 5421:, p. 408. 5411: 5399: 5395:Bernstein 1976 5387: 5385:, p. 372. 5375: 5363: 5351: 5339: 5325: 5323:, p. 296. 5313: 5309:Bernstein 1976 5301: 5289: 5285:Bernstein 1976 5277: 5251: 5249:, p. 211. 5247:Bernstein 1976 5239: 5237:, p. 517. 5227: 5215: 5211:Bernstein 1976 5203: 5191: 5179: 5177:, p. 238. 5167: 5155: 5143: 5131: 5119: 5107: 5095: 5080: 5068: 5040: 5038:, p. 657. 5025: 5013: 5011:, p. 654. 5001: 4989: 4977: 4975:, p. 174. 4965: 4963:, p. 652. 4953: 4941: 4926: 4898: 4886: 4866:Teller, Edward 4864:; Marvin, C.; 4853: 4851:, p. 419. 4841: 4829: 4817: 4815:, p. 417. 4805: 4793: 4781: 4769: 4754: 4752:, p. 103. 4742: 4740:, p. 416. 4730: 4718: 4716:, pp. 32. 4706: 4689: 4677: 4665: 4653: 4641: 4629: 4614: 4602: 4590: 4575: 4563: 4541: 4526: 4514: 4499: 4488:. 28 June 1941 4477: 4465: 4435: 4423: 4411: 4396: 4384: 4380:MeasuringWorth 4374:United States 4362:MeasuringWorth 4346: 4345: 4343: 4340: 4337: 4336: 4292:Styles Bridges 4279: 4253: 4236: 4227: 4209: 4199: 4186: 4174: 4166:Arthur Compton 4153: 4146: 4137: 4127: 4118: 4108: 4099: 4089: 4080: 4068: 4050: 4049: 4047: 4044: 4043: 4042: 4037: 4035:Cillian Murphy 4024: 4015: 4009: 4001: 3998: 3932:Alvin Weinberg 3840: 3837: 3783: 3782: 3777: 3772: 3766: 3765: 3762: 3759: 3756: 3752: 3751: 3748: 3745: 3742: 3738: 3737: 3734: 3731: 3728: 3724: 3723: 3720: 3717: 3714: 3710: 3709: 3706: 3703: 3700: 3696: 3695: 3692: 3689: 3686: 3682: 3681: 3678: 3675: 3672: 3668: 3667: 3664: 3661: 3658: 3648: 3645: 3521:, and over 20 3481: 3478: 3421:Kirtland Field 3377:Fifth Division 3362: 3359: 3299:plutonium core 3236:, Ohio, began 3218:Avro Lancaster 3205:Straight Flush 3192: 3189: 3184:Main article: 3181: 3178: 3028:Main article: 3025: 3022: 2993:Venona project 2957:Main article: 2954: 2951: 2935:Georgy Flyorov 2901: 2898: 2877:, head of the 2820: 2817: 2744: 2741: 2728: 2727: 2720: 2694:El Paso, Texas 2690:mushroom cloud 2673:at the nearby 2658:nuclear weapon 2606:Main article: 2603: 2600: 2528:Dayton Project 2431:shaped charges 2385:Main article: 2382: 2379: 2344: 2341: 2322:, which has a 2247:Main article: 2244: 2241: 2199:Main article: 2196: 2193: 2183:and then into 2167: 2164: 2122:Sydney Chapman 2114:Main article: 2111: 2108: 2060:molecular mass 2044:Main article: 2041: 2038: 2030:Calutron Girls 2014:Calutron Girls 1999:Daniel W. Bell 1960:Main article: 1957: 1954: 1926: 1923: 1901: 1898: 1870:uranyl nitrate 1772: 1769: 1767: 1764: 1716:Main article: 1713: 1710: 1697: 1694: 1657: 1654: 1650:Chicago Pile 3 1625: 1622: 1614:Main article: 1611: 1610:Canadian sites 1608: 1591:Columbia River 1552:Main article: 1549: 1546: 1534:Chicago Pile-3 1519:Chicago Pile-1 1496:Frank Spedding 1476:Arthur Compton 1455:in the second. 1433:Chicago Pile-1 1417:Main article: 1414: 1411: 1391:War Department 1351:Main article: 1348: 1345: 1306:eminent domain 1271:Main article: 1268: 1265: 1233: 1230: 1160:James Chadwick 1152:James Chadwick 1129:Main article: 1126: 1123: 1054: 1051: 1047:Lucius D. Clay 969:Eugene Reybold 960: 957: 955: 952: 948:Arthur Compton 936:nuclear fusion 896:Edwin McMillan 894:, Manley, and 892:Franco Rasetti 869:John Van Vleck 841:John H. Manley 816: 813: 762:and later the 752:Philip Abelson 676: 673: 671: 668: 608:John Cockcroft 604:Tizard Mission 600:MAUD Committee 580:Rudolf Peierls 397: 394: 312:Chicago Pile-1 211: 208: 207: 198: 191: 190: 186: 185: 183: 182: 177: 171: 169: 163: 162: 158: 157: 155: 154: 149: 144: 139: 134: 128: 126: 122: 121: 120:13 August 1942 118: 114: 113: 107: 103: 102: 97: 93: 92: 90: 89: 86: 85:United Kingdom 83: 79: 77: 73: 72: 71:15 August 1947 69: 65: 64: 61: 57: 56: 52:nuclear weapon 43: 35: 34: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 16065: 16054: 16051: 16049: 16046: 16044: 16041: 16039: 16036: 16034: 16031: 16029: 16026: 16024: 16021: 16019: 16016: 16014: 16011: 16009: 16006: 16004: 16001: 15999: 15996: 15994: 15991: 15989: 15986: 15985: 15983: 15971: 15970: 15958: 15954: 15953: 15941: 15937: 15936: 15924: 15923: 15920: 15914: 15906: 15901: 15896: 15894: 15884: 15882: 15877: 15872: 15870: 15860: 15858: 15848: 15847: 15844: 15831: 15828: 15826: 15825:Santa Fe Riot 15823: 15821: 15818: 15816: 15813: 15811: 15808: 15806: 15803: 15801: 15798: 15796: 15793: 15791: 15788: 15786: 15783: 15781: 15778: 15776: 15773: 15771: 15768: 15767: 15765: 15761: 15755: 15752: 15750: 15747: 15745: 15742: 15740: 15737: 15735: 15732: 15730: 15727: 15725: 15722: 15720: 15717: 15715: 15712: 15710: 15707: 15705: 15702: 15700: 15697: 15696: 15694: 15690: 15685: 15675: 15672: 15670: 15667: 15665: 15662: 15660: 15657: 15655: 15652: 15650: 15647: 15645: 15642: 15640: 15639:John E. Miles 15637: 15635: 15634:Leslie Groves 15632: 15630: 15627: 15625: 15622: 15620: 15617: 15615: 15612: 15610: 15607: 15606: 15604: 15600: 15596: 15589: 15584: 15582: 15577: 15575: 15570: 15569: 15566: 15553: 15549: 15546: 15542: 15539: 15538: 15533: 15526: 15525: 15522: 15509: 15505: 15502: 15498: 15495: 15491: 15490: 15488: 15484: 15479: 15475: 15474: 15472: 15471:Kuril Islands 15468: 15465: 15461: 15456: 15452: 15451: 15449: 15445: 15442: 15438: 15435: 15431: 15428: 15424: 15421: 15417: 15412: 15408: 15407: 15405: 15401: 15398: 15394: 15391: 15387: 15384: 15380: 15377: 15373: 15370: 15366: 15363: 15359: 15356: 15352: 15349: 15345: 15342: 15338: 15335: 15331: 15328: 15324: 15321: 15317: 15314: 15310: 15307: 15303: 15302: 15300: 15298: 15294: 15287: 15283: 15278: 15277: 15272: 15271: 15269: 15265: 15262: 15258: 15253: 15249: 15248: 15246: 15242: 15239: 15238:Syrmian Front 15235: 15232: 15228: 15225: 15221: 15218: 15214: 15211: 15210: 15205: 15202: 15201: 15196: 15193: 15189: 15186: 15185: 15184:Market Garden 15180: 15177: 15173: 15170: 15166: 15163: 15159: 15156: 15155: 15150: 15147: 15143: 15140: 15136: 15133: 15129: 15126: 15122: 15119: 15115: 15112: 15108: 15105: 15104: 15099: 15096: 15092: 15089: 15088: 15083: 15080: 15079: 15074: 15071: 15070: 15065: 15062: 15058: 15055: 15051: 15048: 15044: 15043:Monte Cassino 15040: 15037: 15036: 15031: 15030: 15028: 15026: 15022: 15015: 15011: 15006: 15002: 14999: 14995: 14994: 14992: 14988: 14985: 14981: 14978: 14974: 14971: 14967: 14964: 14960: 14955: 14951: 14950: 14948: 14944: 14941: 14937: 14934: 14933: 14928: 14925: 14921: 14918: 14914: 14911: 14907: 14904: 14900: 14897: 14893: 14890: 14886: 14883: 14879: 14876: 14872: 14871: 14869: 14867: 14863: 14856: 14852: 14849: 14848: 14843: 14840: 14836: 14833: 14829: 14826: 14825: 14820: 14817: 14813: 14810: 14806: 14803: 14799: 14796: 14795: 14790: 14785: 14781: 14778: 14774: 14773: 14771: 14767: 14764: 14760: 14757: 14753: 14750: 14746: 14743: 14739: 14736: 14732: 14729: 14725: 14722: 14718: 14715: 14711: 14708: 14704: 14701: 14697: 14696: 14694: 14692: 14688: 14681: 14677: 14674: 14670: 14667: 14663: 14660: 14656: 14653: 14649: 14646: 14642: 14639: 14635: 14632: 14628: 14625: 14621: 14618: 14614: 14611: 14607: 14604: 14600: 14597: 14593: 14590: 14586: 14583: 14579: 14576: 14572: 14569: 14565: 14562: 14558: 14555: 14551: 14547: 14546: 14541: 14537: 14532: 14528: 14527: 14525: 14521: 14518: 14514: 14511: 14507: 14504: 14500: 14497: 14493: 14488: 14484: 14483: 14481: 14477: 14474: 14470: 14467: 14463: 14460: 14456: 14455: 14453: 14451: 14447: 14440: 14439: 14434: 14431: 14427: 14424: 14420: 14417: 14413: 14410: 14409:Baltic states 14406: 14403: 14399: 14396: 14392: 14389: 14385: 14382: 14378: 14375: 14371: 14368: 14364: 14361: 14357: 14354: 14350: 14347: 14343: 14340: 14336: 14333: 14329: 14326: 14322: 14319: 14315: 14312: 14308: 14307: 14305: 14303: 14299: 14292: 14288: 14285: 14281: 14278: 14274: 14271: 14267: 14264: 14260: 14257: 14253: 14250: 14246: 14245: 14243: 14241: 14237: 14228: 14224: 14221: 14217: 14214: 14210: 14207: 14203: 14200: 14196: 14195: 14193: 14189: 14184: 14180: 14177: 14173: 14172: 14170: 14166: 14161: 14157: 14156: 14154: 14150: 14149: 14147: 14145: 14141: 14138: 14136: 14132: 14121: 14117: 14114: 14110: 14105: 14101: 14098: 14094: 14093: 14089: 14084: 14080: 14079: 14077: 14073: 14070: 14066: 14061: 14057: 14054: 14053:United States 14050: 14045: 14041: 14040: 14038: 14034: 14033: 14029: 14026: 14022: 14021: 14019: 14017: 14013: 14006: 14002: 13997: 13993: 13990: 13989:Quốc dân Đảng 13986: 13985: 13981: 13978: 13974: 13971: 13967: 13964: 13960: 13957: 13953: 13950: 13946: 13943: 13939: 13936: 13932: 13929: 13925: 13922: 13918: 13915: 13911: 13908: 13904: 13901: 13897: 13894: 13890: 13887: 13883: 13878: 13874: 13871: 13867: 13866: 13864: 13860: 13857: 13853: 13850: 13846: 13843: 13839: 13836: 13832: 13829: 13825: 13822: 13818: 13815: 13811: 13808: 13804: 13801: 13797: 13794: 13790: 13787: 13783: 13780: 13776: 13773: 13769: 13766: 13762: 13759: 13755: 13752: 13748: 13747: 13745: 13743: 13739: 13732: 13728: 13725: 13721: 13718: 13714: 13711: 13707: 13704: 13700: 13697: 13693: 13690: 13689:Liechtenstein 13686: 13683: 13679: 13676: 13672: 13669: 13665: 13662: 13658: 13657: 13655: 13653: 13649: 13642: 13638: 13635: 13631: 13628: 13624: 13620: 13616: 13613: 13609: 13606: 13602: 13599: 13595: 13590: 13586: 13585: 13582: 13578: 13575: 13571: 13568: 13564: 13561: 13557: 13554: 13550: 13547: 13543: 13539: 13535: 13532: 13528: 13525: 13521: 13517: 13513: 13510: 13506: 13505: 13503: 13501: 13497: 13490: 13486: 13481: 13477: 13476: 13474: 13473:United States 13470: 13465: 13461: 13460: 13458: 13454: 13451: 13447: 13444: 13440: 13437: 13433: 13430: 13426: 13423: 13419: 13415: 13411: 13407: 13404: 13400: 13397: 13393: 13390: 13386: 13383: 13379: 13376: 13372: 13369: 13365: 13362: 13358: 13355: 13351: 13347: 13343: 13339: 13336: 13332: 13329: 13325: 13322: 13318: 13315: 13311: 13307: 13303: 13299: 13295: 13291: 13288: 13284: 13281: 13277: 13274: 13270: 13267: 13263: 13260: 13256: 13253: 13249: 13245: 13241: 13237: 13234: 13230: 13227: 13223: 13220: 13216: 13213: 13209: 13208: 13206: 13204: 13200: 13197: 13195: 13191: 13178: 13174: 13171: 13167: 13164: 13163:Comfort women 13160: 13157: 13153: 13150: 13147: / 13146: 13142: 13139: 13136: / 13135: 13132: / 13131: 13127: 13124: 13123:Camp brothels 13120: 13117: 13113: 13112: 13108: 13105: 13101: 13096: 13092: 13089: 13085: 13084: 13082: 13078: 13073: 13069: 13066: 13062: 13059: 13055: 13054: 13052: 13048: 13045: 13041: 13036: 13032: 13027: 13023: 13020: 13016: 13015: 13013: 13012:The Holocaust 13009: 13006: 13002: 12999: 12998:forced labour 12995: 12994: 12992: 12988: 12983: 12979: 12976: 12972: 12969: 12965: 12964: 12962: 12958: 12957: 12955: 12953: 12949: 12942: 12938: 12935: 12931: 12928: 12924: 12919: 12915: 12912: 12908: 12905: 12901: 12898: 12894: 12893: 12891: 12887: 12884: 12883: 12878: 12875: 12874: 12869: 12866: 12862: 12859: 12855: 12852: 12851:Marshall Plan 12848: 12845: 12844: 12839: 12836: 12832: 12829: 12825: 12822: 12818: 12815: 12811: 12808: 12804: 12801: 12797: 12794: 12790: 12787: 12783: 12782: 12780: 12778: 12774: 12767: 12763: 12758: 12754: 12753: 12751: 12747: 12744: 12740: 12735: 12731: 12728: 12724: 12721: 12717: 12716: 12714: 12710: 12705: 12704:Eastern Front 12701: 12698: 12697:Western Front 12694: 12693: 12691: 12687: 12682: 12678: 12675: 12671: 12668: 12664: 12661: 12657: 12654: 12650: 12647: 12643: 12642: 12640: 12636: 12635: 12633: 12631: 12627: 12620: 12616: 12613: 12609: 12606: 12602: 12599: 12595: 12592: 12591:Puppet states 12588: 12585: 12581: 12578: 12574: 12569: 12565: 12562: 12558: 12557: 12555: 12551: 12548: 12544: 12541: 12537: 12534: 12533:Naval history 12530: 12527: 12523: 12520: 12516: 12513: 12509: 12504: 12500: 12499: 12497: 12493: 12490: 12486: 12481: 12480:United States 12477: 12474: 12470: 12467: 12463: 12462: 12460: 12456: 12453: 12449: 12446: 12442: 12439: 12435: 12432: 12428: 12425: 12421: 12418: 12414: 12409: 12405: 12404: 12402: 12398: 12397: 12395: 12393: 12389: 12386: 12382: 12375: 12371: 12368: 12364: 12359: 12355: 12352: 12348: 12345: 12341: 12340: 12336: 12331: 12327: 12326: 12324: 12320: 12317: 12313: 12312: 12309: 12305: 12298: 12293: 12291: 12286: 12284: 12279: 12278: 12275: 12265: 12255: 12249: 12246: 12244: 12241: 12239: 12236: 12234: 12231: 12229: 12226: 12224: 12221: 12219: 12216: 12214: 12211: 12209: 12206: 12204: 12201: 12199: 12196: 12194: 12193: 12189: 12187: 12184: 12182: 12179: 12177: 12176:Franck Report 12174: 12172: 12169: 12167: 12164: 12162: 12159: 12157: 12154: 12152: 12149: 12147: 12144: 12142: 12139: 12137: 12134: 12133: 12131: 12127: 12121: 12118: 12116: 12113: 12111: 12108: 12106: 12103: 12102: 12100: 12096: 12090: 12089: 12085: 12083: 12082: 12078: 12076: 12075: 12071: 12069: 12066: 12064: 12061: 12059: 12056: 12054: 12051: 12049: 12046: 12044: 12041: 12039: 12038:Alsos Mission 12036: 12035: 12033: 12029: 12023: 12020: 12018: 12015: 12013: 12012:Robert Wilson 12010: 12008: 12007:Eugene Wigner 12005: 12003: 12000: 11998: 11995: 11993: 11990: 11988: 11987:Edward Teller 11985: 11983: 11980: 11978: 11975: 11973: 11970: 11968: 11965: 11963: 11962:Glenn Seaborg 11960: 11958: 11955: 11953: 11950: 11948: 11945: 11943: 11940: 11938: 11935: 11933: 11932:Mark Oliphant 11930: 11928: 11925: 11923: 11922:Willard Libby 11920: 11918: 11915: 11913: 11910: 11908: 11905: 11903: 11900: 11898: 11895: 11893: 11890: 11888: 11885: 11883: 11880: 11878: 11875: 11873: 11870: 11868: 11865: 11863: 11860: 11858: 11855: 11853: 11850: 11848: 11845: 11843: 11840: 11838: 11835: 11833: 11832:Robert Bacher 11830: 11828: 11825: 11824: 11822: 11818: 11812: 11811:Roscoe Wilson 11809: 11807: 11804: 11802: 11799: 11797: 11794: 11792: 11789: 11787: 11784: 11782: 11779: 11777: 11774: 11772: 11769: 11767: 11764: 11762: 11759: 11757: 11754: 11752: 11749: 11747: 11744: 11742: 11739: 11737: 11734: 11732: 11729: 11727: 11726:John Lansdale 11724: 11722: 11721:Leslie Groves 11719: 11717: 11714: 11712: 11709: 11707: 11704: 11702: 11699: 11697: 11696:Vannevar Bush 11694: 11693: 11691: 11687: 11681: 11678: 11676: 11673: 11671: 11668: 11666: 11663: 11661: 11658: 11656: 11653: 11651: 11648: 11646: 11643: 11641: 11638: 11636: 11633: 11631: 11628: 11625: 11621: 11618: 11616: 11613: 11611: 11608: 11607: 11605: 11601: 11597: 11592: 11588: 11581: 11576: 11574: 11569: 11567: 11562: 11561: 11558: 11550: 11546: 11541: 11536: 11532: 11528: 11523: 11521: 11517: 11514: 11502: 11498: 11494: 11492: 11487: 11483: 11472: 11468: 11464: 11451: 11447: 11436: 11432: 11428: 11417: 11413: 11409: 11408: 11402: 11399: 11397: 11394: 11393: 11388: 11383: 11369: 11365: 11361: 11355: 11351: 11347: 11343: 11339: 11335: 11331: 11329:0-688-06910-X 11325: 11321: 11317: 11313: 11309: 11305: 11301: 11299:0-684-16242-3 11295: 11291: 11287: 11283: 11279: 11275: 11271: 11269:0-306-70738-1 11265: 11260: 11259: 11253: 11249: 11245: 11241: 11237: 11235:0-938228-09-9 11231: 11227: 11223: 11219: 11215: 11211: 11206: 11205: 11199: 11195: 11191: 11187: 11183: 11181:0-671-74012-1 11177: 11172: 11171: 11165: 11161: 11160: 11150: 11146: 11142: 11138: 11134: 11130: 11126: 11122: 11118: 11114: 11110: 11106: 11102: 11098: 11093: 11088: 11084: 11079: 11075: 11071: 11067: 11061: 11057: 11052: 11048: 11044: 11040: 11039: 11034: 11030: 11027: 11021: 11017: 11013: 11007: 11003: 10999: 10995: 10991: 10987: 10975: 10974: 10968: 10956: 10952: 10948: 10944: 10939: 10935: 10931: 10927: 10923: 10919: 10915: 10910: 10906: 10902: 10898: 10894: 10890: 10886: 10881: 10877: 10873: 10869: 10863: 10858: 10857: 10851: 10847: 10843: 10840: 10836: 10832: 10828: 10822: 10818: 10814: 10809: 10808: 10801: 10797: 10793: 10789: 10783: 10779: 10774: 10770: 10766: 10762: 10756: 10752: 10748: 10747:Hansen, Chuck 10744: 10740: 10736: 10732: 10727: 10722: 10716: 10712: 10707: 10695: 10688: 10683: 10679: 10675: 10671: 10666: 10665: 10655: 10651: 10647: 10642: 10638: 10634: 10630: 10624: 10620: 10616: 10612: 10608: 10604: 10600: 10594: 10590: 10586: 10582: 10571: 10567: 10563: 10562: 10557: 10556:Sidney, Aster 10552: 10548: 10546:0-8078-2598-0 10542: 10537: 10536: 10529: 10525: 10519: 10515: 10511: 10510: 10504: 10489: 10485: 10481: 10474: 10473: 10467: 10463: 10459: 10455: 10449: 10445: 10440: 10436: 10432: 10428: 10426:0-671-44133-7 10422: 10418: 10417: 10412: 10408: 10404: 10400: 10396: 10390: 10386: 10381: 10377: 10373: 10369: 10363: 10359: 10354: 10350: 10346: 10342: 10340:0-15-614150-7 10336: 10332: 10331: 10326: 10325:Jungk, Robert 10322: 10311: 10307: 10300: 10299: 10293: 10289: 10285: 10281: 10279:0-87049-303-5 10275: 10271: 10266: 10262: 10258: 10254: 10248: 10244: 10239: 10235: 10231: 10227: 10225:1-56639-719-7 10221: 10217: 10213: 10209: 10205: 10201: 10197: 10193: 10191:0-300-06056-4 10187: 10183: 10178: 10174: 10168: 10164: 10160: 10155: 10151: 10147: 10143: 10141:0-520-07187-5 10137: 10133: 10128: 10117: 10113: 10109: 10107:0-520-07186-7 10103: 10096: 10095: 10090: 10086: 10082: 10078: 10074: 10069: 10065: 10061: 10057: 10053: 10049: 10045: 10041: 10037: 10032: 10017: 10013: 10009: 10002: 10001: 9995: 9991: 9987: 9983: 9979: 9975: 9971: 9966: 9955: 9951: 9944: 9943: 9937: 9933: 9931:0-7432-5007-9 9927: 9922: 9921: 9915: 9911: 9907: 9903: 9899: 9897:0-7864-2139-8 9893: 9889: 9884: 9880: 9876: 9872: 9868: 9864: 9860: 9855: 9854: 9833: 9827: 9820: 9815: 9800: 9793: 9786: 9781: 9774: 9769: 9762: 9757: 9750: 9745: 9738: 9733: 9726: 9725:Weinberg 1961 9721: 9714: 9709: 9702: 9701:Holloway 1994 9697: 9690: 9685: 9670: 9666: 9662: 9656: 9648: 9644: 9637: 9629: 9625: 9621: 9617: 9610: 9599: 9592: 9586: 9575: 9569: 9562: 9557: 9549: 9548: 9541: 9534: 9529: 9527: 9510: 9506: 9500: 9493: 9488: 9472: 9468: 9462: 9455: 9450: 9443: 9438: 9436: 9428: 9423: 9416: 9411: 9404: 9399: 9392: 9386: 9381: 9380: 9371: 9364: 9359: 9352: 9347: 9340: 9335: 9328: 9323: 9316: 9311: 9304: 9299: 9292: 9287: 9280: 9275: 9269:, p. 11. 9268: 9263: 9256: 9251: 9249: 9241: 9236: 9229: 9224: 9208: 9204: 9200: 9194: 9187: 9182: 9175: 9170: 9154: 9150: 9143: 9135: 9131: 9127: 9121: 9114: 9109: 9102: 9097: 9090: 9089:Ahnfeldt 1966 9085: 9077: 9073: 9069: 9065: 9061: 9057: 9056: 9051: 9045: 9039:, p. 474 9038: 9033: 9017: 9013: 9007: 8991: 8985: 8969: 8962: 8956: 8949: 8944: 8942: 8934: 8929: 8922: 8917: 8901: 8895: 8879: 8872: 8853: 8849: 8848: 8840: 8834: 8819: 8815: 8811: 8805: 8803: 8795: 8790: 8783: 8778: 8770: 8763: 8747: 8741: 8733: 8726: 8710: 8704: 8697: 8696:Holloway 1994 8692: 8676: 8672: 8666: 8659: 8654: 8647: 8642: 8635: 8630: 8623: 8618: 8611: 8606: 8599: 8598:Campbell 2005 8594: 8587: 8582: 8575: 8570: 8568: 8560: 8555: 8548: 8543: 8536: 8531: 8524: 8523:Goudsmit 1947 8519: 8512: 8507: 8500: 8495: 8488: 8483: 8476: 8475:Goudsmit 1947 8471: 8464: 8459: 8452: 8447: 8440: 8435: 8428: 8423: 8416: 8411: 8404: 8399: 8392: 8387: 8380: 8375: 8368: 8363: 8355: 8348: 8341: 8340:Holloway 1994 8336: 8320: 8319: 8314: 8307: 8300: 8295: 8288: 8283: 8276: 8271: 8264: 8259: 8252: 8247: 8240: 8235: 8228: 8223: 8216: 8211: 8204: 8199: 8192: 8191:Holloway 1994 8187: 8180: 8175: 8160: 8156: 8152: 8148: 8141: 8125: 8121: 8114: 8098: 8094: 8088: 8072: 8068: 8061: 8045: 8041: 8035: 8033: 8025: 8020: 8013: 8008: 8006: 7998: 7993: 7986: 7981: 7974: 7969: 7962: 7957: 7950: 7945: 7938: 7933: 7917: 7913: 7907: 7900: 7895: 7888: 7884: 7880: 7875: 7859: 7853: 7837: 7833: 7827: 7820: 7815: 7808: 7803: 7796:(2): 123–167. 7795: 7791: 7784: 7768: 7767: 7762: 7756: 7741: 7737: 7733: 7732: 7727: 7723: 7717: 7701: 7695: 7688: 7683: 7676: 7671: 7664: 7659: 7652: 7647: 7640: 7635: 7628: 7623: 7616: 7611: 7604: 7599: 7597: 7588: 7582: 7578: 7577: 7569: 7561: 7560: 7552: 7545: 7540: 7533: 7528: 7521: 7516: 7500: 7496: 7492: 7486: 7479: 7474: 7467: 7462: 7455: 7450: 7448: 7440: 7435: 7428: 7423: 7417:, p. 290 7416: 7411: 7405:, p. 288 7404: 7399: 7392: 7387: 7380: 7375: 7368: 7363: 7356: 7351: 7344: 7339: 7332: 7327: 7320: 7315: 7308: 7303: 7296: 7291: 7284: 7279: 7277: 7275: 7268:, p. 299 7267: 7262: 7255: 7250: 7248: 7241:, p. 245 7240: 7235: 7228: 7223: 7216: 7211: 7204: 7199: 7192: 7187: 7180: 7175: 7168: 7163: 7156: 7151: 7144: 7139: 7132: 7127: 7121:, p. 11. 7120: 7115: 7108: 7103: 7096: 7091: 7084: 7079: 7072: 7067: 7060: 7055: 7053: 7046:, p. 10. 7045: 7040: 7033: 7028: 7022:, p. 45. 7021: 7016: 7009: 7004: 6997: 6992: 6985: 6980: 6973: 6968: 6961: 6956: 6949: 6944: 6937: 6932: 6925: 6920: 6913: 6908: 6906: 6898: 6893: 6886: 6881: 6874: 6869: 6867: 6859: 6854: 6852: 6844: 6839: 6832: 6827: 6820: 6815: 6808: 6803: 6796: 6791: 6784: 6779: 6772: 6767: 6760: 6755: 6748: 6743: 6736: 6731: 6724: 6719: 6712: 6707: 6700: 6695: 6688: 6683: 6676: 6671: 6664: 6659: 6652: 6647: 6640: 6635: 6628: 6623: 6616: 6611: 6595: 6589: 6582: 6577: 6570: 6565: 6563: 6556:, p. 42. 6555: 6550: 6543: 6538: 6531: 6526: 6519: 6514: 6512: 6504: 6499: 6493:, p. 64. 6492: 6487: 6480: 6475: 6469:, p. 64. 6468: 6463: 6457:, p. 30. 6456: 6451: 6444: 6439: 6432: 6427: 6420: 6415: 6408: 6403: 6396: 6391: 6384: 6379: 6372: 6367: 6360: 6355: 6348: 6343: 6334: 6333: 6326: 6319: 6314: 6307: 6302: 6295: 6290: 6283: 6282:Alsos Mission 6277: 6276: 6269: 6263:, p. 92. 6262: 6257: 6251:, p. 39. 6250: 6245: 6238: 6233: 6226: 6221: 6214: 6209: 6201: 6197: 6191: 6184: 6179: 6177: 6161: 6160:National Post 6157: 6150: 6135: 6131: 6124: 6117: 6112: 6105: 6100: 6094:, p. 16. 6093: 6088: 6081: 6076: 6069: 6064: 6057: 6052: 6050: 6042: 6037: 6030: 6025: 6017: 6013: 6009: 6005: 6004: 5996: 5989: 5984: 5977: 5972: 5965: 5960: 5944: 5938: 5931: 5926: 5911: 5907: 5903: 5899: 5895: 5891: 5887: 5883: 5879: 5875: 5868: 5861: 5853: 5849: 5845: 5841: 5834: 5828: 5809: 5802: 5796: 5794: 5786: 5781: 5774: 5769: 5762: 5757: 5751:, p. 29. 5750: 5745: 5738: 5733: 5717: 5711: 5692: 5686: 5679: 5674: 5667: 5662: 5646: 5640: 5633: 5628: 5621: 5616: 5609: 5603: 5596: 5591: 5589: 5582:, p. 88. 5581: 5576: 5569: 5564: 5557: 5552: 5546:, p. 49. 5545: 5540: 5533: 5528: 5512: 5508: 5502: 5495: 5490: 5483: 5478: 5472:, p. 78. 5471: 5466: 5459: 5454: 5447: 5442: 5435: 5430: 5428: 5420: 5415: 5408: 5403: 5396: 5391: 5384: 5379: 5373:, p. 26. 5372: 5367: 5360: 5355: 5348: 5347:Gowing (1964) 5343: 5335: 5329: 5322: 5317: 5310: 5305: 5298: 5293: 5286: 5281: 5274:(7): 186–189. 5273: 5269: 5262: 5260: 5258: 5256: 5248: 5243: 5236: 5231: 5224: 5219: 5212: 5207: 5200: 5195: 5188: 5183: 5176: 5171: 5164: 5159: 5152: 5147: 5140: 5135: 5128: 5123: 5116: 5111: 5104: 5099: 5092: 5087: 5085: 5078:, p. 81. 5077: 5072: 5056: 5055: 5050: 5044: 5037: 5032: 5030: 5022: 5017: 5010: 5005: 4998: 4993: 4987:, p. 40. 4986: 4981: 4974: 4969: 4962: 4957: 4950: 4949:Sullivan 2016 4945: 4938: 4933: 4931: 4915: 4914: 4909: 4902: 4895: 4890: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4857: 4850: 4845: 4839:, p. 30. 4838: 4833: 4826: 4821: 4814: 4809: 4802: 4797: 4791:, p. 21. 4790: 4785: 4779:, p. 41. 4778: 4773: 4766: 4761: 4759: 4751: 4746: 4739: 4734: 4727: 4722: 4715: 4710: 4703: 4698: 4696: 4694: 4686: 4685:Williams 1960 4681: 4675:, p. 35. 4674: 4669: 4662: 4657: 4650: 4645: 4638: 4633: 4626: 4621: 4619: 4611: 4606: 4599: 4594: 4588:, p. 42. 4587: 4582: 4580: 4572: 4567: 4551: 4545: 4538: 4533: 4531: 4524:, p. 33. 4523: 4518: 4511: 4506: 4504: 4487: 4481: 4474: 4469: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4439: 4433:, p. 21. 4432: 4427: 4421:, p. 20. 4420: 4415: 4408: 4403: 4401: 4394:, p. 12. 4393: 4388: 4381: 4377: 4364: 4363: 4358: 4351: 4347: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4283: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4263: 4257: 4250: 4249:Composition B 4246: 4240: 4231: 4224: 4219: 4213: 4203: 4196: 4190: 4183: 4178: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4157: 4072: 4065: 4061: 4055: 4051: 4041: 4038: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4025: 4023: 4019: 4016: 4013: 4010: 4007: 4004: 4003: 3997: 3995: 3989: 3984: 3981: 3977: 3975: 3974:phosphorus-32 3971: 3967: 3962: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3939: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3892: 3890: 3886: 3885: 3880: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3859:Niagara Falls 3856: 3851: 3846: 3836: 3834: 3828: 3826: 3820: 3818: 3814: 3808: 3806: 3802: 3793: 3789: 3781: 3778: 3776: 3773: 3771: 3768: 3767: 3763: 3760: 3757: 3754: 3753: 3749: 3746: 3743: 3740: 3739: 3735: 3732: 3729: 3726: 3725: 3721: 3718: 3715: 3712: 3711: 3707: 3704: 3701: 3698: 3697: 3693: 3690: 3687: 3684: 3683: 3679: 3676: 3673: 3670: 3669: 3665: 3662: 3659: 3656: 3655: 3644: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3621: 3615: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3600: 3597: 3593: 3588: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3558: 3554: 3549: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3538:Wigner effect 3534: 3530: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3502:Leslie Groves 3499: 3495: 3491: 3486: 3480:After the war 3477: 3475: 3471: 3470:Franck Report 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3453: 3448: 3443: 3441: 3435: 3433: 3428: 3426: 3422: 3417: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3405: 3396: 3390: 3385: 3381: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3369: 3358: 3355: 3351: 3346: 3343: 3339: 3334: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3302: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3291: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3253: 3251: 3250:pumpkin bombs 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3211: 3207: 3206: 3201: 3197: 3187: 3177: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3150: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3111: 3107: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3073: 3068: 3064: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3041: 3037: 3031: 3030:Alsos Mission 3021: 3018: 3014: 3013:Theodore Hall 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2985: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2974:Boris T. Pash 2971: 2967: 2960: 2950: 2946: 2944: 2940: 2939:Joseph Stalin 2936: 2932: 2931: 2926: 2925: 2920: 2916: 2906: 2897: 2893: 2886: 2885: 2880: 2876: 2871: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2846: 2841: 2839: 2835: 2825: 2816: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2792: 2790: 2786: 2777: 2773: 2770: 2766: 2761: 2759: 2749: 2740: 2738: 2733: 2725: 2721: 2718: 2714: 2713: 2710: 2708: 2707: 2706:Bhagavad Gita 2702: 2697: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2678: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2659: 2655: 2650: 2646: 2644: 2634: 2630: 2628: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2609: 2599: 2596: 2590: 2588: 2587:Francis Birch 2585: 2579: 2577: 2571: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2549:at Los Alamos 2548: 2543: 2539: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2512: 2507: 2505: 2504:David Hawkins 2501: 2497: 2493: 2492:lanthanum-140 2490: 2486: 2482: 2477: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2458:composition B 2455: 2451: 2447: 2438: 2434: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2419: 2417: 2413: 2412:predetonation 2408: 2406: 2402: 2393: 2388: 2381:Weapon design 2378: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2364: 2360: 2349: 2340: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2308: 2305: 2300: 2296: 2291: 2287: 2285: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2264: 2259: 2255: 2250: 2240: 2236: 2234: 2229: 2225: 2219: 2217: 2207: 2202: 2192: 2190: 2186: 2185:plutonium-239 2182: 2181:neptunium-239 2178: 2174: 2163: 2161: 2155: 2153: 2144: 2140: 2138: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2117: 2107: 2103: 2101: 2100:Union Carbide 2095: 2093: 2089: 2084: 2083:M. W. Kellogg 2075: 2071: 2069: 2065: 2064:Karl P. Cohen 2061: 2057: 2053: 2047: 2037: 2033: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2015: 2010: 2006: 2004: 2000: 1997: 1987: 1983: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1963: 1953: 1951: 1946: 1942: 1940: 1939:Karl P. Cohen 1936: 1932: 1917: 1913: 1911: 1907: 1897: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1862: 1860: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1846:Edgar Sengier 1843: 1834: 1830: 1825: 1821: 1819: 1815: 1814:Staten Island 1811: 1810:uranium oxide 1807: 1803: 1802:Belgian Congo 1799: 1790: 1789:Belgian Congo 1786: 1782: 1777: 1763: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1745:; and at the 1744: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1727: 1726: 1719: 1709: 1707: 1703: 1702:Eldorado Mine 1693: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1682:Bennett Lewis 1679: 1675: 1674:Camp Petawawa 1671: 1667: 1663: 1653: 1651: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1621: 1617: 1607: 1603: 1600: 1594: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1571: 1567: 1565: 1561: 1555: 1545: 1543: 1539: 1538:DuPage County 1535: 1531: 1527: 1522: 1520: 1515: 1513: 1512:Goodyear Tire 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1472: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1425: 1420: 1410: 1408: 1403: 1399: 1398:Robert Bacher 1394: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1381: 1375: 1373: 1369: 1359: 1354: 1344: 1341: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1323: 1321: 1317: 1312: 1311:U.S. Marshals 1307: 1303: 1300: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1279: 1274: 1232:Project sites 1229: 1227: 1223: 1217: 1215: 1210: 1206: 1205:Belgian Congo 1202: 1198: 1193: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1177: 1175: 1170: 1166: 1161: 1153: 1148: 1144: 1142: 1141:war in Europe 1138: 1132: 1122: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1099: 1097: 1096:Donald Nelson 1092: 1090: 1087: 1083: 1077: 1075: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1050: 1048: 1042: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1019: 1014: 1012: 1011:Leslie Groves 1008: 999: 995: 993: 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 970: 966: 951: 949: 945: 941: 937: 933: 932:hydrogen bomb 927: 925: 921: 917: 913: 909: 904: 903:Glenn Seaborg 899: 897: 893: 889: 885: 882: 878: 874: 870: 866: 860: 858: 857:hydrodynamics 854: 850: 846: 845:Robert Serber 842: 838: 837:Gregory Breit 834: 830: 821: 812: 810: 805: 803: 800: 796: 792: 788: 784: 780: 776: 771: 769: 765: 761: 757: 753: 749: 745: 741: 737: 736:Eger Murphree 733: 730:investigated 729: 725: 721: 717: 713: 706: 702: 698: 694: 693:Vannevar Bush 690: 686: 681: 667: 665: 661: 658: 654: 650: 647: 643: 638: 636: 632: 628: 624: 620: 616: 615:Mark Oliphant 611: 609: 605: 601: 597: 593: 589: 588:critical mass 585: 581: 576: 574: 570: 567:isotope, and 566: 562: 561:Vannevar Bush 558: 553: 551: 547: 543: 539: 535: 531: 527: 523: 515: 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 493: 492:Edward Teller 489: 485: 481: 477: 473: 468: 466: 462: 458: 454: 450: 449:Eugene Wigner 446: 442: 438: 434: 430: 426: 422: 418: 414: 410: 403: 393: 391: 387: 383: 379: 375: 371: 367: 363: 359: 354: 352: 348: 344: 339: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 313: 309: 305: 301: 297: 293: 289: 285: 281: 277: 273: 268: 266: 262: 258: 254: 250: 246: 242: 238: 234: 230: 229:Leslie Groves 226: 222: 218: 212:Military unit 203: 199: 197: 192: 187: 181: 178: 176: 173: 172: 170: 164: 159: 153: 150: 148: 145: 143: 140: 138: 135: 133: 130: 129: 127: 123: 119: 117:Anniversaries 115: 111: 108: 104: 101: 98: 94: 87: 84: 82:United States 81: 80: 78: 74: 70: 66: 62: 58: 53: 49: 48: 41: 36: 31: 28: 26: 22: 15967: 15950: 15938:from Commons 15933: 15912: 15804: 15724:Fort Stanton 15649:Lloyd Oliver 15629:Enrico Fermi 15545:Bibliography 15528: 15341:Project Hula 15306:Vistula–Oder 15275: 15208: 15199: 15183: 15153: 15102: 15086: 15077: 15068: 15034: 14931: 14846: 14822: 14792: 14543: 14436: 14381:North Africa 14083:Soviet Union 14037:Soviet Union 13963:Soviet Union 13731:Vatican City 13641:Vichy France 13546:German Reich 13443:Soviet Union 13429:South Africa 13422:Sierra Leone 13375:Newfoundland 13194:Participants 13177:Marocchinate 12881: 12872: 12842: 12720:North Africa 12681:Indian Ocean 12540:Nazi plunder 12495: 12431:Cryptography 12304:World War II 12248:Y-12 Project 12233:Smyth Report 12228:S-50 Project 12190: 12186:K-25 Project 12115:Pumpkin bomb 12086: 12079: 12072: 12002:John Wheeler 11972:Louis Slotin 11967:Emilio Segrè 11917:George Koval 11897:James Franck 11882:Enrico Fermi 11827:Luis Alvarez 11786:Paul Tibbets 11761:Deak Parsons 11586: 11530: 11526: 11505:. 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Lincoln: 10497:6 September 9838:10 November 9785:Walker 2009 9622:(77): 552. 9403:Groves 1962 9267:Sandia 1967 9174:Frisch 1970 9113:Groves 1962 9022:27 February 8996:27 February 8933:Groves 1962 8782:Groves 1962 8646:Groves 1962 8634:Groves 1962 8622:Groves 1962 8610:Groves 1962 8574:Groves 1962 8535:Groves 1962 8499:Groves 1962 8451:Groves 1962 8439:Groves 1962 8403:Groves 1962 8379:Groves 1962 8367:Groves 1962 8275:Groves 1962 8077:25 November 8024:Groves 1962 7807:Groves 1962 7454:Rhodes 1986 7119:Thayer 1996 7059:Thayer 1996 7044:Thayer 1996 6960:Thayer 1996 6924:Groves 1962 6596:. SmithDRay 6092:Thayer 1996 6041:Groves 1962 6029:Groves 1962 5773:Conant 2005 5749:Hunner 2004 5737:Hunner 2004 5666:Groves 1962 5458:Groves 1962 5419:Groves 1962 5383:Gowing 1964 5371:Hunner 2004 5359:Gowing 1964 5297:Gowing 1964 5235:Stacey 1970 5187:Groves 1962 5175:Ermenc 1989 5151:Groves 1962 5139:Groves 1962 5127:Groves 1962 5103:Groves 1962 4985:Groves 1962 4879:23 November 4849:Rhodes 1986 4813:Rhodes 1986 4777:Groves 1962 4738:Rhodes 1986 4637:Rhodes 1986 4625:Phelps 2010 4610:Phelps 2010 4571:Rhodes 1986 4473:Rhodes 1986 4368:30 November 4304:Sam Rayburn 4218:Shinkolobwe 4022:Paul Newman 3936:Big Science 3713:Los Alamos 3666:% of total 3637:Baruch Plan 3623:(1945) and 3557:Sandia Base 3354:Carl Spaatz 3352:to General 3277:North Field 3238:Silverplate 3200:Silverplate 3115:Oranienburg 2989:Klaus Fuchs 2875:Byron Price 2568:hot pressed 2481:shock waves 2299:Leona Woods 2279:arc welding 2177:uranium-239 1931:Jesse Beams 1925:Centrifuges 1920:production. 1868:to produce 1866:nitric acid 1854:John Winant 1842:Shinkolobwe 1785:Shinkolobwe 1783:) from the 1725:P-9 Project 1718:P-9 Project 1706:Port Radium 1637:Hugh Taylor 1484:Stagg Field 1461:pilot plant 1453:Leó Szilárd 1449:Leona Woods 1441:Walter Zinn 1402:Isidor Rabi 1291:Ed Westcott 1226:McMahon Act 1186:Klaus Fuchs 1137:Tube Alloys 1062:Oppenheimer 1023:survey team 888:Felix Bloch 783:heavy water 781:researched 779:Harold Urey 670:Feasibility 565:uranium-235 486:to head an 457:uranium ore 445:Leo Szilard 429:atomic bomb 425:Otto Frisch 372:as part of 292:uranium-235 257:Tube Alloys 125:Engagements 106:Garrison/HQ 15982:Categories 15952:Quotations 15376:West Hunan 15209:Pointblank 14545:Silver Fox 14531:Summer War 14284:Winter War 14263:Phoney War 14044:Azerbaijan 14005:Yugoslavia 13900:Luxembourg 13742:Resistance 13489:Yugoslavia 13354:Luxembourg 13156:Sook Ching 12952:War crimes 12554:Technology 12547:Opposition 12489:Lend-Lease 12466:Australian 12459:Home front 12417:Blitzkrieg 12367:Casualties 12358:Commanders 12330:Operations 12166:Demon core 12110:Little Boy 12031:Operations 11847:Niels Bohr 11837:Hans Bethe 11820:Scientists 11766:Boris Pash 11645:Los Alamos 11540:2103.05727 11507:13 October 10961:30 October 10637:1178870332 10575:8 December 10025:31 October 9851:References 9804:23 January 9363:Jones 1985 9255:Jones 1985 9240:Jones 1985 9213:20 October 9159:23 January 8974:23 January 8921:Sklar 1984 8823:23 January 8752:24 January 8715:24 January 8658:Jones 1985 8511:Jones 1985 8487:Jones 1985 8463:Jones 1985 8427:Jones 1985 8415:Jones 1985 8391:Jones 1985 8263:Jones 1985 8251:Jones 1985 8239:Jones 1985 8227:Jones 1985 8203:Jones 1985 7997:Jones 1985 7985:Jones 1985 7961:Jones 1985 7949:Jones 1985 7937:Jones 1985 7922:24 October 7899:Jones 1985 7819:Jones 1985 7687:Jungk 1958 7675:Jones 1985 7603:Jones 1985 7544:Jones 1985 7520:Jones 1985 7107:Jones 1985 7095:Jones 1985 7032:Libby 1979 7008:Jones 1985 6936:Jones 1985 6912:Jones 1985 6873:Jones 1985 6858:Smyth 1945 6819:Jones 1985 6807:Jones 1985 6783:Jones 1985 6771:Jones 1985 6759:Smyth 1945 6747:Jones 1985 6735:Jones 1985 6711:Jones 1985 6699:Jones 1985 6663:Jones 1985 6639:Jones 1985 6627:Jones 1985 6615:Jones 1985 6569:Jones 1985 6530:Smyth 1945 6518:Jones 1985 6431:Jones 1985 6419:Smyth 1945 6347:Jones 1985 6261:Smyth 1945 6249:Smyth 1945 6225:Jones 1985 6213:Jones 1985 6116:Jones 1985 6104:Jones 1985 6080:Jones 1985 6068:Jones 1985 6056:Jones 1985 5976:Jones 1985 5930:Libby 1979 5817:3 December 5785:Jones 1985 5678:Jones 1985 5620:Jones 1985 5595:Jones 1985 5580:Jones 1985 5532:Jones 1985 5470:Jones 1985 5407:Jones 1985 5321:Jones 1985 5223:Villa 1981 5163:Jones 1985 5091:Jones 1985 5061:19 January 5021:Jones 1985 4937:Jones 1985 4919:27 October 4894:Bethe 1991 4837:Bethe 1991 4726:Jones 1985 4702:Jones 1985 4673:Jones 1985 4661:Jones 1985 4522:Jones 1985 4392:Jones 1985 4332:John Taber 4162:Pearl Buck 3970:iodine-131 3926:, and the 3889:Atomic Age 3843:See also: 3813:boondoggle 3671:Oak Ridge 3574:signs the 3570:President 3147:Haigerloch 3072:Haigerloch 3057:Boris Pash 2997:Harry Gold 2900:Censorship 2890:US$ 10,000 2466:detonators 2173:transmuted 2160:Little Boy 1976:university 1972:California 1950:Zippe-type 1892:, and its 1886:Ames, Iowa 1504:short tons 1347:Los Alamos 1182:Niels Bohr 1107:communists 908:cyclotrons 865:Hans Bethe 720:on Germany 651:, and the 546:Pupin Hall 510:Pupin Hall 439:and other 427:, made an 345:. Through 332:transmuted 288:Little Boy 168:commanders 161:Commanders 15969:Textbooks 15869:Chemistry 15609:Jack Aeby 15441:Manchuria 15327:Indochina 15103:Bagration 14554:Lithuania 14199:Anschluss 13996:Viet Minh 13893:Lithuania 13835:Hong Kong 13605:Manchukuo 13560:Azad Hind 13219:Australia 13019:Aftermath 12882:Paperclip 12777:Aftermath 12577:Total war 12445:Diplomacy 12408:In Europe 12208:Plutonium 12074:Enola Gay 11892:Val Fitch 11842:Aage Bohr 11791:Bud Uanna 11660:Oak Ridge 10934:0040-165X 10796:231585284 10769:231585284 10749:(1995a). 10607:276274684 10484:610317261 10462:973585699 10403:642846903 10376:907550561 10315:25 August 10261:154690200 10116:637004643 10044:637052193 10012:650540359 9990:0096-3402 9959:25 August 9674:1 October 9477:1 January 9068:0162-2889 8906:11 August 8159:0362-4331 7773:29 August 7745:29 August 7740:0024-3019 7505:28 August 6503:Kemp 2012 5902:0036-8075 4342:Citations 4269:teacher, 4033:starring 3677:$ 15,949 3614:(AFSWP). 3389:Hiroshima 3368:Enola Gay 3314:Hiroshima 3288:USS 3226:bomb bays 3174:Farm Hall 3158:Otto Hahn 3139:Hechingen 3123:Stassfurt 2937:wrote to 2852:espionage 2840:policy): 2796:Radiology 2743:Personnel 2709:(XI,12): 2686:trinitite 2595:deuterium 2536:duralumin 2387:Project Y 2324:half-life 2320:xenon-135 2284:Reactor B 2263:B-Reactor 2166:Plutonium 2152:Cleveland 1980:cyclotron 1968:calutrons 1829:reduction 1781:Tobernite 1733:; at the 1480:bleachers 1353:Project Y 1335:Oak Ridge 1267:Oak Ridge 1103:Project Y 940:deuterium 916:implosion 912:spheroids 675:Proposals 569:plutonium 522:U.S. Navy 413:Otto Hahn 382:radiology 284:plutonium 249:Manhattan 68:Disbanded 63:1942–1946 15905:Politics 15785:Bat bomb 15763:See also 15552:Category 15501:document 15411:document 15268:Ardennes 15252:Budapest 15200:Crossbow 15078:Overlord 14917:Smolensk 14135:Timeline 13970:Slovakia 13956:Thailand 13807:Ethiopia 13772:Bulgaria 13696:Portugal 13634:Thailand 13516:Bulgaria 13294:Eswatini 13287:Ethiopia 13240:Bulgaria 13065:Unit 731 13026:Response 12843:Keelhaul 12793:Cold War 12766:Americas 12757:timeline 12750:Atlantic 12630:Theaters 12264:Category 12120:Thin Man 12081:Bockscar 11675:Wendover 11655:New York 11650:Montreal 11640:Inyokern 11615:Berkeley 11596:Timeline 11348:(1973). 11338:15223648 11318:(1987). 11288:(1979). 11254:(1962). 11224:(1947). 11200:(1956). 11190:22661282 11166:(1991). 11149:17818712 11074:34323402 11035:(1945). 11020:23693470 10996:(1992). 10876:26764320 10852:(1993). 10739:52282810 10617:(2021). 10587:(2009). 10570:11646807 10435:13793436 10413:(1986). 10327:(1958). 10310:10913875 10234:49569088 10214:(1999). 10200:29911222 10121:26 March 10081:15058256 10054:(1964). 9916:(2005). 9906:58554961 8861:15 March 8124:Archived 8050:15 April 7864:12 April 7842:28 March 7499:Archived 5949:12 April 5915:23 March 5910:17746246 5722:1 August 4868:(1946). 4556:16 April 4382:series. 4267:Sanskrit 4223:vanadium 4064:Berkeley 4000:See also 3957:. Their 3780:$ 25,361 3705:$ 1,387 3691:$ 5,236 3685:Hanford 3674:$ 1,188 3404:Bockscar 3395:Nagasaki 3361:Bombings 3326:Nagasaki 3244:and the 3143:Bisingen 2856:sabotage 2405:Thin Man 2092:Bakelite 2090:and the 2056:effusion 1787:mine in 1641:catalyst 1488:graphite 791:graphite 714:and the 530:graphite 524:awarded 280:Thin Man 189:Insignia 15881:Physics 15843:Portals 15830:Trinity 15478:Shumshu 15245:Hungary 15192:Estonia 15176:Lapland 15154:Dragoon 15087:Neptune 15069:Ichi-Go 15035:Tempest 14977:Changde 14932:Cottage 14824:Jubilee 14540:Finland 14438:Compass 14144:Prelude 14097:Finland 13983:Vietnam 13949:Romania 13821:Germany 13800:Estonia 13786:Denmark 13765:Belgium 13758:Austria 13751:Albania 13682:Ireland 13668:Andorra 13652:Neutral 13619:Romania 13553:Hungary 13538:Finland 13410:Romania 13302:Finland 13280:Denmark 13226:Belgium 13212:Algeria 12918:Romania 12904:Hungary 12660:Pacific 12384:General 12338:Leaders 12323:Battles 12316:Outline 12238:Uranium 12105:Fat Man 12098:Weapons 11670:Trinity 11635:Hanford 11620:Chicago 11518:at the 11476:27 July 11440:27 July 11421:27 July 11308:4665032 11244:8805725 11141:1708292 11121:Bibcode 11113:Science 11097:Bibcode 10835:1087645 10654:1358166 10558:(ed.). 10288:6331350 10150:3717478 10064:3195209 9515:7 April 9076:2539014 8884:15 June 8681:2 March 8130:7 April 8103:25 June 7706:19 July 6600:22 June 6016:3301034 5882:Bibcode 5874:Science 5700:6 April 5651:6 April 5517:9 March 4492:28 June 4458:29 July 4275:Krishna 3867:uranium 3863:thorium 3775:$ 1,890 3413:Urakami 3336:At the 3318:Niigata 3285:cruiser 3125:in the 2819:Secrecy 2798:at the 2602:Trinity 2522:of the 2462:baratol 2446:Fat Man 2271:pickled 2134:Captain 1906:fissile 1766:Uranium 1749:, near 1737:, near 1656:Ontario 1645:chromia 1629:Cominco 1599:Wanapum 1548:Hanford 1494:metal; 1492:uranium 1413:Chicago 944:tritium 853:neutron 847:of the 758:at the 657:General 582:at the 482:of the 441:fascist 396:Origins 336:Fat Man 318:in the 308:thermal 304:gaseous 231:of the 166:Notable 76:Country 47:Trinity 15602:People 15455:Debate 15427:Taipei 15420:Borneo 14998:Tarawa 14192:Europe 14153:Africa 13942:Poland 13928:Norway 13907:Malaya 13886:Latvia 13828:Greece 13814:France 13710:Sweden 13675:Bhutan 13403:Poland 13389:Norway 13361:Mexico 13328:Greece 13314:France 13252:Canada 13233:Brazil 13203:Allies 13149:Serbia 13138:Poland 12911:Poland 12897:Baltic 12690:Europe 12392:Topics 12344:Allied 11630:Dayton 11624:Site A 11493:Review 11384:about 11368:627817 11366: 11356: 11336: 11326: 11306: 11296: 11278:537684 11276: 11266: 11242: 11232: 11214:173307 11212: 11188: 11178: 11147: 11139: 11072: 11062: 11047:770285 11045: 11018: 11008: 10932: 10905:235645 10903: 10874: 10864: 10833: 10823: 10794: 10784: 10767: 10757: 10737: 10717: 10678:630225 10676: 10652: 10635: 10625: 10605: 10595: 10568: 10543: 10520: 10482: 10460: 10450: 10433: 10423: 10401: 10391: 10374: 10364: 10349:181321 10347: 10337: 10308: 10286: 10276: 10259: 10249: 10232: 10222: 10198: 10188: 10169: 10148: 10138: 10114: 10104: 10079: 10062: 10042: 10010: 9988: 9954:834187 9952: 9928: 9904: 9894: 9879:448105 9877: 9387: 9074: 9066: 8325:2 July 8157: 7738: 7583: 6165:25 May 6139:23 May 6014: 5908: 5900: 5852:770687 5850: 4330:, and 3914:, and 3898:: the 3871:radium 3839:Legacy 3761:$ 359 3747:$ 500 3733:$ 935 3719:$ 994 3702:$ 103 3694:20.6% 3688:$ 390 3680:62.9% 3635:. 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The 112:, U.S. 96:Branch 88:Canada 60:Active 15935:Media 15231:Leyte 15061:Narva 15047:Anzio 15005:Makin 14963:Burma 14847:Torch 14816:Rzhev 14777:Kiska 13863:Korea 13849:Japan 13842:Italy 13724:Tibet 13703:Spain 13581:Italy 13342:Italy 13335:India 13259:China 13134:Japan 12734:Italy 12646:China 12598:Women 11603:Sites 11535:arXiv 11226:Alsos 11137:JSTOR 11087:arXiv 10901:JSTOR 10690:(PDF) 10491:(PDF) 10476:(PDF) 10302:(PDF) 10098:(PDF) 10019:(PDF) 10004:(PDF) 9946:(PDF) 9875:JSTOR 9601:(PDF) 9594:(PDF) 9577:(PDF) 9072:JSTOR 8964:(PDF) 8855:(PDF) 8842:(PDF) 8164:6 May 6012:JSTOR 5870:(PDF) 5836:(PDF) 5811:(PDF) 5804:(PDF) 5694:(PDF) 4873:(PDF) 4046:Notes 3770:Total 3764:1.4% 3758:$ 27 3750:2.0% 3744:$ 37 3736:3.7% 3730:$ 70 3722:3.9% 3716:$ 74 3708:5.5% 3657:Site 3542:redox 3322:Kyoto 3202:B-29 2836:(the 2701:Hindu 2352:area. 2318:from 2228:Alcoa 2175:into 1585:near 1119:Frank 1111:Kitty 793:as a 15297:1945 15025:1944 14866:1943 14794:Blue 14784:Attu 14691:1942 14450:1941 14302:1940 14240:1939 14169:Asia 14016:POWs 13856:Jews 13574:Iraq 13500:Axis 13450:Tuva 13266:Cuba 12351:Axis 11610:Ames 11509:2015 11491:ORNL 11478:2011 11458:2015 11442:2011 11423:2011 11364:OCLC 11354:ISBN 11334:OCLC 11324:ISBN 11304:OCLC 11294:ISBN 11274:OCLC 11264:ISBN 11240:OCLC 11230:ISBN 11210:OCLC 11186:OCLC 11176:ISBN 11145:PMID 11070:OCLC 11060:ISBN 11043:OCLC 11016:OCLC 11006:ISBN 10982:2019 10963:2010 10930:ISSN 10885:Isis 10872:OCLC 10862:ISBN 10831:OSTI 10821:ISBN 10792:OCLC 10782:ISBN 10765:OCLC 10755:ISBN 10735:OCLC 10715:ISBN 10702:2010 10674:OCLC 10650:OCLC 10633:OCLC 10623:ISBN 10603:OCLC 10593:ISBN 10577:2014 10566:OCLC 10541:ISBN 10518:ISBN 10499:2012 10480:OCLC 10458:OCLC 10448:ISBN 10431:OCLC 10421:ISBN 10399:OCLC 10389:ISBN 10372:OCLC 10362:ISBN 10345:OCLC 10335:ISBN 10317:2013 10306:OCLC 10284:OCLC 10274:ISBN 10257:OCLC 10247:ISBN 10230:OCLC 10220:ISBN 10196:OCLC 10186:ISBN 10167:ISBN 10146:OCLC 10136:ISBN 10123:2013 10112:OCLC 10102:ISBN 10077:OCLC 10060:OCLC 10040:OCLC 10027:2014 10008:OCLC 9986:ISSN 9961:2013 9950:OCLC 9926:ISBN 9902:OCLC 9892:ISBN 9840:2015 9806:2024 9676:2012 9517:2013 9479:2012 9385:ISBN 9215:2012 9161:2024 9064:ISSN 9024:2015 8998:2015 8976:2024 8908:2013 8886:2016 8863:2009 8825:2024 8754:2024 8717:2024 8683:2011 8327:2011 8166:2020 8155:ISSN 8132:2013 8105:2012 8079:2011 8071:Life 8052:2012 7924:2022 7887:NASA 7866:2024 7844:2023 7775:2023 7766:Time 7747:2023 7736:ISSN 7731:Life 7708:2013 7581:ISBN 7507:2016 6602:2011 6167:2024 6141:2024 5951:2013 5917:2013 5906:PMID 5898:ISSN 5848:OSTI 5819:2012 5724:2024 5702:2011 5653:2011 5519:2010 5063:2022 5054:Time 4921:2010 4881:2008 4558:2018 4494:2011 4460:2019 4370:2023 4262:Gita 3992:The 3972:and 3853:The 3647:Cost 3375:and 3255:The 3131:WIFO 3011:and 2884:Life 2854:and 2652:The 2460:and 2330:and 2124:and 2046:K-25 2022:Y-12 2012:The 1978:and 1753:and 1741:and 1739:Dana 1700:The 1686:ZEEP 1660:The 1532:'. 1451:and 1439:and 1400:and 963:The 942:and 738:and 718:and 633:and 536:and 447:and 423:and 415:and 407:The 215:The 44:The 11545:doi 11531:207 11129:doi 11117:134 10922:doi 10893:doi 10813:doi 9978:doi 9867:doi 9624:doi 7794:144 7495:PBS 5890:doi 5878:212 5840:doi 4245:TNT 4062:at 3922:at 3881:of 3279:on 3232:at 2921:of 2860:FBI 2576:pit 2128:'s 1884:in 1771:Ore 1704:at 1690:NRX 1498:of 1482:of 1285:in 1018:TNT 746:at 606:'s 512:at 411:by 15984:: 15045:/ 11543:. 11529:. 11497:25 11495:. 11488:. 11469:. 11433:. 11414:. 11362:. 11332:. 11302:. 11272:. 11238:. 11184:. 11143:. 11135:. 11127:. 11095:. 11068:. 11014:. 11004:. 10992:; 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