4347:
plutonium would vary in the body depending on exposure mode (oral ingestion, inhalation, absorption through skin), retention rates, and how plutonium would be fixed in tissues and distributed among the various organs. Hamilton started administering soluble microgram portions of plutonium-239 compounds to rats using different valence states and different methods of introducing the plutonium (oral, intravenous, etc.). Eventually, the lab at
Chicago also conducted its own plutonium injection experiments using different animals such as mice, rabbits, fish, and even dogs. The results of the studies at Berkeley and Chicago showed that plutonium's physiological behavior differed significantly from that of radium. The most alarming result was that there was significant deposition of plutonium in the liver and in the "actively metabolizing" portion of bone. Furthermore, the rate of plutonium elimination in the excreta differed between species of animals by as much as a factor of five. Such variation made it extremely difficult to estimate what the rate would be for human beings.
4507:
11715:
5274:
4422:
building in 200-East, B Plant, was completed in
February 1945. The second facility planned for 200-East was canceled. Nicknamed Queen Marys by the workers who built them, the separation buildings were awesome canyon-like structures 800 feet long, 65 feet wide, and 80 feet high containing forty process pools. The interior had an eerie quality as operators behind seven feet of concrete shielding manipulated remote control equipment by looking through television monitors and periscopes from an upper gallery. Even with massive concrete lids on the process pools, precautions against radiation exposure were necessary and influenced all aspects of plant design.
9444:, August 7, 2015. The "craft's 125-pound generator called the General Purpose Heat Source-Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator. was stocked with 24 pounds of plutonium that produced about 240 watts of electricity when it left Earth in 2006, according to Ryan Bechtel, an engineer from the Department of Energy who works on space nuclear power. During the Pluto flyby the battery produced 202 watts, Mr. Bechtel said. The power will continue to decrease as the metal decays, but there is enough of it to command the probe for another 20 years, according to Curt Niebur, a NASA program scientist on the New Horizons mission." Retrieved 2015-08-10.
4280:, were at this point also working on transuranic elements in Berlin. It is likely that Hahn and Strassmann were aware that plutonium-239 should be fissile. However, they did not have a strong neutron source. Element 93 was reported by Hahn and Strassmann, as well as Starke, in 1942. Hahn's group did not pursue element 94, likely because they were discouraged by McMillan and Abelson's lack of success in isolating it when they had first found element 93. However, since Hahn's group had access to the stronger cyclotron at Paris at this point, they would likely have been able to detect plutonium had they tried, albeit in tiny quantities (a few
2496:
3409:
4293:
5200:" theory in which a particle of plutonium dust irradiates a localized spot of lung tissue is not supported by mainstream researchâsuch particles are more mobile than originally thought and toxicity is not measurably increased due to particulate form. When inhaled, plutonium can pass into the bloodstream. Once in the bloodstream, plutonium moves throughout the body and into the bones, liver, or other body organs. Plutonium that reaches body organs generally stays in the body for decades and continues to expose the surrounding tissue to radiation and thus may cause cancer.
4379:
4959:
3606:
5158:, and death. The danger increases with the amount of exposure. α-radiation can travel only a short distance and cannot travel through the outer, dead layer of human skin. ÎČ-radiation can penetrate human skin, but cannot go all the way through the body. Îł-radiation can go all the way through the body. Even though α radiation cannot penetrate the skin, ingested or inhaled plutonium does irradiate internal organs. α-particles generated by inhaled plutonium have been found to cause lung cancer in a cohort of European nuclear workers. The
2757:
11727:
1419:
4391:
3618:
4948:
4181:
49:
4799:
3817:
enough to allow the electrons to form bonds within the lattice, on the very boundary between localized and bonding behavior. The proximity of energy levels leads to multiple low-energy electron configurations with near equal energy levels. This leads to competing 5f7s and 5f6d7s configurations, which causes the complexity of its chemical behavior. The highly directional nature of 5f orbitals is responsible for directional covalent bonds in molecules and complexes of plutonium.
4061:. These trace amounts of Pu originate in the following fashion: on rare occasions, U undergoes spontaneous fission, and in the process, the nucleus emits one or two free neutrons with some kinetic energy. When one of these neutrons strikes the nucleus of another U atom, it is absorbed by the atom, which becomes U. With a relatively short half-life, U decays to Np, which decays into Pu. Finally, exceedingly small amounts of plutonium-238, attributed to the extremely rare
11703:
16015:
15282:
1994:
4315:. On August 20, 1942, a trace quantity of this element was isolated and measured for the first time. About 50 micrograms of plutonium-239 combined with uranium and fission products was produced and only about 1 microgram was isolated. This procedure enabled chemists to determine the new element's atomic weight. On December 2, 1942, on a racket court under the west grandstand at the University of Chicago's Stagg Field, researchers headed by
1475:
11755:
5193:. The U.S. Department of Energy estimates that the lifetime cancer risk from inhaling 5,000 plutonium particles, each about 3 ÎŒm wide, is 1% over the background U.S. average. Ingestion or inhalation of large amounts may cause acute radiation poisoning and possibly death. However, no human being is known to have died because of inhaling or ingesting plutonium, and many people have measurable amounts of plutonium in their bodies.
11789:
11417:
15270:
11691:
15294:
11772:
4327:, and a pilot chemical separation facility at Oak Ridge. The separation facility, using methods developed by Glenn T. Seaborg and a team of researchers at the Met Lab, removed plutonium from uranium irradiated in the X-10 reactor. Information from CP-1 was also useful to Met Lab scientists designing the water-cooled plutonium production reactors for Hanford. Construction at the site began in mid-1943.
2382:(3,228 °C, 5,842 °F). This gives a large range of temperatures (over 2,500 kelvin wide) at which plutonium is liquid, but this range is neither the greatest among all actinides nor among all metals, with neptunium theorized to have the greatest range in both instances. The low melting point as well as the reactivity of the native metal compared to the oxide leads to
4092:). The latter are generally more useful, because the chemistries of thorium and plutonium are rather similar (both are predominantly tetravalent) and hence an excess of thorium would not be strong evidence that some of it was formed as a plutonium daughter. Pu has the longest half-life of all transuranic nuclides and is produced only in the
4460:, the first industrial-sized nuclear reactor for the purposes of material production, was completed in March 1945. B Reactor produced the fissile material for the plutonium weapons used during World War II. B, D and F were the initial reactors built at Hanford, and six additional plutonium-producing reactors were built later at the site.
4223:. Neptunium-238 was created directly by the bombardment but decayed by beta emission with a half-life of a little over two days, which indicated the formation of element 94. The first bombardment took place on December 14, 1940, and the new element was first identified through oxidation on the night of February 23â24, 1941.
4076:, but early reports of its detection could not be confirmed. Based on its likely initial abundance in the Solar System, present experiments as of 2022 are likely about an order of magnitude away from detecting live primordial Pu. However, its long half-life ensured its circulation across the solar system before its
5076:, but as of 2003 there were somewhere between 50 and 100 plutonium-powered pacemakers still implanted and functioning in living patients in the United States. By the end of 2007, the number of plutonium-powered pacemakers was reported to be down to just nine. Pu was studied as a way to provide supplemental heat to
3201:
5369:
The usual transport of plutonium is through the more stable plutonium oxide in a sealed package. A typical transport consists of one truck carrying one protected shipping container, holding a number of packages with a total weight varying from 80 to 200 kg of plutonium oxide. A sea shipment may
5264:
Plutonium toxicity is just as detrimental to larvae of fish in nuclear waste areas. Undeveloped eggs have a higher risk than developed adult fish exposed to the element in these waste areas. Oak Ridge
National Laboratory displayed that carp and minnow embryos raised in solutions containing plutonium
4429:
at Los Alamos received the first sample of reactor-produced plutonium from Oak Ridge. Within ten days, he discovered that reactor-bred plutonium had a higher concentration of Pu than cyclotron-produced plutonium. Pu has a high spontaneous fission rate, raising the overall background neutron level of
4346:
During the early stages of research, animals were used to study the effects of radioactive substances on health. These studies began in 1944 at the
University of California at Berkeley's Radiation Laboratory and were conducted by Joseph G. Hamilton. Hamilton was looking to answer questions about how
4338:
The nuclear properties of plutonium-239 were also studied; researchers found that when it is hit by a neutron it breaks apart (fissions) by releasing more neutrons and energy. These neutrons can hit other atoms of plutonium-239 and so on in an exponentially fast chain reaction. This can result in an
4248:
realized that a slow neutron reactor fuelled with uranium would theoretically produce substantial amounts of plutonium-239 as a by-product. They calculated that element 94 would be fissile, and had the added advantage of being chemically different from uranium, and could easily be separated from it.
3994:
nature and high susceptibility to corrosion to the point of self-igniting or disintegrating after exposure to air require alloying with other components. Addition of aluminium, carbon or copper does not improve disintegration rates markedly, zirconium and iron alloys have better corrosion resistance
4912:
MOX fuel improves total burnup. A fuel rod is reprocessed after three years of use to remove waste products, which by then account for 3% of the total weight of the rods. Any uranium or plutonium isotopes produced during those three years are left and the rod goes back into production. The presence
4727:
For human subjects, this involved injecting solutions typically containing 5 micrograms (ÎŒg) of plutonium into hospital patients thought to be either terminally ill, or to have a life expectancy of less than ten years either due to age or chronic disease. This was reduced to 1 ÎŒg in July 1945 after
4463:
By the end of
January 1945, the highly purified plutonium underwent further concentration in the completed chemical isolation building, where remaining impurities were removed successfully. Los Alamos received its first plutonium from Hanford on February 2. While it was still by no means clear that
4264:
of the
Cambridge team independently proposed the same name, based on the same reasoning as the Berkeley team. Seaborg originally considered the name "plutium", but later thought that it did not sound as good as "plutonium". He chose the letters "Pu" as a joke, in reference to the interjection "P U"
5573:
As one article puts it, referring to information
Seaborg gave in a talk: "The obvious choice for the symbol would have been Pl, but facetiously, Seaborg suggested Pu, like the words a child would exclaim, 'Pee-yoo!' when smelling something bad. Seaborg thought that he would receive a great deal of
5222:
Several populations of people who have been exposed to plutonium dust (e.g. people living down-wind of Nevada test sites, Nagasaki survivors, nuclear facility workers, and "terminally ill" patients injected with Pu in 1945â46 to study Pu metabolism) have been carefully followed and analyzed. Cohen
5227:
who survived into old age after being injected with plutonium. "There were about 25 workers from Los Alamos
National Laboratory who inhaled a considerable amount of plutonium dust during 1940s; according to the hot-particle theory, each of them has a 99.5% chance of being dead from lung cancer by
5241:
will consume the element on a daily basis. The complete excretion of ingested plutonium by zooplankton makes their defecation an extremely important mechanism in the scavenging of plutonium from surface waters. However, those zooplankton that succumb to predation by larger organisms may become a
4933:
using plutonium believed to contain only about 85% plutonium-239, so called '"fuel-grade" plutonium. The "reactor-grade" plutonium produced by a regular LWR burnup cycle typically contains less than 60% Pu-239, with up to 30% parasitic Pu-240/Pu-242, and 10â15% fissile Pu-241. It is unknown if a
3816:
are the transition border between delocalized and localized; it is therefore considered one of the most complex elements. The anomalous behavior of plutonium is caused by its electronic structure. The energy difference between the 6d and 5f subshells is very low. The size of the 5f shell is just
4723:
During and after the end of World War II, scientists working on the
Manhattan Project and other nuclear weapons research projects conducted studies of the effects of plutonium on laboratory animals and human subjects. Animal studies found that a few milligrams of plutonium per kg of tissue is a
4623:
primarily resulted from two major plutonium fires in 1957 and 1969. Much lower concentrations of radioactive isotopes were released throughout the operational life of the plant from 1952 to 1992. Prevailing winds from the plant carried airborne contamination south and east, into populated areas
4421:
In
January 1944, workers laid the foundations for the first chemical separation building, T Plant located in 200-West. Both the T Plant and its sister facility in 200-West, the U Plant, were completed by October. (U Plant was used only for training during the Manhattan Project.) The separation
2774:
of plutonium have been characterized. The longest-lived are Pu, with a half-life of 80.8 million years; Pu, with a half-life of 373,300 years; and Pu, with a half-life of 24,110 years. All other isotopes have half-lives of less than 7,000 years. This element also has eight
9776:
Grellier, James; Atkinson, Will; BĂ©rard, Philippe; Bingham, Derek; Birchall, Alan; Blanchardon, Eric; Bull, Richard; Guseva Canu, Irina; Challeton-de Vathaire, CĂ©cile; Cockerill, Rupert; Do, Minh T; Engels, Hilde; Figuerola, Jordi; Foster, Adrian; Holmstock, Luc; Hurtgen, Christian; Laurier,
5236:
Plutonium is known to enter the marine environment by dumping of waste or accidental leakage from nuclear plants. Though the highest concentrations of plutonium in marine environments are found in sediments, the complex biogeochemical cycle of plutonium means it is also found in all other
5820:
5872:
While plutonium dioxide is normally olive green, samples can be various colors. It is generally believed that the color is a function of chemical purity, stoichiometry, particle size, and method of preparation, although the color resulting from a given preparation method is not always
4104:; when nuclei are ejected from these events at high speed to reach Earth, Pu alone among transuranic nuclides has a long enough half-life to survive the journey, and hence tiny traces of live interstellar Pu have been found in the deep sea floor. Because Pu also occurs in the
3941:
is an alternative to PGA. It was the original element considered for ÎŽ phase stabilization, but its tendency to react with the alpha particles and release neutrons reduces its usability for nuclear weapons. Plutoniumâaluminium alloy can be also used as a component of
6621:
Windorff, Cory J.; Chen, Guo P; Cross, Justin N; Evans, William J.; Furche, Filipp; Gaunt, Andrew J.; Janicke, Michael T.; Kozimor, Stosh A.; Scott, Brian L. (2017). "Identification of the Formal +2 Oxidation State of Plutonium: Synthesis and Characterization of
3226:. Different isotopes produce different amounts of heat per mass. The decay heat is usually listed as watt/kilogram, or milliwatt/gram. In larger pieces of plutonium (e.g. a weapon pit) and inadequate heat removal the resulting self-heating may be significant.
4628:, "In the more densely populated areas of Denver, the Pu contamination level in surface soils is several times fallout", and the plutonium contamination "just east of the Rocky Flats plant ranges up to hundreds of times that from nuclear tests". As noted by
5261:(CEZ). Results showed that a proportion of female perch in the CEZ displayed either a failure or delay in maturation of the gonads. Similar studies found large accumulations of plutonium in the respiratory and digestive organs of cod, flounder and herring.
4830:
The Fat Man plutonium bombs used explosive compression of plutonium to obtain significantly higher density than normal, combined with a central neutron source to begin the reaction and increase efficiency. Thus only 6 kg of plutonium was needed for an
4704:"Recommendation #1: The United States should undertake an integrated nuclear waste management program that leads to the timely development of one or more permanent deep geological facilities for the safe disposal of spent fuel and high-level nuclear waste".
5056:
spacecraft were launched in 1977, each containing a 500 watt plutonium power source. Over 30 years later, each source still produces about 300 watts which allows limited operation of each spacecraft. An earlier version of the same technology powered five
5600:
During the Manhattan Project, plutonium was also often referred to as simply "49": the number 4 was for the last digit in 94 (atomic number of plutonium), and 9 was for the last digit in plutonium-239, the weapons-grade fissile isotope used in nuclear
5285:
Care must be taken to avoid the accumulation of amounts of plutonium which approach critical mass, particularly because plutonium's critical mass is only a third of that of uranium-235. A critical mass of plutonium emits lethal amounts of neutrons and
2992:
4920:
Plutonium recovered from spent reactor fuel poses little proliferation hazard, because of excessive contamination with non-fissile plutonium-240 and plutonium-242. Separation of the isotopes is not feasible. A dedicated reactor operating on very low
4569:, on August 9, 1945, killing 35,000â40,000 people and destroying 68%â80% of war production at Nagasaki. Only after the announcement of the first atomic bombs was the existence and name of plutonium made known to the public by the Manhattan Project's
4265:
to indicate an especially disgusting smell, which passed without notice into the periodic table. Alternative names considered by Seaborg and others were "ultimium" or "extremium" because of the erroneous belief that they had found the last possible
5166:, where it collects and becomes concentrated, are at risk. Plutonium is not absorbed into the body efficiently when ingested; only 0.04% of plutonium oxide is absorbed after ingestion. Plutonium absorbed by the body is excreted very slowly, with a
5828:
4765:
chronicles the lives of the subjects of the secret program by naming each person involved and discussing the ethical and medical research conducted in secret by the scientists and doctors. The episode is now considered to be a serious breach of
3030:
5408:
U.S. Government air transport regulations permit the transport of plutonium by air, subject to restrictions on other dangerous materials carried on the same flight, packaging requirements, and stowage in the rearmost part of the aircraft.
5265:
did not hatch; eggs that hatched displayed significant abnormalities when compared to control developed embryos. It revealed that higher concentrations of plutonium have been found to cause issues in marine fauna exposed to the element.
4868:. Accidental neutron capture causes the amount of plutonium-242 and 240 to grow each time the plutonium is irradiated in a reactor with low-speed "thermal" neutrons, so that after the second cycle, the plutonium can only be consumed by
4080:, and indeed, evidence of the spontaneous fission of extinct Pu has been found in meteorites. The former presence of Pu in the early Solar System has been confirmed, since it manifests itself today as an excess of its daughters, either
2550:
The presence of these many allotropes makes machining plutonium very difficult, as it changes state very readily. For example, the α form exists at room temperature in unalloyed plutonium. It has machining characteristics similar to
2171:
Plutonium is the element with the highest atomic number known to occur in nature. Trace quantities arise in natural uranium deposits when uranium-238 captures neutrons emitted by decay of other uranium-238 atoms. The heavy isotope
4938:
conservatively classifies plutonium of all isotopic vectors as "direct-use" material, that is, "nuclear material that can be used for the manufacture of nuclear explosives components without transmutation or further enrichment".
5343:
on its surface, which are pyrophoric and may ignite in air at room temperature. Plutonium expands up to 70% in volume as it oxidizes and thus may break its container. The radioactivity of the burning material is another hazard.
4826:
back into the plutonium core. This reduces the critical mass from 16 kg to 10 kg, which is a sphere with a diameter of about 10 centimeters (4 in). This critical mass is about a third of that for uranium-235.
4904:
and consists of 60 kg of plutonium per tonne of fuel; after four years, three-quarters of the plutonium is burned (turned into other elements). MOX fuel has been in use since the 1980s, and is widely used in Europe.
4636:, "Exposures of a large population in the Denver area to plutonium and other radionuclides in the exhaust plumes from the plant date back to 1953." Weapons production at the Rocky Flats plant was halted after a combined
2458:, below which resistivity rapidly decreases for fresh samples. Resistivity then begins to increase with time at around 20 K due to radiation damage, with the rate dictated by the isotopic composition of the sample.
4603:
in South Carolina produced 103 tonnes, and an estimated 170 tonnes of military-grade plutonium was produced in the USSR. Each year about 20 tonnes of the element is still produced as a by-product of the
4925:(hence minimal exposure of newly formed plutonium-239 to additional neutrons which causes it to be transformed to heavier isotopes of plutonium) is generally required to produce material suitable for use in efficient
4785:, and it uncovered much of the material about plutonium research on humans. The committee issued a controversial 1995 report which said that "wrongs were committed" but it did not condemn those who perpetrated them.
4494:. Inside the safe were various items, including a large glass bottle containing a whitish slurry which was subsequently identified as the oldest sample of weapons-grade plutonium known to exist. Isotope analysis by
4872:. If fast neutron reactors are not available (the normal case), excess plutonium is usually discarded, and forms one of the longest-lived components of nuclear waste. The desire to consume this plutonium and other
2472:
Unlike most materials, plutonium increases in density when it melts, by 2.5%, but the liquid metal exhibits a linear decrease in density with temperature. Near the melting point, the liquid plutonium has very high
4988:
and neutrons. Being an alpha emitter, it combines high energy radiation with low penetration and thereby requires minimal shielding. A sheet of paper can be used to shield against the alpha particles from Pu. One
5416:âaround every other yearâincluding one time in 2011. Regulations permit a plane to transport 15 grams of fissionable material. Such plutonium transportation is without problems, according to a senior advisor (
4334:
was reduced to create the first sample of plutonium metal: a few micrograms of metallic beads. Enough plutonium was produced to make it the first synthetically made element to be visible with the unaided eye.
4899:
spent nuclear fuel to extract plutonium and uranium which can be used to form a mixed oxide (MOX) fuel for reuse in nuclear reactors. Weapons-grade plutonium can be added to the fuel mix. MOX fuel is used in
10594:
9104:
Openness, DOE. (June 1998). Human Radiation Experiments: ACHRE Report. Chapter 5: The Manhattan district Experiments; the first injection. Washington, DC. Superintendent of Documents US Government Printing
5111:, including military nuclear accidents where nuclear weapons have burned. Studies of the effects of these smaller releases, as well as of the widespread radiation poisoning sickness and death following the
9610:
4005:
were investigated for use as nuclear fuels. The addition of the third element increases corrosion resistance, reduces flammability, and improves ductility, fabricability, strength, and thermal expansion.
10063:
4996:
These characteristics make it well-suited for electrical power generation for devices that must function without direct maintenance for timescales approximating a human lifetime. It is therefore used in
3920:(PGA) and plutoniumâaluminium alloy are produced by adding Pu(III) fluoride to molten gallium or aluminium, which has the advantage of avoiding dealing directly with the highly reactive plutonium metal.
2821:
Plutonium-238 and 239 are the most widely synthesized isotopes. Pu is synthesized via the following reaction using uranium (U) and neutrons (n) via beta decay (ÎČ) with neptunium (Np) as an intermediate:
3744:, meaning they can ignite spontaneously at ambient temperature and are therefore handled in an inert, dry atmosphere of nitrogen or argon. Bulk plutonium ignites only when heated above 400 °C. Pu
4934:
device using plutonium obtained from reprocessed civil nuclear waste can be detonated, however such a device could hypothetically fizzle and spread radioactive materials over a large urban area. The
8503:
Schwantes, Jon M.; Matthew Douglas; Steven E. Bonde; James D. Briggs; et al. (2009). "Nuclear archeology in a bottle: Evidence of pre-Trinity U.S. weapons activities from a waste burial site".
6664:
Zaitsevskii, Andréi; Mosyagin, Nikolai S.; Titov, Anatoly V.; Kiselev, Yuri M. (July 21, 2013). "Relativistic density functional theory modeling of plutonium and americium higher oxide molecules".
5215:
of radiation toxicity. Cohen estimated that one pound of plutonium could kill no more than 2 million people by inhalation, so that the toxicity of plutonium is roughly equivalent with that of
5610:
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) established B Reactor as a National Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark in September 1976. In August 2008, B Reactor was designated a U.S.
3035:
10165:
4835:
equivalent to 20 kilotons of TNT. Hypothetically, as little as 4 kg of plutoniumâand maybe even lessâcould be used to make a single atomic bomb using very sophisticated assembly designs.
2223:
of any sample containing it. The presence of plutonium-240 limits a plutonium sample's usability for weapons or its quality as reactor fuel, and the percentage of plutonium-240 determines its
4534:", as the Trinity device was codenamed, used conventional explosive lenses to compress a sphere of plutonium into a supercritical mass, which was simultaneously showered with neutrons from
3206:
where a deuteron hitting uranium-238 produces two neutrons and neptunium-238, which decays by emitting negative beta particles to form plutonium-238. Plutonium-238 can also be produced by
2531:
and forms a seventh (zeta, ζ) at high temperature within a limited pressure range. These allotropes, which are different structural modifications or forms of an element, have very similar
15890:
11407:
4624:
northwest of Denver. The contamination of the Denver area by plutonium from the fires and other sources was not publicly reported until the 1970s. According to a 1972 study coauthored by
4131:. France would continue atmospheric nuclear testing until 1974 and China would continue atmospheric nuclear testing until 1980. All subsequent nuclear testing was conducted underground.
4689:
told a Senate hearing "the Yucca Mountain site no longer was viewed as an option for storing reactor waste". Starting in 1999, military-generated nuclear waste is being entombed at the
6707:
Kiselev, Yu. M.; Nikonov, M. V.; Dolzhenko, V. D.; Ermilov, A. Yu.; Tananaev, I. G.; Myasoedov, B. F. (January 17, 2014). "On existence and properties of plutonium(VIII) derivatives".
3916:
Plutonium alloys can be produced by adding a metal to molten plutonium. If the alloying metal is reductive enough, plutonium can be added in the form of oxides or halides. The ÎŽ phase
14045:
9433:
11025:
5170:
of 200 years. Plutonium passes only slowly through cell membranes and intestinal boundaries, so absorption by ingestion and incorporation into bone structure proceeds very slowly.
11587:
8960:
2828:
11405:
10486:
8306:
4479:
in Russia, over a period of four decades, "both released more than 200 million curies of radioactive isotopes into the surrounding environmentâtwice the amount expelled in the
14631:
2454:
of plutonium at room temperature is very high for a metal, and it gets even higher with lower temperatures, which is unusual for metals. This trend continues down to 100
3196:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\ce {{^{238}_{92}U}+{^{2}_{1}H}->}}&{\ce {{^{238}_{93}Np}+2_{0}^{1}n}}\\&{\ce {^{238}_{93}Np->{^{238}_{94}Pu}}}\end{aligned}}}
5657:
7701:
7622:
Wallner, A.; Faestermann, T.; Feige, J.; Feldstein, C.; Knie, K.; Korschinek, G.; Kutschera, W.; Ofan, A.; Paul, M.; Quinto, F.; Rugel, G.; Steiner, P. (March 30, 2014).
15952:
13419:
11318:
Plentiful Energy: The Story of the Integral Fast Reactor, the Complex History of a Simple Reactor Technology, with Emphasis on Its Scientific Basis for Non-specialists
5648:
isotopes. Their destructive yield is commonly in the millions of tons of TNT equivalent compared with the thousands of tons of TNT equivalent of fission-only devices.
5245:
In addition to consumption, fish can also be exposed to plutonium by their distribution around the globe. One study investigated the effects of transuranium elements (
2661:) larger than one, which means that if the metal is present in sufficient quantity and with an appropriate geometry (e.g., a sphere of sufficient size), it can form a
4558:, though it had just 6 kg of plutonium. About 20% of the plutonium in the Trinity weapon, fissioned; releasing an energy equivalent to about 20,000 tons of TNT.
14825:
10591:
8908:
6271:
8028:
Winterberg, Friedwardt; Herrmann, GĂŒnter; Fodor, Igor; Wolfenstein, Lincoln; Singer, Mark E. (1996). "More on How Nazi Germany Failed to Develop the Atomic Bomb".
4743:. The tests were used to create diagnostic tools to determine the uptake of plutonium in the body in order to develop safety standards for working with plutonium.
9614:
7397:
11406:
10059:
9588:
9562:
13457:
6295:
Wallner, A.; Faestermann, T.; Feige, J.; Feldstein, C.; Knie, K.; Korschinek, G.; Kutschera, W.; Ofan, A.; Paul, M.; Quinto, F.; Rugel, G.; Steier, P. (2015).
8881:
6889:
4487:
over the years were part of normal operations, but unforeseen accidents did occur and plant management kept this secret, as the pollution continued unabated.
2779:, though all have half-lives less than a second. Pu has been found in interstellar space and it has the longest half-life of any non-primordial radioisotope.
14233:
8006:
5623:
The efficiency calculation is based on the fact that 1 kg of plutonium-239 (or uranium-235) fissioning results in an energy release of approximately 17
4697:
4608:
industry. As much as 1000 tonnes of plutonium may be in storage with more than 200 tonnes of that either inside or extracted from nuclear weapons.
9826:
7440:
10656:
10371:
8104:
5108:
4929:. While "weapons-grade" plutonium is defined to contain at least 92% plutonium-239 (of the total plutonium), the United States have managed to detonate an
4453:âa technically more daunting task than the simple gun-type bomb, but necessary for a plutonium bomb. Uranium, by contrast, can be used with either method.
3881:, tantalum, and tungsten, which are soluble in liquid plutonium, but insoluble or only slightly soluble in solid plutonium. Gallium, aluminium, americium,
2465:
throughout its crystal structure, meaning the ordered arrangement of its atoms becomes disrupted by radiation with time. Self-irradiation can also lead to
1671:
4359:, for developing an atomic bomb. The three primary research and production sites of the project were the plutonium production facility at what is now the
3488:âhow atoms connect to a central atomâof the plutonium species. Additionally, the formal +2 oxidation state of plutonium is known in the complex , Cpâł = C
13760:
11511:
10516:
7762:
2704:
rate (~440 fissions per second per gram; over 1,000 neutrons per second per gram), raising the background neutron levels and thus increasing the risk of
2802:(neglecting the wide range of daughter nuclei created by fission processes). The main decay mode for isotopes heavier than Pu, along with Pu and Pu, is
2168:, which at the time was also considered a planet. Wartime secrecy prevented the University of California team from publishing its discovery until 1948.
14055:
10624:
2590:
used to compress a plutonium core will also cause a transition from the usual Ύ phase plutonium to the denser α form, significantly helping to achieve
11826:
10129:
9368:
4782:
3995:
but they disintegrate in several months in air as well. Addition of titanium and/or zirconium significantly increases the melting point of the alloy.
2677:(much of the latter being quickly converted to thermal energy). Fission of a kilogram of plutonium-239 can produce an explosion equivalent to 21,000
6200:
5859:
4781:
ordered a change of policy and federal agencies then made available relevant records. The resulting investigation was undertaken by the president's
3913:
also allows some retention of the Ύ phase at room temperature. Neptunium is the only element that can stabilize the α phase at higher temperatures.
14936:
11280:
9750:
9662:
5323:
In December 1958, during a process of purifying plutonium at Los Alamos, a critical mass formed in a mixing vessel, which killed chemical operator
4464:
enough plutonium could be produced for use in bombs by the war's end, Hanford was by early 1945 in operation. Only two years had passed since Col.
9777:
Dominique; Puncher, Matthew; Riddell, Tony; Samson, Eric; Thierry-Chef, Isabelle; Tirmarche, Margot; Vrijheid, Martine; Cardis, Elisabeth (2017).
6510:
15081:
13129:
7861:
2559:) form at slightly higher temperatures. The reasons for the complicated phase diagram are not entirely understood. The α form has a low-symmetry
4323:. Using theoretical information garnered from the operation of CP-1, DuPont constructed an air-cooled experimental production reactor, known as
10799:
8231:"The taming of "49" â Big Science in little time. Recollections of Edward F. Hammel, In: Cooper N.G. Ed. Challenges in Plutonium Science"
4191:
Plutonium (specifically, plutonium-238) was first produced, isolated and then chemically identified between December 1940 and February 1941 by
3341:
The main impurity in samples of Pu. The plutonium grade is usually listed as percentage of Pu. High rate of SF hinders use in nuclear weapons.
10956:
10452:
7831:
15905:
13740:
13208:
11097:
10569:
9430:
7081:
4641:
4025:
Trace amounts of plutonium-238, plutonium-239, plutonium-240, and plutonium-244 can be found in nature. Small traces of plutonium-239, a few
2028:
10542:
9754:
4644:
raid in 1989 and years of protests. The plant has since been shut down, with its buildings demolished and completely removed from the site.
2424:
alpha particle. This amounts to 9.68 watts of power. Heat produced by the deceleration of these alpha particles makes it warm to the touch.
16074:
14062:
13493:
11450:
2543:. This makes plutonium very sensitive to changes in temperature, pressure, or chemistry, and allows for dramatic volume changes following
2247:. Plutonium isotopes are expensive and inconvenient to separate, so particular isotopes are usually manufactured in specialized reactors.
15470:
15332:
11336:
11300:
11208:
11048:
11009:
10512:
6196:
5544:
was discovered, a Cambridge University professor suggested it be renamed to "plutonium" because the element was not (as suggested by the
4307:
The chemistry of plutonium was found to resemble uranium after a few months of initial study. Early research was continued at the secret
2586:. The ÎŽ form has more typical metallic character, and is roughly as strong and malleable as aluminium. In fission weapons, the explosive
2570:) form normally exists in the 310 °C to 452 °C range but is stable at room temperature when alloyed with a small percentage of
2019:
11591:
10992:
9495:
9140:
7973:
7932:
7047:
6044:
2786:
from 228 to 247. The main decay modes of isotopes with mass numbers lower than the most stable isotope, Pu, are spontaneous fission and
13828:
10037:
9746:
8967:
8082:
8693:
8576:
7235:
15797:
14331:
10482:
8302:
8277:
8245:
5207:
states that a pound of plutonium dust spread into the atmosphere would be enough to kill 8 billion people. This was disputed by
5112:
4803:
4010:
has the best corrosion resistance, forming a protective film of oxides, but titanium and zirconium are preferred for physics reasons.
14570:
9465:
9398:
5304:
bricks around a 6.2 kg plutonium sphere resulted in a fatal dose of radiation at Los Alamos on August 21, 1945, when scientist
8448:
7792:
6083:
5893:
1630:
11145:
10409:
8670:
8207:
7512:
Hutcheon, I. D.; Price, P. B. (January 1, 1972). "Plutonium-244 Fission Tracks: Evidence in a Lunar Rock 3.95 Billion Years Old".
7180:
7002:"The aqueous corrosion behavior of plutonium metal and plutoniumâgallium alloys exposed to aqueous nitrate and chloride solutions"
6936:
3416:
At room temperature, pure plutonium is silvery in color but gains a tarnish when oxidized. The element displays four common ionic
14781:
14621:
14560:
10093:
9060:
8371:
6539:
4672:
2712:, fuel-grade, or reactor-grade based on the percentage of Pu that it contains. Weapons-grade plutonium contains less than 7% Pu.
2451:
1526:
14701:
8938:
5392:
of Pacific Nuclear Transport Ltd. transported 331 kg (730 lbs) of plutonium to a United States government facility in
14526:
11479:
9013:
7697:
6892:. Washington (DC): U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Nuclear Safety, Quality Assurance and Environment. 1994. Archived from
6127:
4756:
4700:. In their final report the Commission put forth recommendations for developing a comprehensive strategy to pursue, including:
4445:
The entire plutonium weapon design effort at Los Alamos was soon changed to the more complicated implosion device, code-named "
11554:
11475:
8177:
4256:, and suggested that element 94, being the next element in the series, be named for what was then considered the next planet,
3005:
converts a neutron into a proton to form neptunium-239 (half-life 2.36 days) and another beta decay forms plutonium-239.
13755:
11819:
11325:
11294:
10928:
10769:
10718:
9065:
8607:"Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and Materials to State and Non-State Actors: What It Means for the Future of Nuclear Power"
7033:
5751:
4998:
4495:
3287:
2547:
from one allotropic form to another. The densities of the different allotropes vary from 16.00 g/cm to 19.86 g/cm.
2444:
2240:
9666:
7571:
Kunz, Joachim; Staudacher, Thomas; AllĂšgre, Claude J. (January 1, 1998). "Plutonium-Fission Xenon Found in Earth's Mantle".
6966:
5348:
sand is probably the most effective material for extinguishing a plutonium fire. It cools the burning material, acting as a
14577:
4930:
11795:
10001:
9637:
9343:
9317:
9217:
8799:
Johnson, C. J. (October 1981). "Cancer Incidence in an area contaminated with radionuclides near a nuclear installation".
6575:"Nuclear Criticality Safety Engineering Training Module 10 â Criticality Safety in Material Processing Operations, Part 1"
5352:, and also blocks off oxygen. Special precautions are necessary to store or handle plutonium in any form; generally a dry
4876:
fuels and reduce the radiotoxicity of the waste is the usual reason nuclear engineers give to make fast neutron reactors.
15298:
14494:
14040:
14005:
13122:
11743:
8916:
8827:
Johnson, C. J (October 1981). "Cancer Incidence in an area contaminated with radionuclides near a nuclear installation".
8701:. International Forum on Illegal Nuclear Traffic. Washington (DC): Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc. Archived from
6893:
6455:
Seaborg, Glenn T.; McMillan, E.; Kennedy, J. W.; Wahl, A. C. (1946). "Radioactive Element 94 from Deuterons on Uranium".
6278:
1664:
9180:
9095:
Moss, William, and Roger Eckhardt. (1995). "The human plutonium injection experiments." Los Alamos Science. 23: 177â233.
5699:
Breakdown of plutonium in a spent nuclear fuel rod: plutonium-239 (~58%), 240 (24%), 241 (11%), 242 (5%), and 238 (2%).
15192:
14776:
10190:
Skwarzec, B; Struminska, D; Borylo, A (2001). "Bioaccumulation and distribution of plutonium in fish from Gdansk Bay".
7732:
6235:
4747:
was an unwilling participant in medical experiments that involved injection of 4.7 ÎŒg of plutonium on 10 April 1945 at
4220:
4120:
2133:
7417:
4531:
3663:
as well as intermediate oxides; plutonium oxide fills 40% more volume than plutonium metal. The metal reacts with the
15350:
13856:
13735:
13201:
11558:
11373:
11261:
11238:
11202:
11125:
11073:
11019:
10986:
10901:
10875:
10846:
10812:
10788:
10695:
10115:
9936:
9584:
9558:
9184:
6574:
4683:
2184:(from the Earth's formation) to the present, but so far experiments have not yet been sensitive enough to detect it.
1162:
109:
10375:
8885:
4864:, 240, 239 and 238. The mixture is not sufficiently enriched for efficient nuclear weapons, but can be used once as
15086:
14951:
13486:
11812:
8617:
4810:
Pu is a key fissile component in nuclear weapons, due to its ease of fission and availability. Encasing the bomb's
4498:
indicated that the plutonium in the bottle was manufactured in the X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge during 1944.
4438:", had to be abandoned as a resultâthe increased number of spontaneous neutrons meant that nuclear pre-detonation (
1499:
11714:
9779:"Risk of lung cancer mortality in nuclear workers from internal exposure to alpha particle-emitting radionuclides"
7998:
3927:
is used for stabilizing the ÎŽ phase of plutonium, avoiding the α-phase and αâÎŽ related issues. Its main use is in
15325:
15029:
14863:
14465:
14343:
14000:
13861:
10336:
9833:
7495:
7353:
Hoffman, D. C.; Lawrence, F. O.; Mewherter, J. L.; Rourke, F. M. (1971). "Detection of Plutonium-244 in Nature".
7269:
Hoffman, D. C.; Lawrence, F. O.; Mewherter, J. L.; Rourke, F. M. (1971). "Detection of Plutonium-244 in Nature".
5584:
5328:
4637:
4030:
2012:
8139:
8108:
3804:
is used as a chemical simulant of plutonium for development of containment, extraction, and other technologies.
15019:
14868:
14326:
13115:
11093:
10508:
9284:
5925:
4848:
4372:
4148:
5636:
Much of this plutonium was used to make the fissionable cores of a type of thermonuclear weapon employing the
3694:
is also seen. The following oxyhalides are observed: PuOCl, PuOBr and PuOI. It will react with carbon to form
16079:
14793:
14626:
14050:
13978:
11454:
11228:
8756:
Poet, S. E.; Martell, EA (October 1972). "Plutonium-239 and americium-241 contamination in the Denver area".
6827:
Apostolidis, Christos; Walter, Olaf; Vogt, Jochen; Liebing, Phil; Maron, Laurent; Edelmann, Frank T. (2017).
5371:
4415:
4216:
3957:
2987:{\displaystyle {\ce {{^{238}_{92}U}+{^{1}_{0}n}->{^{239}_{92}U}->{^{239}_{93}Np}->{^{239}_{94}Pu}}}}
11761:
10652:
10616:
9962:"Lung cancer and internal lung doses among plutonium workers at the Rocky Flats Plant: a case-control study"
8858:
7439:
Turner, Grenville; Harrison, T. Mark; Holland, Greg; Mojzsis, Stephen J.; Gilmour, Jamie (January 1, 2004).
5921:
15957:
15136:
14873:
14582:
14336:
13833:
13194:
11650:
9265:"Thermochemical Behavior of Gallium in Weapons-Material-Derived Mixed-Oxide Light Water Reactor (LWR) Fuel"
5339:
Metallic plutonium is a fire hazard, especially if finely divided. In a moist environment, plutonium forms
5089:
2310:
9376:
8417:
7396:
Wu, Yang; Dai, Xiongxin; Xing, Shan; Luo, Maoyi; Christl, Marcus; Synal, Hans-Arno; Hou, Shaochun (2022).
6192:
5640:. These so-called 'hydrogen bombs' are a variety of nuclear weapon that use a fission bomb to trigger the
5143:
16064:
15925:
15286:
15199:
15171:
15128:
15093:
14931:
14758:
14696:
14521:
14425:
14311:
13779:
13479:
9866:
5851:
4714:
4690:
4115:
Minute traces of plutonium are usually found in the human body due to the 550 atmospheric and underwater
3917:
3825:
Plutonium can form alloys and intermediate compounds with most other metals. Exceptions include lithium,
2278:
6504:"Assessment of Plutonium-238 Production of Alternatives: Briefing for Nuclear Energy Advisory Committee"
16069:
16059:
16044:
16018:
15318:
15120:
14979:
14658:
14176:
14133:
13985:
11681:
11674:
11631:
6503:
5627:, leading to a rounded estimate of 1.2 kg plutonium actually fissioned to produce the 20 kt yield.
5611:
5588:
3637:. If the metal is exposed long enough to a limited amount of water vapor, a powdery surface coating of
2005:
1122:
17:
6297:"Abundance of live 244Pu in deep-sea reservoirs on Earth points to rarity of actinide nucleosynthesis"
5552:, it was named for) heavy. He reasoned that, since it was produced by the relatively new technique of
4647:
In the U.S., some plutonium extracted from dismantled nuclear weapons is melted to form glass logs of
4127:
in 1963, which of the nuclear powers was signed and ratified by the United States, United Kingdom and
3990:, with about 15â30 mol.% plutonium, can be used as a nuclear fuel for fast breeder reactors. Its
3598:
to avoid reaction with air. At 135 °C the metal will ignite in air and will explode if placed in
3480:
The color shown by plutonium solutions depends on both the oxidation state and the nature of the acid
15900:
15895:
15274:
14956:
14565:
14348:
11731:
11695:
11528:
11441:
9863:
9491:
5212:
5208:
5178:, which was detectable for the next thirty years of his life, but appeared to suffer no ill effects.
4484:
3960:, showing superconductivity below 18.5 K, an order of magnitude higher than the highest between
2560:
1455:
10818:
5540:
This was not the first time somebody suggested that an element be named "plutonium". A decade after
4667:
and stored as much as 4 km (2 mi) underground in bore holes that will be back-filled with
2736:
as well as alpha decay. All plutonium isotopes can be "bred" into fissile material with one or more
1724:
15982:
15515:
15374:
15204:
15046:
14946:
14858:
14067:
13953:
13913:
13725:
13281:
11627:
10939:
10460:
7857:
7624:"Abundance of live Pu in deep-sea reservoirs on Earth points to rarity of actinide nucleosynthesis"
6241:. Atomic Energy Commission Division of Military Applications. p. 12. WASH-1038. Archived from
5258:
5002:
4551:
4308:
3718:
3714:
1241:
11084:
10565:
9061:"Injected! Book review: The Plutonium Files: America's Secret Medical Experiments in the Cold War"
7827:
7183:. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management. 2004. Archived from
7092:
2717:
15977:
15874:
15429:
15109:
15076:
15051:
14665:
14442:
14248:
14171:
14128:
14111:
14072:
13995:
13411:
13356:
13299:
13291:
13268:
10538:
5827:. Bethesda (MD): U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health. Archived from
5316:, died from a similar accident involving a beryllium reflector and the same plutonium core (the "
5309:
5223:
found these studies inconsistent with high estimates of plutonium toxicity, citing cases such as
5175:
4914:
4588:
4582:
4124:
3688:
3680:
3676:
3551:
2713:
2490:
2371:
2366:
with other metals to make it soft and ductile. Unlike most metals, it is not a good conductor of
2347:
2318:
2224:
1102:
130:
15034:
10270:"Impact of Environmental Radiation on the Health and Reproductive Status of Fish from Chernobyl"
8737:
3286:
Very high decay heat. Even small amounts can cause significant self-heating. Used on its own in
2148:
to form the new element with atomic number 94 and atomic weight 238 (half-life 88 years). Since
15756:
15424:
15419:
15414:
15389:
14941:
14228:
13772:
13438:
13307:
11011:
Nuclear Power, Both Sides: The Best Arguments for and Against the Most Controversial Technology
7755:
5637:
4728:
animal studies found that the way plutonium distributes itself in bones is more dangerous than
4527:
4472:
4029:, and its decay products are naturally found in some concentrated ores of uranium, such as the
3932:
3684:
2666:
2647:
2466:
2263:
2200:
1860:
1129:
1114:
1089:
11345:
11284:
11192:
11175:
11086:
Proceedings of the conference on nuclear data evaluation methods and procedures. BNL-NCS 51363
11042:
10867:
10741:
The Birth of the Bomb: The Untold Story of Britain's Part in the Weapon That Changed the World
9691:
Little, M. P. (June 2009). "Cancer and non-cancer effects in Japanese atomic bomb survivors".
1161:
15997:
15822:
15565:
15510:
15235:
14971:
14926:
14388:
14316:
14243:
14238:
14203:
13990:
13958:
13745:
13672:
13344:
13315:
13139:
11458:
10976:
9487:
8539:
7001:
5100:
4815:
4554:). Together, these ensured a runaway chain reaction and explosion. The weapon weighed over 4
4510:
Due to the presence of Pu in reactor-bred plutonium, the implosion design was developed for "
4439:
4435:
4411:
4331:
4324:
4312:
2765:
2705:
2306:
1657:
10894:
Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943â1945
10033:
9082:
8064:
5421:
4339:
explosion large enough to destroy a city if enough of the isotope is concentrated to form a
4292:
2563:
structure, hence its brittleness, strength, compressibility, and poor thermal conductivity.
2105:
that can expand the sample up to 70% in volume, which in turn flake off as a powder that is
16054:
15807:
15802:
15661:
15535:
15146:
14921:
14906:
14223:
14181:
14017:
13923:
13851:
13372:
11855:
11437:
10281:
10242:
10199:
9700:
9455:
9369:"From heat sources to heart sources: Los Alamos made material for plutonium-powered pumper"
8569:
8037:
7645:
7580:
7521:
7455:
7362:
7278:
7219:
7207:
7013:
6673:
6464:
6395:
6318:
5297:
5167:
5037:
5019:
4896:
4869:
4844:
4832:
4748:
4491:
4368:
4237:
4077:
4068:
Due to its relatively long half-life of about 80 million years, it was suggested that
3928:
3854:
3795:
3599:
2367:
2286:
2274:
1516:
11607:
9125:
8954:
8952:
8265:
8230:
7958:
7917:
6029:
5290:. Plutonium in solution is more likely to form a critical mass than the solid form due to
5115:, have provided considerable information regarding the dangers, symptoms and prognosis of
4319:
achieved the first self-sustaining chain reaction in a graphite and uranium pile known as
8:
15666:
15621:
15581:
15404:
15245:
15056:
14841:
14435:
14303:
14281:
14106:
13963:
13730:
13692:
13525:
13364:
13217:
9405:
5393:
5116:
5007:
4901:
4857:
4761:
4600:
4157:
and mentioned it in his Nobel Lecture in 1938. The sample actually contained products of
4109:
4089:
3638:
3485:
3403:
3255:
3207:
2701:
2654:
2643:
2594:. The Δ phase, the highest temperature solid allotrope, exhibits anomalously high atomic
2469:
which counteracts some of the fatigue effects as temperature increases above 100 K.
2440:
2339:
2298:
2294:
2270:
2216:
2066:
1766:
1619:
1593:
1251:
11537:
10285:
10246:
10203:
9704:
8440:
8041:
7788:
7649:
7584:
7525:
7459:
7366:
7282:
7223:
7017:
6677:
6468:
6399:
6322:
5885:
5574:
flak over that suggestion, but the naming committee accepted the symbol without a word."
5273:
5072:, to reduce the risk of repeated surgery. It has been largely replaced by lithium-based
4414:. It went online in 1943 and was built at a facility in Oak Ridge that later became the
2729:
16049:
16039:
15731:
15555:
15525:
15465:
15225:
14961:
14798:
14725:
14536:
14186:
14156:
14140:
14123:
13767:
13657:
13605:
13555:
13502:
13252:
13247:
11422:
11136:
10889:
10707:
10417:
10268:
Lerebours, A; Gudkov, D; Nagorskaya, L; Kaglyan, A; Rizewski, V; Leshchenko, A (2018).
10157:
9909:
9803:
9778:
9724:
9535:
9518:
9516:
9280:
8949:
8808:
8781:
8199:
7679:
7666:
7635:
7623:
7596:
7553:
7537:
7487:
7471:
7378:
7335:
7294:
7184:
7039:
6928:
6908:
6861:
6828:
6724:
6347:
6308:
6296:
6078:
6070:
5768:
5331:
have occurred in the Soviet Union, Japan, the United States, and many other countries.
5147:
5127:
4853:
4535:
4480:
4364:
4073:
4026:
2737:
2462:
2181:
1998:
1741:
1583:
1549:
1442:
1233:
1227:
10211:
10089:
9712:
8502:
8367:
7231:
6535:
15946:
15935:
15842:
15701:
15696:
15646:
15495:
15490:
15480:
15341:
14293:
14086:
13973:
13948:
13886:
13843:
13687:
13682:
13677:
13520:
13339:
13323:
13286:
13273:
13239:
13231:
12706:
11578:
11369:
11321:
11290:
11257:
11250:
11234:
11198:
11179:
11166:
11121:
11069:
11015:
10982:
10948:
10924:
10907:
10897:
10871:
10858:
10842:
10808:
10784:
10765:
10758:
10744:
10724:
10714:
10691:
10299:
10254:
10215:
10149:
10145:
10111:
10034:"Radiation Protection, Plutonium: What does plutonium do once it gets into the body?"
9983:
9942:
9932:
9901:
9897:
9808:
9716:
9540:
8942:
8836:
8816:
8773:
8769:
8702:
8520:
7683:
7671:
7604:
7545:
7479:
7029:
6866:
6848:
6728:
6689:
6643:
6352:
6334:
5747:
5713:
5709:
5413:
5291:
5031:
4967:
4823:
4696:
In a Presidential Memorandum dated January 29, 2010, President Obama established the
4676:
4620:
4465:
4399:
4356:
4252:
McMillan had recently named the first transuranic element neptunium after the planet
4204:
4062:
3767:
3699:
3695:
3668:
3656:
3655:
Plutonium shows enormous, and reversible, reaction rates with pure hydrogen, forming
3645:
3579:
2540:
2401:
2251:
1704:
1695:
1643:
1623:
1449:
1374:
1364:
750:
15746:
10233:
Baxter, M; Fowler, S; Povined, P (1995). "Observations on plutonium in the oceans".
10161:
9913:
9728:
8998:
8785:
8666:
8338:
8336:
7830:. Advanced Computing for Science Department, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.
7557:
7491:
7043:
6932:
6116:
5690:) has been studied because it could hold plutonium for up to 30 million years.
2359:
2250:
Producing plutonium in useful quantities for the first time was a major part of the
15967:
15766:
15751:
15716:
15691:
15545:
15500:
15141:
14196:
14161:
13918:
13908:
13796:
13784:
13625:
13620:
13610:
13600:
13595:
12770:
12475:
12304:
12133:
12052:
11971:
11944:
11907:
11902:
11897:
11707:
11483:
10885:
10326:
10289:
10250:
10207:
10141:
9973:
9893:
9798:
9790:
9708:
9530:
9460:
9276:
9074:
8765:
8512:
8483:
8072:
8045:
7882:
E. SegrĂš, A Mind Always in Motion, University of California Press, 1993, pp 162-169
7661:
7653:
7588:
7529:
7463:
7409:
7382:
7370:
7327:
7312:
Peterson, Ivars (December 7, 1991). "Uranium displays rare type of radioactivity".
7298:
7286:
7227:
7021:
6920:
6856:
6840:
6716:
6681:
6635:
6472:
6403:
6342:
6326:
5783:
5518:
5383:
5374:
dictates that it must be solid instead of powder if the contents surpass 0.74
5301:
5278:
4771:
4740:
4266:
4226:
A paper documenting the discovery was prepared by the team and sent to the journal
4192:
4184:
4174:
3866:
3595:
3421:
3366:
Decays to americium-241; its buildup presents a radiation hazard in older samples.
2815:
2745:
2670:
2591:
2544:
2343:
2282:
2040:
1871:
1635:
1575:
1467:
1107:
66:
9960:
Brown, Shannon C.; Margaret F. Schonbeck; David McClure; et al. (July 2004).
9655:
8173:
7860:. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of California. LBL-13492, DE82 004551.
7724:
6538:. Council for Nuclear Fuel Cycle Institute for Energy Economics, Japan. May 2001.
5412:
In 2012, media revealed that plutonium has been flown out of Norway on commercial
4917:
has the potential to interfere with long-term operation of a light water reactor.
3798:
can be used to produce small ingots of the metal without the need for a crucible.
15972:
15812:
15776:
15706:
15641:
15631:
15606:
15505:
15485:
15460:
15039:
14999:
14453:
14267:
14191:
14166:
14012:
13805:
13707:
13697:
13662:
13540:
13530:
11892:
11887:
11882:
11877:
11872:
11867:
11862:
11344:. Richland, Washington: Westinghouse Hanford Company. WHC-EP-0273. Archived from
10736:
9794:
9437:
8410:"Kate Brown: Nuclear "Plutopias" the Largest Welfare Program in American History"
8333:
8321:
7592:
7533:
7323:
6962:
6890:"Primer on Spontaneous Heating and Pyrophoricity â Pyrophoric Metals â Plutonium"
5345:
5186:
5013:
4926:
4909:
are specifically designed to create more fissionable material than they consume.
4906:
4664:
4648:
4629:
4616:
in 2007 as about 500 tonnes, divided equally between weapon and civilian stocks.
4261:
4228:
4158:
4116:
4042:
3587:
3583:
3417:
2998:
2690:
2639:
2532:
2478:
2383:
2342:
very quickly to a dull gray, though yellow and olive green are also reported. At
2334:
Plutonium, like most metals, has a bright silvery appearance at first, much like
2314:
2208:
2074:
2044:
1407:
1344:
15721:
14531:
11562:
11279:
9742:
8743:
7413:
6608:
A Plutonium Primer: An Introduction to Plutonium Chemistry and its Radioactivity
5312:) and died 25 days later. Nine months later, another Los Alamos scientist,
4506:
4426:
4200:
15915:
15910:
15681:
15626:
15616:
15611:
15530:
15455:
15384:
14994:
14989:
14984:
14734:
14641:
14610:
14592:
14116:
14022:
13968:
13933:
13866:
13813:
13667:
13560:
13545:
13535:
11835:
11778:
11719:
11646:
11224:
10008:
9641:
9339:
9313:
9213:
8602:
5981:
5787:
5641:
5545:
5397:
5305:
5238:
5224:
5171:
5151:
4977:
4958:
4767:
4733:
4718:
4625:
4547:
4450:
4403:
4320:
4270:
4245:
4196:
4151:
reported that they had discovered element 94 in 1934. Fermi called the element
3006:
2811:
2787:
2686:
2678:
2674:
2635:
2595:
2236:
2204:
1647:
1569:
1459:
1261:
1156:
1094:
155:
15014:
11665:
10592:"Two British ships arrive in Japan to transport plutonium for storage in U.S."
10060:"Did Ralph Nader say that a pound of plutonium could cause 8 billion cancers?"
9640:(Report). Port Hueneme: Naval Civil Engineering Lab. AD0708680. Archived from
8958:
8909:"Nuclear waste won't be going to Nevada's Yucca Mountain, Obama official says"
7118:
5984:: "When you hold a lump of it in your hand, it feels warm, like a live rabbit"
5080:. Pu mixed with beryllium is used to generate neutrons for research purposes.
4976:
Plutonium-238 has a half-life of 87.74 years. It emits a large amount of
4739:
In 1945â47, eighteen human test subjects were injected with plutonium without
2724:
weapons stored near ship and submarine crews, due to its lower radioactivity.
2386:
being a preferred form for applications such as nuclear fission reactor fuel (
16033:
15930:
15792:
15761:
15741:
15686:
15676:
15586:
15475:
15450:
15394:
15179:
14470:
13876:
13717:
13175:
13170:
13165:
13160:
13155:
13150:
13107:
12929:
11491:
10952:
10318:
9946:
9188:
8884:. Washington (DC): Office of the Press Secretary, White House. Archived from
6852:
6338:
5254:
5250:
5246:
5135:
5099:
There are two aspects to the harmful effects of plutonium: radioactivity and
4861:
4819:
4811:
4605:
4431:
4402:
by volume. Nuclear reactors line the riverbank at the Hanford Site along the
4390:
4340:
4069:
3961:
3741:
3726:
3610:
3371:
3352:
3346:
3320:
3295:
3266:
3211:
2803:
2799:
2733:
2725:
2709:
2697:
2662:
2631:
2615:
2379:
2375:
2290:
2232:
2228:
2212:
2192:
2188:
2177:
2173:
2137:
2120:
Plutonium was first synthesized and isolated in late 1940 and early 1941, by
2106:
2051:
1945:
1906:
1877:
1855:
1816:
1777:
1736:
1729:
1559:
1425:
1418:
1393:
1215:
1190:
1176:
1071:
920:
10911:
10728:
10294:
10269:
7731:. Upton (NY): National Nuclear Data Center, Brookhaven National Laboratory.
7467:
6454:
6242:
4490:
In 2004, a safe was discovered during excavations of a burial trench at the
4468:
first set up his temporary headquarters on the banks of the Columbia River.
15987:
15869:
15726:
15671:
15651:
15636:
15540:
15364:
14745:
13881:
13823:
13750:
13702:
13572:
12983:
12812:
12517:
11917:
11850:
10683:
10303:
10219:
9987:
9812:
9720:
9544:
8524:
7675:
7549:
7483:
7314:
6870:
6844:
6720:
6693:
6647:
6476:
6408:
6383:
6356:
5553:
5379:
5324:
5313:
5197:
5077:
5073:
5025:
4778:
4777:
The government covered up most of these actions until 1993, when President
4752:
4652:
4592:
4570:
4523:
4515:
4395:
4360:
4316:
4297:
4233:
4144:
4128:
4101:
3971:
3943:
3901:
allow formation of metastable ÎŽ state when rapidly cooled. High amounts of
3842:
2771:
2700:
in a sample limits its nuclear bomb potential, as Pu has a relatively high
2266:
2255:
2220:
1612:
1541:
962:
829:
603:
10748:
10153:
8840:
8820:
8777:
8669:. Richland: U.S. Department of Energy. 2001. p. 110. DOE/RL-2001-16.
7608:
6924:
6581:
3605:
15817:
15771:
15736:
15711:
15656:
15560:
15550:
15434:
15156:
14803:
14393:
13900:
13871:
13384:
13037:
13001:
12992:
12902:
12884:
12875:
11912:
11366:
The Plutonium Files: America's Secret Medical Experiments in the Cold War
10459:. Institute for Science and International Security (ISIS). Archived from
10319:"The Toxicity of Uranium and Plutonium to the Developing Embryos of Fish"
9978:
9961:
9929:
The Plutonium Files: America's Secret Medical Experiments in the Cold War
9905:
9517:
Venkateswara Sarma Mallela; V. Ilankumaran & N.Srinivasa Rao (2004).
9041:
Voelz, George L. (2000). "Plutonium and Health: How great is the risk?".
8441:"BBC NEWS â Science & Environment â US nuclear relic found in bottle"
7756:"Artificial radioactivity produced by neutron bombardment: Nobel Lecture"
6639:
6381:
5561:
5204:
5182:
5131:
5104:
4873:
4277:
4232:
in March 1941, but publication was delayed until a year after the end of
4208:
4105:
3722:
3377:
3326:
3301:
3272:
3010:
2783:
2627:
2623:
2393:
2125:
2110:
1967:
1928:
1889:
1838:
1799:
1758:
1752:
1639:
1356:
1004:
976:
969:
899:
885:
878:
145:
11425:
was created from a revision of this article dated 18 July 2009
8266:"Plutonium: an historical overview. In: Challenges in Plutonium Science"
3408:
2495:
2443:
if left without external heating or cooling. This heat has been used in
1195:
3505 K (3228 °C, 5842 °F)
15920:
15864:
15601:
15591:
15520:
14509:
13046:
12974:
12947:
12920:
12580:
12562:
12535:
12366:
12357:
12096:
11286:
SIPRI Yearbook 2007: Armaments, Disarmament, and International Security
11273:
Nuke-Rebuke: Writers & Artists Against Nuclear Energy & Weapons
10650:
10432:
10185:
10183:
9959:
8812:
7657:
7600:
7541:
7475:
7339:
7116:
McCuaig, Franklin D. "PuâZr alloy for high-temperature foil-type fuel"
6330:
5370:
consist of several containers, each holding a sealed package. The U.S.
5317:
5237:
compartments. For example, various zooplankton species that aid in the
5046:
4686:
4660:
4180:
3991:
3874:
3756:, which is stable in dry air, but reacts with water vapor when heated.
3544:
3249:
3238:
3223:
3002:
2776:
2741:
2587:
2244:
2145:
1011:
955:
934:
913:
652:
638:
617:
489:
482:
283:
13186:
9078:
8516:
8488:
8471:
8049:
7206:
Curtis, David; Fabryka-Martin, June; Paul, Dixon; Cramer, Jan (1999).
7025:
6685:
5858:(3rd quarter). Los Alamos (NM): Los Alamos National Laboratory. 2008.
4449:". In an implosion bomb, plutonium is compressed to high density with
15828:
15596:
15399:
15151:
14514:
14504:
13585:
13550:
13471:
13055:
13028:
13019:
12866:
12848:
12830:
12616:
12526:
12499:
12447:
12393:
12375:
12339:
12319:
12258:
12195:
12139:
12078:
12067:
11986:
11937:
11927:
11922:
11135:
McLaughlin, Thomas P.; Monahan, Shean P.; Pruvost, Norman L. (2000).
9375:(1). Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Laboratory. 2005. Archived from
8606:
7374:
7290:
5560:. Thus he suggested it be named for the Roman god of the underworld,
5375:
5353:
5349:
5287:
5216:
5181:
Plutonium is more dangerous if inhaled than if ingested. The risk of
5139:
5120:
5069:
5062:
5042:
4981:
4613:
4543:
4457:
4383:
4281:
4241:
4212:
4170:
4153:
4123:. Most atmospheric and underwater nuclear testing was stopped by the
4097:
4093:
3898:
3862:
3850:
3846:
3830:
3243:
3145:
2940:
2892:
2807:
2795:
2721:
2682:
2575:
2552:
2528:
2474:
2436:
2355:
2157:
2141:
2129:
2070:
1709:
1536:
1399:
1055:
1047:
1018:
997:
990:
871:
857:
843:
680:
610:
589:
552:
510:
496:
468:
450:
406:
357:
313:
269:
260:
200:
124:
15310:
15009:
11275:. The Contemporary anthology series. The Spirit That Moves Us Press.
11068:(87th ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group.
10331:
10180:
9264:
8135:
8077:
7959:"Reflections on the Legacy of a Legend: Glenn T. Seaborg, 1912â1999"
7918:"Reflections on the Legacy of a Legend: Glenn T. Seaborg, 1912â1999"
7331:
6115:
Baker, Richard D.; Hecker, Siegfried S.; Harbur, Delbert R. (1983).
4378:
3762:
used to contain plutonium need to be able to withstand its strongly
3721:
species; a characteristic example of an organoplutonium compound is
3519:. Though it readily decomposes via a reduction mechanism similar to
3158:
2953:
2905:
16002:
15835:
15369:
15240:
14883:
14878:
14818:
14487:
14415:
14398:
14383:
14358:
14101:
13590:
13010:
12911:
12794:
12776:
12751:
12742:
12715:
12688:
12652:
12643:
12625:
12553:
12544:
12438:
12310:
12276:
12186:
12177:
12168:
12159:
12114:
12033:
12015:
11950:
7640:
6829:"A Structurally Characterized Organometallic Plutonium(IV) Complex"
6313:
6082:(26). Los Alamos, New Mexico: Los Alamos National Laboratory: 242.
5767:
Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021).
5645:
5340:
5159:
4990:
4947:
4865:
4744:
4668:
4596:
4562:
4539:
4530:, used plutonium as its fissile material. The implosion design of "
3910:
3882:
3870:
3858:
3834:
3791:
3775:
3771:
3759:
3617:
3613:
can cause it to look like a glowing ember under certain conditions.
3507:
A +8 oxidation state is possible as well in the volatile tetroxide
3021:
3017:
2669:, which holds a nucleus together, is released as a large amount of
2607:
2387:
2302:
2121:
2094:
2086:
2055:
1030:
983:
906:
815:
801:
785:
778:
757:
736:
708:
701:
687:
631:
624:
545:
443:
420:
350:
343:
336:
329:
297:
237:
223:
175:
24:
9340:"Science for the Critical Masses: How Plutonium Changes with Time"
8854:
8667:"Historic American Engineering Record: B Reactor (105-B Building)"
8069:
Office of Scientific & Technical Information Technical Reports
8027:
7791:. College Park: Department of Philosophy, University of Maryland.
5794:
5457:
ion is unstable in solution and will disproportionate into Pu and
2716:
contains 7%â19%, and power reactor-grade contains 19% or more Pu.
15992:
15859:
15209:
15161:
15024:
15004:
14403:
14378:
13818:
13649:
13637:
13615:
13580:
13092:
13087:
13082:
13077:
12965:
12956:
12938:
12893:
12821:
12803:
12733:
12679:
12661:
12634:
12607:
12589:
12571:
12481:
12411:
12384:
12348:
12330:
12294:
12285:
12267:
12249:
12148:
12087:
11977:
11932:
11804:
11191:
Moody, Kenton James; Hutcheon, Ian D.; Grant, Patrick M. (2005).
10374:. Los Alamos (NM): Los Alamos National Laboratory. Archived from
9884:
Cohen, Bernard L. (May 1977). "Hazards from Plutonium Toxicity".
5929:
5624:
5587:, where the first isolation of plutonium took place, was named a
5190:
4656:
4511:
4446:
4253:
4166:
4081:
3906:
3902:
3886:
3885:
and cerium can stabilize ÎŽ-phase plutonium for room temperature.
3878:
3838:
3813:
3787:
3783:
3703:
3664:
3634:
3575:
3563:
3559:
2619:
2611:
2583:
2571:
2536:
2259:
2196:
2161:
2149:
2102:
2090:
2082:
2062:
1200:
948:
941:
927:
892:
836:
822:
771:
729:
715:
694:
673:
659:
645:
575:
524:
503:
475:
461:
434:
427:
413:
399:
320:
276:
193:
48:
11183:
10267:
7729:
51st Meeting of the USDOE Cross Section Evaluation Working Group
7621:
6294:
4211:
by deuteron bombardment of uranium in the 60-inch (150 cm)
1185: (639.4 °C, 1182.9 °F)
16:
This article is about the chemical element. For other uses, see
15378:
14813:
14808:
14788:
14768:
14753:
14636:
14373:
14353:
14321:
12857:
12785:
12670:
12598:
12508:
12490:
12456:
12420:
12402:
12231:
12222:
12213:
12105:
12058:
12024:
12006:
11961:
9431:"The Radioactive Heart of the New Horizons Spacecraft to Pluto"
8409:
7885:
6663:
6382:
Kennedy, J. W.; Seaborg, G. T.; SegrĂš, E.; Wahl, A. C. (1946).
5541:
5155:
4985:
4922:
4798:
4729:
4162:
3890:
3826:
3801:
3779:
3591:
3571:
3555:
2791:
2634:
is also highly fissile. To be considered fissile, an isotope's
2579:
2455:
2397:
2335:
2153:
2078:
1182:
864:
808:
722:
666:
596:
582:
559:
531:
517:
385:
378:
371:
290:
253:
230:
216:
184:
10884:
9870:
8342:
8327:
7352:
7268:
7205:
6706:
6536:"Can Reactor Grade Plutonium Produce Nuclear Fission Weapons?"
6277:. U.S. Department of Energy. 1996. DOE/DP-1037. Archived from
5744:
Selected Values of the Crystallographic Properties of Elements
5300:
have occurred, sometimes killing people. Careless handling of
5228:
now, but there has not been a single lung cancer among them."
5142:(Îł). Either acute or longer-term exposure carries a danger of
4386:
face under constructionâthe first plutonium-production reactor
15230:
15187:
14850:
14706:
14499:
14363:
13071:
12760:
12465:
12123:
11997:
11737:
9775:
9232:
9045:(26). Los Alamos (NM): Los Alamos National Laboratory: 78â79.
5163:
5068:
Pu has also been used successfully to power artificial heart
5058:
4880:
4633:
4609:
4566:
4555:
4476:
4300:
4257:
4187:
and his team at Berkeley were the first to produce plutonium.
4085:
4038:
4016:
was investigated as a nuclear fuel for fast breeder reactors.
3763:
3732:
Powders of plutonium, its hydrides and certain oxides like Pu
3630:
3626:
3481:
3222:
Plutonium isotopes undergo radioactive decay, which produces
2756:
2363:
2165:
2098:
2058:
1615:
1474:
1169:
1135:
792:
566:
304:
209:
75:
10566:"Two British ships arrive in Japan to carry plutonium to US"
10416:. Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Laboratory. Archived from
10090:"The Nuclear Energy Option, Chapter 13, Plutonium and Bombs"
7438:
6999:
6826:
5825:
Wireless Information System for Emergency Responders (WISER)
5281:
blocks in a re-enactment of Harry Daghlian's 1945 experiment
4065:
of uranium-238, have been found in natural uranium samples.
3016:
Plutonium-238 is synthesized by bombarding uranium-238 with
2439:
heats up to much higher temperatures and glows red hot with
15940:
15409:
14711:
14600:
14410:
14368:
12724:
12697:
12240:
12204:
12042:
11495:
9456:"NASA's Plutonium Problem Could End Deep-Space Exploration"
8071:. California Univ., Berkeley (USA). Lawrence Berkeley Lab.
6909:"Low Temperature Reaction of ReillexTM HPQ and Nitric Acid"
6438:
6436:
6434:
6117:"Plutonium: A Wartime Nightmare but a Metallurgist's Dream"
5557:
4935:
4119:
that have been carried out, and to a small number of major
4034:
3894:
3567:
2114:
764:
743:
392:
364:
244:
93:
90:
84:
11492:"Physical, Nuclear, and Chemical, Properties of Plutonium"
10709:
Plutonium: a History of the World's most Dangerous Element
8540:"8.1.1 The Design of Gadget, Fat Man, and "Joe 1" (RDS-1)"
8206:. Los Alamos, New Mexico: Los Alamos National Laboratory.
7807:
7398:"Direct search for primordial Pu in Bayan Obo bastnaesite"
7250:
6483:
5493:, being reduced in turn to Pu. Thus, aqueous solutions of
4350:
14684:
14548:
12429:
11844:
8065:"History of MET Lab Section C-I, April 1942 â April 1943"
4671:. The U.S. planned to store plutonium in this way at the
3659:. It also reacts readily with oxygen, forming PuO and PuO
2646:
and to release enough additional neutrons to sustain the
2421:
538:
11144:. Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Laboratory. LA-13638.
11134:
10438:
10189:
9244:
9126:"'Ethical Harm' and the Plutonium Injection Experiments"
8647:
8544:
Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions, edition 2.18
7897:
6431:
6030:"Plutonium and its alloys: from atoms to microstructure"
5308:
received a dose estimated at 5.1 sievert (510
5103:. Plutonium compounds are radioactive and accumulate in
4371:; and the weapons research and design lab, now known as
4355:
During World War II the U.S. government established the
2685:). It is this energy that makes plutonium-239 useful in
2420:
of its atoms decay each second by emitting a 5.157
2354:. This, the most common structural form of the element (
8695:
Safeguarding nuclear weapons-usable materials in Russia
8635:
5277:
A sphere of plutonium surrounded by neutron-reflecting
4675:, which is about 100 miles (160 km) north-east of
3725:. Computational chemistry methods indicate an enhanced
3013:
project predicted this reaction theoretically in 1940.
2744:
or not. This makes non-fissile isotopes of plutonium a
11451:"Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues â Plutonium"
11252:
Adventures in the Atomic Age: From Watts to Washington
10781:
Nature's Building Blocks: An AâZ Guide to the Elements
10130:"What We Have Learned About Plutonium from Human Data"
9158:
9012:. Los Alamos National Laboratory: 188, 205, 208, 214.
8727:
8725:
8723:
7208:"Nature's uncommon elements: plutonium and technetium"
6620:
6288:
6068:
4561:
An identical design was used in "Fat Man", dropped on
11679:
11174:. New York (NY): Reinhold Book Corporation. pp.
10509:"§ 71.63 Special requirement for plutonium shipments"
10390:
9635:
8961:"Disposal Subcommittee Report to the Full Commission"
8931:
8744:
Stockholm International Peace Research Institute 2007
8570:"The Yields of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki Explosions"
7956:
7915:
7570:
6421:
6419:
5107:. Contamination by plutonium oxide has resulted from
3629:, the metal oxidizes rapidly, producing a mixture of
3625:
Plutonium is a reactive metal. In moist air or moist
3484:. It is the acid anion that influences the degree of
3033:
2831:
2404:
for plutonium. A 5 kg mass of Pu contains about
110:
87:
10841:(2nd ed.). Oxford (UK): Butterworth-Heinemann.
10317:
Till, John E.; Kaye, S. V.; Trabalka, J. R. (1976).
9638:
SEALAB III â Diver's Isotopic Swimsuit-Heater System
8959:
Blue Ribbon Commission on Americaâs Nuclear Future.
7725:"A Short History of Nuclear Data and Its Evaluation"
5766:
5123:
was largely unrelated to direct plutonium exposure.
4759:
and the Manhattan Project continued into the 1970s.
4169:. Nuclear fission, discovered in Germany in 1938 by
3217:
2317:
from many above-ground nuclear tests, which are now
81:
72:
69:
10450:
10232:
10007:. Argonne National Laboratory. 2001. Archived from
9342:. Institute for Energy and Environmental Research.
8996:
8720:
8348:
6956:
6954:
6822:
6820:
4501:
3869:. Partial exceptions include the refractory metals
3566:at 1200 °C. Metallic plutonium is attacked by
2461:Because of self-irradiation, a sample of plutonium
2378:(640 °C, 1,184 °F) and an unusually high
2289:, some lethal, occurred after the war. Disposal of
2117:, which makes the handling of plutonium dangerous.
96:
78:
14234:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future
11249:
11190:
11165:
10857:
10757:
10706:
9611:"Nuclear pacemaker still energized after 34 years"
6987:
6416:
6234:Glasstone, Samuel; Redman, Leslie M. (June 1972).
6023:
6021:
6019:
6017:
6015:
6013:
6011:
6009:
5708:There was a major plutonium-initiated fire at the
4993:of the isotope generates about 570 watts of heat.
4698:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future
4410:The first production reactor that made Pu was the
3195:
2986:
2499:Plutonium has six allotropes at ambient pressure:
11082:
10807:. Oak Ridge: United States Department of Energy.
10646:
10644:
10642:
9399:"Why the Cassini Mission Cannot Use Solar Arrays"
6114:
5800:
5769:"The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties"
4783:Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments
4651:that weigh two tonnes. The glass is made of
4475:, the plutonium production plants at Hanford and
3412:Various oxidation states of plutonium in solution
16031:
11281:Stockholm International Peace Research Institute
10653:"Klassekampen : Flyr plutonium med rutefly"
10316:
9751:Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
9663:Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
9661:. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
9216:. London (UK): World Nuclear Association. 2006.
8062:
7855:
7163:
7161:
7159:
7157:
7091:. Los Alamos National Laboratory. Archived from
6951:
6817:
6758:
6756:
6754:
6752:
6750:
6610:. Los Alamos National Laboratory. LA-UR-02-6594.
6175:
6173:
6171:
6169:
6126:. Los Alamos National Laboratory: 148, 150â151.
5996:
5994:
5992:
5990:
5737:
5735:
5733:
5126:The decay of plutonium, releases three types of
3717:chemistry of plutonium complexes is typical for
11552:
10864:Exploring Chemical Elements and their Compounds
10621:Code of Federal Regulations 49 â Transportation
10453:"The Lessons of Nuclear Secrecy at Rocky Flats"
8879:
8755:
8305:. Washington (DC): Atomic Heritage Foundation.
7851:
7849:
6233:
6156:
6154:
6152:
6150:
6148:
6069:Hecker, Siegfried S.; Martz, Joseph C. (2000).
6006:
5961:
5959:
5957:
5955:
5953:
5951:
5949:
5947:
4751:. This experiment was under the supervision of
4041:. The ratio of plutonium-239 to uranium at the
2818:, decaying to americium-241 via beta emission.
2751:
2412:atoms. With a half-life of 24,100 years, about
13137:
11247:
11164:Miner, William N.; Schonfeld, Fred W. (1968).
10639:
10351:
9994:
9114:AEC no. UR-38, 1948 Quarterly Technical Report
8294:
7891:
7828:"An Early History of LBNL: Elements 93 and 94"
7700:. Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization.
6807:
6805:
6803:
6801:
6799:
6797:
6795:
6793:
6791:
6659:
6657:
4913:of up to 1% gallium per mass in weapons-grade
3752:spontaneously heats up and transforms into PuO
2582:, enhancing workability and allowing it to be
2065:when exposed to air, and forms a dull coating
1531:1.460 ”Ωâ
m (at 0 °C)
15326:
14937:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
13487:
13202:
13123:
11820:
11083:Magurno, B. A.; Pearlstein, S., eds. (1981).
10801:The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb
10651:Av Ida SĂžraunet Wangberg og Anne Kari Hinna.
9858:
9856:
9854:
9175:
9173:
8992:
8990:
8988:
8154:
7825:
7511:
7505:
7154:
6906:
6789:
6787:
6785:
6783:
6781:
6779:
6777:
6775:
6773:
6771:
6747:
6166:
5987:
5730:
4966:radioisotope thermoelectric generator of the
3621:Twenty micrograms of pure plutonium hydroxide
3001:by uranium-238 nuclei to form uranium-239; a
2997:Neutrons from the fission of uranium-235 are
2013:
1119:
140:silvery white, tarnishing to dark gray in air
10087:
10083:
10081:
9931:. New York: The Dial Press. pp. 15â19.
9886:The Radiation Safety Journal: Health Physics
9404:. NASA/JPL. December 6, 1996. Archived from
9036:
9034:
8847:
8792:
7846:
7395:
7079:
7000:Kolman, D. G. & Colletti, L. P. (2009).
6884:
6882:
6880:
6145:
6110:
6108:
6106:
6104:
5944:
3543:can be stabilized in alkaline solutions and
2810:isotopes (95 protons). Plutonium-241 is the
2760:Uranium-plutonium and thorium-uranium chains
2555:but changes to the plastic and malleable ÎČ (
2309:and environmental concern. Other sources of
1417:
11476:"A Perspective on the Dangers of Plutonium"
11007:
10947:. Ottawa: Atomic Energy of Canada Limited.
10690:. New York: Barnes & Noble Publishing.
10513:United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission
10134:The Radiation Safety Journal Health Physics
9832:. U.S. Department of Energy. Archived from
9059:Longworth, R. C. (NovemberâDecember 1999).
8999:"The Human Plutonium Injection Experiments"
8105:"Room 405, George Herbert Jones Laboratory"
7432:
7082:"Unconventional superconductivity in PuCoGa
6960:
6654:
6197:United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission
5746:. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International.
5505:tend over time towards a mixture of Pu and
5242:transmission vehicle of plutonium to fish.
5109:nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents
4860:contains plutonium, but it is a mixture of
3729:character in the plutonium-ligand bonding.
3648:but an excess of water vapor forms only PuO
3550:Metallic plutonium is produced by reacting
2258:that developed the first atomic bombs. The
32:Chemical element with atomic number 94 (Pu)
15333:
15319:
13494:
13480:
13209:
13195:
13130:
13116:
11827:
11813:
9851:
9747:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
9363:
9361:
9170:
8985:
8370:. National Park Service. August 29, 2008.
7957:Clark, David L.; Hobart, David E. (2000).
7916:Clark, David L.; Hobart, David E. (2000).
6768:
4818:(a layer of dense material) decreases the
4708:
4663:. These logs are planned to be encased in
3397:
2281:studying plutonium were conducted without
2020:
2006:
1672:
1665:
1494:ÎČ = 101.79° (at 20 °C)
1473:
47:
11473:
11315:
11172:The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements
10937:
10855:
10836:
10704:
10330:
10293:
10078:
9977:
9827:"Radiological control technical training"
9802:
9636:Bayles, John J.; Taylor, Douglas (1970).
9534:
9316:. World Nuclear Association. March 2009.
9308:
9306:
9304:
9302:
9250:
9238:
9058:
9031:
8749:
8653:
8575:. Los Alamos. p. Table VI. LA-8819.
8563:
8561:
8487:
8403:
8401:
8076:
7903:
7813:
7665:
7639:
7256:
7144:
7142:
7140:
7068:
6877:
6860:
6560:
6489:
6425:
6407:
6369:
6346:
6312:
6101:
5965:
5760:
5741:
5469:; the Pu will then oxidize the remaining
5174:accidentally swallowed a small amount of
5113:atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
4576:
4398:represents two-thirds of U.S. high-level
3104:
2782:The known isotopes of plutonium range in
2176:has a half-life long enough that extreme
14849:
11433:, and does not reflect subsequent edits.
11416:
11008:Kaku, Michio; Trainer, Jennifer (1983).
10896:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
10783:. Oxford (UK): Oxford University Press.
10755:
10713:. Washington, D.C.: Joseph Henry Press.
10451:Albright, David; O'Neill, Kevin (1999).
10036:. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
8600:On the figure of 1 kg = 17 kt, see
8537:
8097:
7311:
6741:
5919:
5320:") that had previously killed Daghlian.
5272:
5268:
5211:, an opponent of the generally accepted
5059:Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Packages
4957:
4946:
4942:
4797:
4505:
4389:
4377:
4291:
4179:
3964:systems, and has large critical current.
3616:
3604:
3407:
2755:
2494:
2235:has a half-life of 87.7 years and emits
13216:
12927:
11579:"Plutonium Manufacture and Fabrication"
11535:
11363:
10888:; Henriksen, Paul W.; Meade, Roger A.;
10837:Greenwood, N. N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997).
10797:
10002:"ANL human health fact sheetâplutonium"
9926:
9519:"Trends in Cardiac Pacemaker Batteries"
9358:
9269:Journal of the American Ceramic Society
9262:
9208:
9206:
8997:Moss, William; Eckhardt, Roger (1995).
8826:
8798:
8691:
8407:
8210:from the original on September 13, 2011
8107:. National Park Service. Archived from
8056:
8021:
7909:
6833:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
6605:
6258:
5924:. Upton: National Nuclear Data Center,
5862:from the original on September 18, 2016
5815:
5813:
5811:
5809:
5382:) of radioactivity. In 2016, the ships
5162:, where plutonium accumulates, and the
4673:Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository
4599:. The U.S. reactors at Hanford and the
4522:The first atomic bomb test, codenamed "
4351:Production during the Manhattan Project
4276:Hahn and Strassmann, and independently
4108:of Pu, it must thus also be present in
3807:
2730:fissile but can undergo nuclear fission
16032:
14864:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
13501:
12981:
12810:
12515:
11480:Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
11474:Sutcliffe, W. G.; et al. (1995).
11334:
11223:
11115:
10918:
10778:
10682:
10439:McLaughlin, Monahan & Pruvost 2000
10396:
10274:Environmental Science & Technology
10192:Journal of Environmental Radioactivity
9953:
9690:
9453:
9391:
9346:from the original on February 14, 2012
9299:
9164:
9146:from the original on February 24, 2009
9123:
9054:
9052:
8906:
8855:"Rocky Flats National Wildlife Refuge"
8731:
8673:from the original on December 26, 2008
8623:from the original on February 24, 2009
8601:
8582:from the original on February 24, 2009
8558:
8438:
8398:
8392:
8354:
8263:
8228:
8142:from the original on February 12, 2019
8130:
8128:
8126:
7786:
7722:
7137:
6811:
6572:
6542:from the original on February 24, 2021
6501:
6221:
6050:from the original on February 24, 2009
6027:
5977:
5915:
5913:
5911:
5896:from the original on February 27, 2022
4999:radioisotope thermoelectric generators
4804:atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki, Japan
4757:United States Atomic Energy Commission
4736:says, were poor, powerless, and sick.
4526:"and detonated on July 16, 1945, near
3288:radioisotope thermoelectric generators
2720:, with less than 4% of Pu, is used in
2445:radioisotope thermoelectric generators
2329:
2241:radioisotope thermoelectric generators
2144:2.1 days) was synthesized, which then
2097:. When exposed to moist air, it forms
15340:
15314:
15106:
14869:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
14278:
14265:
13475:
13190:
13111:
13035:
12999:
12990:
12900:
12882:
12873:
11808:
11526:
11320:. Charles E. Till and Yoon Il Chang.
11270:
11163:
11151:from the original on January 18, 2017
10962:from the original on February 5, 2015
10866:. New York (NY): TAB Books. pp.
10735:
10563:
10519:from the original on February 5, 2015
10489:from the original on February 5, 2015
10372:"Criticality accidents report issued"
10369:
10357:
10127:
10066:from the original on November 3, 2013
9883:
9757:from the original on February 5, 2015
9656:"Toxicological Profile for Plutonium"
9591:from the original on October 29, 2021
9565:from the original on October 29, 2021
9561:. Oak Ridge Associated Universities.
9498:from the original on October 27, 2007
9468:from the original on February 8, 2015
9066:The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
9040:
9019:from the original on January 14, 2009
8882:"President Signs Yucca Mountain Bill"
8641:
8616:. Federation of American Scientists.
8567:
8469:
8374:from the original on October 31, 2008
8280:from the original on January 18, 2017
8251:from the original on January 20, 2017
8160:
8005:. Public Broadcasting Service. 1997.
7834:from the original on November 5, 2014
7761:. Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
7753:
7704:from the original on February 7, 2022
7690:
7199:
7167:
6969:from the original on January 12, 2012
6762:
6442:
6203:from the original on February 4, 2015
6179:
6133:from the original on October 17, 2011
6000:
4496:Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
3812:Plutonium is an element in which the
3578:and dissolves easily in concentrated
3391:Pu α-decays to U; also decays by SF.
1952:
1949:
1913:
1910:
1864:
1859:
1823:
1820:
1784:
1781:
1745:
1740:
15293:
14266:
13044:
12972:
12945:
12918:
12578:
12560:
12533:
12364:
12355:
11744:
11303:from the original on January 6, 2022
11248:Seaborg, G. T.; Seaborg, E. (2001).
11211:from the original on January 6, 2022
11063:
11051:from the original on January 6, 2022
11028:from the original on January 6, 2022
10995:from the original on January 6, 2022
10483:"Transport of Radioactive Materials"
10168:from the original on August 16, 2017
10026:
9585:"Plutonium Powered Pacemaker (1974)"
9559:"Plutonium Powered Pacemaker (1974)"
9203:
8857:. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service.
8386:
8309:from the original on January 4, 2009
8300:
7795:from the original on August 17, 2012
6963:"Plutonium is also a superconductor"
6363:
6236:"An Introduction to Nuclear Weapons"
6160:
5806:
4755:. Other experiments directed by the
4112:, albeit in even tinier quantities.
3476:(green)âthe heptavalent ion is rare.
2708:. Plutonium is identified as either
2665:. During fission, a fraction of the
2400:nucleus, is the most common form of
2069:. The element normally exhibits six
16075:Materials that expand upon freezing
14874:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
13053:
13026:
13017:
12864:
12846:
12837:
12828:
12614:
12524:
12497:
12445:
12391:
12373:
12337:
12317:
12256:
12193:
12094:
12076:
12065:
11984:
11590:. Nuclear Files.org. Archived from
11585:
11040:
10974:
10817:. DOE/MA-0001-01/99. Archived from
10659:from the original on August 2, 2012
10627:from the original on April 27, 2012
10597:from the original on March 24, 2016
10572:from the original on March 23, 2016
10545:from the original on April 20, 2016
10339:from the original on March 16, 2022
10040:from the original on March 16, 2011
9613:. December 19, 2007. Archived from
9454:Mosher, Dave (September 19, 2013).
9320:from the original on March 30, 2010
9287:from the original on March 17, 2020
9049:
8303:"Atomic History Timeline 1942â1944"
8166:
8123:
8085:from the original on March 15, 2020
7856:Glenn T. Seaborg (September 1981).
7768:from the original on August 5, 2011
7754:Fermi, Enrico (December 12, 1938).
7735:from the original on August 5, 2012
7148:
7131:
7050:from the original on March 16, 2022
7012:(52). Electrochemical Society: 71.
6913:Solvent Extraction and Ion Exchange
6907:Crooks, W. J.; et al. (2002).
6516:from the original on March 16, 2022
6089:from the original on April 28, 2021
6071:"Aging of Plutonium and Its Alloys"
5908:
5185:increases once the total radiation
4838:
4430:the plutonium sample. The original
3778:along with the more stable oxides,
2358:), is about as hard and brittle as
1303:
13:
15798:Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
14683:
13834:Positron-emission tomography (PET)
13008:
12909:
12792:
12774:
12749:
12740:
12713:
12686:
12641:
12623:
12551:
12542:
12436:
12308:
12274:
12184:
12166:
12157:
12137:
12112:
11834:
11403:
11316:Till, C. E.; Chang, Y. I. (2011).
11233:. New York: Simon & Schuster.
11103:from the original on March 8, 2021
10938:Hurst, D. G.; Ward, A. G. (1956).
10779:Emsley, John (2001). "Plutonium".
10617:"Part 175.704 Plutonium shipments"
10096:from the original on July 21, 2013
9281:10.1111/j.1151-2916.1998.tb02740.x
9220:from the original on March 1, 2013
8907:Hebert, H. Josef (March 6, 2009).
8861:from the original on April 9, 2020
8451:from the original on March 2, 2009
8138:. Los Alamos National Laboratory.
8009:from the original on June 29, 2018
7999:"Frontline interview with Seaborg"
7789:"The Nature of Scientific Inquiry"
7238:from the original on June 27, 2021
6939:from the original on June 14, 2011
5231:
4879:The most common chemical process,
4221:University of California, Berkeley
4084:(from the alpha decay pathway) or
2601:
2324:
2134:University of California, Berkeley
14:
16091:
13857:Neutron capture therapy of cancer
13756:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)
12963:
12954:
12936:
12891:
12801:
12731:
12704:
12677:
12659:
12650:
12632:
12605:
12587:
12569:
12479:
12409:
12382:
12346:
12292:
12283:
12265:
12247:
12175:
12146:
12085:
12031:
12013:
11975:
11948:
11608:"Challenges in Plutonium Science"
11559:Federation of American Scientists
11384:
11138:A Review of Criticality Accidents
11066:Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
9862:
9672:from the original on May 28, 2012
9185:Federation of American Scientists
8880:Press Secretary (July 23, 2002).
7979:from the original on June 3, 2016
7938:from the original on June 3, 2016
7864:from the original on May 16, 2013
6961:Dumé, Belle (November 20, 2002).
6502:Miotla, Dennis (April 21, 2008).
5359:
5189:of inhaled plutonium exceeds 400
4619:Radioactive contamination at the
4595:and the United States during the
4287:
4236:due to security concerns. At the
3984:alloys are used as nuclear fuels.
3794:can tolerate this. Melting in an
3590:. Molten metal must be kept in a
3315:The main fissile isotope in use.
3230:Decay heat of plutonium isotopes
3218:Decay heat and fission properties
2231:, fuel-grade, or reactor-grade).
1382:1st: 584.7 kJ/mol
16014:
16013:
15292:
15281:
15280:
15268:
14957:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
12855:
12819:
12783:
12668:
12596:
12506:
12488:
12418:
12400:
12328:
12229:
12220:
12211:
12056:
11959:
11787:
11770:
11753:
11725:
11713:
11701:
11689:
11514:. Los Alamos National Laboratory
11415:
11118:Physics for Radiation Protection
10923:. University of Oklahoma Press.
10609:
10584:
10557:
10531:
10501:
10475:
10444:
10402:
10363:
10310:
10261:
10226:
10146:10.1097/00004032-197510000-00011
10121:
10106:(Online version of Cohen's book
10052:
9966:American Journal of Epidemiology
9920:
9898:10.1097/00004032-197705000-00003
9877:
9867:"The Myth of Plutonium Toxicity"
9819:
9769:
9743:"Plutonium, CAS ID #: 7440-07-5"
9735:
9684:
9648:
9629:
9603:
9577:
9551:
9510:
9480:
9447:
9423:
9332:
9256:
9117:
9108:
9098:
9089:
8900:
8873:
8770:10.1097/00004032-197210000-00012
8685:
8659:
8614:University of Michigan Symposium
8594:
8538:Sublette, Carey (July 3, 2007).
8420:from the original on May 3, 2019
8180:from the original on May 6, 2019
7181:"Oklo: Natural Nuclear Reactors"
6988:Moody, Hutcheon & Grant 2005
5702:
5693:
5651:
5630:
5617:
5531:is unstable for the same reason.
5257:) on various fish living in the
4502:Trinity and Fat Man atomic bombs
4483:in each instance". Most of this
4303:, after which plutonium is named
4147:and a team of scientists at the
2152:had been named after the planet
1993:
1992:
1271:
65:
14046:Historical stockpiles and tests
12758:
12463:
12454:
12121:
12103:
12022:
12004:
11170:. In Clifford A. Hampel (ed.).
9972:(2). Oxford Journals: 163â172.
8531:
8496:
8463:
8432:
8360:
8222:
8192:
7991:
7950:
7876:
7819:
7780:
7747:
7716:
7615:
7564:
7441:"Extinct Pu in Ancient Zircons"
7389:
7346:
7305:
7262:
7212:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
7173:
7125:
7110:
7073:
7062:
6993:
6981:
6900:
6735:
6700:
6666:The Journal of Chemical Physics
6614:
6599:
6566:
6554:
6528:
6495:
6448:
6375:
6272:"Plutonium: The First 50 Years"
6264:
6252:
6227:
6215:
6185:
6062:
5920:Sonzogni, Alejandro A. (2008).
5604:
5594:
5585:George Herbert Jones Laboratory
5577:
5567:
5534:
5439:
5364:
5334:
4806:, in 1945 had a plutonium core.
4788:
4031:natural nuclear fission reactor
2638:must be able to break apart or
2396:, the release of a high-energy
2243:, which are used to power some
14947:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
13829:Single-photon emission (SPECT)
12722:
12695:
12238:
12202:
12040:
11995:
11670:by Argonne National Laboratory
11553:Pike, J.; Sherman, R. (2000).
11094:Brookhaven National Laboratory
11014:. W. W. Norton & Company.
10981:. Discovery Publishing House.
10760:Concise Encyclopedia Chemistry
10235:Applied Radiation and Isotopes
8568:Malik, John (September 1985).
8439:Rincon, Paul (March 2, 2009).
8176:. Atomic Heritage Foundation.
7698:"Nuclear Testing 1945 - today"
5971:
5926:Brookhaven National Laboratory
5878:
5844:
5083:
4849:Weapons-grade nuclear material
4612:estimated the world plutonium
4434:plutonium weapon, code-named "
4373:Los Alamos National Laboratory
3428:Pu(III), as Pu (blue lavender)
3074:
2868:
2653:Pure plutonium-239 may have a
2618:, is one of the three primary
2273:in August 1945, had plutonium
2128:in the 1.5-metre (60 in)
1369:Pauling scale: 1.28
1:
15275:Nuclear technology portal
12427:
11588:"World Plutonium Inventories"
11455:Washington and Lee University
11256:. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
11230:The Making of the Atomic Bomb
10764:. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
10675:
10485:. World Nuclear Association.
10323:Oak Ridge National Laboratory
10212:10.1016/s0265-931x(00)00190-9
9587:. Oak Ridge: Orau.org. 2021.
9488:"Voyager-Spacecraft Lifetime"
9263:Besmann, Theodore M. (2005).
7232:10.1016/S0016-7037(98)00282-8
7122:, Issued on November 22, 1977
6193:"Glossary â Fissile material"
6028:Hecker, Siegfried S. (2000).
5801:Magurno & Pearlstein 1981
5372:Nuclear Regulatory Commission
4793:
4416:Oak Ridge National Laboratory
4217:Berkeley Radiation Laboratory
4020:
3958:unconventional superconductor
3024:) in the following reaction:
3020:(D or H, the nuclei of heavy
2790:, mostly forming uranium (92
2650:by splitting further nuclei.
2484:
2203:, leading to applications in
2199:, meaning they can sustain a
2164:, element 94 was named after
15958:Oppenheimer security hearing
15137:Field-reversed configuration
14747:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz
11651:The Periodic Table of Videos
11064:Lide, David R., ed. (2006).
10856:Heiserman, David L. (1992).
10686:(1988). "Nuclear Reactors".
10255:10.1016/0969-8043(95)00163-8
9795:10.1097/EDE.0000000000000684
9523:Indian Pacing Electrophysiol
8546:. The Nuclear Weapon Archive
8136:"Periodic Table of Elements"
7593:10.1126/science.280.5365.877
7534:10.1126/science.176.4037.909
7080:Curro, N. J. (Spring 2006).
5723:
5432:
5090:Plutonium in the environment
4824:reflecting escaping neutrons
4456:Construction of the Hanford
4139:
4045:uranium deposit ranges from
4008:Plutoniumâuraniumâmolybdenum
3671:with the general formula PuX
3431:Pu(IV), as Pu (yellow brown)
2752:Isotopes and nucleosynthesis
2696:The presence of the isotope
2598:compared to other elements.
2311:plutonium in the environment
7:
15094:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
14279:
14041:States with nuclear weapons
11529:"Plutonium crystallography"
11289:. Oxford University Press.
9713:10.1088/0952-4746/29/2A/S04
9373:Actinide Research Quarterly
9124:Yesley, Michael S. (1995).
8915:. p. 4. Archived from
8692:Cochran, Thomas B. (1997).
8472:"Old plutonium, new tricks"
7414:10.1016/j.cclet.2022.03.036
6573:Crooks, William J. (2002).
5856:Actinide Research Quarterly
5742:Arblaster, John W. (2018).
5556:, its name should refer to
5119:, which in the case of the
5094:
4715:Human radiation experiments
4691:Waste Isolation Pilot Plant
4177:, was unknown at the time.
4003:plutoniumâuraniumâzirconium
2606:Plutonium is a radioactive
2527:Plutonium normally has six
2279:Human radiation experiments
1492: = 1.0964 nm
1487: = 0.4822 nm
1482: = 0.6183 nm
10:
16096:
15107:
14932:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
14056:Tests in the United States
12326:
12155:
12074:
11993:
11957:
11859:
11668:Plutonium Fuel Fabrication
11653:. University of Nottingham
11632:Royal Society of Chemistry
11538:"End of the Plutonium Age"
11368:. New York: Random House.
10941:Canadian Research Reactors
10705:Bernstein, Jeremy (2007).
7892:Seaborg & Seaborg 2001
7723:Holden, Norman E. (2001).
6384:"Properties of Element 94"
5658:Gadolinium zirconium oxide
5612:National Historic Landmark
5589:National Historic Landmark
5294:by the hydrogen in water.
5203:A commonly cited quote by
5087:
4842:
4712:
4591:were built up by both the
4580:
4134:
3999:Plutoniumâuraniumâtitanium
3644:is formed. Also formed is
3401:
2763:
2535:but significantly varying
2488:
2481:compared to other metals.
2299:dismantled nuclear weapons
1355:, +5, +6, +7, +8 (an
1214:when liquid (at
458:
326:
266:
206:
181:
22:
18:Plutonium (disambiguation)
15:
16011:
15901:Bismuth phosphate process
15896:Atomic Energy Act of 1946
15883:
15852:
15785:
15574:
15443:
15357:
15348:
15262:
15218:
15170:
15127:
15117:
15069:
15057:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)
14970:
14952:Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
14917:
14900:
14840:
14767:
14759:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
14733:
14724:
14676:
14656:
14609:
14591:
14547:
14452:
14434:
14302:
14289:
14274:
14261:
14216:
14149:
14094:
14085:
14033:
13941:
13932:
13899:
13842:
13804:
13795:
13716:
13648:
13571:
13513:
13509:
13450:
13431:
13404:
13332:
13261:
13224:
13146:
13069:
12769:
12474:
12303:
12132:
12051:
11970:
11943:
11936:
11931:
11926:
11921:
11916:
11911:
11906:
11901:
11896:
11891:
11886:
11881:
11876:
11871:
11866:
11861:
11854:
11849:
11842:
11194:Nuclear forensic analysis
11116:Martin, James E. (2000).
10839:Chemistry of the Elements
10743:. London: Phoenix House.
10108:The Nuclear Energy Option
9492:Jet Propulsion Laboratory
8063:Glenn T. Seaborg (1977).
5213:linear no-threshold model
5003:radioisotope heater units
4951:A glowing cylinder of PuO
4485:radioactive contamination
4014:Thoriumâuraniumâplutonium
3820:
3186:
3139:
3095:
3072:
3053:
2981:
2933:
2885:
2866:
2847:
2798:(93 protons) isotopes as
2269:in July 1945, and in the
2239:. It is a heat source in
2054:94. It is a silvery-gray
1991:
1987:
1944:
1905:
1854:
1815:
1776:
1735:
1694:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1656:
1629:
1607:
1602:
1592:
1582:
1568:
1558:
1548:
1535:
1525:
1515:
1498:
1466:
1448:
1438:
1433:
1416:
1406:
1398:empirical: 159
1392:
1373:
1363:
1343:
1338:
1260:
1256:35.5 J/(mol·K)
1250:
1240:
1226:
1212:
1199:
1189:
1175:
1155:
1150:
1142:
1128:
1113:
1101:
1088:
1069:
1046:
161:
153:
144:
136:
123:
60:
55:
46:
14962:Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
14578:Steam-generating (SGHWR)
13914:Electron-beam processing
11512:"A History of Plutonium"
11364:Welsome, Eileen (2000).
11047:. Taylor & Francis.
10370:Roark, Kevin N. (2000).
9927:Welsome, Eileen (1999).
9665:(ATSDR). November 2010.
9436:January 9, 2017, at the
9214:"Mixed Oxide (MOX) Fuel"
8408:Lindley, Robert (2013).
7787:Darden, Lindley (1998).
7402:Chinese Chemical Letters
6606:Matlack, George (2002).
5852:"Nitric acid processing"
5821:"Plutonium, Radioactive"
5788:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae
5427:
5356:atmosphere is required.
5259:Chernobyl Exclusion Zone
4980:with low levels of both
4732:. Most of the subjects,
4309:Metallurgical Laboratory
3950:Plutoniumâgalliumâcobalt
3179:
3173:
3132:
3126:
3088:
3082:
3065:
3059:
3046:
3040:
2974:
2968:
2926:
2920:
2878:
2872:
2859:
2853:
2840:
2834:
2435:due to its much shorter
23:Not to be confused with
15978:S-1 Executive Committee
15926:EinsteinâSzilard letter
15077:Organic nuclear reactor
14249:Nuclear power phase-out
14172:Nuclear decommissioning
14112:Reactor-grade plutonium
13862:Targeted alpha-particle
13741:Accidents and incidents
11614:. I & II (26). 2000
11092:. Vol. II. Upton:
10859:"Element 94: Plutonium"
10798:Gosling, F. G. (1999).
10756:Eagleson, Mary (1994).
10295:10.1021/acs.est.8b02378
9181:"Nuclear Weapon Design"
7468:10.1126/science.1101014
5176:plutonium(III) chloride
5144:serious health outcomes
4709:Medical experimentation
4589:weapons-grade plutonium
4583:Reactor-grade plutonium
4538:, an initiator made of
4125:Limited Test Ban Treaty
3982:plutoniumâceriumâcobalt
3918:plutoniumâgallium alloy
3574:, and steam but not by
3552:plutonium tetrafluoride
3398:Compounds and chemistry
3258:(SF) neutrons (1/(g·s))
3009:working on the British
2491:Allotropes of plutonium
1521:6.74 W/(mâ
K)
1511:/K (at 20 °C)
1246:333.5 kJ/mol
131:Allotropes of plutonium
15420:Salt Wells Pilot Plant
11555:"Plutonium production"
11486:on September 29, 2006.
11411:
11391:Listen to this article
11335:Wahlen, R. K. (1989).
11120:. Wiley-Interscience.
10890:Westfall, Catherine L.
9187:. 1998. Archived from
8939:"About the Commission"
8264:Hecker, S. S. (2000).
8229:Hammel, E. F. (2000).
6845:10.1002/anie.201701858
6721:10.1515/ract-2014-2146
6477:10.1103/PhysRev.69.366
6409:10.1103/PhysRev.70.555
5403:
5282:
5029:space probes, and the
4973:
4955:
4807:
4577:Cold War use and waste
4528:Alamogordo, New Mexico
4519:
4407:
4387:
4330:In November 1943 some
4304:
4188:
4072:occurs naturally as a
3622:
3614:
3413:
3197:
3170:
2988:
2965:
2917:
2761:
2740:, whether followed by
2667:nuclear binding energy
2648:nuclear chain reaction
2524:
2201:nuclear chain reaction
2113:and can accumulate in
1622:god of the underworld
1527:Electrical resistivity
1422:
1146:2, 8, 18, 32, 24, 8, 2
1130:Electron configuration
15998:X-10 Graphite Reactor
15953:Nobel Prize laureates
15823:509th Composite Group
14239:Anti-nuclear movement
13140:isotopes of plutonium
11410:
11338:History of 100-B Area
11271:Sklar, Morty (1984).
10688:Understanding Physics
10128:Voelz, G. L. (1975).
10110:(Plenum Press, 1990)
9429:St. Fleur, Nicholas,
9251:Till & Chang 2011
9239:Till & Chang 2011
8470:Gebel, Erika (2009).
8368:"Weekly List Actions"
7858:"The plutonium story"
7628:Nature Communications
7501:on February 11, 2020.
7119:U.S. patent 4,059,439
7069:Hurst & Ward 1956
6925:10.1081/SEI-120014371
6301:Nature Communications
6284:on February 18, 2013.
6199:. November 20, 2014.
5298:Criticality accidents
5276:
5269:Criticality potential
5101:heavy metal poisoning
5005:such as those in the
4961:
4950:
4943:Power and heat source
4870:fast neutron reactors
4801:
4509:
4412:X-10 Graphite Reactor
4393:
4381:
4332:plutonium trifluoride
4313:University of Chicago
4295:
4244:, Egon Bretscher and
4183:
3970:alloy can be used as
3855:alkaline earth metals
3620:
3608:
3411:
3198:
3141:
2989:
2936:
2888:
2766:Isotopes of plutonium
2759:
2655:multiplication factor
2498:
2307:nuclear-proliferation
2287:criticality accidents
2180:should have survived
1658:Isotopes of plutonium
1618:, itself named after
1421:
1222:16.63 g/cm
16080:Pyrophoric materials
15906:British contribution
15808:Operation Peppermint
15803:Operation Crossroads
15662:Maria Goeppert Mayer
15147:Reversed field pinch
14942:Traveling-wave (TWR)
14426:Supercritical (SCWR)
13924:Gemstone irradiation
11536:Samuels, D. (2005).
11442:More spoken articles
10921:Inventing Los Alamos
10919:Hunner, Jon (2004).
10824:on February 24, 2009
10014:on February 16, 2013
9411:on February 26, 2015
9379:on February 16, 2013
9191:on December 26, 2008
8505:Analytical Chemistry
8476:Analytical Chemistry
8414:History News Network
8343:Hoddeson et al. 1993
8328:Hoddeson et al. 1993
6640:10.1021/jacs.7b00706
5841:(public domain text)
5168:biological half-life
4902:light water reactors
4858:light water reactors
4845:Nuclear reprocessing
4749:Oak Ridge, Tennessee
4587:Large stockpiles of
4492:Hanford nuclear site
4369:Oak Ridge, Tennessee
4238:Cavendish Laboratory
3853:, and barium of the
3808:Electronic structure
3796:electric arc furnace
3600:carbon tetrachloride
3031:
2829:
2718:Supergrade plutonium
2714:Fuel-grade plutonium
2630:are the other two);
2566:Plutonium in the ÎŽ (
2346:plutonium is in its
2295:nuclear power plants
1517:Thermal conductivity
1242:Heat of vaporization
1208:19.85 g/cm (Pu)
1204:(at 20° C)
15667:George Kistiakowsky
15622:Charles Critchfield
14312:Aqueous homogeneous
14107:Reprocessed uranium
13780:Safety and security
13218:Plutonium compounds
11565:on February 3, 2009
11461:on February 3, 2009
11041:Kay, A. E. (1965).
10975:Jha, D. K. (2004).
10655:. Klassekampen.no.
10286:2018EnST...52.9442L
10247:1995AppRI..46.1213B
10204:2001JEnvR..55..167S
9873:on August 26, 2011.
9705:2009JRP....29...43L
9241:, pp. 254â256.
9085:on January 5, 2013.
8973:on January 25, 2017
8605:(October 4, 2002).
8345:, pp. 240â242.
8330:, pp. 235â239.
8111:on February 8, 2008
8042:1996PhT....49a..11W
7650:2015NatCo...6.5956W
7585:1998Sci...280..877K
7526:1972Sci...176..909H
7460:2004Sci...306...89T
7420:on January 29, 2024
7367:1971Natur.234..132H
7283:1971Natur.234..132H
7224:1999GeCoA..63..275C
7187:on October 20, 2008
7018:2009ECSTr..16Z..71K
6678:2013JChPh.139c4307Z
6469:1946PhRv...69..366S
6445:, pp. 124â125.
6400:1946PhRv...70..555K
6323:2015NatCo...6.5956W
6248:on August 27, 2009.
5980:, pp. 659â660
5922:"Chart of Nuclides"
5117:radiation poisoning
4762:The Plutonium Files
4601:Savannah River Site
4110:secular equilibrium
4090:spontaneous fission
4088:isotopes (from its
3968:Plutoniumâzirconium
3939:Plutoniumâaluminium
3698:, nitrogen to form
3404:Plutonium compounds
3256:Spontaneous fission
3231:
3208:neutron irradiation
3169:
3157:
3115:
2964:
2952:
2916:
2904:
2738:neutron absorptions
2702:spontaneous fission
2644:slow moving neutron
2441:blackbody radiation
2330:Physical properties
2271:bombing of Nagasaki
2217:spontaneous fission
2215:has a high rate of
1999:Category: Plutonium
1412:187±1 pm
1375:Ionization energies
1263:Vapor pressure
1252:Molar heat capacity
1151:Physical properties
1143:Electrons per shell
43:
16065:Synthetic elements
15732:Henry DeWolf Smyth
15511:Robert Oppenheimer
15466:Priscilla Duffield
15226:Dense plasma focus
14141:Actinide chemistry
13606:Isotope separation
13503:Nuclear technology
11732:History of science
11696:Nuclear technology
11612:Los Alamos Science
11412:
10420:on January 3, 2013
10410:"Raemer Schreiber"
10378:on October 8, 2008
10088:Bernard L. Cohen.
9979:10.1093/aje/kwh192
9644:on March 12, 2020.
9617:on January 9, 2018
9133:Los Alamos Science
9043:Los Alamos Science
9006:Los Alamos Science
8270:Los Alamos Science
8238:Los Alamos Science
7966:Los Alamos Science
7925:Los Alamos Science
7826:Seaborg, Glenn T.
7658:10.1038/ncomms6956
6965:. PhysicsWeb.org.
6896:on April 28, 2007.
6814:, pp. 324â329
6331:10.1038/ncomms6956
6124:Los Alamos Science
6079:Los Alamos Science
6037:Los Alamos Science
5831:on August 13, 2011
5803:, pp. 835 ff.
5638:TellerâUlam design
5422:Statens strÄlevern
5414:passenger airlines
5283:
5148:radiation sickness
5128:ionizing radiation
5121:Japanese survivors
4974:
4956:
4854:Spent nuclear fuel
4808:
4682:On March 5, 2009,
4520:
4481:Chernobyl disaster
4425:On April 5, 1944,
4408:
4388:
4365:uranium enrichment
4305:
4189:
4149:University of Rome
4074:primordial nuclide
4027:parts per trillion
3623:
3615:
3424:and one rare one:
3414:
3229:
3193:
3191:
3103:
2984:
2762:
2541:crystal structures
2525:
2262:bombs used in the
1439:Natural occurrence
1429:
1423:
1053:
1038:
35:
16070:Manhattan Project
16060:Nuclear materials
16045:Chemical elements
16025:
16024:
15947:Los Alamos Primer
15936:Interim Committee
15891:African Americans
15843:The Great Artiste
15702:Isidor Isaac Rabi
15697:Norman Ramsey Jr.
15496:Franklin Matthias
15435:Heavy water sites
15342:Manhattan Project
15308:
15307:
15258:
15257:
15254:
15253:
15205:Magnetized-target
15102:
15101:
15065:
15064:
14896:
14895:
14892:
14891:
14836:
14835:
14720:
14719:
14652:
14651:
14257:
14256:
14212:
14211:
14081:
14080:
14068:Weapon-free zones
13895:
13894:
13887:Radiopharmacology
13469:
13468:
13184:
13183:
13105:
13104:
13098:
13097:
13064:
13063:
11594:on August 5, 2014
11542:Discover Magazine
11408:
11351:on March 27, 2009
11327:978-1-4663-8460-6
11296:978-0-19-923021-1
10930:978-0-8061-3891-6
10886:Hoddeson, Lillian
10771:978-3-11-011451-5
10720:978-0-309-10296-4
10564:Yamaguchi, Mari.
10414:Staff Biographies
10280:(16): 9442â9450.
10241:(11): 1213â1223.
9864:Cohen, Bernard L.
9494:. June 11, 2014.
9275:(12): 3071â3076.
9079:10.2968/055006016
8945:on June 21, 2011.
8919:on March 24, 2011
8644:, pp. 22â29.
8517:10.1021/ac802286a
8489:10.1021/ac900093b
8301:Sublette, Carey.
8050:10.1063/1.2807455
7894:, pp. 71â72.
7816:, pp. 44â52.
7579:(5365): 877â880.
7520:(4037): 909â911.
7361:(5325): 132â134.
7277:(5325): 132â134.
7259:, pp. 75â77.
7035:978-1-56677-751-3
7026:10.1149/1.3229956
6839:(18): 5066â5070.
6709:Radiochimica Acta
6686:10.1063/1.4813284
6634:(11): 3970â3973.
6587:on March 20, 2006
6492:, pp. 76â77.
5776:Chinese Physics C
5753:978-1-62708-155-9
5714:Boulder, Colorado
5710:Rocky Flats Plant
5329:nuclear accidents
4931:under-20Kt device
4677:Las Vegas, Nevada
4621:Rocky Flats Plant
4466:Franklin Matthias
4400:radioactive waste
4357:Manhattan Project
4205:Joseph W. Kennedy
4121:nuclear accidents
4063:double beta decay
3988:Plutoniumâuranium
3867:rare earth metals
3768:Refractory metals
3667:, giving rise to
3657:plutonium hydride
3646:plutonium hydride
3395:
3394:
3178:
3177:
3176:
3155:
3151:
3131:
3130:
3129:
3118:
3087:
3086:
3085:
3064:
3063:
3062:
3045:
3044:
3043:
2973:
2972:
2971:
2950:
2946:
2925:
2924:
2923:
2902:
2898:
2877:
2876:
2875:
2858:
2857:
2856:
2839:
2838:
2837:
2777:metastable states
2642:when struck by a
2545:phase transitions
2533:internal energies
2402:radioactive decay
2301:built during the
2252:Manhattan Project
2160:after the planet
2077:. It reacts with
2034:
2033:
1983:
1982:
1651: (1940â1941)
1644:Joseph W. Kennedy
1564:43 GPa
1554:96 GPa
1537:Magnetic ordering
1500:Thermal expansion
1468:Lattice constants
1450:Crystal structure
1424:
1365:Electronegativity
1339:Atomic properties
1333:
1332:
1065:
1064:
1061:
1060:
1051:
1036:
1026:
1025:
752:Mercury (element)
154:Plutonium in the
16087:
16017:
16016:
15968:Quebec Agreement
15752:John von Neumann
15692:George B. Pegram
15501:Dorothy McKibbin
15335:
15328:
15321:
15312:
15311:
15296:
15295:
15284:
15283:
15273:
15272:
15271:
15183:
15142:Levitated dipole
15112:
15104:
15103:
15052:Helium gas (GFR)
14915:
14914:
14910:
14847:
14846:
14731:
14730:
14681:
14680:
14674:
14673:
14669:
14668:
14450:
14449:
14446:
14445:
14284:
14276:
14275:
14268:Nuclear reactors
14263:
14262:
14162:High-level (HLW)
14092:
14091:
13939:
13938:
13919:Food irradiation
13909:Atomic gardening
13802:
13801:
13785:Nuclear meltdown
13611:Nuclear material
13601:Fissile material
13596:Fertile material
13511:
13510:
13496:
13489:
13482:
13473:
13472:
13211:
13204:
13197:
13188:
13187:
13132:
13125:
13118:
13109:
13108:
13074:
13073:
13060:
13058:
13051:
13049:
13042:
13040:
13033:
13031:
13024:
13022:
13015:
13013:
13006:
13004:
12997:
12995:
12988:
12986:
12979:
12977:
12970:
12968:
12961:
12959:
12952:
12950:
12943:
12941:
12934:
12932:
12925:
12923:
12916:
12914:
12907:
12905:
12898:
12896:
12889:
12887:
12880:
12878:
12871:
12869:
12862:
12860:
12853:
12851:
12844:
12842:
12835:
12833:
12826:
12824:
12817:
12815:
12808:
12806:
12799:
12797:
12790:
12788:
12781:
12779:
12765:
12763:
12756:
12754:
12747:
12745:
12738:
12736:
12729:
12727:
12720:
12718:
12711:
12709:
12702:
12700:
12693:
12691:
12684:
12682:
12675:
12673:
12666:
12664:
12657:
12655:
12648:
12646:
12639:
12637:
12630:
12628:
12621:
12619:
12612:
12610:
12603:
12601:
12594:
12592:
12585:
12583:
12576:
12574:
12567:
12565:
12558:
12556:
12549:
12547:
12540:
12538:
12531:
12529:
12522:
12520:
12513:
12511:
12504:
12502:
12495:
12493:
12486:
12484:
12470:
12468:
12461:
12459:
12452:
12450:
12443:
12441:
12434:
12432:
12425:
12423:
12416:
12414:
12407:
12405:
12398:
12396:
12389:
12387:
12380:
12378:
12371:
12369:
12362:
12360:
12353:
12351:
12344:
12342:
12335:
12333:
12324:
12322:
12315:
12313:
12299:
12297:
12290:
12288:
12281:
12279:
12272:
12270:
12263:
12261:
12254:
12252:
12245:
12243:
12236:
12234:
12227:
12225:
12218:
12216:
12209:
12207:
12200:
12198:
12191:
12189:
12182:
12180:
12173:
12171:
12164:
12162:
12153:
12151:
12144:
12142:
12128:
12126:
12119:
12117:
12110:
12108:
12101:
12099:
12092:
12090:
12083:
12081:
12072:
12070:
12063:
12061:
12047:
12045:
12038:
12036:
12029:
12027:
12020:
12018:
12011:
12009:
12002:
12000:
11991:
11989:
11982:
11980:
11966:
11964:
11955:
11953:
11845:
11829:
11822:
11815:
11806:
11805:
11800:
11792:
11791:
11790:
11783:
11775:
11774:
11773:
11766:
11758:
11757:
11756:
11746:
11730:
11729:
11728:
11718:
11717:
11706:
11705:
11704:
11694:
11693:
11692:
11685:
11671:
11662:
11660:
11658:
11642:
11640:
11638:
11623:
11621:
11619:
11603:
11601:
11599:
11586:Ong, C. (1999).
11582:
11574:
11572:
11570:
11561:. Archived from
11549:
11532:
11523:
11521:
11519:
11507:
11505:
11503:
11487:
11482:. Archived from
11470:
11468:
11466:
11457:. Archived from
11432:
11430:
11419:
11418:
11409:
11399:
11397:
11392:
11379:
11360:
11358:
11356:
11350:
11343:
11331:
11312:
11310:
11308:
11276:
11267:
11255:
11244:
11220:
11218:
11216:
11187:
11169:
11160:
11158:
11156:
11150:
11143:
11131:
11112:
11110:
11108:
11102:
11091:
11079:
11060:
11058:
11056:
11037:
11035:
11033:
11004:
11002:
11000:
10971:
10969:
10967:
10961:
10946:
10934:
10915:
10881:
10861:
10852:
10833:
10831:
10829:
10823:
10806:
10794:
10775:
10763:
10752:
10732:
10712:
10701:
10669:
10668:
10666:
10664:
10648:
10637:
10636:
10634:
10632:
10613:
10607:
10606:
10604:
10602:
10588:
10582:
10581:
10579:
10577:
10561:
10555:
10554:
10552:
10550:
10535:
10529:
10528:
10526:
10524:
10505:
10499:
10498:
10496:
10494:
10479:
10473:
10472:
10470:
10468:
10457:ISIS Issue Brief
10448:
10442:
10436:
10430:
10429:
10427:
10425:
10406:
10400:
10394:
10388:
10387:
10385:
10383:
10367:
10361:
10355:
10349:
10348:
10346:
10344:
10334:
10314:
10308:
10307:
10297:
10265:
10259:
10258:
10230:
10224:
10223:
10187:
10178:
10177:
10175:
10173:
10125:
10119:
10105:
10103:
10101:
10085:
10076:
10075:
10073:
10071:
10056:
10050:
10049:
10047:
10045:
10030:
10024:
10023:
10021:
10019:
10013:
10006:
9998:
9992:
9991:
9981:
9957:
9951:
9950:
9924:
9918:
9917:
9881:
9875:
9874:
9869:. Archived from
9860:
9849:
9848:
9846:
9844:
9839:on June 30, 2007
9838:
9831:
9823:
9817:
9816:
9806:
9773:
9767:
9766:
9764:
9762:
9739:
9733:
9732:
9688:
9682:
9681:
9679:
9677:
9671:
9660:
9652:
9646:
9645:
9633:
9627:
9626:
9624:
9622:
9607:
9601:
9600:
9598:
9596:
9581:
9575:
9574:
9572:
9570:
9555:
9549:
9548:
9538:
9514:
9508:
9507:
9505:
9503:
9484:
9478:
9477:
9475:
9473:
9451:
9445:
9427:
9421:
9420:
9418:
9416:
9410:
9403:
9395:
9389:
9388:
9386:
9384:
9365:
9356:
9355:
9353:
9351:
9336:
9330:
9329:
9327:
9325:
9310:
9297:
9296:
9294:
9292:
9260:
9254:
9248:
9242:
9236:
9230:
9229:
9227:
9225:
9210:
9201:
9200:
9198:
9196:
9177:
9168:
9162:
9156:
9155:
9153:
9151:
9145:
9130:
9121:
9115:
9112:
9106:
9102:
9096:
9093:
9087:
9086:
9081:. Archived from
9056:
9047:
9046:
9038:
9029:
9028:
9026:
9024:
9018:
9003:
8994:
8983:
8982:
8980:
8978:
8972:
8966:. Archived from
8965:
8956:
8947:
8946:
8941:. Archived from
8935:
8929:
8928:
8926:
8924:
8904:
8898:
8897:
8895:
8893:
8888:on March 6, 2008
8877:
8871:
8870:
8868:
8866:
8851:
8845:
8844:
8824:
8796:
8790:
8789:
8753:
8747:
8741:
8735:
8729:
8718:
8717:
8715:
8713:
8707:
8700:
8689:
8683:
8682:
8680:
8678:
8663:
8657:
8651:
8645:
8639:
8633:
8632:
8630:
8628:
8622:
8611:
8598:
8592:
8591:
8589:
8587:
8581:
8574:
8565:
8556:
8555:
8553:
8551:
8535:
8529:
8528:
8511:(4): 1297â1306.
8500:
8494:
8493:
8491:
8467:
8461:
8460:
8458:
8456:
8436:
8430:
8429:
8427:
8425:
8405:
8396:
8390:
8384:
8383:
8381:
8379:
8364:
8358:
8352:
8346:
8340:
8331:
8325:
8319:
8318:
8316:
8314:
8298:
8292:
8289:
8287:
8285:
8260:
8258:
8256:
8250:
8235:
8226:
8220:
8219:
8217:
8215:
8200:"Site Selection"
8196:
8190:
8189:
8187:
8185:
8170:
8164:
8158:
8152:
8151:
8149:
8147:
8132:
8121:
8120:
8118:
8116:
8101:
8095:
8094:
8092:
8090:
8080:
8060:
8054:
8053:
8036:(1): 11â15, 83.
8025:
8019:
8018:
8016:
8014:
7995:
7989:
7988:
7986:
7984:
7978:
7972:: 56â61, on 57.
7963:
7954:
7948:
7947:
7945:
7943:
7937:
7931:: 56â61, on 57.
7922:
7913:
7907:
7901:
7895:
7889:
7883:
7880:
7874:
7873:
7871:
7869:
7853:
7844:
7843:
7841:
7839:
7823:
7817:
7811:
7805:
7804:
7802:
7800:
7784:
7778:
7777:
7775:
7773:
7767:
7760:
7751:
7745:
7744:
7742:
7740:
7720:
7714:
7713:
7711:
7709:
7694:
7688:
7687:
7669:
7643:
7619:
7613:
7612:
7568:
7562:
7561:
7509:
7503:
7502:
7500:
7494:. Archived from
7445:
7436:
7430:
7429:
7427:
7425:
7416:. Archived from
7408:(7): 3522â3526.
7393:
7387:
7386:
7375:10.1038/234132a0
7350:
7344:
7343:
7309:
7303:
7302:
7291:10.1038/234132a0
7266:
7260:
7254:
7248:
7247:
7245:
7243:
7203:
7197:
7196:
7194:
7192:
7177:
7171:
7165:
7152:
7146:
7135:
7129:
7123:
7121:
7114:
7108:
7107:
7105:
7103:
7098:on July 22, 2011
7097:
7090:
7077:
7071:
7066:
7060:
7059:
7057:
7055:
7006:ECS Transactions
6997:
6991:
6985:
6979:
6978:
6976:
6974:
6958:
6949:
6948:
6946:
6944:
6919:(4â5): 543â559.
6904:
6898:
6897:
6886:
6875:
6874:
6864:
6824:
6815:
6809:
6766:
6760:
6745:
6739:
6733:
6732:
6704:
6698:
6697:
6661:
6652:
6651:
6628:J. Am. Chem. Soc
6618:
6612:
6611:
6603:
6597:
6596:
6594:
6592:
6586:
6580:. Archived from
6579:
6570:
6564:
6558:
6552:
6551:
6549:
6547:
6532:
6526:
6525:
6523:
6521:
6515:
6508:
6499:
6493:
6487:
6481:
6480:
6452:
6446:
6440:
6429:
6423:
6414:
6413:
6411:
6394:(7â8): 555â556.
6379:
6373:
6367:
6361:
6360:
6350:
6316:
6292:
6286:
6285:
6283:
6276:
6268:
6262:
6256:
6250:
6249:
6247:
6240:
6231:
6225:
6219:
6213:
6212:
6210:
6208:
6189:
6183:
6177:
6164:
6158:
6143:
6142:
6140:
6138:
6132:
6121:
6112:
6099:
6098:
6096:
6094:
6088:
6075:
6066:
6060:
6059:
6057:
6055:
6049:
6034:
6025:
6004:
5998:
5985:
5975:
5969:
5963:
5942:
5941:
5939:
5937:
5932:on July 21, 2011
5928:. Archived from
5917:
5906:
5905:
5903:
5901:
5882:
5876:
5875:
5869:
5867:
5848:
5842:
5840:
5838:
5836:
5817:
5804:
5798:
5792:
5791:
5773:
5764:
5758:
5757:
5739:
5717:
5706:
5700:
5697:
5691:
5689:
5688:
5687:
5679:
5678:
5670:
5669:
5655:
5649:
5634:
5628:
5621:
5615:
5608:
5602:
5598:
5592:
5583:Room 405 of the
5581:
5575:
5571:
5565:
5538:
5532:
5529:
5528:
5527:
5516:
5515:
5514:
5504:
5503:
5502:
5492:
5491:
5490:
5480:
5479:
5478:
5468:
5467:
5466:
5456:
5455:
5454:
5443:
5302:tungsten carbide
5279:tungsten carbide
5061:, starting with
4907:Breeder reactors
4839:Mixed oxide fuel
4772:Hippocratic Oath
4741:informed consent
4684:Energy Secretary
4451:explosive lenses
4406:in January 1960.
4193:Glenn T. Seaborg
4185:Glenn T. Seaborg
4175:Fritz Strassmann
4060:
4058:
4052:
4050:
3978:Plutoniumâcerium
3596:inert atmosphere
3588:perchloric acids
3542:
3541:
3540:
3530:
3529:
3528:
3518:
3517:
3516:
3475:
3474:
3473:
3460:
3459:
3458:
3445:
3444:
3443:
3422:aqueous solution
3418:oxidation states
3232:
3228:
3202:
3200:
3199:
3194:
3192:
3188:
3187:
3174:
3171:
3168:
3167:
3156:
3153:
3149:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3109:
3096:
3083:
3077:
3073:
3060:
3054:
3041:
2993:
2991:
2990:
2985:
2983:
2982:
2969:
2966:
2963:
2962:
2951:
2948:
2944:
2934:
2921:
2918:
2915:
2914:
2903:
2900:
2896:
2886:
2873:
2867:
2854:
2848:
2835:
2816:neptunium series
2746:fertile material
2592:supercriticality
2519: (ÎŽ'), and
2517:delta prime
2434:
2432:
2431:
2419:
2417:
2411:
2409:
2384:plutonium oxides
2344:room temperature
2283:informed consent
2209:nuclear reactors
2178:trace quantities
2075:oxidation states
2041:chemical element
2022:
2015:
2008:
1996:
1995:
1976:
1964:
1959:
1957:
1937:
1925:
1920:
1918:
1898:
1886:
1874:
1867:
1847:
1835:
1830:
1828:
1808:
1796:
1791:
1789:
1769:
1755:
1748:
1721:
1689:
1688:
1679:
1674:
1667:
1652:
1636:Glenn T. Seaborg
1510:
1508:
1477:
1434:Other properties
1354:
1345:Oxidation states
1311:
1307:
1279:
1275:
1268:
1267:
1219:
1205:
1166:
1165:
1121:
1097:(no number)
1081:
1080:
1021:
1014:
1007:
1000:
993:
986:
979:
972:
965:
958:
951:
944:
937:
930:
923:
916:
909:
902:
895:
888:
881:
874:
867:
860:
853:
846:
839:
832:
825:
818:
811:
804:
795:
788:
781:
774:
767:
760:
753:
746:
739:
732:
725:
718:
711:
704:
697:
690:
683:
676:
669:
662:
655:
648:
641:
634:
627:
620:
613:
606:
599:
592:
585:
578:
569:
562:
555:
548:
541:
534:
527:
520:
513:
506:
499:
492:
485:
478:
471:
464:
453:
446:
437:
430:
423:
416:
409:
402:
395:
388:
381:
374:
367:
360:
353:
346:
339:
332:
323:
316:
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300:
293:
286:
279:
272:
263:
256:
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233:
226:
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196:
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167:
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163:
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119:
114:
105:
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102:
99:
98:
95:
92:
89:
86:
83:
80:
77:
74:
71:
51:
44:
42:
37:Plutonium,
34:
16095:
16094:
16090:
16089:
16088:
16086:
16085:
16084:
16030:
16029:
16026:
16021:
16007:
15973:RaLa Experiment
15879:
15848:
15813:Project Alberta
15781:
15777:Chien-Shiung Wu
15707:James Rainwater
15642:Richard Feynman
15632:John R. Dunning
15607:Norris Bradbury
15570:
15556:Stafford Warren
15526:William Purnell
15506:Kenneth Nichols
15486:Ernest Lawrence
15461:James B. Conant
15439:
15353:
15344:
15339:
15309:
15304:
15269:
15267:
15250:
15214:
15181:
15166:
15123:
15113:
15108:
15098:
15061:
14966:
14911:
14904:
14903:
14888:
14832:
14763:
14738:
14716:
14688:
14670:
14663:
14662:
14661:
14648:
14614:
14605:
14587:
14552:
14543:
14457:
14440:
14439:
14438:
14430:
14344:Natural fission
14298:
14297:
14285:
14280:
14270:
14253:
14229:Nuclear weapons
14208:
14167:Low-level (LLW)
14145:
14077:
14029:
13928:
13891:
13838:
13791:
13712:
13644:
13567:
13505:
13500:
13470:
13465:
13461:
13451:Plutonium(VIII)
13446:
13442:
13427:
13423:
13415:
13400:
13396:
13392:
13388:
13380:
13376:
13368:
13360:
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12023:
12016:
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12007:
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11998:
11996:
11987:
11985:
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11976:
11962:
11960:
11951:
11949:
11838:
11833:
11803:
11793:
11788:
11786:
11776:
11771:
11769:
11765:from Wiktionary
11759:
11754:
11752:
11749:
11745:sister projects
11742:at Knowledge's
11736:
11726:
11724:
11712:
11702:
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11510:
11501:
11499:
11490:
11464:
11462:
11449:
11446:
11445:
11434:
11428:
11426:
11423:This audio file
11420:
11413:
11404:
11401:
11395:
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11390:
11387:
11382:
11376:
11354:
11352:
11348:
11341:
11328:
11306:
11304:
11297:
11264:
11241:
11225:Rhodes, Richard
11214:
11212:
11205:
11154:
11152:
11148:
11141:
11128:
11106:
11104:
11100:
11089:
11076:
11054:
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11031:
11029:
11022:
10998:
10996:
10989:
10965:
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10959:
10944:
10931:
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10878:
10849:
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10660:
10649:
10640:
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10600:
10598:
10590:
10589:
10585:
10575:
10573:
10562:
10558:
10548:
10546:
10539:"Pacific Egret"
10537:
10536:
10532:
10522:
10520:
10507:
10506:
10502:
10492:
10490:
10481:
10480:
10476:
10466:
10464:
10463:on July 8, 2008
10449:
10445:
10437:
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10408:
10407:
10403:
10395:
10391:
10381:
10379:
10368:
10364:
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10342:
10340:
10332:10.2172/7344946
10315:
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10000:
9999:
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9921:
9882:
9878:
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9842:
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9774:
9770:
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9758:
9741:
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9736:
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9685:
9675:
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9515:
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9486:
9485:
9481:
9471:
9469:
9452:
9448:
9438:Wayback Machine
9428:
9424:
9414:
9412:
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9401:
9397:
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9380:
9367:
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8995:
8986:
8976:
8974:
8970:
8963:
8957:
8950:
8937:
8936:
8932:
8922:
8920:
8913:Chicago Tribune
8905:
8901:
8891:
8889:
8878:
8874:
8864:
8862:
8853:
8852:
8848:
8797:
8793:
8754:
8750:
8742:
8738:
8730:
8721:
8711:
8709:
8708:on July 5, 2013
8705:
8698:
8690:
8686:
8676:
8674:
8665:
8664:
8660:
8652:
8648:
8640:
8636:
8626:
8624:
8620:
8609:
8603:Garwin, Richard
8599:
8595:
8585:
8583:
8579:
8572:
8566:
8559:
8549:
8547:
8536:
8532:
8501:
8497:
8468:
8464:
8454:
8452:
8437:
8433:
8423:
8421:
8406:
8399:
8395:, p. iv, 1
8391:
8387:
8377:
8375:
8366:
8365:
8361:
8353:
8349:
8341:
8334:
8326:
8322:
8312:
8310:
8299:
8295:
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8254:
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8248:
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8227:
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8159:
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8143:
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8114:
8112:
8103:
8102:
8098:
8088:
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8078:10.2172/7110621
8061:
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8022:
8012:
8010:
7997:
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7982:
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7705:
7696:
7695:
7691:
7620:
7616:
7569:
7565:
7510:
7506:
7498:
7454:(5693): 89â91.
7443:
7437:
7433:
7423:
7421:
7394:
7390:
7351:
7347:
7332:10.2307/3976137
7324:Wiley-Blackwell
7310:
7306:
7267:
7263:
7255:
7251:
7241:
7239:
7204:
7200:
7190:
7188:
7179:
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7101:
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7063:
7053:
7051:
7036:
6998:
6994:
6986:
6982:
6972:
6970:
6959:
6952:
6942:
6940:
6905:
6901:
6888:
6887:
6878:
6825:
6818:
6810:
6769:
6761:
6748:
6740:
6736:
6705:
6701:
6662:
6655:
6625:
6619:
6615:
6604:
6600:
6590:
6588:
6584:
6577:
6571:
6567:
6559:
6555:
6545:
6543:
6534:
6533:
6529:
6519:
6517:
6513:
6506:
6500:
6496:
6488:
6484:
6457:Physical Review
6453:
6449:
6441:
6432:
6424:
6417:
6388:Physical Review
6380:
6376:
6368:
6364:
6293:
6289:
6281:
6274:
6270:
6269:
6265:
6257:
6253:
6245:
6238:
6232:
6228:
6220:
6216:
6206:
6204:
6191:
6190:
6186:
6178:
6167:
6163:, pp. 4â27
6159:
6146:
6136:
6134:
6130:
6119:
6113:
6102:
6092:
6090:
6086:
6073:
6067:
6063:
6053:
6051:
6047:
6032:
6026:
6007:
5999:
5988:
5976:
5972:
5964:
5945:
5935:
5933:
5918:
5909:
5899:
5897:
5890:webelements.com
5884:
5883:
5879:
5865:
5863:
5850:
5849:
5845:
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5807:
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5771:
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5754:
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5720:
5707:
5703:
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5470:
5465:
5462:
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5460:
5458:
5453:
5450:
5449:
5448:
5446:
5444:
5440:
5435:
5430:
5406:
5367:
5362:
5346:Magnesium oxide
5337:
5271:
5234:
5232:Marine toxicity
5187:dose equivalent
5097:
5092:
5086:
4965:
4954:
4945:
4927:nuclear weapons
4915:plutonium alloy
4851:
4843:Main articles:
4841:
4833:explosive yield
4796:
4791:
4721:
4711:
4693:in New Mexico.
4665:stainless steel
4649:plutonium oxide
4585:
4579:
4552:(α, n) reaction
4504:
4353:
4290:
4262:Nicholas Kemmer
4229:Physical Review
4159:nuclear fission
4142:
4137:
4056:
4054:
4048:
4046:
4043:Cigar Lake Mine
4023:
3955:
3933:implosion bombs
3823:
3810:
3755:
3751:
3747:
3739:
3735:
3709:
3692:
3675:where X can be
3674:
3662:
3651:
3642:
3539:
3536:
3535:
3534:
3532:
3527:
3524:
3523:
3522:
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3515:
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3508:
3503:
3499:
3495:
3491:
3472:
3469:
3468:
3467:
3465:
3457:
3454:
3453:
3452:
3450:
3442:
3439:
3438:
3437:
3435:
3406:
3400:
3351:beta-minus, to
3220:
3190:
3189:
3172:
3163:
3159:
3152:
3140:
3125:
3121:
3120:
3110:
3105:
3081:
3080:
3078:
3058:
3039:
3038:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3028:
2967:
2958:
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2947:
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2910:
2906:
2899:
2887:
2871:
2852:
2833:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2826:
2768:
2754:
2687:nuclear weapons
2671:electromagnetic
2660:
2604:
2602:Nuclear fission
2493:
2487:
2479:surface tension
2430:
2428:
2427:
2426:
2425:
2415:
2413:
2407:
2405:
2374:. It has a low
2332:
2327:
2325:Characteristics
2291:plutonium waste
2237:alpha particles
2205:nuclear weapons
2124:bombardment of
2026:
2001:
1974:
1962:
1955:
1953:
1935:
1923:
1916:
1914:
1896:
1884:
1870:
1865:
1845:
1833:
1826:
1824:
1806:
1794:
1787:
1785:
1765:
1751:
1746:
1719:
1712:
1705:abundance
1678:
1660:
1650:
1598:7440-07-5
1550:Young's modulus
1506:
1504:
1493:
1488:
1483:
1478:
1408:Covalent radius
1388:
1350:
1334:
1309:
1277:
1213:
1203:
1159:
1074:
1070:
1041:
1039:
1035:
1033:
1027:
1019:
1012:
1005:
998:
991:
984:
977:
970:
963:
956:
949:
942:
935:
928:
921:
914:
907:
900:
893:
886:
879:
872:
865:
858:
851:
844:
837:
830:
823:
816:
809:
802:
793:
786:
779:
772:
765:
758:
751:
744:
737:
730:
723:
716:
709:
702:
695:
688:
681:
674:
667:
660:
653:
646:
639:
632:
625:
618:
611:
604:
597:
590:
583:
576:
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532:
525:
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483:
476:
469:
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451:
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435:
428:
421:
414:
407:
400:
393:
386:
379:
372:
365:
358:
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12:
11:
5:
16093:
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16077:
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16052:
16047:
16042:
16023:
16022:
16012:
16009:
16008:
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16000:
15995:
15990:
15985:
15980:
15975:
15970:
15965:
15960:
15955:
15950:
15943:
15938:
15933:
15928:
15923:
15918:
15916:Chicago Pile-1
15913:
15911:Calutron Girls
15908:
15903:
15898:
15893:
15887:
15885:
15884:Related topics
15881:
15880:
15878:
15877:
15872:
15867:
15862:
15856:
15854:
15850:
15849:
15847:
15846:
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15800:
15795:
15789:
15787:
15783:
15782:
15780:
15779:
15774:
15769:
15764:
15759:
15754:
15749:
15747:StanisĆaw Ulam
15744:
15739:
15734:
15729:
15724:
15719:
15714:
15709:
15704:
15699:
15694:
15689:
15684:
15682:Edwin McMillan
15679:
15674:
15669:
15664:
15659:
15654:
15649:
15644:
15639:
15634:
15629:
15627:Harry Daghlian
15624:
15619:
15617:John Cockcroft
15614:
15612:James Chadwick
15609:
15604:
15599:
15594:
15589:
15584:
15578:
15576:
15572:
15571:
15569:
15568:
15563:
15558:
15553:
15548:
15543:
15538:
15536:Charles Thomas
15533:
15531:Frank Spedding
15528:
15523:
15518:
15513:
15508:
15503:
15498:
15493:
15491:James Marshall
15488:
15483:
15478:
15473:
15471:Thomas Farrell
15468:
15463:
15458:
15456:Arthur Compton
15453:
15447:
15445:
15444:Administrators
15441:
15440:
15438:
15437:
15432:
15427:
15422:
15417:
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15407:
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15397:
15392:
15387:
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15372:
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15338:
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15330:
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15290:
15278:
15263:
15260:
15259:
15256:
15255:
15252:
15251:
15249:
15248:
15243:
15238:
15236:Muon-catalyzed
15233:
15228:
15222:
15220:
15216:
15215:
15213:
15212:
15207:
15202:
15197:
15196:
15195:
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15012:
15007:
15002:
14997:
14992:
14987:
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14974:
14968:
14967:
14965:
14964:
14959:
14954:
14949:
14944:
14939:
14934:
14929:
14927:Integral (IFR)
14924:
14918:
14912:
14901:
14898:
14897:
14894:
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14890:
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14771:
14765:
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14736:
14728:
14722:
14721:
14718:
14717:
14715:
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14671:
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14597:
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14589:
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14586:
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14512:
14507:
14497:
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14460:
14455:
14447:
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14408:
14407:
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14391:
14386:
14381:
14376:
14371:
14366:
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14356:
14346:
14341:
14340:
14339:
14334:
14329:
14324:
14314:
14308:
14306:
14300:
14299:
14291:
14290:
14287:
14286:
14272:
14271:
14259:
14258:
14255:
14254:
14252:
14251:
14246:
14244:Uranium mining
14241:
14236:
14231:
14226:
14220:
14218:
14214:
14213:
14210:
14209:
14207:
14206:
14201:
14200:
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14194:
14184:
14179:
14174:
14169:
14164:
14159:
14153:
14151:
14147:
14146:
14144:
14143:
14138:
14137:
14136:
14126:
14121:
14120:
14119:
14117:Minor actinide
14114:
14109:
14098:
14096:
14089:
14083:
14082:
14079:
14078:
14076:
14075:
14070:
14065:
14060:
14059:
14058:
14053:
14043:
14037:
14035:
14031:
14030:
14028:
14027:
14026:
14025:
14015:
14010:
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14008:
14003:
13993:
13988:
13983:
13982:
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13971:
13966:
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13956:
13951:
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13926:
13921:
13916:
13911:
13905:
13903:
13897:
13896:
13893:
13892:
13890:
13889:
13884:
13879:
13874:
13869:
13864:
13859:
13854:
13848:
13846:
13840:
13839:
13837:
13836:
13831:
13826:
13821:
13816:
13814:Autoradiograph
13810:
13808:
13799:
13793:
13792:
13790:
13789:
13788:
13787:
13777:
13776:
13775:
13765:
13764:
13763:
13753:
13748:
13743:
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13733:
13728:
13722:
13720:
13714:
13713:
13711:
13710:
13705:
13700:
13695:
13690:
13685:
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13654:
13652:
13646:
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13641:
13640:
13635:
13630:
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13623:
13608:
13603:
13598:
13593:
13588:
13583:
13577:
13575:
13569:
13568:
13566:
13565:
13564:
13563:
13558:
13548:
13543:
13538:
13536:Atomic nucleus
13533:
13528:
13523:
13517:
13515:
13507:
13506:
13499:
13498:
13491:
13484:
13476:
13467:
13466:
13464:
13463:
13459:
13454:
13452:
13448:
13447:
13445:
13444:
13440:
13435:
13433:
13429:
13428:
13426:
13425:
13421:
13417:
13413:
13408:
13406:
13402:
13401:
13399:
13398:
13394:
13390:
13386:
13382:
13378:
13374:
13370:
13366:
13362:
13358:
13354:
13350:
13346:
13342:
13336:
13334:
13330:
13329:
13327:
13326:
13321:
13317:
13313:
13309:
13305:
13301:
13297:
13293:
13289:
13284:
13279:
13275:
13271:
13265:
13263:
13262:Plutonium(III)
13259:
13258:
13256:
13255:
13250:
13245:
13241:
13237:
13233:
13228:
13226:
13222:
13221:
13214:
13213:
13206:
13199:
13191:
13182:
13181:
13179:
13178:
13173:
13168:
13163:
13158:
13153:
13147:
13144:
13143:
13135:
13134:
13127:
13120:
13112:
13103:
13102:
13096:
13095:
13090:
13085:
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13072:
13070:
13067:
13066:
13062:
13061:
13052:
13043:
13034:
13025:
13016:
13007:
12998:
12989:
12980:
12971:
12962:
12953:
12944:
12935:
12926:
12917:
12908:
12899:
12890:
12881:
12872:
12863:
12854:
12845:
12836:
12827:
12818:
12809:
12800:
12791:
12782:
12773:
12767:
12766:
12757:
12748:
12739:
12730:
12721:
12712:
12703:
12694:
12685:
12676:
12667:
12658:
12649:
12640:
12631:
12622:
12613:
12604:
12595:
12586:
12577:
12568:
12559:
12550:
12541:
12532:
12523:
12514:
12505:
12496:
12487:
12478:
12472:
12471:
12462:
12453:
12444:
12435:
12426:
12417:
12408:
12399:
12390:
12381:
12372:
12363:
12354:
12345:
12336:
12327:
12325:
12316:
12307:
12301:
12300:
12291:
12282:
12273:
12264:
12255:
12246:
12237:
12228:
12219:
12210:
12201:
12192:
12183:
12174:
12165:
12156:
12154:
12145:
12136:
12130:
12129:
12120:
12111:
12102:
12093:
12084:
12075:
12073:
12064:
12055:
12049:
12048:
12039:
12030:
12021:
12012:
12003:
11994:
11992:
11983:
11974:
11968:
11967:
11958:
11956:
11947:
11941:
11940:
11935:
11930:
11925:
11920:
11915:
11910:
11905:
11900:
11895:
11890:
11885:
11880:
11875:
11870:
11865:
11860:
11858:
11853:
11848:
11843:
11840:
11839:
11836:Periodic table
11832:
11831:
11824:
11817:
11809:
11802:
11801:
11799:from Wikibooks
11784:
11767:
11738:
11735:
11734:
11722:
11710:
11698:
11678:
11677:
11663:
11643:
11624:
11604:
11583:
11575:
11550:
11533:
11527:Bhadeshia, H.
11524:
11508:
11488:
11471:
11435:
11421:
11414:
11402:
11389:
11388:
11386:
11385:External links
11383:
11381:
11380:
11374:
11361:
11332:
11326:
11313:
11295:
11277:
11268:
11262:
11245:
11239:
11221:
11203:
11188:
11161:
11132:
11126:
11113:
11080:
11074:
11061:
11044:plutonium 1965
11038:
11020:
11005:
10987:
10978:Nuclear Energy
10972:
10935:
10929:
10916:
10902:
10882:
10876:
10853:
10847:
10834:
10813:
10795:
10789:
10776:
10770:
10753:
10733:
10719:
10702:
10696:
10679:
10677:
10674:
10671:
10670:
10638:
10608:
10583:
10556:
10530:
10500:
10474:
10443:
10431:
10401:
10389:
10362:
10350:
10309:
10260:
10225:
10198:(2): 167â178.
10179:
10140:(4): 551â561.
10120:
10077:
10051:
10025:
9993:
9952:
9937:
9919:
9892:(5): 359â379.
9876:
9850:
9818:
9789:(5): 675â684.
9768:
9734:
9699:(2A): A43â59.
9683:
9647:
9628:
9602:
9576:
9550:
9529:(4): 201â212.
9509:
9479:
9446:
9422:
9390:
9357:
9331:
9298:
9255:
9243:
9231:
9202:
9169:
9167:, p. 532.
9157:
9116:
9107:
9097:
9088:
9048:
9030:
8984:
8948:
8930:
8899:
8872:
8846:
8835:(10): 385â92.
8807:(4): 176â182.
8791:
8758:Health Physics
8748:
8746:, p. 567.
8736:
8719:
8684:
8658:
8654:Bernstein 2007
8646:
8634:
8593:
8557:
8530:
8495:
8462:
8431:
8397:
8385:
8359:
8347:
8332:
8320:
8293:
8291:
8290:
8221:
8191:
8165:
8153:
8122:
8096:
8055:
8020:
7990:
7949:
7908:
7906:, p. 338.
7904:Heiserman 1992
7896:
7884:
7875:
7845:
7818:
7814:Bernstein 2007
7806:
7779:
7746:
7715:
7689:
7614:
7563:
7504:
7431:
7388:
7345:
7304:
7261:
7257:Bernstein 2007
7249:
7218:(2): 275â285.
7198:
7172:
7153:
7136:
7124:
7109:
7083:
7072:
7061:
7034:
6992:
6980:
6950:
6899:
6876:
6816:
6767:
6746:
6734:
6715:(3): 227â237.
6699:
6653:
6623:
6613:
6598:
6565:
6561:Heiserman 1992
6553:
6527:
6509:. Energy.gov.
6494:
6490:Bernstein 2007
6482:
6447:
6430:
6428:, p. 1259
6426:Greenwood 1997
6415:
6374:
6370:Heiserman 1992
6362:
6287:
6263:
6251:
6226:
6214:
6184:
6165:
6144:
6100:
6061:
6005:
5986:
5982:Leona Marshall
5970:
5966:Heiserman 1992
5943:
5907:
5886:"Liquid Range"
5877:
5843:
5805:
5793:
5759:
5752:
5728:
5727:
5725:
5722:
5719:
5718:
5701:
5692:
5684:
5675:
5666:
5650:
5642:nuclear fusion
5629:
5616:
5603:
5593:
5576:
5566:
5533:
5524:
5511:
5499:
5487:
5475:
5463:
5451:
5437:
5436:
5434:
5431:
5429:
5426:
5418:seniorrÄdgiver
5405:
5402:
5398:South Carolina
5394:Savannah River
5366:
5363:
5361:
5360:Transportation
5358:
5336:
5333:
5306:Harry Daghlian
5270:
5267:
5239:nutrient cycle
5233:
5230:
5225:Albert Stevens
5172:Donald Mastick
5152:genetic damage
5096:
5093:
5085:
5082:
4978:thermal energy
4963:
4952:
4944:
4941:
4840:
4837:
4795:
4792:
4790:
4787:
4768:medical ethics
4734:Eileen Welsome
4719:Albert Stevens
4710:
4707:
4706:
4705:
4626:Edward Martell
4578:
4575:
4548:neutron source
4503:
4500:
4442:) was likely.
4404:Columbia River
4367:facilities at
4352:
4349:
4289:
4288:Early research
4286:
4271:periodic table
4246:Norman Feather
4197:Edwin McMillan
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4100:and colliding
4022:
4019:
4018:
4017:
4011:
3996:
3985:
3975:
3965:
3953:
3947:
3936:
3822:
3819:
3809:
3806:
3753:
3749:
3745:
3737:
3733:
3719:organoactinide
3715:organometallic
3707:
3690:
3672:
3660:
3649:
3640:
3537:
3525:
3513:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3478:
3477:
3470:
3462:
3455:
3447:
3440:
3432:
3429:
3402:Main article:
3399:
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3367:
3364:
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3333:
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3099:
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3071:
3068:
3057:
3052:
3049:
3037:
3036:
3007:Egon Bretscher
2995:
2994:
2980:
2977:
2961:
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2939:
2932:
2929:
2913:
2909:
2895:
2891:
2884:
2881:
2870:
2865:
2862:
2851:
2846:
2843:
2812:parent isotope
2800:decay products
2788:alpha emission
2764:Main article:
2753:
2750:
2675:kinetic energy
2658:
2636:atomic nucleus
2603:
2600:
2596:self-diffusion
2489:Main article:
2486:
2483:
2429:
2360:gray cast iron
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2285:, and several
2219:, raising the
2032:
2031:
2025:
2024:
2017:
2010:
2002:
1989:
1988:
1985:
1984:
1981:
1980:
1977:
1971:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1951:
1948:
1942:
1941:
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1722:
1717:
1707:
1702:
1699:
1698:
1693:
1692:Main isotopes
1685:
1684:
1681:
1680:
1677:
1676:
1669:
1661:
1654:
1653:
1648:Edwin McMillan
1633:
1627:
1626:
1609:
1605:
1604:
1600:
1599:
1596:
1590:
1589:
1586:
1580:
1579:
1572:
1570:Speed of sound
1566:
1565:
1562:
1556:
1555:
1552:
1546:
1545:
1539:
1533:
1532:
1529:
1523:
1522:
1519:
1513:
1512:
1502:
1496:
1495:
1472:
1470:
1464:
1463:
1454:
1452:
1446:
1445:
1440:
1436:
1435:
1431:
1430:
1426:Spectral lines
1414:
1413:
1410:
1404:
1403:
1396:
1390:
1389:
1387:
1386:
1383:
1379:
1377:
1371:
1370:
1367:
1361:
1360:
1347:
1341:
1340:
1336:
1335:
1331:
1330:
1327:
1324:
1321:
1318:
1315:
1312:
1299:
1298:
1295:
1292:
1289:
1286:
1283:
1280:
1266:
1258:
1257:
1254:
1248:
1247:
1244:
1238:
1237:
1230:
1228:Heat of fusion
1224:
1223:
1220:
1210:
1209:
1206:
1197:
1196:
1193:
1187:
1186:
1179:
1173:
1172:
1167:
1153:
1152:
1148:
1147:
1144:
1140:
1139:
1132:
1126:
1125:
1117:
1111:
1110:
1105:
1099:
1098:
1095:f-block groups
1092:
1086:
1085:
1082:
1067:
1066:
1063:
1062:
1059:
1058:
1044:
1043:
1028:
1024:
1023:
1016:
1009:
1002:
995:
988:
981:
974:
967:
960:
953:
946:
939:
932:
925:
918:
911:
904:
897:
890:
883:
876:
869:
862:
855:
848:
841:
834:
827:
820:
813:
806:
798:
797:
790:
783:
776:
769:
762:
755:
748:
741:
734:
727:
720:
713:
706:
699:
692:
685:
678:
671:
664:
657:
650:
643:
636:
629:
622:
615:
608:
601:
594:
587:
580:
572:
571:
564:
557:
550:
543:
536:
529:
522:
515:
508:
501:
494:
487:
480:
473:
466:
459:
457:
455:
448:
440:
439:
432:
425:
418:
411:
404:
397:
390:
383:
376:
369:
362:
355:
348:
341:
334:
327:
325:
318:
310:
309:
302:
295:
288:
281:
274:
267:
265:
258:
250:
249:
242:
235:
228:
221:
214:
207:
205:
198:
190:
189:
182:
180:
170:
159:
158:
156:periodic table
151:
150:
148:
142:
141:
138:
134:
133:
127:
121:
120:
62:
58:
57:
53:
52:
38:
31:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
16092:
16081:
16078:
16076:
16073:
16071:
16068:
16066:
16063:
16061:
16058:
16056:
16053:
16051:
16048:
16046:
16043:
16041:
16038:
16037:
16035:
16028:
16020:
16010:
16004:
16001:
15999:
15996:
15994:
15991:
15989:
15986:
15984:
15981:
15979:
15976:
15974:
15971:
15969:
15966:
15964:
15961:
15959:
15956:
15954:
15951:
15949:
15948:
15944:
15942:
15939:
15937:
15934:
15932:
15931:Franck Report
15929:
15927:
15924:
15922:
15919:
15917:
15914:
15912:
15909:
15907:
15904:
15902:
15899:
15897:
15894:
15892:
15889:
15888:
15886:
15882:
15876:
15873:
15871:
15868:
15866:
15863:
15861:
15858:
15857:
15855:
15851:
15845:
15844:
15840:
15838:
15837:
15833:
15831:
15830:
15826:
15824:
15821:
15819:
15816:
15814:
15811:
15809:
15806:
15804:
15801:
15799:
15796:
15794:
15793:Alsos Mission
15791:
15790:
15788:
15784:
15778:
15775:
15773:
15770:
15768:
15767:Robert Wilson
15765:
15763:
15762:Eugene Wigner
15760:
15758:
15755:
15753:
15750:
15748:
15745:
15743:
15742:Edward Teller
15740:
15738:
15735:
15733:
15730:
15728:
15725:
15723:
15720:
15718:
15717:Glenn Seaborg
15715:
15713:
15710:
15708:
15705:
15703:
15700:
15698:
15695:
15693:
15690:
15688:
15687:Mark Oliphant
15685:
15683:
15680:
15678:
15677:Willard Libby
15675:
15673:
15670:
15668:
15665:
15663:
15660:
15658:
15655:
15653:
15650:
15648:
15645:
15643:
15640:
15638:
15635:
15633:
15630:
15628:
15625:
15623:
15620:
15618:
15615:
15613:
15610:
15608:
15605:
15603:
15600:
15598:
15595:
15593:
15590:
15588:
15587:Robert Bacher
15585:
15583:
15580:
15579:
15577:
15573:
15567:
15566:Roscoe Wilson
15564:
15562:
15559:
15557:
15554:
15552:
15549:
15547:
15544:
15542:
15539:
15537:
15534:
15532:
15529:
15527:
15524:
15522:
15519:
15517:
15514:
15512:
15509:
15507:
15504:
15502:
15499:
15497:
15494:
15492:
15489:
15487:
15484:
15482:
15481:John Lansdale
15479:
15477:
15476:Leslie Groves
15474:
15472:
15469:
15467:
15464:
15462:
15459:
15457:
15454:
15452:
15451:Vannevar Bush
15449:
15448:
15446:
15442:
15436:
15433:
15431:
15428:
15426:
15423:
15421:
15418:
15416:
15413:
15411:
15408:
15406:
15403:
15401:
15398:
15396:
15393:
15391:
15388:
15386:
15383:
15380:
15376:
15373:
15371:
15368:
15366:
15363:
15362:
15360:
15356:
15352:
15347:
15343:
15336:
15331:
15329:
15324:
15322:
15317:
15316:
15313:
15301:
15300:
15291:
15289:
15288:
15279:
15277:
15276:
15265:
15264:
15261:
15247:
15244:
15242:
15239:
15237:
15234:
15232:
15229:
15227:
15224:
15223:
15221:
15217:
15211:
15208:
15206:
15203:
15201:
15198:
15194:
15193:electrostatic
15191:
15190:
15189:
15186:
15184:
15178:
15177:
15175:
15173:
15169:
15163:
15160:
15158:
15155:
15153:
15150:
15148:
15145:
15143:
15140:
15138:
15135:
15134:
15132:
15130:
15126:
15122:
15116:
15111:
15105:
15095:
15092:
15088:
15085:
15083:
15080:
15079:
15078:
15075:
15074:
15072:
15068:
15058:
15055:
15053:
15050:
15048:
15045:
15041:
15038:
15036:
15033:
15031:
15028:
15026:
15023:
15021:
15018:
15016:
15013:
15011:
15008:
15006:
15003:
15001:
14998:
14996:
14993:
14991:
14988:
14986:
14983:
14982:
14981:
14978:
14977:
14975:
14973:
14972:Generation IV
14969:
14963:
14960:
14958:
14955:
14953:
14950:
14948:
14945:
14943:
14940:
14938:
14935:
14933:
14930:
14928:
14925:
14923:
14922:Breeder (FBR)
14920:
14919:
14916:
14913:
14908:
14899:
14885:
14882:
14880:
14877:
14875:
14872:
14870:
14867:
14865:
14862:
14860:
14857:
14856:
14854:
14852:
14848:
14845:
14843:
14839:
14827:
14824:
14820:
14817:
14815:
14812:
14810:
14807:
14805:
14802:
14801:
14800:
14797:
14796:
14795:
14792:
14790:
14787:
14783:
14780:
14779:
14778:
14775:
14774:
14772:
14770:
14766:
14760:
14757:
14755:
14752:
14750:
14748:
14744:
14743:
14741:
14739:
14732:
14729:
14727:
14723:
14713:
14710:
14708:
14705:
14703:
14700:
14698:
14695:
14694:
14692:
14690:
14682:
14679:
14675:
14672:
14667:
14660:
14655:
14643:
14640:
14638:
14635:
14633:
14630:
14628:
14625:
14624:
14623:
14620:
14619:
14617:
14615:
14608:
14602:
14599:
14598:
14596:
14594:
14590:
14584:
14581:
14579:
14576:
14572:
14569:
14567:
14564:
14563:
14562:
14559:
14558:
14556:
14554:
14546:
14538:
14535:
14533:
14530:
14528:
14525:
14523:
14520:
14516:
14513:
14511:
14508:
14506:
14503:
14502:
14501:
14498:
14496:
14493:
14489:
14486:
14483:
14480:
14477:
14474:
14473:
14472:
14469:
14468:
14467:
14464:
14463:
14461:
14459:
14451:
14448:
14444:
14437:
14433:
14427:
14424:
14419:
14417:
14414:
14412:
14409:
14405:
14402:
14400:
14397:
14396:
14395:
14392:
14390:
14387:
14385:
14382:
14380:
14377:
14375:
14372:
14370:
14367:
14365:
14362:
14360:
14357:
14355:
14352:
14351:
14350:
14347:
14345:
14342:
14338:
14335:
14333:
14330:
14328:
14325:
14323:
14320:
14319:
14318:
14315:
14313:
14310:
14309:
14307:
14305:
14301:
14296:
14295:
14288:
14283:
14277:
14273:
14269:
14264:
14260:
14250:
14247:
14245:
14242:
14240:
14237:
14235:
14232:
14230:
14227:
14225:
14224:Nuclear power
14222:
14221:
14219:
14215:
14205:
14204:Transmutation
14202:
14198:
14195:
14193:
14190:
14189:
14188:
14185:
14183:
14180:
14178:
14175:
14173:
14170:
14168:
14165:
14163:
14160:
14158:
14155:
14154:
14152:
14148:
14142:
14139:
14135:
14132:
14131:
14130:
14127:
14125:
14122:
14118:
14115:
14113:
14110:
14108:
14105:
14104:
14103:
14100:
14099:
14097:
14093:
14090:
14088:
14084:
14074:
14071:
14069:
14066:
14064:
14061:
14057:
14054:
14052:
14049:
14048:
14047:
14044:
14042:
14039:
14038:
14036:
14032:
14024:
14021:
14020:
14019:
14016:
14014:
14011:
14007:
14004:
14002:
14001:high-altitude
13999:
13998:
13997:
13994:
13992:
13991:Proliferation
13989:
13987:
13984:
13980:
13977:
13976:
13975:
13972:
13970:
13967:
13965:
13962:
13960:
13957:
13955:
13952:
13950:
13947:
13946:
13944:
13940:
13937:
13935:
13931:
13925:
13922:
13920:
13917:
13915:
13912:
13910:
13907:
13906:
13904:
13902:
13898:
13888:
13885:
13883:
13880:
13878:
13877:Brachytherapy
13875:
13873:
13870:
13868:
13865:
13863:
13860:
13858:
13855:
13853:
13850:
13849:
13847:
13845:
13841:
13835:
13832:
13830:
13827:
13825:
13822:
13820:
13817:
13815:
13812:
13811:
13809:
13807:
13803:
13800:
13798:
13794:
13786:
13783:
13782:
13781:
13778:
13774:
13771:
13770:
13769:
13766:
13762:
13759:
13758:
13757:
13754:
13752:
13749:
13747:
13744:
13742:
13739:
13737:
13734:
13732:
13729:
13727:
13724:
13723:
13721:
13719:
13715:
13709:
13706:
13704:
13701:
13699:
13696:
13694:
13691:
13689:
13686:
13684:
13681:
13679:
13676:
13674:
13673:Cross section
13671:
13669:
13666:
13664:
13661:
13659:
13656:
13655:
13653:
13651:
13647:
13639:
13636:
13634:
13631:
13627:
13624:
13622:
13619:
13618:
13617:
13614:
13613:
13612:
13609:
13607:
13604:
13602:
13599:
13597:
13594:
13592:
13589:
13587:
13584:
13582:
13579:
13578:
13576:
13574:
13570:
13562:
13559:
13557:
13554:
13553:
13552:
13549:
13547:
13544:
13542:
13539:
13537:
13534:
13532:
13529:
13527:
13524:
13522:
13519:
13518:
13516:
13512:
13508:
13504:
13497:
13492:
13490:
13485:
13483:
13478:
13477:
13474:
13462:
13456:
13455:
13453:
13449:
13443:
13437:
13436:
13434:
13432:Plutonium(VI)
13430:
13424:
13418:
13416:
13410:
13409:
13407:
13403:
13397:
13383:
13381:
13371:
13369:
13363:
13361:
13355:
13353:
13343:
13341:
13338:
13337:
13335:
13333:Plutonium(IV)
13331:
13325:
13322:
13320:
13314:
13312:
13306:
13304:
13298:
13296:
13290:
13288:
13285:
13283:
13280:
13278:
13272:
13270:
13267:
13266:
13264:
13260:
13254:
13251:
13249:
13246:
13244:
13238:
13236:
13230:
13229:
13227:
13225:Plutonium(II)
13223:
13219:
13212:
13207:
13205:
13200:
13198:
13193:
13192:
13189:
13177:
13174:
13172:
13169:
13167:
13164:
13162:
13159:
13157:
13154:
13152:
13149:
13148:
13145:
13141:
13133:
13128:
13126:
13121:
13119:
13114:
13113:
13110:
13094:
13091:
13089:
13086:
13084:
13081:
13079:
13076:
13075:
13068:
13059:
13050:
13041:
13032:
13023:
13014:
13005:
12996:
12987:
12978:
12969:
12960:
12951:
12942:
12933:
12924:
12915:
12906:
12897:
12888:
12879:
12870:
12861:
12852:
12843:
12834:
12825:
12816:
12807:
12798:
12789:
12780:
12772:
12768:
12764:
12755:
12746:
12737:
12728:
12719:
12710:
12701:
12692:
12683:
12674:
12665:
12656:
12647:
12638:
12629:
12620:
12611:
12602:
12593:
12584:
12575:
12566:
12557:
12548:
12539:
12530:
12521:
12512:
12503:
12494:
12485:
12477:
12473:
12469:
12460:
12451:
12442:
12433:
12424:
12415:
12406:
12397:
12388:
12379:
12370:
12361:
12352:
12343:
12334:
12323:
12314:
12306:
12302:
12298:
12289:
12280:
12271:
12262:
12253:
12244:
12235:
12226:
12217:
12208:
12199:
12190:
12181:
12172:
12163:
12152:
12143:
12135:
12131:
12127:
12118:
12109:
12100:
12091:
12082:
12071:
12062:
12054:
12050:
12046:
12037:
12028:
12019:
12010:
12001:
11990:
11981:
11973:
11969:
11965:
11954:
11946:
11942:
11939:
11934:
11929:
11924:
11919:
11914:
11909:
11904:
11899:
11894:
11889:
11884:
11879:
11874:
11869:
11864:
11857:
11852:
11847:
11846:
11841:
11837:
11830:
11825:
11823:
11818:
11816:
11811:
11810:
11807:
11798:
11797:
11785:
11781:
11780:
11768:
11764:
11763:
11751:
11750:
11747:
11741:
11733:
11723:
11721:
11716:
11711:
11709:
11699:
11697:
11687:
11686:
11683:
11676:
11672:
11669:
11664:
11652:
11648:
11644:
11633:
11629:
11625:
11613:
11609:
11605:
11593:
11589:
11584:
11580:
11576:
11564:
11560:
11556:
11551:
11547:
11543:
11539:
11534:
11530:
11525:
11513:
11509:
11497:
11493:
11489:
11485:
11481:
11477:
11472:
11460:
11456:
11452:
11448:
11447:
11443:
11439:
11424:
11377:
11375:0-385-31954-1
11371:
11367:
11362:
11347:
11340:
11339:
11333:
11329:
11323:
11319:
11314:
11302:
11298:
11292:
11288:
11287:
11282:
11278:
11274:
11269:
11265:
11263:0-374-29991-9
11259:
11254:
11253:
11246:
11242:
11240:0-671-65719-4
11236:
11232:
11231:
11226:
11222:
11210:
11206:
11204:0-8493-1513-1
11200:
11197:. CRC Press.
11196:
11195:
11189:
11185:
11181:
11177:
11173:
11168:
11162:
11147:
11140:
11139:
11133:
11129:
11127:0-471-35373-6
11123:
11119:
11114:
11099:
11095:
11088:
11087:
11081:
11077:
11075:0-8493-0487-3
11071:
11067:
11062:
11050:
11046:
11045:
11039:
11027:
11023:
11021:9780393301281
11017:
11013:
11012:
11006:
10994:
10990:
10988:81-7141-884-8
10984:
10980:
10979:
10973:
10958:
10954:
10950:
10943:
10942:
10936:
10932:
10926:
10922:
10917:
10913:
10909:
10905:
10903:0-521-44132-3
10899:
10895:
10891:
10887:
10883:
10879:
10877:0-8306-3018-X
10873:
10869:
10865:
10860:
10854:
10850:
10848:0-7506-3365-4
10844:
10840:
10835:
10820:
10816:
10814:0-7881-7880-6
10810:
10803:
10802:
10796:
10792:
10790:0-19-850340-7
10786:
10782:
10777:
10773:
10767:
10762:
10761:
10754:
10750:
10746:
10742:
10738:
10737:Clark, Ronald
10734:
10730:
10726:
10722:
10716:
10711:
10710:
10703:
10699:
10697:0-88029-251-2
10693:
10689:
10685:
10684:Asimov, Isaac
10681:
10680:
10658:
10654:
10647:
10645:
10643:
10626:
10622:
10618:
10612:
10596:
10593:
10587:
10571:
10567:
10560:
10544:
10540:
10534:
10518:
10514:
10510:
10504:
10488:
10484:
10478:
10462:
10458:
10454:
10447:
10441:, p. 17.
10440:
10435:
10419:
10415:
10411:
10405:
10399:, p. 85.
10398:
10393:
10377:
10373:
10366:
10360:, p. 546
10359:
10354:
10338:
10333:
10328:
10324:
10320:
10313:
10305:
10301:
10296:
10291:
10287:
10283:
10279:
10275:
10271:
10264:
10256:
10252:
10248:
10244:
10240:
10236:
10229:
10221:
10217:
10213:
10209:
10205:
10201:
10197:
10193:
10186:
10184:
10167:
10163:
10159:
10155:
10151:
10147:
10143:
10139:
10135:
10131:
10124:
10117:
10116:0-306-43567-5
10113:
10109:
10095:
10091:
10084:
10082:
10065:
10061:
10055:
10039:
10035:
10029:
10010:
10003:
9997:
9989:
9985:
9980:
9975:
9971:
9967:
9963:
9956:
9948:
9944:
9940:
9938:0-385-31402-7
9934:
9930:
9923:
9915:
9911:
9907:
9903:
9899:
9895:
9891:
9887:
9880:
9872:
9868:
9865:
9859:
9857:
9855:
9835:
9828:
9822:
9814:
9810:
9805:
9800:
9796:
9792:
9788:
9784:
9780:
9772:
9756:
9752:
9748:
9744:
9738:
9730:
9726:
9722:
9718:
9714:
9710:
9706:
9702:
9698:
9694:
9693:J Radiol Prot
9687:
9668:
9664:
9657:
9651:
9643:
9639:
9632:
9616:
9612:
9606:
9590:
9586:
9580:
9564:
9560:
9554:
9546:
9542:
9537:
9532:
9528:
9524:
9520:
9513:
9497:
9493:
9489:
9483:
9467:
9463:
9462:
9457:
9450:
9443:
9439:
9435:
9432:
9426:
9407:
9400:
9394:
9378:
9374:
9370:
9364:
9362:
9345:
9341:
9335:
9319:
9315:
9309:
9307:
9305:
9303:
9286:
9282:
9278:
9274:
9270:
9266:
9259:
9253:, p. 15.
9252:
9247:
9240:
9235:
9219:
9215:
9209:
9207:
9190:
9186:
9182:
9176:
9174:
9166:
9161:
9142:
9138:
9134:
9127:
9120:
9111:
9101:
9092:
9084:
9080:
9076:
9072:
9068:
9067:
9062:
9055:
9053:
9044:
9037:
9035:
9015:
9011:
9007:
9000:
8993:
8991:
8989:
8969:
8962:
8955:
8953:
8944:
8940:
8934:
8918:
8914:
8910:
8903:
8887:
8883:
8876:
8860:
8856:
8850:
8842:
8838:
8834:
8830:
8825:Reprinted in
8822:
8818:
8814:
8810:
8806:
8802:
8795:
8787:
8783:
8779:
8775:
8771:
8767:
8764:(4): 537â48.
8763:
8759:
8752:
8745:
8740:
8733:
8728:
8726:
8724:
8704:
8697:
8696:
8688:
8672:
8668:
8662:
8656:, p. 70.
8655:
8650:
8643:
8638:
8619:
8615:
8608:
8604:
8597:
8578:
8571:
8564:
8562:
8545:
8541:
8534:
8526:
8522:
8518:
8514:
8510:
8506:
8499:
8490:
8485:
8481:
8477:
8473:
8466:
8450:
8446:
8442:
8435:
8419:
8415:
8411:
8404:
8402:
8394:
8389:
8373:
8369:
8363:
8356:
8351:
8344:
8339:
8337:
8329:
8324:
8308:
8304:
8297:
8279:
8275:
8271:
8267:
8262:
8261:
8247:
8243:
8239:
8232:
8225:
8209:
8205:
8201:
8195:
8184:September 15,
8179:
8175:
8169:
8163:, p. 540
8162:
8157:
8146:September 15,
8141:
8137:
8131:
8129:
8127:
8110:
8106:
8100:
8084:
8079:
8074:
8070:
8066:
8059:
8051:
8047:
8043:
8039:
8035:
8031:
8030:Physics Today
8024:
8008:
8004:
8000:
7994:
7975:
7971:
7967:
7960:
7953:
7934:
7930:
7926:
7919:
7912:
7905:
7900:
7893:
7888:
7879:
7863:
7859:
7852:
7850:
7838:September 17,
7833:
7829:
7822:
7815:
7810:
7794:
7790:
7783:
7764:
7757:
7750:
7734:
7730:
7726:
7719:
7703:
7699:
7693:
7685:
7681:
7677:
7673:
7668:
7663:
7659:
7655:
7651:
7647:
7642:
7637:
7633:
7629:
7625:
7618:
7610:
7606:
7602:
7598:
7594:
7590:
7586:
7582:
7578:
7574:
7567:
7559:
7555:
7551:
7547:
7543:
7539:
7535:
7531:
7527:
7523:
7519:
7515:
7508:
7497:
7493:
7489:
7485:
7481:
7477:
7473:
7469:
7465:
7461:
7457:
7453:
7449:
7442:
7435:
7419:
7415:
7411:
7407:
7403:
7399:
7392:
7384:
7380:
7376:
7372:
7368:
7364:
7360:
7356:
7349:
7341:
7337:
7333:
7329:
7325:
7321:
7317:
7316:
7308:
7300:
7296:
7292:
7288:
7284:
7280:
7276:
7272:
7265:
7258:
7253:
7237:
7233:
7229:
7225:
7221:
7217:
7213:
7209:
7202:
7186:
7182:
7176:
7170:, p. 541
7169:
7164:
7162:
7160:
7158:
7151:, p. 456
7150:
7145:
7143:
7141:
7133:
7128:
7120:
7113:
7094:
7087:
7076:
7070:
7065:
7049:
7045:
7041:
7037:
7031:
7027:
7023:
7019:
7015:
7011:
7007:
7003:
6996:
6990:, p. 169
6989:
6984:
6968:
6964:
6957:
6955:
6938:
6934:
6930:
6926:
6922:
6918:
6914:
6910:
6903:
6895:
6891:
6885:
6883:
6881:
6872:
6868:
6863:
6858:
6854:
6850:
6846:
6842:
6838:
6834:
6830:
6823:
6821:
6813:
6808:
6806:
6804:
6802:
6800:
6798:
6796:
6794:
6792:
6790:
6788:
6786:
6784:
6782:
6780:
6778:
6776:
6774:
6772:
6765:, p. 545
6764:
6759:
6757:
6755:
6753:
6751:
6744:, p. 840
6743:
6742:Eagleson 1994
6738:
6730:
6726:
6722:
6718:
6714:
6710:
6703:
6695:
6691:
6687:
6683:
6679:
6675:
6672:(3): 034307.
6671:
6667:
6660:
6658:
6649:
6645:
6641:
6637:
6633:
6629:
6617:
6609:
6602:
6583:
6576:
6569:
6563:, p. 339
6562:
6557:
6541:
6537:
6531:
6512:
6505:
6498:
6491:
6486:
6478:
6474:
6470:
6466:
6462:
6458:
6451:
6444:
6439:
6437:
6435:
6427:
6422:
6420:
6410:
6405:
6401:
6397:
6393:
6389:
6385:
6378:
6372:, p. 340
6371:
6366:
6358:
6354:
6349:
6344:
6340:
6336:
6332:
6328:
6324:
6320:
6315:
6310:
6306:
6302:
6298:
6291:
6280:
6273:
6267:
6260:
6255:
6244:
6237:
6230:
6224:, p. 905
6223:
6218:
6202:
6198:
6194:
6188:
6182:, p. 542
6181:
6176:
6174:
6172:
6170:
6162:
6157:
6155:
6153:
6151:
6149:
6129:
6125:
6118:
6111:
6109:
6107:
6105:
6085:
6081:
6080:
6072:
6065:
6046:
6042:
6038:
6031:
6024:
6022:
6020:
6018:
6016:
6014:
6012:
6010:
6003:, p. 544
6002:
5997:
5995:
5993:
5991:
5983:
5979:
5974:
5968:, p. 338
5967:
5962:
5960:
5958:
5956:
5954:
5952:
5950:
5948:
5936:September 13,
5931:
5927:
5923:
5916:
5914:
5912:
5895:
5891:
5887:
5881:
5874:
5873:reproducible.
5861:
5857:
5853:
5847:
5830:
5826:
5822:
5816:
5814:
5812:
5810:
5802:
5797:
5789:
5785:
5782:(3): 030001.
5781:
5777:
5770:
5763:
5755:
5749:
5745:
5738:
5736:
5734:
5729:
5715:
5711:
5705:
5696:
5659:
5654:
5647:
5643:
5639:
5633:
5626:
5620:
5613:
5607:
5597:
5590:
5586:
5580:
5570:
5563:
5559:
5555:
5551:
5547:
5543:
5537:
5530:
5442:
5438:
5425:
5423:
5419:
5415:
5410:
5401:
5399:
5395:
5391:
5390:Pacific Heron
5387:
5386:
5385:Pacific Egret
5381:
5377:
5373:
5357:
5355:
5351:
5347:
5342:
5332:
5330:
5326:
5321:
5319:
5315:
5311:
5307:
5303:
5299:
5295:
5293:
5289:
5280:
5275:
5266:
5262:
5260:
5256:
5255:plutonium-240
5252:
5251:plutonium-239
5248:
5247:plutonium-238
5243:
5240:
5229:
5226:
5220:
5218:
5214:
5210:
5209:Bernard Cohen
5206:
5201:
5199:
5194:
5192:
5188:
5184:
5179:
5177:
5173:
5169:
5165:
5161:
5157:
5153:
5149:
5145:
5141:
5137:
5133:
5129:
5124:
5122:
5118:
5114:
5110:
5106:
5102:
5091:
5081:
5079:
5075:
5074:primary cells
5071:
5066:
5064:
5060:
5055:
5050:
5048:
5044:
5040:
5039:
5034:
5033:
5028:
5027:
5022:
5021:
5016:
5015:
5010:
5009:
5004:
5000:
4994:
4992:
4987:
4983:
4979:
4972:
4970:
4960:
4949:
4940:
4937:
4932:
4928:
4924:
4918:
4916:
4910:
4908:
4903:
4898:
4894:
4890:
4886:
4882:
4877:
4875:
4871:
4867:
4863:
4862:plutonium-242
4859:
4855:
4850:
4846:
4836:
4834:
4828:
4825:
4821:
4820:critical mass
4817:
4813:
4812:plutonium pit
4805:
4800:
4786:
4784:
4780:
4775:
4773:
4769:
4764:
4763:
4758:
4754:
4750:
4746:
4742:
4737:
4735:
4731:
4725:
4724:lethal dose.
4720:
4716:
4703:
4702:
4701:
4699:
4694:
4692:
4688:
4685:
4680:
4678:
4674:
4670:
4666:
4662:
4658:
4654:
4653:borosilicates
4650:
4645:
4643:
4639:
4635:
4631:
4627:
4622:
4617:
4615:
4611:
4607:
4606:nuclear power
4602:
4598:
4594:
4590:
4584:
4574:
4572:
4568:
4564:
4559:
4557:
4553:
4549:
4545:
4541:
4537:
4533:
4529:
4525:
4517:
4513:
4508:
4499:
4497:
4493:
4488:
4486:
4482:
4478:
4474:
4471:According to
4469:
4467:
4461:
4459:
4454:
4452:
4448:
4443:
4441:
4437:
4433:
4428:
4423:
4419:
4417:
4413:
4405:
4401:
4397:
4392:
4385:
4380:
4376:
4374:
4370:
4366:
4362:
4358:
4348:
4344:
4342:
4341:critical mass
4336:
4333:
4328:
4326:
4322:
4318:
4314:
4310:
4302:
4299:
4294:
4285:
4283:
4279:
4274:
4272:
4268:
4263:
4259:
4255:
4250:
4247:
4243:
4239:
4235:
4231:
4230:
4224:
4222:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4206:
4202:
4198:
4194:
4186:
4182:
4178:
4176:
4172:
4168:
4164:
4160:
4156:
4155:
4150:
4146:
4132:
4130:
4126:
4122:
4118:
4117:nuclear tests
4113:
4111:
4107:
4103:
4102:neutron stars
4099:
4095:
4091:
4087:
4083:
4079:
4075:
4071:
4070:plutonium-244
4066:
4064:
4044:
4040:
4036:
4032:
4028:
4015:
4012:
4009:
4004:
4000:
3997:
3993:
3989:
3986:
3983:
3979:
3976:
3973:
3969:
3966:
3963:
3962:heavy fermion
3959:
3952:alloy (PuCoGa
3951:
3948:
3945:
3940:
3937:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3923:
3922:
3921:
3919:
3914:
3912:
3908:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3892:
3888:
3884:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3843:alkali metals
3840:
3836:
3832:
3828:
3818:
3815:
3805:
3803:
3799:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3781:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3757:
3743:
3730:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3711:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3686:
3682:
3678:
3670:
3666:
3658:
3653:
3647:
3643:
3636:
3632:
3628:
3619:
3612:
3611:pyrophoricity
3607:
3603:
3601:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3585:
3581:
3577:
3573:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3548:
3546:
3505:
3487:
3483:
3463:
3461:(pink orange)
3448:
3433:
3430:
3427:
3426:
3425:
3423:
3419:
3410:
3405:
3390:
3387:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3369:
3365:
3362:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3344:
3340:
3337:
3334:
3331:
3328:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3318:
3314:
3311:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3282:
3279:
3276:
3274:
3271:alpha (α) to
3270:
3268:
3265:
3264:
3260:
3257:
3254:
3251:
3248:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3234:
3233:
3227:
3225:
3215:
3213:
3212:neptunium-237
3209:
3183:
3180:
3164:
3160:
3146:
3142:
3136:
3133:
3111:
3106:
3100:
3097:
3092:
3089:
3069:
3066:
3055:
3050:
3047:
3027:
3026:
3025:
3023:
3019:
3014:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2978:
2975:
2959:
2955:
2941:
2937:
2930:
2927:
2911:
2907:
2893:
2889:
2882:
2879:
2863:
2860:
2849:
2844:
2841:
2825:
2824:
2823:
2819:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2804:beta emission
2801:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2780:
2778:
2773:
2772:radioisotopes
2767:
2758:
2749:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2734:fast neutrons
2731:
2727:
2726:Plutonium-238
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2710:weapons-grade
2707:
2706:predetonation
2703:
2699:
2698:plutonium-240
2694:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2681:(88,000
2680:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2663:critical mass
2656:
2651:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2632:plutonium-241
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2616:plutonium-239
2613:
2609:
2599:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2564:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2548:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2482:
2480:
2476:
2470:
2468:
2464:
2459:
2457:
2453:
2448:
2447:(see below).
2446:
2442:
2438:
2423:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2380:boiling point
2377:
2376:melting point
2373:
2369:
2365:
2362:unless it is
2361:
2357:
2353:
2351:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2322:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2248:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2233:Plutonium-238
2230:
2229:weapons-grade
2226:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2213:Plutonium-240
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2193:plutonium-241
2190:
2189:plutonium-239
2185:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2174:plutonium-244
2169:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2138:neptunium-238
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2118:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2067:when oxidized
2064:
2060:
2057:
2053:
2052:atomic number
2049:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2030:
2027: |
2023:
2018:
2016:
2011:
2009:
2004:
2003:
2000:
1990:
1986:
1978:
1973:
1972:
1969:
1966:
1961:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1934:
1933:
1930:
1927:
1922:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1895:
1894:
1891:
1888:
1883:
1882:
1879:
1876:
1873:
1869:
1866:14.329 y
1862:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1844:
1843:
1840:
1837:
1832:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1805:
1804:
1801:
1798:
1793:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1768:
1764:
1763:
1760:
1757:
1754:
1750:
1743:
1738:
1734:
1731:
1730:product
1728:
1726:
1723:
1716:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1700:
1697:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1675:
1670:
1668:
1663:
1662:
1659:
1655:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1628:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1601:
1597:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1585:
1584:Poisson ratio
1581:
1577:
1573:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1561:
1560:Shear modulus
1557:
1553:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1540:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1518:
1514:
1503:
1501:
1497:
1491:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1471:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1451:
1447:
1444:
1441:
1437:
1432:
1427:
1420:
1415:
1411:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1395:
1394:Atomic radius
1391:
1384:
1381:
1380:
1378:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1353:
1348:
1346:
1342:
1337:
1328:
1325:
1322:
1319:
1316:
1313:
1306:
1301:
1300:
1296:
1293:
1290:
1287:
1284:
1281:
1274:
1270:
1269:
1265:
1264:
1259:
1255:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1211:
1207:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1192:
1191:Boiling point
1188:
1184:
1180:
1178:
1177:Melting point
1174:
1171:
1168:
1164:
1158:
1154:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1131:
1127:
1124:
1118:
1116:
1112:
1109:
1108:period 7
1106:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1093:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1072:Atomic number
1068:
1057:
1049:
1045:
1032:
1029:
1022:
1017:
1015:
1010:
1008:
1003:
1001:
996:
994:
989:
987:
982:
980:
975:
973:
968:
966:
961:
959:
954:
952:
947:
945:
940:
938:
933:
931:
926:
924:
922:Rutherfordium
919:
917:
912:
910:
905:
903:
898:
896:
891:
889:
884:
882:
877:
875:
870:
868:
863:
861:
856:
854:
849:
847:
842:
840:
835:
833:
828:
826:
821:
819:
814:
812:
807:
805:
800:
799:
796:
791:
789:
784:
782:
777:
775:
770:
768:
763:
761:
756:
754:
749:
747:
742:
740:
735:
733:
728:
726:
721:
719:
714:
712:
707:
705:
700:
698:
693:
691:
686:
684:
679:
677:
672:
670:
665:
663:
658:
656:
651:
649:
644:
642:
637:
635:
630:
628:
623:
621:
616:
614:
609:
607:
602:
600:
595:
593:
588:
586:
581:
579:
574:
573:
570:
565:
563:
558:
556:
551:
549:
544:
542:
537:
535:
530:
528:
523:
521:
516:
514:
509:
507:
502:
500:
495:
493:
488:
486:
481:
479:
474:
472:
467:
465:
460:
456:
454:
449:
447:
442:
441:
438:
433:
431:
426:
424:
419:
417:
412:
410:
405:
403:
398:
396:
391:
389:
384:
382:
377:
375:
370:
368:
363:
361:
356:
354:
349:
347:
342:
340:
335:
333:
328:
324:
319:
317:
312:
311:
308:
303:
301:
296:
294:
289:
287:
282:
280:
275:
273:
268:
264:
259:
257:
252:
251:
248:
243:
241:
236:
234:
229:
227:
222:
220:
215:
213:
208:
204:
199:
197:
192:
191:
188:
183:
179:
174:
173:
169:
168:
165:
164:
160:
157:
152:
149:
147:
143:
139:
135:
132:
128:
126:
122:
117:
116:
101:
63:
61:Pronunciation
59:
54:
50:
45:
30:
26:
19:
16027:
16003:Y-12 Project
15988:Smyth Report
15983:S-50 Project
15962:
15945:
15941:K-25 Project
15870:Pumpkin bomb
15841:
15834:
15827:
15757:John Wheeler
15727:Louis Slotin
15722:Emilio SegrĂš
15672:George Koval
15652:James Franck
15637:Enrico Fermi
15582:Luis Alvarez
15541:Paul Tibbets
15516:Deak Parsons
15297:
15285:
15266:
15246:Pyroelectric
15200:Laser-driven
14980:Sodium (SFR)
14907:fast-neutron
14746:
14292:
14182:Reprocessing
14063:WMD treaties
13882:Radiosurgery
13852:Fast-neutron
13824:Scintigraphy
13632:
13405:Plutonium(V)
12839:
11794:
11782:from Commons
11777:
11760:
11739:
11667:
11655:. Retrieved
11635:. Retrieved
11618:February 15,
11616:. Retrieved
11611:
11598:February 15,
11596:. Retrieved
11592:the original
11569:February 15,
11567:. Retrieved
11563:the original
11545:
11541:
11516:. Retrieved
11502:February 15,
11500:. Retrieved
11484:the original
11465:February 15,
11463:. Retrieved
11459:the original
11365:
11355:February 15,
11353:. Retrieved
11346:the original
11337:
11317:
11305:. Retrieved
11285:
11272:
11251:
11229:
11213:. Retrieved
11193:
11171:
11153:. Retrieved
11137:
11117:
11105:. Retrieved
11085:
11065:
11053:. Retrieved
11043:
11030:. Retrieved
11010:
10997:. Retrieved
10977:
10964:. Retrieved
10940:
10920:
10893:
10863:
10838:
10828:February 15,
10826:. Retrieved
10819:the original
10800:
10780:
10759:
10740:
10708:
10687:
10661:. Retrieved
10629:. Retrieved
10620:
10611:
10599:. Retrieved
10586:
10574:. Retrieved
10559:
10547:. Retrieved
10533:
10521:. Retrieved
10503:
10491:. Retrieved
10477:
10465:. Retrieved
10461:the original
10456:
10446:
10434:
10424:November 16,
10422:. Retrieved
10418:the original
10413:
10404:
10392:
10382:November 16,
10380:. Retrieved
10376:the original
10365:
10353:
10343:November 20,
10341:. Retrieved
10322:
10312:
10277:
10273:
10263:
10238:
10234:
10228:
10195:
10191:
10172:December 29,
10170:. Retrieved
10137:
10133:
10123:
10107:
10098:. Retrieved
10068:. Retrieved
10054:
10042:. Retrieved
10028:
10016:. Retrieved
10009:the original
9996:
9969:
9965:
9955:
9928:
9922:
9889:
9885:
9879:
9871:the original
9843:December 14,
9841:. Retrieved
9834:the original
9821:
9786:
9783:Epidemiology
9782:
9771:
9759:. Retrieved
9737:
9696:
9692:
9686:
9674:. Retrieved
9650:
9642:the original
9631:
9619:. Retrieved
9615:the original
9605:
9593:. Retrieved
9579:
9567:. Retrieved
9553:
9526:
9522:
9512:
9500:. Retrieved
9482:
9470:. Retrieved
9459:
9449:
9441:
9425:
9413:. Retrieved
9406:the original
9393:
9383:February 15,
9381:. Retrieved
9377:the original
9372:
9348:. Retrieved
9334:
9324:February 28,
9322:. Retrieved
9289:. Retrieved
9272:
9268:
9258:
9246:
9234:
9224:December 14,
9222:. Retrieved
9193:. Retrieved
9189:the original
9160:
9150:February 15,
9148:. Retrieved
9136:
9132:
9119:
9110:
9100:
9091:
9083:the original
9073:(6): 58â61.
9070:
9064:
9042:
9021:. Retrieved
9009:
9005:
8977:February 26,
8975:. Retrieved
8968:the original
8943:the original
8933:
8921:. Retrieved
8917:the original
8912:
8902:
8890:. Retrieved
8886:the original
8875:
8863:. Retrieved
8849:
8832:
8828:
8804:
8800:
8794:
8761:
8757:
8751:
8739:
8712:December 21,
8710:. Retrieved
8703:the original
8694:
8687:
8677:December 24,
8675:. Retrieved
8661:
8649:
8637:
8625:. Retrieved
8613:
8596:
8586:February 15,
8584:. Retrieved
8548:. Retrieved
8543:
8533:
8508:
8504:
8498:
8479:
8475:
8465:
8453:. Retrieved
8444:
8434:
8424:December 19,
8422:. Retrieved
8413:
8388:
8376:. Retrieved
8362:
8357:, p. 1.
8350:
8323:
8313:December 22,
8311:. Retrieved
8296:
8284:February 15,
8282:. Retrieved
8273:
8269:
8255:February 15,
8253:. Retrieved
8241:
8237:
8224:
8214:December 23,
8212:. Retrieved
8204:LANL History
8203:
8194:
8182:. Retrieved
8168:
8156:
8144:. Retrieved
8115:December 14,
8113:. Retrieved
8109:the original
8099:
8087:. Retrieved
8068:
8058:
8033:
8029:
8023:
8011:. Retrieved
8002:
7993:
7983:February 15,
7981:. Retrieved
7969:
7965:
7952:
7942:February 15,
7940:. Retrieved
7928:
7924:
7911:
7899:
7887:
7878:
7866:. Retrieved
7836:. Retrieved
7821:
7809:
7797:. Retrieved
7782:
7770:. Retrieved
7749:
7737:. Retrieved
7728:
7718:
7706:. Retrieved
7692:
7631:
7627:
7617:
7576:
7572:
7566:
7517:
7513:
7507:
7496:the original
7451:
7447:
7434:
7422:. Retrieved
7418:the original
7405:
7401:
7391:
7358:
7354:
7348:
7319:
7315:Science News
7313:
7307:
7274:
7270:
7264:
7252:
7240:. Retrieved
7215:
7211:
7201:
7191:November 16,
7189:. Retrieved
7185:the original
7175:
7134:, p. 73
7127:
7112:
7100:. Retrieved
7093:the original
7075:
7064:
7052:. Retrieved
7009:
7005:
6995:
6983:
6971:. Retrieved
6941:. Retrieved
6916:
6912:
6902:
6894:the original
6836:
6832:
6737:
6712:
6708:
6702:
6669:
6665:
6631:
6627:
6616:
6607:
6601:
6591:February 15,
6589:. Retrieved
6582:the original
6568:
6556:
6544:. Retrieved
6530:
6520:February 28,
6518:. Retrieved
6497:
6485:
6463:(7â8): 366.
6460:
6456:
6450:
6391:
6387:
6377:
6365:
6304:
6300:
6290:
6279:the original
6266:
6261:, p. 40
6259:Gosling 1999
6254:
6243:the original
6229:
6217:
6205:. Retrieved
6187:
6137:February 15,
6135:. Retrieved
6123:
6093:February 15,
6091:. Retrieved
6077:
6064:
6054:February 15,
6052:. Retrieved
6040:
6036:
5973:
5934:. Retrieved
5930:the original
5900:February 28,
5898:. Retrieved
5889:
5880:
5871:
5864:. Retrieved
5855:
5846:
5835:November 23,
5833:. Retrieved
5829:the original
5824:
5796:
5779:
5775:
5762:
5743:
5704:
5695:
5653:
5632:
5619:
5606:
5596:
5591:in May 1967.
5579:
5569:
5554:electrolysis
5549:
5536:
5441:
5417:
5411:
5407:
5389:
5384:
5368:
5365:Land and sea
5338:
5335:Flammability
5325:Cecil Kelley
5322:
5314:Louis Slotin
5296:
5284:
5263:
5244:
5235:
5221:
5202:
5198:hot particle
5195:
5180:
5125:
5098:
5078:scuba diving
5067:
5053:
5051:
5038:Perseverance
5036:
5030:
5026:New Horizons
5024:
5018:
5012:
5006:
4995:
4975:
4968:
4919:
4911:
4892:
4888:
4884:
4878:
4856:from normal
4852:
4829:
4809:
4789:Applications
4779:Bill Clinton
4776:
4760:
4753:Harold Hodge
4738:
4726:
4722:
4695:
4681:
4646:
4630:Carl Johnson
4618:
4593:Soviet Union
4586:
4571:Smyth Report
4560:
4521:
4489:
4470:
4462:
4455:
4444:
4427:Emilio SegrĂš
4424:
4420:
4409:
4396:Hanford site
4382:The Hanford
4361:Hanford Site
4354:
4345:
4337:
4329:
4317:Enrico Fermi
4306:
4298:dwarf planet
4275:
4251:
4234:World War II
4227:
4225:
4201:Emilio SegrĂš
4190:
4161:, primarily
4152:
4145:Enrico Fermi
4143:
4129:Soviet Union
4114:
4067:
4024:
4013:
4007:
4002:
3998:
3987:
3981:
3977:
3972:nuclear fuel
3967:
3949:
3944:nuclear fuel
3938:
3924:
3915:
3824:
3814:5f electrons
3811:
3800:
3766:properties.
3758:
3731:
3712:
3706:to form PuSi
3654:
3624:
3580:hydrochloric
3549:
3506:
3479:
3464:Pu(VII), as
3446:(light pink)
3415:
3221:
3205:
3015:
2996:
2820:
2781:
2769:
2732:easily with
2695:
2652:
2610:metal whose
2605:
2567:
2565:
2556:
2549:
2526:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2471:
2460:
2449:
2392:
2349:
2333:
2267:nuclear test
2256:World War II
2249:
2221:neutron flux
2186:
2182:primordially
2170:
2146:beta-decayed
2119:
2047:
2036:
2035:
1714:
1613:dwarf planet
1542:paramagnetic
1489:
1484:
1479:
1428:of plutonium
1351:
1304:
1272:
1262:
1076:
964:Darmstadtium
850:
831:Protactinium
605:Praseodymium
29:
16055:Carcinogens
15818:Silverplate
15772:Leona Woods
15737:Leo Szilard
15712:Bruno Rossi
15657:Klaus Fuchs
15561:Ed Westcott
15551:Harold Urey
15157:Stellarator
15121:confinement
15015:Superphénix
14842:Molten-salt
14794:VHTR (HTGR)
14571:HW BLWR 250
14537:R4 Marviken
14466:Pressurized
14436:Heavy water
14420:many others
14349:Pressurized
14304:Light water
14006:underground
13964:Disarmament
13872:Tomotherapy
13867:Proton-beam
13731:Power plant
13693:Temperature
13526:Engineering
11762:Definitions
11657:February 6,
11647:"Plutonium"
11637:February 6,
11628:"Plutonium"
11167:"Plutonium"
11155:February 6,
11032:December 8,
10966:February 6,
10523:February 6,
10493:February 6,
10467:December 7,
10397:Hunner 2004
9761:February 5,
9676:February 9,
9595:October 11,
9569:October 11,
9502:February 5,
9472:February 5,
9440:, New York
9314:"Plutonium"
9195:December 7,
9165:Martin 2000
9139:: 280â283.
8892:February 9,
8732:Emsley 2001
8482:(5): 1724.
8393:Wahlen 1989
8355:Wahlen 1989
8174:"Plutonium"
8013:December 7,
7708:February 7,
7424:January 29,
7102:January 24,
7054:December 2,
6973:January 24,
6943:January 24,
6812:Emsley 2001
6546:January 30,
6222:Asimov 1988
6207:February 5,
6043:: 290â335.
5978:Rhodes 1986
5866:February 9,
5205:Ralph Nader
5183:lung cancer
5105:bone marrow
5084:Precautions
5047:Mars rovers
4897:reprocesses
4895:traction),
4874:transuranic
4770:and of the
4655:mixed with
4278:Kurt Starke
4209:Arthur Wahl
4106:decay chain
3849:, calcium,
3723:plutonocene
3449:Pu(VI), as
3011:Tube Alloys
2784:mass number
2679:tons of TNT
2628:uranium-235
2624:uranium-233
2588:shock waves
2515: (ÎŽ),
2511: (Îł),
2507: (ÎČ),
2503: (α),
2452:resistivity
2394:Alpha decay
2372:electricity
2126:uranium-238
2111:radioactive
1747:87.7 y
1640:Arthur Wahl
1297:100 k
1181:912.5
1138:] 5f 7s
1006:Livermorium
978:Copernicium
971:Roentgenium
901:Mendelevium
887:Einsteinium
880:Californium
146:Mass number
16034:Categories
15921:Demon core
15865:Little Boy
15786:Operations
15602:Niels Bohr
15592:Hans Bethe
15575:Scientists
15521:Boris Pash
15400:Los Alamos
15182:(acoustic)
14799:PBR (PBMR)
14187:Spent fuel
14177:Repository
14157:Fuel cycle
14124:Activation
13901:Processing
13768:Propulsion
13726:by country
13658:Activation
11438:Audio help
11429:2009-07-18
11307:January 6,
11215:January 6,
11055:January 6,
10999:January 6,
10676:References
10663:August 13,
10358:Miner 1968
10070:January 3,
8642:Sklar 1984
8627:January 4,
8550:January 4,
8378:August 30,
8276:(1): 1â2.
8244:(1): 2â9.
8161:Miner 1968
7799:January 3,
7772:January 4,
7739:January 3,
7641:1509.08054
7168:Miner 1968
6763:Miner 1968
6443:Clark 1961
6314:1509.08054
6180:Miner 1968
6001:Miner 1968
5318:demon core
5292:moderation
5288:gamma rays
5146:including
5088:See also:
5070:pacemakers
4982:gamma rays
4794:Explosives
4713:See also:
4687:Steven Chu
4661:gadolinium
4581:See also:
4473:Kate Brown
4282:becquerels
4098:supernovae
4078:extinction
4021:Occurrence
3992:pyrophoric
3875:molybdenum
3742:pyrophoric
3609:Plutonium
3584:hydroiodic
3545:chloroform
3486:complexing
3434:Pu(V), as
3250:Decay heat
3239:Decay mode
3224:decay heat
3003:beta decay
2806:, forming
2742:beta decay
2622:isotopes (
2561:monoclinic
2529:allotropes
2523: (Δ).
2485:Allotropes
2245:spacecraft
2107:pyrophoric
2071:allotropes
2029:references
1594:CAS Number
1588:0.21
1456:monoclinic
1443:from decay
1357:amphoteric
1294:10 k
1232:2.82
1013:Tennessine
957:Meitnerium
936:Seaborgium
915:Lawrencium
654:Dysprosium
640:Gadolinium
619:Promethium
491:Technetium
484:Molybdenum
285:Phosphorus
137:Appearance
125:Allotropes
16050:Actinides
16040:Plutonium
15963:Plutonium
15829:Enola Gay
15647:Val Fitch
15597:Aage Bohr
15546:Bud Uanna
15415:Oak Ridge
15152:Spheromak
14851:Fluorides
14515:IPHWR-700
14510:IPHWR-540
14505:IPHWR-220
14294:Moderator
13974:Explosion
13949:Arms race
13736:Economics
13688:Reflector
13683:Radiation
13678:Generator
13633:Plutonium
13586:Deuterium
13551:Radiation
13521:Chemistry
11796:Textbooks
11740:Plutonium
11708:Chemistry
11107:August 6,
10953:719819357
10631:August 1,
10601:March 22,
10576:March 22,
10549:March 22,
10100:March 28,
10044:March 15,
9947:537755781
9621:March 14,
9415:March 21,
8923:March 17,
8003:Frontline
7868:March 16,
7684:119286045
7385:. Nr. 34.
6853:1521-3773
6729:100915090
6339:2041-1723
6161:Lide 2006
5724:Citations
5644:of heavy
5433:Footnotes
5378:(20
5354:inert gas
5350:heat sink
5217:nerve gas
5138:(ÎČ), and
5065:in 1969.
5063:Apollo 12
5052:The twin
5043:Mars 2020
5032:Curiosity
4969:Curiosity
4887:lutoniumâ
4614:stockpile
4544:beryllium
4458:B Reactor
4384:B Reactor
4242:Cambridge
4213:cyclotron
4171:Otto Hahn
4154:hesperium
4140:Discovery
4094:r-process
3899:zirconium
3863:ytterbium
3851:strontium
3847:magnesium
3831:potassium
3792:silicides
3760:Crucibles
3687:or I and
3669:compounds
3244:Half-life
3165:−
3161:β
3075:⟶
3018:deuterons
2960:−
2956:β
2912:−
2908:β
2869:⟶
2808:americium
2796:neptunium
2722:U.S. Navy
2576:aluminium
2553:cast iron
2537:densities
2475:viscosity
2467:annealing
2437:half life
2356:allotrope
2338:, but it
2158:neptunium
2142:half-life
2136:. First,
2130:cyclotron
2073:and four
2063:tarnishes
2043:; it has
2037:Plutonium
1958:10 y
1919:10 y
1829:10 y
1790:10 y
1710:half-life
1631:Discovery
1620:classical
1291:1 k
1056:americium
1052:plutonium
1048:neptunium
1020:Oganesson
999:Moscovium
992:Flerovium
873:Berkelium
859:Americium
852:Plutonium
845:Neptunium
682:Ytterbium
612:Neodymium
591:Lanthanum
554:Tellurium
512:Palladium
498:Ruthenium
470:Zirconium
452:Strontium
408:Germanium
359:Manganese
315:Potassium
271:Aluminium
262:Magnesium
202:Beryllium
56:Plutonium
16019:Category
15875:Thin Man
15836:Bockscar
15430:Wendover
15410:New York
15405:Montreal
15395:Inyokern
15370:Berkeley
15351:Timeline
15287:Category
15241:Polywell
15172:Inertial
15129:Magnetic
14884:TMSR-LF1
14879:TMSR-500
14859:Fuji MSR
14819:THTR-300
14659:Graphite
14522:PHWR KWU
14488:ACR-1000
14416:IPWR-900
14399:ACPR1000
14394:HPR-1000
14384:CPR-1000
14359:APR-1400
14150:Disposal
14102:Actinide
14095:Products
13954:Delivery
13797:Medicine
13626:depleted
13621:enriched
13591:Helium-3
13556:ionizing
11440: ·
11301:Archived
11283:(2007).
11227:(1986).
11209:Archived
11184:68029938
11146:Archived
11098:Archived
11049:Archived
11026:Archived
10993:Archived
10957:Archived
10912:26764320
10892:(1993).
10739:(1961).
10729:76481517
10657:Archived
10625:Archived
10595:Archived
10570:Archived
10543:Archived
10517:Archived
10487:Archived
10337:Archived
10304:30028950
10220:11398376
10166:Archived
10162:11705537
10094:Archived
10064:Archived
10038:Archived
10018:June 16,
9988:15234938
9914:46325265
9813:28520643
9755:Archived
9729:29868078
9721:19454804
9667:Archived
9589:Archived
9563:Archived
9545:16943934
9496:Archived
9466:Archived
9434:Archived
9344:Archived
9318:Archived
9291:June 29,
9285:Archived
9218:Archived
9141:Archived
9014:Archived
8859:Archived
8829:Colo Med
8786:26296070
8671:Archived
8618:Archived
8577:Archived
8525:19152306
8455:March 2,
8449:Archived
8445:BBC News
8418:Archived
8372:Archived
8307:Archived
8278:Archived
8246:Archived
8208:Archived
8178:Archived
8140:Archived
8089:June 29,
8083:Archived
8007:Archived
7974:Archived
7933:Archived
7862:Archived
7832:Archived
7793:Archived
7763:Archived
7733:Archived
7702:Archived
7676:25601158
7634:: 5956.
7558:25831210
7550:17829301
7492:11625563
7484:15459384
7242:June 29,
7236:Archived
7149:Kay 1965
7132:Jha 2004
7048:Archived
7044:96567022
6967:Archived
6937:Archived
6933:95081082
6871:28371148
6694:23883027
6648:28235179
6540:Archived
6511:Archived
6357:25601158
6307:: 5956.
6201:Archived
6128:Archived
6084:Archived
6045:Archived
5894:Archived
5860:Archived
5716:in 1969.
5646:hydrogen
5341:hydrides
5327:. Other
5160:skeleton
5095:Toxicity
4991:kilogram
4866:MOX fuel
4745:Ebb Cade
4669:concrete
4597:Cold War
4563:Nagasaki
4540:polonium
4536:"Urchin"
4436:Thin Man
4432:gun-type
4375:, LANL.
3956:) is an
3911:thallium
3883:scandium
3871:chromium
3859:europium
3835:rubidium
3788:nitrides
3784:carbides
3776:tungsten
3772:tantalum
3770:such as
3764:reducing
3727:covalent
3665:halogens
3635:hydrides
3261:Comment
3143:→
3022:hydrogen
2999:captured
2938:→
2890:→
2691:reactors
2608:actinide
2463:fatigues
2388:MOX-fuel
2340:oxidizes
2303:Cold War
2122:deuteron
2109:. It is
2103:hydrides
2095:hydrogen
2087:nitrogen
2083:halogens
2056:actinide
1349:+2, +3,
1302:at
1160:at
985:Nihonium
908:Nobelium
817:Actinium
803:Francium
787:Astatine
780:Polonium
759:Thallium
738:Platinum
710:Tungsten
703:Tantalum
689:Lutetium
633:Europium
626:Samarium
547:Antimony
445:Rubidium
422:Selenium
352:Chromium
345:Vanadium
338:Titanium
331:Scandium
299:Chlorine
239:Fluorine
225:Nitrogen
177:Hydrogen
25:Polonium
15993:Uranium
15860:Fat Man
15853:Weapons
15425:Trinity
15390:Hanford
15375:Chicago
15299:Commons
15210:Z-pinch
15180:Bubble
15162:Tokamak
15025:FBR-600
15005:CFR-600
15000:BN-1200
14666:coolant
14593:Organic
14478:CANDU 9
14475:CANDU 6
14443:coolant
14404:ACP1000
14379:CAP1400
14317:Boiling
14282:Fission
14129:Fission
14073:Weapons
14013:Warfare
13996:Testing
13986:History
13979:effects
13934:Weapons
13844:Therapy
13819:RadBall
13806:Imaging
13698:Thermal
13663:Capture
13650:Neutron
13638:Thorium
13616:Uranium
13581:Tritium
13561:braking
13541:Fission
13531:Physics
13514:Science
13093:p-block
13088:d-block
13083:f-block
13078:s-block
11720:Physics
11682:Portals
11675:YouTube
11518:July 8,
11427: (
11398:minutes
11176:540â546
10868:337â340
10325:: 187.
10282:Bibcode
10243:Bibcode
10200:Bibcode
10154:1205858
9804:5540354
9701:Bibcode
9536:1502062
9350:July 2,
9105:Office.
9023:June 6,
8865:July 2,
8841:7348208
8821:7348208
8813:4312671
8778:4634934
8038:Bibcode
7667:4309418
7646:Bibcode
7609:9572726
7601:2896480
7581:Bibcode
7573:Science
7542:1733798
7522:Bibcode
7514:Science
7476:3839259
7456:Bibcode
7448:Science
7383:4283169
7363:Bibcode
7340:3976137
7326:: 373.
7299:4283169
7279:Bibcode
7220:Bibcode
7014:Bibcode
6862:5485009
6674:Bibcode
6465:Bibcode
6396:Bibcode
6348:4309418
6319:Bibcode
5054:Voyager
5020:Galileo
5014:Voyager
5008:Cassini
4986:photons
4962:The PuO
4657:cadmium
4524:Trinity
4516:Trinity
4514:" and "
4512:Fat Man
4447:Fat Man
4311:of the
4269:on the
4267:element
4254:Neptune
4219:at the
4215:at the
4167:krypton
4135:History
3907:holmium
3903:hafnium
3887:Silicon
3879:niobium
3865:of the
3841:of the
3839:caesium
3780:borides
3704:silicon
3576:alkalis
3564:lithium
3560:calcium
3382:376000
3246:(years)
3235:Isotope
2814:of the
2792:protons
2770:Twenty
2728:is not
2640:fission
2620:fissile
2612:isotope
2572:gallium
2521:epsilon
2364:alloyed
2315:fallout
2264:Trinity
2260:Fat Man
2254:during
2197:fissile
2162:Neptune
2150:uranium
2132:at the
2091:silicon
1603:History
1458: (
1201:Density
1123:f-block
950:Hassium
943:Bohrium
929:Dubnium
894:Fermium
838:Uranium
824:Thorium
773:Bismuth
731:Iridium
717:Rhenium
696:Hafnium
675:Thulium
661:Holmium
647:Terbium
577:Caesium
526:Cadmium
505:Rhodium
477:Niobium
463:Yttrium
436:Krypton
429:Bromine
415:Arsenic
401:Gallium
322:Calcium
278:Silicon
195:Lithium
115:-nee-Ém
106:
15385:Dayton
15379:Site A
15110:Fusion
15070:Others
15010:Phénix
14995:BN-800
14990:BN-600
14985:BN-350
14814:HTR-PM
14809:HTR-10
14789:UHTREX
14754:Magnox
14749:(UNGG)
14642:Lucens
14637:KS 150
14374:ATMEA1
14354:AP1000
14337:Kerena
14217:Debate
13969:Ethics
13959:Design
13942:Topics
13773:rocket
13751:Fusion
13746:Policy
13708:Fusion
13668:Poison
13546:Fusion
11498:. 2005
11372:
11324:
11293:
11260:
11237:
11201:
11182:
11124:
11072:
11018:
10985:
10951:
10927:
10910:
10900:
10874:
10845:
10811:
10787:
10768:
10749:824335
10747:
10727:
10717:
10694:
10302:
10218:
10160:
10152:
10114:
9986:
9945:
9935:
9912:
9906:881333
9904:
9811:
9801:
9749:(CDC)
9727:
9719:
9543:
9533:
8839:
8819:
8811:
8784:
8776:
8523:
7682:
7674:
7664:
7607:
7599:
7556:
7548:
7540:
7490:
7482:
7474:
7381:
7355:Nature
7338:
7322:(23).
7297:
7271:Nature
7042:
7032:
6931:
6869:
6859:
6851:
6727:
6692:
6646:
6355:
6345:
6337:
5750:
5601:bombs.
5548:root,
5542:barium
5380:curies
5156:cancer
4923:burnup
4891:anium
4816:tamper
4730:radium
4556:tonnes
4532:Gadget
4440:fizzle
4363:; the
4207:, and
4163:barium
3891:indium
3857:; and
3845:; and
3827:sodium
3821:Alloys
3802:Cerium
3631:oxides
3594:or an
3592:vacuum
3572:oxygen
3556:barium
3363:0.049
3312:0.022
3306:24100
3277:87.74
3252:(W/kg)
3150:
2945:
2942:2.3565
2897:
2794:) and
2584:welded
2580:cerium
2398:helium
2352:) form
2336:nickel
2319:banned
2154:Uranus
2099:oxides
2093:, and
2079:carbon
2045:symbol
1997:
1950:trace
1911:synth
1821:trace
1782:trace
1611:after
1608:Naming
1578:
1544:
1402:
1385:
1359:oxide)
1308:
1276:
1236:
1234:kJ/mol
1120:
1103:Period
866:Curium
810:Radium
724:Osmium
668:Erbium
598:Cerium
584:Barium
561:Iodine
533:Indium
519:Silver
387:Copper
380:Nickel
373:Cobalt
292:Sulfur
255:Sodium
232:Oxygen
218:Carbon
186:Helium
104:
15358:Sites
15231:Migma
15219:Other
15188:Fusor
15087:Piqua
15082:Arbus
15040:PRISM
14782:MHR-T
14777:GTMHR
14707:EGP-6
14702:AMB-X
14677:Water
14622:HWGCR
14561:HWLWR
14500:IPHWR
14471:CANDU
14332:ESBWR
14087:Waste
14051:Tests
14034:Lists
14018:Yield
13761:MMRTG
13718:Power
13420:XePuF
13373:Pu(IO
13345:Pu(NO
13138:Main
11779:Media
11548:(11).
11349:(PDF)
11342:(PDF)
11149:(PDF)
11142:(PDF)
11101:(PDF)
11090:(PDF)
10960:(PDF)
10945:(PDF)
10822:(PDF)
10805:(PDF)
10158:S2CID
10012:(PDF)
10005:(PDF)
9910:S2CID
9837:(PDF)
9830:(PDF)
9725:S2CID
9670:(PDF)
9659:(PDF)
9461:Wired
9442:Times
9409:(PDF)
9402:(PDF)
9144:(PDF)
9129:(PDF)
9017:(PDF)
9002:(PDF)
8971:(PDF)
8964:(PDF)
8809:JSTOR
8801:Ambio
8782:S2CID
8706:(PDF)
8699:(PDF)
8621:(PDF)
8610:(PDF)
8580:(PDF)
8573:(PDF)
8249:(PDF)
8234:(PDF)
7977:(PDF)
7962:(PDF)
7936:(PDF)
7921:(PDF)
7766:(PDF)
7759:(PDF)
7680:S2CID
7636:arXiv
7597:JSTOR
7554:S2CID
7538:JSTOR
7499:(PDF)
7488:S2CID
7472:JSTOR
7444:(PDF)
7379:S2CID
7336:JSTOR
7295:S2CID
7096:(PDF)
7089:(PDF)
7040:S2CID
6929:S2CID
6725:S2CID
6585:(PDF)
6578:(PDF)
6514:(PDF)
6507:(PDF)
6309:arXiv
6282:(PDF)
6275:(PDF)
6246:(PDF)
6239:(PDF)
6131:(PDF)
6120:(PDF)
6087:(PDF)
6074:(PDF)
6048:(PDF)
6033:(PDF)
5772:(PDF)
5712:near
5562:Pluto
5550:barys
5546:Greek
5428:Notes
5420:) at
5196:The "
5164:liver
5140:gamma
5134:(α),
5132:alpha
4971:rover
4881:PUREX
4814:in a
4634:Ambio
4610:SIPRI
4567:Japan
4477:Mayak
4301:Pluto
4258:Pluto
4086:xenon
4039:Gabon
3627:argon
3568:acids
3554:with
3496:(SiMe
3482:anion
3388:1700
3376:α to
3357:14.4
3332:6560
3329:, SF
3325:α to
3300:α to
3283:2600
3147:2.117
2578:, or
2568:delta
2513:delta
2509:gamma
2501:alpha
2350:alpha
2305:is a
2293:from
2275:cores
2225:grade
2187:Both
2166:Pluto
2115:bones
2061:that
2059:metal
2039:is a
1861:synth
1825:6.561
1786:2.411
1742:trace
1696:Decay
1624:Pluto
1616:Pluto
1574:2260
1329:3499
1326:2926
1323:2511
1320:2198
1317:1953
1314:1756
1170:solid
1157:Phase
1134:[
1115:Block
1090:Group
794:Radon
568:Xenon
306:Argon
211:Boron
111:ploo-
15365:Ames
15047:Lead
15030:CEFR
15020:PFBR
14902:None
14712:RBMK
14697:AM-1
14627:EL-4
14601:WR-1
14583:AHWR
14527:MZFR
14495:CVTR
14484:AFCR
14411:VVER
14369:APWR
14364:APR+
14327:ABWR
14197:cask
14192:pool
14134:LLFP
14023:TNTe
13703:Fast
13573:Fuel
13385:Pu(C
13308:PuBr
13300:PuCl
13269:PuAs
13253:PuSi
13248:PuSe
11659:2015
11639:2015
11620:2009
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