Carbon - Knowledge

2622: 3965: 3902: 4220: 1504: 4543: 56: 1407: 4523: 4153: 2678: 3382: 2958: 9314: 4264: 2181: 3858:); some workers consider metal carbonyl and cyanide complexes without other carbon ligands to be purely inorganic, and not organometallic. However, most organometallic chemists consider metal complexes with any carbon ligand, even 'inorganic carbon' (e.g., carbonyls, cyanides, and certain types of carbides and acetylides) to be organometallic in nature. Metal complexes containing organic ligands without a carbon-metal covalent bond (e.g., metal carboxylates) are termed 9235: 4232: 3449: 4243: 1896: 1463: 3437: 9263: 11895: 11746: 11814: 11651: 9297: 4279: 2942: 4251: 9280: 3923: 4123:

used for lower value graphite products and is the lowest priced graphite. Large amorphous graphite deposits are found in China, Europe, Mexico and the United States. Flake graphite is less common and of higher quality than amorphous; it occurs as separate plates that crystallized in metamorphic rock. Flake graphite can be four times the price of amorphous. Good quality flakes can be processed into

3345:. When massive stars die as supernova, the carbon is scattered into space as dust. This dust becomes component material for the formation of the next-generation star systems with accreted planets. The Solar System is one such star system with an abundance of carbon, enabling the existence of life as we know it. It is the opinion of most scholars that all the carbon in the Solar System and the 2855: 2950: 4372:(PAN) and other organic substances. The crystallographic structure and mechanical properties of the fiber depend on the type of starting material, and on the subsequent processing. Carbon fibers made from PAN have structure resembling narrow filaments of graphite, but thermal processing may re-order the structure into a continuous rolled sheet. The result is fibers with higher 4307:. Cellulose is used primarily for maintaining structure in plants. Commercially valuable carbon polymers of animal origin include wool, cashmere, and silk. Plastics are made from synthetic carbon polymers, often with oxygen and nitrogen atoms included at regular intervals in the main polymer chain. The raw materials for many of these synthetic substances come from crude oil. 4138:, world production of natural graphite was 1.1 million tonnes in 2010, to which China contributed 800,000 t, India 130,000 t, Brazil 76,000 t, North Korea 30,000 t and Canada 25,000 t. No natural graphite was reported mined in the United States, but 118,000 t of synthetic graphite with an estimated value of $ 998 million was produced in 2009. 3417:. Some of this biomass is eaten by animals, while some carbon is exhaled by animals as carbon dioxide. The carbon cycle is considerably more complicated than this short loop; for example, some carbon dioxide is dissolved in the oceans; if bacteria do not consume it, dead plant or animal matter may become petroleum or coal, which releases carbon when burned. 3476:. Carbon-carbon bonds are strong and stable. Through catenation, carbon forms a countless number of compounds. A tally of unique compounds shows that more contain carbon than do not. A similar claim can be made for hydrogen because most organic compounds contain hydrogen chemically bonded to carbon or another common element like oxygen or nitrogen. 2272:. Its first four ionisation energies, 1086.5, 2352.6, 4620.5 and 6222.7 kJ/mol, are much higher than those of the heavier group-14 elements. The electronegativity of carbon is 2.5, significantly higher than the heavier group-14 elements (1.8–1.9), but close to most of the nearby nonmetals, as well as some of the second- and third-row 4119:, England were at first of sufficient size and purity that, until the 19th century, pencils were made by sawing blocks of natural graphite into strips before encasing the strips in wood. Today, smaller deposits of graphite are obtained by crushing the parent rock and floating the lighter graphite out on water. 4560:. Diamond dust used as an abrasive can be harmful if ingested or inhaled. Microparticles of carbon are produced in diesel engine exhaust fumes, and may accumulate in the lungs. In these examples, the harm may result from contaminants (e.g., organic chemicals, heavy metals) rather than from the carbon itself. 4470:

Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and heat conductivity, with the gemological qualities of clarity and color being mostly irrelevant. About 80% of mined diamonds (equal to about 100 million carats or 20 tonnes annually) are unsuitable for use as gemstones and relegated for

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It is important to note that in the cases above, each of the bonds to carbon contain less than two formal electron pairs. Thus, the formal electron count of these species does not exceed an octet. This makes them hypercoordinate but not hypervalent. Even in cases of alleged 10-C-5 species (that is, a

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barrier, the transition into graphite is so slow at normal temperature that it is unnoticeable. However, at very high temperatures diamond will turn into graphite, and diamonds can burn up in a house fire. The bottom left corner of the phase diagram for carbon has not been scrutinized experimentally.

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Yamashita, Makoto; Yamamoto, Yohsuke; Akiba, Kin-ya; Hashizume, Daisuke; Iwasaki, Fujiko; Takagi, Nozomi; Nagase, Shigeru (2005-03-01). "Syntheses and Structures of Hypervalent Pentacoordinate Carbon and Boron Compounds Bearing an Anthracene Skeleton − Elucidation of Hypervalent Interaction Based on

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Historically diamonds were known to be found only in alluvial deposits in southern India. India led the world in diamond production from the time of their discovery in approximately the 9th century BC to the mid-18th century AD, but the commercial potential of these sources had been exhausted by the

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is a two-dimensional sheet of carbon with the atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice. As of 2009, graphene appears to be the strongest material ever tested. The process of separating it from graphite will require some further technological development before it is economical for industrial processes.

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The dominant industrial use of diamond is in cutting, drilling, grinding, and polishing. Most of these applications do not require large diamonds; in fact, most diamonds of gem-quality except for their small size can be used industrially. Diamonds are embedded in drill tips or saw blades, or ground

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Commonly carbon-containing compounds which are associated with minerals or which do not contain bonds to the other carbon atoms, halogens, or hydrogen, are treated separately from classical organic compounds; the definition is not rigid, and the classification of some compounds can vary from author

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Of the other discovered allotropes, carbon nanofoam is a ferromagnetic allotrope discovered in 1997. It consists of a low-density cluster-assembly of carbon atoms strung together in a loose three-dimensional web, in which the atoms are bonded trigonally in six- and seven-membered rings. It is among

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is at 10.8 ± 0.2 megapascals (106.6 ± 2.0 atm; 1,566 ± 29 psi) and 4,600 ± 300 K (4,330 ± 300 °C; 7,820 ± 540 °F), so it sublimes at about 3,900 K (3,630 °C; 6,560 °F). Graphite is much more reactive

4131:. The foremost deposits are found in Austria, Brazil, Canada, China, Germany and Madagascar. Vein or lump graphite is the rarest, most valuable, and highest quality type of natural graphite. It occurs in veins along intrusive contacts in solid lumps, and it is only commercially mined in Sri Lanka. 4122:

There are three types of natural graphite—amorphous, flake or crystalline flake, and vein or lump. Amorphous graphite is the lowest quality and most abundant. Contrary to science, in industry "amorphous" refers to very small crystal size rather than complete lack of crystal structure. Amorphous is

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Carbon was discovered in prehistory and was known in the forms of soot and charcoal to the earliest human civilizations. Diamonds were known probably as early as 2500 BCE in China, while carbon in the form of charcoal was made by the same chemistry as it is today, by heating wood in a pyramid

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According to one source, in the period from 1751 to 2008 about 347 gigatonnes of carbon were released as carbon dioxide to the atmosphere from burning of fossil fuels. Another source puts the amount added to the atmosphere for the period since 1750 at 879 Gt, and the total going to the atmosphere,

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respectively, both of which are highly unstable and decay almost instantly back into smaller nuclei. The triple-alpha process happens in conditions of temperatures over 100 megakelvins and helium concentration that the rapid expansion and cooling of the early universe prohibited, and therefore no

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Pure carbon has extremely low toxicity to humans and can be handled safely in the form of graphite or charcoal. It is resistant to dissolution or chemical attack, even in the acidic contents of the digestive tract. Consequently, once it enters into the body's tissues it is likely to remain there

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are among the hardest known materials, and are used as abrasives in cutting and grinding tools. Carbon compounds make up most of the materials used in clothing, such as natural and synthetic textiles and leather, and almost all of the interior surfaces in the built environment other than glass,

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Diamond production of primary deposits (kimberlites and lamproites) only started in the 1870s after the discovery of the diamond fields in South Africa. Production has increased over time and an accumulated total of over 4.5 billion carats have been mined since that date. Most commercially

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only, some of the cells of which fullerenes are formed may be pentagons, nonplanar hexagons, or even heptagons of carbon atoms. The sheets are thus warped into spheres, ellipses, or cylinders. The properties of fullerenes (split into buckyballs, buckytubes, and nanobuds) have not yet been fully

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Only a very small fraction of the diamond ore consists of actual diamonds. The ore is crushed, during which care has to be taken in order to prevent larger diamonds from being destroyed in this process and subsequently the particles are sorted by density. Today, diamonds are located in the

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and C. A. Vandermonde confirmed that graphite was mostly carbon by oxidizing it in oxygen in much the same way Lavoisier had done with diamond. Some iron again was left, which the French scientists thought was necessary to the graphite structure. In their publication they proposed the name

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Under terrestrial conditions, conversion of one element to another is very rare. Therefore, the amount of carbon on Earth is effectively constant. Thus, processes that use carbon must obtain it from somewhere and dispose of it somewhere else. The paths of carbon in the environment form the

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are highly stable dodecahedral derivatives of the unit, with one BH replaced with a CH. Thus, the carbon is bonded to five boron atoms and one hydrogen atom. The cation contains an octahedral carbon bound to six phosphine-gold fragments. This phenomenon has been attributed to the

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In combination with oxygen in carbon dioxide, carbon is found in the Earth's atmosphere (approximately 900 gigatonnes of carbon — each ppm corresponds to 2.13 Gt) and dissolved in all water bodies (approximately 36,000 gigatonnes of carbon). Carbon in the

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are normally taken as 77.2 pm (C−C), 66.7 pm (C=C) and 60.3 pm (C≡C), although these may vary depending on coordination number and what the carbon is bonded to. In general, covalent radius decreases with lower coordination number and higher bond order.

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carbon with five ligands and a formal electron count of ten), as reported by Akiba and co-workers, electronic structure calculations conclude that the electron population around carbon is still less than eight, as is true for other compounds featuring four-electron

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showed that graphite, which had been thought of as a form of lead, was instead identical with charcoal but with a small admixture of iron, and that it gave "aerial acid" (his name for carbon dioxide) when oxidized with nitric acid. In 1786, the French scientists

3484:. Common heteroatoms that appear in organic compounds include oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, and the nonradioactive halogens, as well as the metals lithium and magnesium. Organic compounds containing bonds to metal are known as organometallic compounds ( 4555:

was found to have carbon tattoos that survived during his life and for 5200 years after his death. Inhalation of coal dust or soot (carbon black) in large quantities can be dangerous, irritating lung tissues and causing the congestive lung disease,

2292:). Although it forms an extraordinary variety of compounds, most forms of carbon are comparatively unreactive under normal conditions. At standard temperature and pressure, it resists all but the strongest oxidizers. It does not react with 2252:

Carbon sublimes in a carbon arc, which has a temperature of about 5800 K (5,530 °C or 9,980 °F). Thus, irrespective of its allotropic form, carbon remains solid at higher temperatures than the highest-melting-point metals such as

6301:; Kahwaji, Samer; Freitas, Vera L. S.; Siewert, Riko; Weatherby, Joseph A.; Ribeiro da Silva, Maria D. M. C.; Verevkin, Sergey P.; Johnson, Erin R.; Zwanziger, Josef W. (2021). "The Relative Thermal Stability of Diamond and Graphite". 3479:

The simplest form of an organic molecule is the hydrocarbon—a large family of organic molecules that are composed of hydrogen atoms bonded to a chain of carbon atoms. A hydrocarbon backbone can be substituted by other atoms, known as

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industry falls into two categories: one dealing with gem-grade diamonds and the other, with industrial-grade diamonds. While a large trade in both types of diamonds exists, the two markets function dramatically differently.

3532:. When united with hydrogen, it forms various hydrocarbons that are important to industry as refrigerants, lubricants, solvents, as chemical feedstock for the manufacture of plastics and petrochemicals, and as fossil fuels. 4706:

Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; Böhlke, John K.; Chesson, Lesley A.; Coplen, Tyler B.; Ding, Tiping; Dunn, Philip J. H.; Gröning, Manfred; Holden, Norman E.; Meijer, Harro A. J. (2022-05-04).

3139:, found in ancient volcanic "necks", or "pipes". Most diamond deposits are in Africa, notably in South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, the Republic of the Congo, and Sierra Leone. Diamond deposits have also been found in 4502:, and limited use in specialized windows. With the continuing advances in the production of synthetic diamonds, new applications are becoming feasible. Garnering much excitement is the possible use of diamond as a 2633:

form is an assortment of carbon atoms in a non-crystalline, irregular, glassy state, not held in a crystalline macrostructure. It is present as a powder, and is the main constituent of substances such as charcoal,

2851:. Nanobuds were first reported in 2007 and are hybrid buckytube/buckyball materials (buckyballs are covalently bonded to the outer wall of a nanotube) that combine the properties of both in a single structure. 3982:

showed that diamonds are a form of carbon; when he burned samples of charcoal and diamond and found that neither produced any water and that both released the same amount of carbon dioxide per gram. In 1779,

2094:. Graphite is soft enough to form a streak on paper (hence its name, from the Greek verb "γράφειν" which means "to write"), while diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known. Graphite is a good 4295:). The major economic use of carbon other than food and wood is in the form of hydrocarbons, most notably the fossil fuel methane gas and crude oil (petroleum). Crude oil is distilled in refineries by the 4572:

Carbon may burn vigorously and brightly in the presence of air at high temperatures. Large accumulations of coal, which have remained inert for hundreds of millions of years in the absence of oxygen, may

3494:, confer common reactivity patterns and allow for the systematic study and categorization of organic compounds. Chain length, shape and functional groups all affect the properties of organic molecules. 4207:

In the United States, diamonds have been found in Arkansas, Colorado, and Montana. In 2004, a startling discovery of a microscopic diamond in the United States led to the January 2008 bulk-sampling of

3583:(1965–1976), considered that the unique characteristics of carbon made it unlikely that any other element could replace carbon, even on another planet, to generate the biochemistry necessary for life. 7476:

Falkowski, P.; Scholes, R. J.; Boyle, E.; Canadell, J.; Canfield, D.; Elser, J.; Gruber, N.; Hibbard, K.; et al. (2000). "The Global Carbon Cycle: A Test of Our Knowledge of Earth as a System".

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Commercially viable natural deposits of graphite occur in many parts of the world, but the most important sources economically are in China, India, Brazil, and North Korea. Graphite deposits are of

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Coelho, R. T.; Yamada, S.; Aspinwall, D. K.; Wise, M. L. H. (1995). "The application of polycrystalline diamond (PCD) tool materials when drilling and reaming aluminum-based alloys including MMC".

6724: 2782:, diamond becomes more stable than graphite by approximately 1.1 kJ/mol, more recent and definitive experimental and computational studies show that graphite is more stable than diamond for 4318:. Graphite is combined with clays to form the 'lead' used in pencils used for writing and drawing. It is also used as a lubricant and a pigment, as a moulding material in glass manufacture, in 6116:

Jin, Zhong; Lu, Wei; O'Neill, Kevin J.; Parilla, Philip A.; Simpson, Lin J.; Kittrell, Carter; Tour, James M. (2011-02-22). "Nano-Engineered Spacing in Graphene Sheets for Hydrogen Storage".

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Organometallic compounds by definition contain at least one carbon-metal covalent bond. A wide range of such compounds exist; major classes include simple alkyl-metal compounds (for example,

6833: 3392:). The purple numbers indicate how much carbon moves between reservoirs each year. The sediments, as defined in this diagram, do not include the ≈70 million GtC of carbonate rock and 6708: 6459: 4467:

such as gold or platinum, gem diamonds do not trade as a commodity. There is a substantial mark-up in the sale of diamonds, and there is not a very active market for resale of diamonds.

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It has been estimated that the solid earth as a whole contains 730 ppm of carbon, with 2000 ppm in the core and 120 ppm in the combined mantle and crust. Since the mass of the earth is

3007:(PAHs) in the universe. More than 20% of the carbon in the universe may be associated with PAHs, complex compounds of carbon and hydrogen without oxygen. These compounds figure in the 2261:. Although thermodynamically prone to oxidation, carbon resists oxidation more effectively than elements such as iron and copper, which are weaker reducing agents at room temperature. 2172:, with about two hundred million having been described and indexed; and yet that number is but a fraction of the number of theoretically possible compounds under standard conditions. 4180:

viable diamond deposits were in Russia, Botswana, Australia and the Democratic Republic of Congo. By 2005, Russia produced almost one-fifth of the global diamond output (mostly in

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likewise has an octahedral carbon center (formally a carbide, C(-IV)) bonded to six iron atoms. In 2016, it was confirmed that, in line with earlier theoretical predictions, the

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The diamond supply chain is controlled by a limited number of powerful businesses, and is also highly concentrated in a small number of locations around the world (see figure).

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The other common oxide is carbon monoxide (CO). It is formed by incomplete combustion, and is a colorless, odorless gas. The molecules each contain a triple bond and are fairly

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Diagram of the carbon cycle. The black numbers indicate how much carbon is stored in various reservoirs, in billions tonnes ("GtC" stands for gigatonnes of carbon; figures are

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Rode, A. V.; Hyde, S. T.; Gamaly, E. G.; Elliman, R. G.; McKenzie, D. R.; Bulcock, S. (1999). "Structural analysis of a carbon foam formed by high pulse-rate laser ablation".

3058:(such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas) contain carbon as well. Coal "reserves" (not "resources") amount to around 900 gigatonnes with perhaps 18,000 Gt of resources. 7015:

Gannes, Leonard Z.; Del Rio, Carlos Martı́nez; Koch, Paul (1998). "Natural Abundance Variations in Stable Isotopes and their Potential Uses in Animal Physiological Ecology".

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Gross pathology of lung showing centrilobular emphysema characteristic of smoking. Closeup of fixed, cut surface shows multiple cavities lined by heavy black carbon deposits.

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L'art de convertir le fer forgé en acier, et l'art d'adoucir le fer fondu, ou de faire des ouvrages de fer fondu aussi finis que le fer forgé (English translation from 1956)

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Vieira, R; Ledoux, Marc-Jacques; Pham-Huu, Cuong (2004). "Synthesis and characterisation of carbon nanofibers with macroscopic shaping formed by catalytic decomposition of C

3252:(0.0000000001%) or more, mostly confined to the atmosphere and superficial deposits, particularly of peat and other organic materials. This isotope decays by 0.158 MeV 6095: 5437: 2017: 2184:

Theoretically predicted phase diagram of carbon, from 1989. Newer work indicates that the melting point of diamond (top-right curve) does not go above about 9000 K.

8152: 12037: 3214:(C) forms the remaining 1.07%. The concentration of C is further increased in biological materials because biochemical reactions discriminate against C. In 1961, the 6903: 8666: 6555: 6379:

Itzhaki, Lior; Altus, Eli; Basch, Harold; Hoz, Shmaryahu (2005). "Harder than diamond: Determining the cross-sectional area and Young's modulus of molecular rods".

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Nasibulin, A.; Anisimov, Anton S.; Pikhitsa, Peter V.; Jiang, Hua; Brown, David P.; Choi, Mansoo; Kauppinen, Esko I. (2007). "Investigations of NanoBud formation".

3765:). However, mellitic anhydride is the triple acyl anhydride of mellitic acid; moreover, it contains a benzene ring. Thus, many chemists consider it to be organic. 8322: 3629:), but as most compounds with multiple single-bonded oxygens on a single carbon it is unstable. Through this intermediate, though, resonance-stabilized carbonate 11053: 3509:, meaning that a carbon atom forms a total of four covalent bonds (which may include double and triple bonds). Exceptions include a small number of stabilized 6951: 2759:(diamond, 298 K) = 2.9 kJ/mol) under normal conditions (298 K, 10 Pa) and should theoretically transform into graphite. But due to a high 7394: 8902:

Sakamoto, M.; Endriz, J. G.; Scifres, D. R. (1992). "120 W CW output power from monolithic AlGaAs (800 nm) laser diode array mounted on diamond heatsink".

8616: 4692: 4005:) for the element in graphite which was given off as a gas upon burning graphite. Antoine Lavoisier then listed carbon as an element in his 1789 textbook. 2847:). Carbon nanotubes (buckytubes) are structurally similar to buckyballs, except that each atom is bonded trigonally in a curved sheet that forms a hollow 8115:

Scherbaum, Franz; et al. (1988). ""Aurophilicity" as a consequence of Relativistic Effects: The Hexakis(triphenylphosphaneaurio)methane Dication ".

6721: 4353:, and in many other applications. Wood, coal and oil are used as fuel for production of energy and heating. Gem quality diamond is used in jewelry, and 4172:

became commonplace, the separation was done with grease belts; diamonds have a stronger tendency to stick to grease than the other minerals in the ore.

7841: 5293: 3653:) is similar. Nevertheless, due to its physical properties and its association with organic synthesis, carbon disulfide is sometimes classified as an 9351: 5501: 3215: 1719: 8411: 7965:

Moll N. G.; Clutter D. R.; Thompson W. E. (1966). "Carbon Trioxide: Its Production, Infrared Spectrum, and Structure Studied in a Matrix of Solid CO

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Irifune, Tetsuo; Kurio, Ayako; Sakamoto, Shizue; Inoue, Toru; Sumiya, Hitoshi (2003). "Materials: Ultrahard polycrystalline diamond from graphite".

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is a very short-lived species and, therefore, carbon is stabilized in various multi-atomic structures with diverse molecular configurations called

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Deprez, N.; McLachan, D. S. (1988). "The analysis of the electrical conductivity of graphite conductivity of graphite powders during compaction".

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contains a carbon atom with six bonds. More specifically, the dication could be described structurally by the formulation , making it an "organic

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At very high pressures, carbon forms the more compact allotrope, diamond, having nearly twice the density of graphite. Here, each atom is bonded

8696: 6678: 3143:, Canada, the Russian Arctic, Brazil, and in Northern and Western Australia. Diamonds are now also being recovered from the ocean floor off the 10654: 6449: 3150:

Carbon-14 is formed in upper layers of the troposphere and the stratosphere at altitudes of 9–15 km by a reaction that is precipitated by

2836:, which resemble the structure of fullerenes. The buckyballs are fairly large molecules formed completely of carbon bonded trigonally, forming 2642:. At normal pressures, carbon takes the form of graphite, in which each atom is bonded trigonally to three others in a plane composed of fused 6994: 1930: 9039: 3276:, invented in 1949, which has been used extensively to determine the age of carbonaceous materials with ages up to about 40,000 years. 2674:

for carbon than for most metals. The delocalization also accounts for the energetic stability of graphite over diamond at room temperature.

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has been estimated at 550 gigatonnes but with a large uncertainty, due mostly to a huge uncertainty in the amount of terrestrial deep

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Norman H. Horowitz (1986) To Utopia and Back; the search for life in the solar system (Astronomy Series) W. H. Freeman & Co (Sd), NY,

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properties (the sheets slip easily past one another). Because of the delocalization of one of the outer electrons of each atom to form a

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Dorfer, Leopold; Moser, M.; Spindler, K.; Bahr, F.; Egarter-Vigl, E.; Dohr, G. (1998). "5200-year old acupuncture in Central Europe?".

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Lee, C.; Wei, X.; Kysar, J. W.; Hone, J. (2008). "Measurement of the Elastic Properties and Intrinsic Strength of Monolayer Graphene".

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Savvatimskiy, A (2005). "Measurements of the melting point of graphite and the properties of liquid carbon (a review for 1963–2003)".

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into a powder for use in grinding and polishing applications. Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for

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of the gold ligands, which provide additional stabilization of an otherwise labile species. In nature, the iron-molybdenum cofactor (

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to author (see reference articles above). Among these are the simple oxides of carbon. The most prominent oxide is carbon dioxide (CO

3488:). Certain groupings of atoms, often including heteroatoms, recur in large numbers of organic compounds. These collections, known as 2024: 8784: 8227: 7864: 6749: 1921: 1675: 6885: 6422: 4357:

are used in drilling, cutting and polishing tools for machining metals and stone. Plastics are made from fossil hydrocarbons, and

2875:, but contrary to normal graphite, the graphitic layers are not stacked like pages in a book, but have a more random arrangement. 2212:, with about two hundred million examples having been described in the published chemical literature. Carbon also has the highest 7656:

Levine, Joel S.; Augustsson, Tommy R.; Natarajan, Murali (1982). "The prebiological paleoatmosphere: stability and composition".

6222: 6091: 5674:; Pikhitsa, P. V.; Jiang, H.; Brown, D. P.; Krasheninnikov, A. V.; Anisimov, A. S.; Queipo, P.; Moisala, A.; et al. (2007). 5390: 3173:

in the Solar System. These asteroids have not yet been directly sampled by scientists. The asteroids can be used in hypothetical

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form at standard temperature and pressure. They are chemically resistant and require high temperature to react even with oxygen.

1540: 7207: 6768: 3804:(SiC), which resembles diamond. Nevertheless, even the most polar and salt-like of carbides are not completely ionic compounds. 2980:

in the observable universe by mass after hydrogen, helium, and oxygen. Carbon is abundant in the Sun, stars, comets, and in the

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in Chemistry in 1996. The resulting renewed interest in new forms led to the discovery of further exotic allotropes, including

3975: 3664:, resulting in a tendency to bind permanently to hemoglobin molecules, displacing oxygen, which has a lower binding affinity. 2915:, created by a high-energy low-duration laser pulse on amorphous carbon dust. Q-carbon is reported to exhibit ferromagnetism, 9344: 9157: 9134: 8886: 8861: 8538: 8479: 8144: 8090: 7644: 7595: 7431: 7344: 7297: 7268: 7084: 6934: 6856: 6597: 6531: 6491: 6162: 5993: 5652: 5617: 5555: 5456: 5166: 4990: 4756: 3978:

demonstrated that iron was transformed into steel through the absorption of some substance, now known to be carbon. In 1772,

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While carbon is understood to strongly prefer formation of four covalent bonds, other exotic bonding schemes are also known.

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and in living organisms is almost constant, but decreases predictably in their bodies after death. This principle is used in

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Dienwiebel, Martin; Verhoeven, Gertjan; Pradeep, Namboodiri; Frenken, Joost; Heimberg, Jennifer; Zandbergen, Henny (2004).

4944: 6899: 6365: 2992:. Microscopic diamonds may also be formed by the intense pressure and high temperature at the sites of meteorite impacts. 11322: 9251: 8674: 7105: 6794: 6547: 3525:(two bonds, neutral), although these species are much more likely to be encountered as unstable, reactive intermediates. 4176:

late 18th century and at that time India was eclipsed by Brazil where the first non-Indian diamonds were found in 1725.

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When combined with oxygen and hydrogen, carbon can form many groups of important biological compounds including sugars,

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Rotational transitions of various isotopic forms of carbon monoxide (for example, CO, CO, and CO) are detectable in the

3291:, which means its radius is appreciably larger than would be expected if the nucleus were a sphere of constant density. 3120:

contains 92–98%) and is the largest commercial source of mineral carbon, accounting for 4,000 gigatonnes or 80% of

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in Australia became the single largest source, producing 14 million carats in 2018. New finds, the Canadian mines at

1166: 9303: 2650:. The resulting network is 2-dimensional, and the resulting flat sheets are stacked and loosely bonded through weak 12047: 11250: 9337: 9149: 7054: 6962: 3839: 3004: 1712: 1518: 3688:(CP), is also considered inorganic, though most simple derivatives are highly unstable. Other uncommon oxides are 2908: 11307: 10977: 10972: 8638:

Lorenz, V. (2007). "Argyle in Western Australia: The world's richest diamantiferous pipe; its past and future".

3147:. Diamonds are found naturally, but about 30% of all industrial diamonds used in the U.S. are now manufactured. 11315: 6247:

Grochala, Wojciech (2014-04-01). "Diamond: Electronic Ground State of Carbon at Temperatures Approaching 0 K".

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of synthetic polyester fibers is used to reinforce plastics to form advanced, lightweight composite materials.

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and formation of organic compounds. In plants, carbon dioxide formed by carbon fixation can join with water in

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of all known materials. All carbon allotropes are solids under normal conditions, with graphite being the most

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to four others, forming a 3-dimensional network of puckered six-membered rings of atoms. Diamond has the same

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As for individual carbon allotropes, graphite is found in large quantities in the United States (mostly in

2285: 1914: 2423:

Carbon combines with some metals at high temperatures to form metallic carbides, such as the iron carbide

12057: 11062: 8407: 8117: 7893: 7328: 7142: 4482:, invented in the 1950s, found almost immediate industrial applications; 3 billion carats (600 2288:

provides a small portion of the energy produced by the Sun, and most of the energy in larger stars (e.g.

7928:

Sabin, J. R.; Kim, H. (1971). "A theoretical study of the structure and properties of carbon trioxide".

6191:"Heat and Free Energy of Formation of Carbon Dioxide and of the Transition Between Graphite and Diamond" 4394:

toner. Carbon black is also used as a filler in rubber products such as tyres and in plastic compounds.

4291:

Carbon is essential to all known living systems, and without it life as we know it could not exist (see

2204:

readily with other small atoms, including other carbon atoms, and is capable of forming multiple stable

2051:

at the temperatures commonly encountered on Earth, enables this element to serve as a common element of

12042: 11884: 11879: 11874: 11869: 11864: 11859: 11854: 11849: 11844: 11839: 11834: 11829: 11819: 11762: 11656: 11577: 11572: 11429: 11020: 9225: 9177: 7528: 6223:"World of Carbon – Interactive Nano-visulisation in Science & Engineering Education (IN-VSEE)" 5185: 3223: 3089:

in polar regions and under the seas. Various estimates put this carbon between 500, 2500, or 3,000 Gt.

2962: 2829: 2444: 1126: 7794:

Gorman, D.; Drewry, A.; Huang, Y. L.; Sames, C. (2003). "The clinical toxicology of carbon monoxide".

5007:"History of Carbon and Carbon Materials - Center for Applied Energy Research - University of Kentucky" 11920: 11622: 11592: 11582: 11562: 11550: 11518: 11483: 11451: 11419: 11414: 11374: 8700: 4491: 3356:

is an additional hydrogen fusion mechanism that powers stars, wherein carbon operates as a catalyst.

2765: 2225:

than diamond at standard conditions, despite being more thermodynamically stable, as its delocalised

2115: 8746:

Cantwell, W. J.; Morton, J. (1991). "The impact resistance of composite materials – a review".

5889: 5287:"On Graphite Transformations at High Temperature and Pressure Induced by Absorption of the LHC Beam" 4708: 1772: 12062: 11965: 11960: 11955: 11950: 11945: 11940: 11935: 11930: 11925: 11910: 11900: 11751: 11726: 11721: 11706: 11691: 11671: 11666: 11617: 11545: 11528: 11478: 11473: 11468: 11463: 11439: 11399: 11389: 11353: 10786: 9200: 7930: 6990: 4800:

Haaland, D (1976). "Graphite-liquid-vapor triple point pressure and the density of liquid carbon".

4577:

when exposed to air in coal mine waste tips, ship cargo holds and coal bunkers, and storage dumps.

4414:, and in medicine to absorb toxins, poisons, or gases from the digestive system. Carbon is used in 4303:

is a natural, carbon-containing polymer produced by plants in the form of wood, cotton, linen, and

4292: 3813: 3248:) by interaction of nitrogen with cosmic rays. It is found in trace amounts on Earth of 1 part per 3158:

are produced that collide with the nuclei of nitrogen-14, forming carbon-14 and a proton. As such,

2876: 2812: 2802: 2604: 1443: 3409:

plants draw carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (or seawater) and build it into biomass, as in the

3341:

According to current physical cosmology theory, carbon is formed in the interiors of stars on the

2208:

bonds with suitable multivalent atoms. Carbon is a component element in the large majority of all

11915: 11905: 11716: 11701: 11686: 11676: 11661: 11602: 11587: 11567: 11557: 11538: 11533: 11523: 11513: 11456: 11424: 11031: 9036: 3989: 3964: 2671: 2621: 2099: 1907: 1563: 1106: 17: 4858:"Fourier Transform Spectroscopy of the Electronic Transition of the Jet-Cooled CCI Free Radical" 4551:

indefinitely. Carbon black was probably one of the first pigments to be used for tattooing, and

3464:) to form organic compounds, which can be used and further converted by both plants and animals. 3279:

There are 15 known isotopes of carbon and the shortest-lived of these is C which decays through

11824: 11739: 11681: 11644: 11639: 11627: 11607: 11597: 11503: 11498: 11493: 11434: 11409: 11394: 11384: 10846: 7527:

Smith, T. M.; Cramer, W. P.; Dixon, R. K.; Leemans, R.; Neilson, R. P.; Solomon, A. M. (1993).

5884: 4589: 4399: 4296: 3855: 3572: 3469: 2472: 2265: 2111: 2055:. It is the second most abundant element in the human body by mass (about 18.5%) after oxygen. 1787: 1133: 1118: 1094: 113: 8049: 6481: 5910: 5577: 5545: 5242:

Greenville Whittaker, A. (1978). "The controversial carbon solid−liquid−vapour triple point".

3901: 1165: 11632: 11444: 11379: 11369: 10673: 9126: 8800: 8450: 8082: 7585: 7421: 7017:

Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology – Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology

6152: 5132: 5071: 5049: 5006: 4574: 4219: 4204:, are expected to become even more valuable owing to their production of gem quality stones. 3792:) to form alloys with high melting points. These anions are also associated with methane and 3601: 3334: 2889: 2618:. It could also be used to safely store hydrogen for use in a hydrogen based engine in cars. 2229:

is much more vulnerable to attack. For example, graphite can be oxidised by hot concentrated

2091: 6576: 6520: 5983: 3042:

of carbon. This is much more than the amount of carbon in the oceans or atmosphere (below).

11711: 11696: 11508: 11488: 10724: 10663: 9380: 8946: 8911: 8373: 7978: 7939: 7902: 7803: 7665: 7543: 7485: 7226: 6692: 6628: 6029: 5943: 5876: 5821: 5740: 5687: 5510: 5465: 5405: 5347: 5251: 4563:

Carbon generally has low toxicity to life on Earth; but carbon nanoparticles are deadly to

4499: 3984: 3968: 3318: 3300: 3015:

and formation of life. PAHs seem to have been formed "a couple of billion years" after the

3008: 2844: 2811:

are a synthetic crystalline formation with a graphite-like structure, but in place of flat

2659: 2647: 2551: 2465: 2217: 2189: 2095: 2059: 1528: 1395: 84: 5499:

Collins, A. T. (1993). "The Optical and Electronic Properties of Semiconducting Diamond".

2249:, which preserves the hexagonal units of graphite while breaking up the larger structure. 8: 11612: 11080: 8781: 8512: 7314: 5981: 5636: 4197: 4124: 3905:

This anthracene derivative contains a carbon atom with 5 formal electron pairs around it.

3851: 3730: 3563:, and rubber products. With the addition of phosphorus to these other elements, it forms 3330: 3206:(varying from 2 to 16). Carbon has two stable, naturally occurring isotopes. The isotope 3051: 2989: 2859: 2651: 2313: 2083: 1647: 1236: 8950: 8915: 8774: 8377: 8344: 8219: 8009:"Cyclic Polyhydroxy Ketones. I. Oxidation Products of Hexahydroxybenzene (Benzenehexol)" 7982: 7943: 7906: 7807: 7669: 7547: 7489: 7230: 6746: 6696: 6632: 6033: 5947: 5880: 5825: 5744: 5691: 5514: 5469: 5409: 5351: 5255: 11135: 10761: 10743: 9014: 8989: 8970: 8389: 8036: 7771: 7746: 7689: 7559: 7509: 7399: 7184: 6873: 6651: 6614: 6414: 6334: 6280: 6053: 5982:

Heimann, Robert Bertram; Evsyukov, Sergey E. & Kavan, Ladislav (28 February 1999).

5959: 5902: 5837: 5713: 5526: 5481: 5429: 5371: 5267: 5095: 4663: 4495: 4415: 4407: 4395: 4354: 4165: 3754: 3273: 3186: 3109: 2901: 2655: 2485: 2481: 2145: 2126: 1993: 1845: 1705: 1625: 1581: 1430: 1228: 1222: 7815: 7238: 7028: 6765: 6704: 6450:"Need to Track Organic Nano-Particles Across the Universe? NASA's Got an App for That" 6226: 4552: 2896:

with alternating single and triple bonds. This carbyne is of considerable interest to

11180: 11160: 10231: 9153: 9130: 9019: 8962: 8882: 8857: 8838: 8759: 8534: 8531:

The Book Of Diamonds: Their Curious Lore, Properties, Tests And Synthetic Manufacture

8475: 8432: 8192: 8184: 8086: 8075: 8041: 7951: 7819: 7776: 7727: 7681: 7640: 7591: 7501: 7427: 7350: 7340: 7293: 7264: 7242: 7188: 7080: 7032: 6930: 6852: 6656: 6593: 6527: 6487: 6396: 6338: 6326: 6318: 6272: 6264: 6158: 6133: 6057: 6045: 5989: 5906: 5705: 5648: 5613: 5551: 5530: 5485: 5477: 5421: 5363: 5162: 5158: 4986: 4813: 4777: 4752: 4724: 4638: 4633: 4581: 4479: 4382:

is used as the black pigment in printing ink, artist's oil paint, and water colours,

4373: 4369: 4339: 3979: 3926: 3911: 3883: 3879: 3742: 3714: 3529: 3342: 3144: 2760: 2667: 2588: 2392: 2297: 2209: 2169: 2165: 2052: 1752: 1743: 1697: 1437: 1348: 1338: 755: 8974: 8249: 7693: 7563: 6284: 5963: 5433: 5375: 4903: 4542: 3177:, which may be possible in the future, but is currently technologically impossible. 11152: 11130: 11114: 11106: 11000: 10930: 10836: 10295: 10000: 9829: 9658: 9577: 9496: 9469: 9432: 9427: 9422: 9239: 9118: 9009: 9001: 8954: 8919: 8834: 8755: 8563: 8393: 8381: 8176: 8125: 8031: 8023: 7986: 7947: 7910: 7873: 7811: 7766: 7762: 7758: 7719: 7673: 7551: 7513: 7493: 7234: 7176: 7024: 6700: 6646: 6636: 6388: 6310: 6256: 6202: 6125: 6037: 5951: 5894: 5841: 5829: 5787: 5748: 5717: 5695: 5671: 5518: 5473: 5413: 5355: 5271: 5259: 5222: 5110: 4839: 4809: 4716: 4643: 4615: 4611: 4443: 4435: 4331: 4282: 4208: 4049: 3638: 3490: 3426: 3237: 3128: 3086: 2710: 2639: 2564: 2513: 2428: 2388: 2273: 2269: 2134: 2075: 2044: 1954: 1873: 1455: 1196: 1111: 8958: 8360:

Kroto, H. W.; Heath, J. R.; O'Brien, S. C.; Curl, R. F.; Smalley, R. E. (1985). "C

5417: 4410:

material in applications as diverse as gas masks, water purification, and kitchen

1503: 55: 12027: 11337: 11234: 11192: 11168: 11122: 11098: 11085: 10885: 10841: 10807: 10749: 9417: 9412: 9407: 9402: 9397: 9392: 9387: 9043: 8788: 8725: 8457: 7891:

Anderson D. J.; Rosenfeld, R. N. (1991). "Photodissociation of Carbon Suboxide".

7707: 7497: 7203: 6772: 6753: 6728: 6583: 6298: 5898: 5791: 5752: 5640: 4843: 4431: 4343: 4335: 4254: 4128: 4037: 3823: 3796:, both very weak acids. With an electronegativity of 2.5, carbon prefers to form 3722: 3689: 3597: 3576: 3414: 3364: 3280: 3174: 3155: 2923: 2725: 2714: 2600: 2580: 2130: 2122: 2103: 1958: 1900: 1798: 1377: 1306: 1253: 9320: 8501:

discussion on alluvial diamonds in India and elsewhere as well as earliest finds

7313:

Bohan, Elise; Dinwiddie, Robert; Challoner, Jack; Stuart, Colin; Harvey, Derek;

7180: 6074: 4522: 4152: 2988:

contain microscopic diamonds that were formed when the Solar System was still a

11281: 11276: 11140: 11090: 10982: 10791: 10755: 9360: 9188: 9056: 7336: 6353: 5605: 5114: 4931: 4623:(CN), and carbon monoxide; and such essentials to life as glucose and protein. 4593: 4464: 4423: 4411: 4327: 4323: 4257: 4189: 4181: 4108: 4104: 3843: 3819: 3661: 3580: 3457: 3406: 3326: 3322: 3020: 2897: 2615: 2584: 2453: 2277: 2149: 2137: 1989: 1942: 1819: 1611: 1490: 1447: 1322: 1160: 160: 8293: 7710:; et al. (2001). "On the Surprising Kinetic Stability of Carbonic Acid". 12021: 11984: 11286: 11015: 10869: 10768: 10734: 10454: 8188: 7724:

10.1002/(SICI)1521-3773(20000303)39:5<891::AID-ANIE891>3.0.CO;2-E

7354: 7332: 7101: 6874:"The Carbon Cycle, Climate, and the Long-Term Effects of Fossil Fuel Burning" 6798: 6733: 6683: 6322: 6268: 6137: 5809: 5635: 4728: 4653: 4585: 4531: 4503: 4439: 4391: 4350: 4045: 4017: 3993: 3871: 3847: 3797: 3673: 3605: 3360: 3219: 3195: 3170: 2868: 2833: 2805:

with all atoms covalently bonded and properties similar to those of diamond.

2737: 2677: 2596: 2556: 2309: 2305: 2293: 2234: 2201: 1985: 1981: 1965: 1777: 1680: 1591: 1486: 1413: 1076: 925: 9173: 6641: 6041: 5189: 4426:

of steel is achieved by heating finished steel components in carbon powder.

3381: 3268: years, C is virtually absent in ancient rocks. The amount of C in the 3169:

Carbon-rich asteroids are relatively preponderant in the outer parts of the

3135:), Russia, Mexico, Greenland, and India. Natural diamonds occur in the rock 2957: 2058:

The atoms of carbon can bond together in diverse ways, resulting in various

1948: 11005: 10508: 10337: 10042: 9442: 9375: 9023: 8196: 8129: 8045: 7823: 7780: 7731: 7505: 7318: 7167:

Watson, A. (1999). "Beaming Into the Dark Corners of the Nuclear Kitchen".

6660: 6400: 6392: 6330: 6314: 6276: 6260: 6092:"Toughest Stuff Known to Man : Discovery Opens Door to Space Elevator" 6049: 5709: 5522: 5425: 5367: 4880: 4857: 4600: 4527: 4383: 4379: 4358: 4315: 4033: 3410: 3402: 3376: 3288: 3241: 3233: 3059: 3055: 2916: 2867:

the lightest known solids, with a density of about 2 kg/m. Similarly,

2817: 2520: 2221: 2009: 1973: 1601: 1290: 1212: 1099: 967: 834: 608: 9086: 8966: 8923: 8586: 8027: 7685: 7322: 7036: 6590:

Earthquake Thermodynamics and Phase Transformation in the Earth's Interior

5955: 5700: 5675: 4985:. Boca Raton, Florida: Chemical Rubber Company Publishing. pp. E110. 4720: 4263: 4168:, after which the final sorting steps are done by hand. Before the use of 3945:, meaning charcoal. In German, Dutch and Danish, the names for carbon are 3070:(containing about 105 gigatonnes of carbon), but studies estimate another 2797: = 298.15 K. Under some conditions, carbon crystallizes as 2284:

Carbon-based compounds form the basis of all known life on Earth, and the

1406: 11291: 11224: 10967: 10946: 10689: 10562: 10526: 10517: 10427: 10409: 10400: 9437: 9286: 9005: 8567: 7577: 6776: 6674: 6207: 6190: 4648: 4535: 4419: 4368:

Carbon fiber is made by pyrolysis of extruded and stretched filaments of

4231: 4193: 4076: 4041: 4029: 3887: 3831: 3801: 3684:), similar to diatomic halides. Likewise, the heavier analog of cyanide, 3575:(ATP), the most important energy-transfer molecule in all living cells. 3245: 3121: 3012: 2969: 2922:

In the vapor phase, some of the carbon is in the form of highly reactive

2798: 2721: 2690: 2663: 2592: 2536: 2431:, widely used as an abrasive and for making hard tips for cutting tools. 2312:

and will rob oxygen from metal oxides to leave the elemental metal. This

2230: 2086:

of carbon vary widely with the allotropic form. For example, graphite is

1879: 1555: 1314: 1009: 981: 974: 904: 890: 883: 24: 9269: 8609:"Global Diamond Supply Expected to Decrease 3.4% to 147M Carats in 2018" 7877: 7321:; Hubbard, Ben; Parker, Phillip; et al. (Writers) (February 2016). 7050: 6415:"Researchers find new phase of carbon, make diamond at room temperature" 4242: 3448: 3100:

Carbon is a constituent (about 12% by mass) of the very large masses of

3062:

are around 150 gigatonnes. Proven sources of natural gas are about

2180: 1185:

3915 K (3642 °C, 6588 °F)

10632: 10571: 10499: 10472: 10445: 10105: 10087: 10060: 9891: 9882: 9621: 8988:

Donaldson, K.; Stone, V.; Clouter, A.; Renwick, L.; MacNee, W. (2001).

8408:"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1996 "for their discovery of fullerenes"" 7677: 7555: 4709:"Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)" 4658: 4592:

to at least 250 °C can release the energy safely, although in the

4565: 4507: 4310:

The uses of carbon and its compounds are extremely varied. It can form

4116: 4112: 3560: 3548: 3502: 3481: 3473: 3314: 3310: 3269: 3253: 3151: 3136: 3117: 2741: 2079: 2063: 1016: 960: 939: 918: 657: 643: 622: 494: 487: 288: 8554:

Janse, A. J. A. (2007). "Global Rough Diamond Production Since 1870".

8180: 7990: 6129: 5227: 5210: 4596:

the procedure went wrong, causing other reactor materials to combust.

4349:

Charcoal is used as a drawing material in artwork, barbecue grilling,

3363:

wavelength range, and are used in the study of newly forming stars in

2475:, and has the highest breakdown electric field of any known material. 11296: 11271: 11255: 11229: 10901: 10719: 10580: 10553: 10544: 10391: 10373: 10364: 10355: 10141: 10051: 10024: 9972: 9918: 9900: 9864: 9844: 9783: 9720: 9664: 9603: 9592: 9511: 9462: 9452: 9447: 8385: 7964: 7914: 7584:

Burrows, A.; Holman, J.; Parsons, A.; Pilling, G.; Price, G. (2017).

7339:. pp. 10–11, 45, 55, 58–59, 63, 65–71, 75, 78–81, 98, 100, 102. 7289: 5833: 5263: 4599:

The great variety of carbon compounds include such lethal poisons as

4511: 4403: 4387: 4362: 4319: 4300: 4111:, sometimes of a metre or more in thickness. Deposits of graphite in 4100: 4096: 4053: 4025: 4021: 4013: 4009: 3866: 3835: 3793: 3777: 3353: 3346: 3304: 3257: 3229: 3211: 3207: 3105: 3101: 3079: 3047: 3039: 3024: 2985: 2808: 2733: 2694: 2635: 2630: 2591:. Several other exotic allotropes have also been discovered, such as 2576: 2575:

are nowadays commonly synthesized and used in research; they include

2572: 2560: 2529: 2424: 2161: 2141: 2013: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1839: 1826: 1811: 1757: 1550: 1387: 1023: 1002: 995: 876: 862: 855: 848: 685: 615: 594: 557: 515: 501: 473: 455: 411: 362: 318: 274: 265: 205: 71: 8854:

Materials for infrared windows and domes: properties and performance

8007:

Fatiadi, Alexander J.; Isbell, Horace S.; Sager, William F. (1963).

5645:

Carbon nanotubes: synthesis, structures, properties and applications

5359: 3922: 3436: 3329:

reactions of helium with hydrogen or another helium nucleus produce

2904:

is 40 times that of the hardest known material – diamond.

31: 11010: 10851: 10714: 10708: 10535: 10436: 10319: 10301: 10276: 10267: 10240: 10213: 10177: 10168: 10150: 10078: 10069: 9963: 9835: 9801: 9711: 9702: 9693: 9684: 9639: 9558: 9540: 9475: 9218:

Carbon—Super Stuff. Animation with sound and interactive 3D-models.

9037:

Carbon Nanoparticles Toxic To Adult Fruit Flies But Benign To Young

8114: 7395:"Explained: How stars provided the carbon that makes life possible" 6548:"Online Database Tracks Organic Nano-Particles Across the Universe" 5094:

Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021).

4688: 4285: 4278: 4236: 4224: 4185: 4088: 4070: 3769: 3685: 3677: 3556: 3140: 3094: 3016: 2941: 2912: 2872: 2848: 2837: 2686: 2610: 2568: 2317: 2301: 2254: 2205: 2193: 2107: 2067: 2032: 1969: 1804: 1274: 1060: 988: 911: 820: 806: 790: 783: 762: 741: 713: 706: 692: 636: 629: 550: 448: 425: 355: 348: 341: 334: 302: 242: 228: 180: 76: 11061: 6486:. Space science series. University of Arizona Press. p. 199. 3019:, are widespread throughout the universe, and are associated with 3000: 11219: 11214: 11208: 10962: 10683: 10617: 10612: 10607: 10602: 10490: 10481: 10463: 10418: 10346: 10328: 10258: 10204: 10186: 10159: 10132: 10114: 10096: 10006: 9936: 9909: 9873: 9855: 9819: 9810: 9792: 9774: 9673: 9612: 9502: 9457: 9329: 8640:

Gemmologie, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft

8433:"Graphite deposit types, their origin, and economic significance" 8016:

Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards Section A

7706: 7587:

Chemistry3: Introducing Inorganic, Organic and Physical Chemistry

5388: 4620: 4510:, and because of its exceptional heat conductance property, as a 4456: 4427: 4147: 3773: 3665: 3634: 3552: 3441: 3393: 3203: 3191: 2893: 2729: 2682: 2643: 2258: 2226: 2197: 2071: 2048: 1298: 1282: 1258: 1190: 1045: 953: 946: 932: 897: 841: 827: 776: 734: 720: 699: 678: 664: 650: 580: 529: 508: 480: 466: 439: 432: 418: 404: 325: 281: 198: 80: 9057:"Press Release – Titanic Disaster: New Theory Fingers Coal Fire" 6878:

Consequences: The Nature and Implication of Environmental Change

4971:, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition, CRC press. 2949: 2911:

announced the development of another allotrope they have dubbed

16:

This article is about the chemical element. For other uses, see

10382: 10310: 10195: 10123: 10033: 10015: 9981: 9945: 9927: 9756: 9747: 9738: 9630: 9583: 9549: 9486: 8165: 4969:

Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds

4705: 4604: 4250: 4092: 4080: 3875: 3669: 3540: 3536: 3249: 3199: 3113: 2966: 2614:

If successful, graphene could be used in the construction of a

2501: 2289: 2087: 2040: 2036: 1330: 1266: 1139: 869: 813: 727: 671: 601: 587: 564: 536: 522: 390: 383: 376: 295: 258: 235: 189: 8081:(3rd ed.). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. p. 5730: 4749:

Selected Values of the Crystallographic Properties of Elements

3633:

are produced. Some important minerals are carbonates, notably

2740:, it is the hardest naturally occurring substance measured by 2308:. At elevated temperatures, carbon reacts with oxygen to form 1992:. Carbon makes up about 0.025 percent of Earth's crust. Three 10596: 10285: 9990: 9648: 9522: 9245: 8250:"Carbonium/Carbon at Elementymology & Elements Multidict" 7475: 7312: 5812:(1967). "Lonsdaleite, a new hexagonal polymorph of diamond". 5647:. Topics in Applied Physics. Vol. 80. Berlin: Springer. 4607: 4483: 4311: 4201: 4169: 3559:, and with the addition of sulfur also it forms antibiotics, 3544: 3132: 2321: 1684: 1620:

diamond: 18,350 m/s (at 20 °C)

1173: 1052: 797: 571: 309: 214: 60:

Graphite (left) and diamond (right), two allotropes of carbon

8987: 6473: 5933: 3528:

Carbon occurs in all known organic life and is the basis of

2391:, and it reacts with steam in the coal-gas reaction used in 1462: 10249: 10222: 9765: 9729: 9567: 7583: 7372: 7201: 6619: 6454: 5670: 4473: 4304: 4135: 4084: 2996: 2854: 2563:. The three relatively well-known allotropes of carbon are 2434:

The system of carbon allotropes spans a range of extremes:

2157: 2153: 1977: 769: 748: 397: 369: 249: 8519:

Ball was a Geologist in British service. Chapter I, Page 1

8209:

Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University Press

6297: 5862:"Fullerene-related structure of commercial glassy carbons" 5184: 3497:

In most stable compounds of carbon (and nearly all stable

2152:, but significant quantities occur in organic deposits of 1523:

diamond: 0.8 µm/(m⋅K) (at 25 °C)

9954: 9369: 9183: 8824: 8359: 7655: 6354:"Carbon Nanofoam is the World's First Pure Carbon Magnet" 5337: 3630: 3568: 3564: 3321:. This requires a nearly simultaneous collision of three 543: 8936: 7890: 7526: 6195:

Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards

6115: 5765: 3668:(CN), has a similar structure, but behaves much like a 3309:

Formation of the carbon atomic nucleus occurs within a

3218:(IUPAC) adopted the isotope carbon-12 as the basis for 2840:(the best-known and simplest is the soccerball-shaped C 2140:

complexes. The largest sources of inorganic carbon are

8827:

International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture

7793: 6722:"Wonderfuel: Welcome to the age of unconventional gas" 6351: 5211:"Melting temperature of diamond at ultrahigh pressure" 3898:

fragment through all five of the carbons of the ring.

2816:

analyzed and represent an intense area of research in

1988:

exhibiting 4 electrons. It belongs to group 14 of the

9223: 8901: 5936:

Applied Physics A: Materials Science & Processing

4588:

followed by a sudden, spontaneous release may occur.

8273: 6378: 5241: 5093: 4881:"Fourier Transform Spectroscopy of the System of CP" 4580:

In nuclear applications where graphite is used as a

3957:

respectively, all literally meaning coal-substance.

3941:

for coal and charcoal, whence also comes the French

3468:

Carbon can form very long chains of interconnecting

3338:

significant carbon was created during the Big Bang.

2885:− . Carbon in this modification is linear with 2029:

fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass

7862:Bayes, K. (1961). "Photolysis of Carbon Suboxide". 4299:to produce gasoline, kerosene, and other products. 2736:, and because of the strength of the carbon-carbon 8342: 8074: 8006: 7259:Ostlie, Dale A. & Carroll, Bradley W. (2007). 7202:Audi, Georges; Bersillon, Olivier; Blachot, Jean; 7130:. Chicago University Press and references therein. 6519: 3834:containing cyclopentadienyl ligands (for example, 3596:). This was once the principal constituent of the 3166:of atmospheric carbon dioxide contains carbon-14. 2789:, without applied pressure, by 2.7 kJ/mol at 12038:Chemical elements with hexagonal planar structure 9117: 7014: 5502:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 5096:"The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" 4422:is used to reduce iron ore into iron (smelting). 3216:International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry 2268:of 1s2s2p, of which the four outer electrons are 2264:Carbon is the sixth element, with a ground-state 23:"Element 6" redirects here. For the company, see 12019: 8801:"Industrial Diamonds Statistics and Information" 8247: 6952:"Voltatile Products from Carbonaceous Asteroids" 6443: 6441: 6439: 6352:Schewe, Phil & Stein, Ben (March 26, 2004). 5855: 5853: 5851: 4742: 4740: 4738: 4223:Pencil leads for mechanical pencils are made of 2440:Graphite is one of the softest materials known. 2200:, the hardest naturally occurring substance. It 7306: 6479: 6019: 5803: 5801: 5315: 5313: 4829: 4164:diamond-rich density fraction with the help of 3210:(C) forms 98.93% of the carbon on Earth, while 3082:, representing about 540 gigatonnes of carbon. 1217:4600 K, 10,800 kPa 8745: 8547: 8460:and Graphite: Mineral Commodity Summaries 2011 8212: 7261:An Introduction to Modern Stellar Astrophysics 6846: 6517: 5604: 5453: 4227:(often mixed with a clay or synthetic binder). 3226:(NMR) experiments is done with the isotope C. 3011:where they are hypothesized to have a role in 2491:Diamond is the best known naturally occurring 2452:Graphite is a very good lubricant, displaying 2043:. Carbon's abundance, its unique diversity of 11323: 11047: 10648: 9345: 8581:Marshall, Stephen; Shore, Josh (2004-10-22). 8580: 8469: 8099: 7258: 6792:Calculated from file global.1751_2008.csv in 6679:"Fire in the hole: After fracking comes coal" 6436: 6188: 5848: 5807: 5631: 5629: 5571: 5569: 5567: 5089: 5087: 5085: 4776:(86th ed.). Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press. 4735: 4486:) of synthetic diamond is produced annually. 3800:. A few carbides are covalent lattices, like 2793: = 0 K and 3.2 kJ/mol at 2484:(i.e. firebreaks and heat shields), but some 1915: 1123: 8722:"Delta News / Press Releases / Publications" 8631: 8316: 6991:"Carbon – Naturally occurring isotopes" 6823: 6612: 5798: 5600: 5598: 5322: 5310: 5026: 3890:" in which a MeC fragment is bonded to a η-C 3325:(helium nuclei), as the products of further 3116:, and others). Coal is very rich in carbon ( 1405: 8772: 8474:. Cambridge University Press. p. 223. 8312: 8310: 8002: 8000: 7658:Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres 7212:evaluation of nuclear and decay properties" 6985: 6983: 6849:Coal Mining Technology: Theory and Practice 6673: 6064: 5859: 5666: 5664: 5610:Carbon nanotubes—preparation and properties 5543: 5208: 4751:. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International. 3807: 2654:. This gives graphite its softness and its 2196:, one of the softest known substances, and 11330: 11316: 11054: 11040: 10655: 10641: 9352: 9338: 8876: 7744: 7369:"Is my body really made up of star stuff?" 7104:. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. 6812:Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center 6613:Yinon Bar-On; et al. (Jun 19, 2018). 6215: 6154:The polymorphism of elements and compounds 5626: 5564: 5082: 4799: 3571:, the chemical-code carriers of life, and 2945:Graphite ore, shown with a penny for scale 2320:iron and to control the carbon content of 2316:is used in the iron and steel industry to 2025:most abundant element in the Earth's crust 2016:of 5,700 years. Carbon is one of the 1922: 1908: 1720: 1713: 1502: 1461: 54: 11342:with other elements in the periodic table 9013: 8739: 8488: 8035: 7770: 7419: 7077:Interpreting the past: Radiocarbon dating 6650: 6640: 6206: 6089: 5888: 5699: 5595: 5226: 4825: 4823: 4795: 4793: 4746: 3444:, the simplest possible organic compound. 2764:Although a computational study employing 39:Chemical element with atomic number 6 (C) 10662: 8879:Introduction to the physics of gyrotrons 8606: 8585:. Guerrilla News Network. Archived from 8446: 8444: 8442: 8307: 8169:Journal of the American Chemical Society 7997: 7927: 7865:Journal of the American Chemical Society 7140: 6980: 6587: 6483:Meteorites and the Early Solar System II 6246: 5661: 5575: 5209:J.H. Eggert; et al. (Nov 8, 2009). 5050:"carbon | Facts, Uses, & Properties" 4927: 4925: 4923: 4921: 4919: 4699: 4541: 4521: 4277: 4262: 4249: 4241: 4230: 4218: 4151: 3963: 3921: 3917: 3900: 3676:). For example, it can form the nitride 3447: 3435: 3380: 2956: 2948: 2940: 2853: 2676: 2620: 2179: 10452: 9143: 8994:Occupational and Environmental Medicine 8528: 8494: 8072: 7590:. Oxford University Press. p. 70. 7392: 7283: 7108:from the original on September 22, 2008 7102:"Carbon Goes Full Circle in the Amazon" 6871: 6303:Angewandte Chemie International Edition 6249:Angewandte Chemie International Edition 6150: 5498: 4314:with iron, of which the most common is 4016:, that was discovered in 1985 includes 3826:), and η-allyl compounds (for example, 2933:). When excited, this gas glows green. 2919:, and a hardness superior to diamonds. 2768:methods reached the conclusion that as 2748:, they are thermodynamically unstable ( 2571:, and diamond. Once considered exotic, 12020: 11359: 10506: 10335: 10040: 8851: 8697:"Microscopic Diamond Found in Montana" 8667:"Microscopic diamond found in Montana" 8637: 8451:USGS Minerals Yearbook: Graphite, 2009 7838:"Compounds of carbon: carbon suboxide" 7420:Pikelʹner, Solomon Borisovich (1977). 7263:. San Francisco (CA): Addison Wesley. 7252: 7166: 7074: 6924: 6480:Lauretta, D.S.; McSween, H.Y. (2006). 6447: 6189:Rossini, F. D.; Jessup, R. S. (1938). 6083: 5977: 5975: 5973: 5284: 5235: 5202: 5180: 5178: 4983:CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 4820: 4790: 3586: 2744:. Contrary to the popular belief that 11311: 11035: 10636: 10560: 10524: 10515: 10425: 10407: 10398: 9333: 8793: 8694: 8553: 8504: 8439: 8167:X-ray Analysis and DFT Calculation". 7861: 7747:"The action of carbonic oxide on man" 7529:"The global terrestrial carbon cycle" 7125: 7099: 6462:from the original on 6 September 2015 6002:from the original on 23 November 2012 5457:Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 5152: 4980: 4945:"Material Properties- Misc Materials" 4916: 4774:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 3294: 3078:of "unconventional" deposits such as 2978:fourth most abundant chemical element 2871:contains a high proportion of closed 1862: 1843: 1833: 1830: 1818: 1815: 1791: 1786: 12001:Academic research, no widespread use 10569: 10497: 10470: 10443: 10103: 10085: 10058: 9889: 9880: 9252: 9084: 8510: 8274:Ferchault de Réaumur, R.-A. (1722). 7195: 6157:. Taylor & Francis. p. 30. 5319:Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 289–292. 4771: 3822:), η-alkene compounds (for example, 3604:today. Dissolved in water, it forms 3431: 2670:sheet. This results in a lower bulk 2535:Carbon nanotubes are among the most 2480:Some forms of graphite are used for 2102:. Under normal conditions, diamond, 1535:diamond: 900–2300 W/(m⋅K) 1533:graphite: 119–165 W/(m⋅K) 1241:graphite: 8.517 J/(mol·K) 10578: 10551: 10542: 10389: 10371: 10362: 10353: 10139: 10049: 10022: 9970: 9916: 9898: 9862: 9842: 9781: 9718: 9619: 9601: 9590: 9509: 8803:. United States Geological Survey. 8776:Turning And Mechanical Manipulation 8220:"Chinese made first use of diamond" 8105:Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 297–301 7143:"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1960" 6949: 6927:Science-based Dating in Archaeology 6766:"Ice on fire: The next fossil fuel" 6615:"The biomass distribution on Earth" 6558:from the original on March 18, 2015 6448:Hoover, Rachel (21 February 2014). 6368:from the original on March 7, 2012. 6013: 5970: 5175: 3581:Mariner and Viking missions to Mars 3521:(three bonds, negative charge) and 2471:Diamond is an excellent electrical 2090:and black, while diamond is highly 1243:diamond: 6.155 J/(mol·K) 13: 10533: 10434: 10317: 10299: 10274: 10265: 10238: 10211: 10166: 10148: 10076: 10067: 9961: 9833: 9799: 9709: 9691: 9682: 9662: 9637: 9359: 9144:Mannion, A. M. (12 January 2006). 8230:from the original on 20 March 2007 8142: 6906:from the original on 1 August 2015 5612:. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. 5328:Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 276–8. 5153:Reece, Jane B. (31 October 2013). 5121: 4765: 4079:origin, found in association with 3961:covered with clay to exclude air. 3840:transition metal carbene complexes 3600:, but is a minor component of the 3256:. Because of its relatively short 2961:"Present day" (1990s) sea surface 2862:surrounded by glowing carbon vapor 2459:Diamond is the ultimate abrasive. 2387:Carbon reacts with sulfur to form 2175: 2047:, and its unusual ability to form 2018:few elements known since antiquity 1362:3rd: 4620.5 kJ/mol 1359:2nd: 2352.6 kJ/mol 1356:1st: 1086.5 kJ/mol 1207:amorphous: 1.8–2.1 g/cm 14: 12074: 10488: 10479: 10461: 10416: 10326: 10256: 10229: 10202: 10184: 10175: 10157: 10130: 10112: 10094: 10004: 9934: 9907: 9871: 9817: 9808: 9790: 9772: 9700: 9671: 9610: 9556: 9538: 9500: 9473: 9167: 8699:. Livescience.com. Archived from 8499:. John Lane Company. p. 159. 8346:The Cementation of Iron and Steel 8292:. Canada Connects. Archived from 6851:. Society for Mining Metallurgy. 6747:Ocean methane stocks 'overstated' 4689:"Standard Atomic Weights: Carbon" 3976:René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur 2879:has the chemical structure −(C≡C) 98:graphite: black, metallic-looking 11893: 11812: 11744: 11649: 11349: 11251:Graphite intercalation compounds 10380: 10344: 10308: 10193: 10121: 10031: 10013: 9943: 9925: 9853: 9754: 9745: 9736: 9581: 9484: 9312: 9295: 9278: 9261: 9233: 9206:Extensive Carbon page at asu.edu 9078: 9049: 9030: 8981: 8930: 8895: 8870: 8856:. SPIE Press. pp. 303–334. 8845: 8818: 8766: 8714: 8688: 8659: 8650: 8600: 8574: 8533:. Kessinger Pub Co. p. 28. 8522: 8514:Diamonds, Gold and Coal of India 8463: 8425: 8400: 8353: 8349:. McGraw-Hill Book Company, inc. 8336: 8282: 8267: 8241: 8203: 8159: 8155:from the original on 2017-01-09. 8145:"Six bonds to carbon: Confirmed" 8136: 8108: 8066: 7958: 7921: 7573:from the original on 2022-10-11. 7536:Water, Air, & Soil Pollution 7286:Dust in the Galactic Environment 6888:from the original on 2008-10-24. 6836:from the original on 2013-09-21. 6795:"Index of /ftp/ndp030/CSV-FILES" 6711:from the original on 2015-03-16. 5985:Carbyne and carbynoid structures 5676:"A novel hybrid carbon material" 5443:from the original on 2011-09-17. 5060:from the original on 2017-10-24. 3513:(three bonds, positive charge), 3038:, this would imply 4360 million 3005:polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 2666:, but only in the plane of each 2220:it has no melting point, as its 2168:. Carbon forms a vast number of 1895: 1894: 1487:face-centered diamond-cubic 10690:Lonsdaleite (hexagonal diamond) 10283: 9988: 9979: 9646: 9628: 9547: 9529: 9111: 9097:from the original on 2016-03-23 9067:from the original on 2016-04-14 8807:from the original on 2009-05-06 8724:. Deltamine.com. Archived from 8414:from the original on 2007-10-11 8325:from the original on 2007-12-07 8256:from the original on 2010-01-23 8149:Chemical & Engineering News 8077:The Nature of the Chemical Bond 7884: 7855: 7844:from the original on 2007-12-07 7830: 7787: 7738: 7700: 7649: 7633: 7624: 7615: 7604:from the original on 2017-11-22 7520: 7469: 7460: 7451: 7440:from the original on 2012-11-23 7413: 7386: 7361: 7284:Whittet, Douglas C. B. (2003). 7277: 7160: 7149:from the original on 2007-10-25 7134: 7119: 7093: 7068: 7057:from the original on 2007-10-14 7043: 7008: 6997:from the original on 2008-09-08 6943: 6918: 6892: 6865: 6840: 6817: 6786: 6759: 6740: 6715: 6667: 6606: 6569: 6540: 6526:. University of Arizona Press. 6511: 6500:from the original on 2017-11-22 6425:from the original on 2016-04-06 6407: 6372: 6345: 6291: 6240: 6182: 6171:from the original on 2012-11-23 6144: 6109: 6098:from the original on 2008-09-06 6073:(Press release). Archived from 5927: 5759: 5724: 5584:from the original on 2007-12-01 5537: 5492: 5447: 5382: 5331: 5299:from the original on 2009-03-25 5278: 5146: 5064: 5042: 5020: 4999: 4974: 4962: 4937: 4214: 3370: 2909:North Carolina State University 2625:A large sample of glassy carbon 2528:Amorphous carbon is completely 2507:Diamond is highly transparent. 2447:is the hardest material known. 1545:graphite: 7.837 µΩ⋅m 1205:diamond: 3.515 g/cm 10247: 10220: 9763: 9727: 9565: 9520: 9212:Electrochemical uses of carbon 8607:Zimnisky, Paul (21 May 2018). 8321:. Frostburg State University. 7763:10.1113/jphysiol.1895.sp000578 7051:"Official SI Unit definitions" 6993:. WebElements Periodic Table. 6090:Sanderson, Bill (2008-08-25). 4896: 4873: 4850: 4681: 4517: 4246:A cloth of woven carbon fibres 4235:Sticks of vine and compressed 3768:With reactive metals, such as 3287:10 s. The exotic C exhibits a 3222:. Identification of carbon in 2681:Some allotropes of carbon: a) 1343:Pauling scale: 2.55 1: 9952: 8959:10.1126/science.282.5387.239f 7816:10.1016/S0300-483X(03)00005-2 7393:Firaque, Kabir (2020-07-10). 7239:10.1016/S0375-9474(97)00482-X 7029:10.1016/S1095-6433(98)01016-2 6824:Rachel Gross (Sep 21, 2013). 6705:10.1016/S0262-4079(14)60331-6 6421:(Press release). 2015-11-30. 6065:Phil Schewe (July 28, 2008). 5418:10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.126101 4675: 4274:fullerene in crystalline form 4211:in a remote part of Montana. 4059: 3828:allylpalladium chloride dimer 3501:compounds), carbon obeys the 3386: 3232:(C) is a naturally occurring 2936: 2545: 2512:Graphite crystallizes in the 2488:are good thermal conductors. 1564:Molar magnetic susceptibility 9194:The Periodic Table of Videos 9146:Carbon and Its Domestication 9046:ScienceDaily (Aug. 17, 2009) 8839:10.1016/0890-6955(95)93044-7 8760:10.1016/0010-4361(91)90549-V 8673:. 2004-10-17. Archived from 8517:. London, Truebner & Co. 7952:10.1016/0009-2614(71)87010-0 7498:10.1126/science.290.5490.291 7100:Brown, Tom (March 1, 2006). 6588:Majewski, Eugeniusz (2000). 6577:The composition of the Earth 6067:"World's Strongest Material" 5899:10.1080/14786430410001720363 5792:10.1016/j.apcata.2004.04.008 5780:Applied Catalysis A: General 5753:10.1016/j.cplett.2007.08.050 5391:"Superlubricity of Graphite" 5031:. Frostburg State University 4844:10.1016/j.carbon.2004.12.027 4814:10.1016/0008-6223(76)90010-5 4669:Timeline of carbon nanotubes 4048:, and the realization that " 3878:) responsible for microbial 3472:, a property that is called 3420: 2519:Diamond crystallizes in the 2286:carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle 2129:is +4, while +2 is found in 1980:are able to form up to four 1586:diamond: 1050 GPa 1511: = 356.707 pm 1100:group 14 (carbon group) 7: 8695:Cooke, Sarah (2004-10-19). 8343:Giolitti, Federico (1914). 8317:Senese, Fred (2000-09-09). 8118:Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 7971:Journal of Chemical Physics 7894:Journal of Chemical Physics 7181:10.1126/science.286.5437.28 6929:. Longman. pp. 56–58. 6826:"Deep, and dank mysterious" 6071:Inside Science News Service 5027:Senese, Fred (2000-09-09). 4747:Arblaster, John W. (2018). 4626: 4558:coalworker's pneumoconiosis 4450: 4447:stone, drywall, and metal. 4064: 4028:. Their discoverers – 3543:, alcohols, fats, aromatic 3180: 1694:Recognized as an element by 1606:diamond: 442 GPa 1596:diamond: 478 GPa 1475: = 670.94 pm 1470: = 246.14 pm 10: 12079: 11021:Aggregated diamond nanorod 9851: 9680: 9599: 9518: 9482: 9384: 9220:(archived 9 November 2012) 9214:(archived 9 November 2001) 9197:(University of Nottingham) 8881:. JHU Press. p. 229. 8877:Nusinovich, G. S. (2004). 6783:, 27 June 2009, pp. 30–33. 5478:10.1088/0022-3727/21/1/015 5186:Chemical Abstracts Service 4934:, Ioffe Institute Database 4904:"Carbon: Binary compounds" 4713:Pure and Applied Chemistry 4145: 4141: 4068: 3884:hexamethylbenzene dication 3811: 3555:. With nitrogen, it forms 3424: 3374: 3298: 3283:and has a half-life of 3.5 3224:nuclear magnetic resonance 3184: 2963:dissolved inorganic carbon 2830:Richard Buckminster Fuller 2646:rings, just like those in 2549: 2233:at standard conditions to 2216:point of all elements. At 1203:graphite: 2.266 g/cm 463: 331: 271: 211: 186: 29: 22: 15: 11976: 11890: 11809: 11361: 11357: 11347: 11264: 11243: 11201: 11073: 10991: 10921: 10860: 10827: 10819:(cyclo[18]carbon) 10777: 10698: 10670: 10594: 10294: 9999: 9828: 9657: 9576: 9495: 9468: 9461: 9456: 9451: 9446: 9441: 9436: 9431: 9426: 9421: 9416: 9411: 9406: 9401: 9396: 9391: 9386: 9379: 9374: 9367: 9123:Chemistry of the Elements 9121:; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). 8773:Holtzapffel, Ch. (1856). 8364:: Buckminsterfullerene". 7331:(1st American ed.). 6737:, 12 June 2010, pp. 44–7. 5988:. Springer. pp. 1–. 5578:"Fullerenes(An Overview)" 4772:Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). 4492:high-pressure experiments 4471:industrial use (known as 4374:specific tensile strength 4322:for dry batteries and in 3175:space-based carbon mining 3001:greatly upgraded database 2803:hexagonal crystal lattice 2766:density functional theory 1893: 1889: 1838: 1825: 1810: 1783: 1742: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1704: 1693: 1674: 1669: 1646: 1640:graphite: 1–2 1634: 1624: 1610: 1600: 1590: 1580: 1562: 1549: 1539: 1527: 1517: 1497: 1481: 1454: 1436: 1426: 1421: 1404: 1394: 1376: 1347: 1337: 1252: 1247: 1235: 1221: 1211: 1189: 1179: 1159: 1154: 1146: 1132: 1117: 1105: 1093: 1074: 1051: 166: 158: 154: 128: 112: 108: 91: 70: 65: 53: 10803:(cyclo[6]carbon) 10787:Linear acetylenic carbon 8319:"Who discovered carbon?" 7931:Chemical Physics Letters 7426:. Springer. p. 38. 7204:Wapstra, Aaldert Hendrik 7079:. British Museum Press. 5733:Chemical Physics Letters 5115:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae 5029:"Who discovered carbon?" 4293:alternative biochemistry 3814:Organometallic chemistry 3808:Organometallic compounds 3517:(three bonds, neutral), 3452:Correlation between the 3349:comes from dying stars. 3085:Carbon is also found in 2965:concentration (from the 2877:Linear acetylenic carbon 2742:resistance to scratching 2605:linear acetylenic carbon 2116:thermodynamically stable 2098:while diamond has a low 1655:atomic carbon: 7440-44-0 30:Not to be confused with 12048:Native element minerals 9208:(archived 18 June 2010) 8562:(Summer 2007): 98–119. 8529:Hershey, J. W. (1940). 8495:Catelle, W. R. (1911). 6872:Kasting, James (1998). 6847:Stefanenko, R. (1983). 6642:10.1073/pnas.1711842115 6518:Mark, Kathleen (1987). 6151:Jenkins, Edgar (1973). 6042:10.1126/science.1157996 5778:over nickel catalyst". 5547:Graphite and Precursors 5398:Physical Review Letters 5076:Britannica encyclopedia 5054:Encyclopedia Britannica 4386:, automotive finishes, 4127:for many uses, such as 3990:Claude Louis Berthollet 3093:sea, and land (such as 2907:In 2015, a team at the 2672:electrical conductivity 2445:nanocrystalline diamond 2100:electrical conductivity 1442:graphite: 18:Carbon (disambiguation) 11996:Many uses in chemistry 11991:Core organic chemistry 11063:Inorganic compounds of 10847:Carbide-derived carbon 10729:(buckminsterfullerene) 8852:Harris, D. C. (1999). 8779:. Charles Holtzapffel. 8472:The nature of diamonds 8470:Harlow, G. E. (1998). 8248:van der Krogt, Peter. 8130:10.1002/anie.198815441 6393:10.1002/anie.200502448 6315:10.1002/anie.202009897 6261:10.1002/anie.201400131 6118:Chemistry of Materials 5869:Philosophical Magazine 5523:10.1098/rsta.1993.0017 5285:Zazula, J. M. (1997). 4981:Weast, Robert (1984). 4547: 4539: 4418:at high temperatures. 4297:petrochemical industry 4288: 4275: 4260: 4247: 4239: 4228: 4157: 4156:Diamond output in 2005 3971: 3930: 3906: 3856:potassium ferricyanide 3772:, carbon forms either 3573:adenosine triphosphate 3465: 3445: 3440:Structural formula of 3397: 3097:) at almost 2,000 Gt. 2984:of most planets. Some 2973: 2954: 2946: 2863: 2746:"diamonds are forever" 2717: 2626: 2266:electron configuration 2185: 2112:thermal conductivities 1947: 1541:Electrical resistivity 1485:diamond: 1410: 1134:Electron configuration 114:Standard atomic weight 9127:Butterworth-Heinemann 9119:Greenwood, Norman N. 8990:"Ultrafine particles" 8028:10.6028/jres.067A.015 7751:Journal of Physiology 7141:Westgren, A. (1960). 7126:Libby, W. F. (1952). 6925:Aitken, M.J. (1990). 6900:"Carbon-14 formation" 6554:. February 24, 2014. 5956:10.1007/s003390051522 5701:10.1038/nnano.2007.37 5680:Nature Nanotechnology 4932:Properties of diamond 4721:10.1515/pac-2019-0603 4575:spontaneously combust 4545: 4525: 4281: 4266: 4253: 4245: 4234: 4222: 4155: 4040: – received the 3967: 3937:comes from the Latin 3925: 3918:History and etymology 3904: 3451: 3439: 3384: 2960: 2952: 2944: 2890:orbital hybridization 2857: 2680: 2648:aromatic hydrocarbons 2624: 2183: 1409: 12053:Polyatomic nonmetals 12033:Allotropes of carbon 10664:Allotropes of carbon 9201:Carbon on Britannica 9006:10.1136/oem.58.3.211 8671:The Montana Standard 8568:10.5741/GEMS.43.2.98 8073:Pauling, L. (1960). 7712:Angew. Chem. Int. Ed 7315:Wragg-Sykes, Rebecca 7145:. Nobel Foundation. 6950:Nichols, Charles R. 6756:, BBC, 17 Feb. 2004. 6592:. Elsevier Science. 6575:William F McDonough 6381:Angew. Chem. Int. Ed 6208:10.6028/jres.021.028 5860:Harris, PJF (2004). 5672:Nasibulin, Albert G. 5544:Delhaes, P. (2001). 4498:), high-performance 4095:, and metamorphosed 3985:Carl Wilhelm Scheele 3969:Carl Wilhelm Scheele 3912:three-center bonding 3850:exist (for example, 3319:triple-alpha process 3301:Triple-alpha process 3076:10 cubic metres 3068:10 cubic metres 3009:PAH world hypothesis 2845:buckminsterfullerene 2662:, graphite conducts 2652:van der Waals forces 2552:Allotropes of carbon 2218:atmospheric pressure 2190:allotropes of carbon 2096:electrical conductor 2060:allotropes of carbon 2004:being stable, while 1529:Thermal conductivity 1513:(at 20 °C) 1477:(at 20 °C) 1396:Van der Waals radius 85:Allotropes of carbon 9085:McSherry, Patrick. 8951:1998Sci...282..239D 8924:10.1049/el:19920123 8916:1992ElL....28..197S 8904:Electronics Letters 8378:1985Natur.318..162K 8143:Ritter, Stephen K. 7983:1966JChPh..45.4469M 7944:1971CPL....11..593S 7907:1991JChPh..94.7857A 7878:10.1021/ja01478a033 7808:2003Toxgy.187...25G 7745:Haldane J. (1895). 7670:1982OrLi...12..245L 7548:1993WASP...70...19S 7490:2000Sci...290..291F 7466:Mannion, pp. 84–88. 7457:Mannion, pp. 51–54. 7231:1997NuPhA.624....1A 7075:Bowman, S. (1990). 6959:UAPress.Arizona.edu 6697:2014NewSc.221...36P 6633:2018PNAS..115.6506B 6358:Physics News Update 6034:2008Sci...321..385L 5948:1999ApPhA..69S.755R 5881:2004PMag...84.3159H 5826:1967Natur.214..587F 5808:Frondel, Clifford; 5745:2007CPL...446..109N 5692:2007NatNa...2..156N 5639:; Dresselhaus, G.; 5515:1993RSPTA.342..233C 5470:1988JPhD...21..101D 5410:2004PhRvL..92l6101D 5352:2003Natur.421..599I 5256:1978Natur.276..695W 5129:"History of Carbon" 5078:. 22 February 2024. 4355:industrial diamonds 4125:expandable graphite 3852:tetracarbonylnickel 3731:cyclopentanepentone 3587:Inorganic compounds 3470:carbon–carbon bonds 3052:subsurface bacteria 2990:protoplanetary disk 2953:Raw diamond crystal 2860:C/2014 Q2 (Lovejoy) 2314:exothermic reaction 2127:inorganic compounds 2084:physical properties 2023:Carbon is the 15th 1953: 'coal') is a 1658:graphite: 7782-42-5 1349:Ionization energies 1237:Molar heat capacity 1227:graphite: 117 1155:Physical properties 1147:Electrons per shell 50: 12058:Reactive nonmetals 11265:Oxides and related 10942:(cyclopropatriene) 10923:hypothetical forms 10744:Fullerene whiskers 9152:. pp. 1–319. 9087:"Coal bunker Fire" 9061:www.geosociety.org 9042:2011-11-02 at the 8787:2016-03-26 at the 8583:"The Diamond Life" 8456:2008-09-16 at the 7678:10.1007/BF00926894 7556:10.1007/BF01104986 7400:The Indian Express 7292:. pp. 45–46. 7128:Radiocarbon dating 6771:2015-02-22 at the 6752:2013-04-25 at the 6727:2014-12-09 at the 6582:2011-09-28 at the 5637:Dresselhaus, M. S. 4664:Low-carbon economy 4610:from seeds of the 4584:, accumulation of 4548: 4540: 4496:diamond anvil cell 4480:Synthetic diamonds 4416:chemical reduction 4396:Activated charcoal 4289: 4276: 4261: 4248: 4240: 4229: 4166:X-ray fluorescence 4158: 4052:" is not strictly 3972: 3931: 3907: 3755:mellitic anhydride 3602:Earth's atmosphere 3466: 3446: 3398: 3295:Formation in stars 3274:radiocarbon dating 3187:Isotopes of carbon 2974: 2955: 2947: 2864: 2718: 2627: 2482:thermal insulation 2210:chemical compounds 2186: 2166:methane clathrates 2012:, decaying with a 1976:—meaning that its 1706:Isotopes of carbon 1661:diamond: 7782-40-3 1630:diamond: 0.1 1427:Natural occurrence 1417: 1411: 1058: 1041: 42: 12043:Chemical elements 12015: 12014: 11971: 11970: 11305: 11304: 11029: 11028: 10897:(diatomic carbon) 10829:mixed sp/sp forms 10630: 10629: 10623: 10622: 10589: 10588: 9159:978-1-4020-3956-0 9136:978-0-08-037941-8 9091:www.spanamwar.com 8945:(5387): 242–243. 8888:978-0-8018-7921-0 8863:978-0-8194-3482-1 8656:Mannion pp. 25–26 8619:on 11 August 2023 8556:Gems and Gemology 8540:978-1-4179-7715-4 8511:Ball, V. (1881). 8481:978-0-521-62935-5 8372:(6042): 162–163. 8278:. Paris, Chicago. 8181:10.1021/ja0438011 8175:(12): 4354–4371. 8124:(11): 1544–1546. 8092:978-0-8014-0333-0 7991:10.1063/1.1727526 7977:(12): 4469–4481. 7901:(12): 7852–7867. 7872:(17): 3712–3713. 7645:978-0-7167-1766-9 7630:Mannion pp. 84–91 7621:Mannion pp. 27–51 7597:978-0-19-873380-5 7484:(5490): 291–296. 7433:978-90-277-0796-3 7346:978-1-4654-5443-0 7299:978-0-7503-0624-9 7270:978-0-8053-0348-3 7219:Nuclear Physics A 7211: 7086:978-0-7141-2047-8 6936:978-0-582-49309-4 6858:978-0-89520-404-2 6731:by Helen Knight, 6627:(25): 6506–6511. 6599:978-0-12-685185-4 6533:978-0-8165-0902-7 6522:Meteorite Craters 6493:978-0-8165-2562-1 6387:(45): 7432–7435. 6255:(14): 3680–3683. 6164:978-0-423-87500-3 6130:10.1021/cm1025188 5995:978-0-7923-5323-2 5875:(29): 3159–3167. 5820:(5088): 587–589. 5810:Marvin, Ursula B. 5654:978-3-540-41086-7 5619:978-0-8493-9602-1 5557:978-90-5699-228-6 5509:(1664): 233–244. 5346:(6923): 599–600. 5250:(5689): 695–696. 5228:10.1038/nphys1438 5168:978-0-321-77565-8 5103:Chinese Physics C 4992:978-0-8493-0464-4 4758:978-1-62708-155-9 4639:Carbon detonation 4634:Carbon chauvinism 4582:neutron moderator 4370:polyacrylonitrile 4340:neutron moderator 4182:Yakutia territory 4134:According to the 3980:Antoine Lavoisier 3933:The English name 3927:Antoine Lavoisier 3880:nitrogen fixation 3743:cyclohexanehexone 3715:dicarbon monoxide 3530:organic chemistry 3491:functional groups 3432:Organic compounds 3343:horizontal branch 3317:star through the 3236:, created in the 3202:plus a number of 3198:that contain six 3145:Cape of Good Hope 2832:, popularizer of 2761:activation energy 2668:covalently bonded 2543: 2542: 2539:materials known. 2493:thermal conductor 2393:coal gasification 2298:hydrochloric acid 2274:transition metals 2270:valence electrons 2110:have the highest 2045:organic compounds 1996:occur naturally, 1936: 1935: 1885: 1884: 1698:Antoine Lavoisier 1642:diamond: 10 1551:Magnetic ordering 1519:Thermal expansion 1482:Crystal structure 1456:Lattice constants 1438:Crystal structure 1412: 1400:170 pm 1339:Electronegativity 1248:Atomic properties 1181:Sublimation point 1070: 1069: 1066: 1065: 1056: 1039: 1031: 1030: 757:Mercury (element) 12070: 12007: 12002: 11997: 11992: 11897: 11896: 11816: 11815: 11748: 11747: 11653: 11652: 11350: 11332: 11325: 11318: 11309: 11308: 11068:and related ions 11056: 11049: 11042: 11033: 11032: 11001:Activated carbon 10957: 10956: 10955: 10941: 10940: 10939: 10912: 10911: 10910: 10896: 10895: 10894: 10880: 10879: 10878: 10837:Amorphous carbon 10818: 10817: 10816: 10802: 10801: 10800: 10657: 10650: 10643: 10634: 10633: 10599: 10598: 10585: 10583: 10576: 10574: 10567: 10565: 10558: 10556: 10549: 10547: 10540: 10538: 10531: 10529: 10522: 10520: 10513: 10511: 10504: 10502: 10495: 10493: 10486: 10484: 10477: 10475: 10468: 10466: 10459: 10457: 10450: 10448: 10441: 10439: 10432: 10430: 10423: 10421: 10414: 10412: 10405: 10403: 10396: 10394: 10387: 10385: 10378: 10376: 10369: 10367: 10360: 10358: 10351: 10349: 10342: 10340: 10333: 10331: 10324: 10322: 10315: 10313: 10306: 10304: 10290: 10288: 10281: 10279: 10272: 10270: 10263: 10261: 10254: 10252: 10245: 10243: 10236: 10234: 10227: 10225: 10218: 10216: 10209: 10207: 10200: 10198: 10191: 10189: 10182: 10180: 10173: 10171: 10164: 10162: 10155: 10153: 10146: 10144: 10137: 10135: 10128: 10126: 10119: 10117: 10110: 10108: 10101: 10099: 10092: 10090: 10083: 10081: 10074: 10072: 10065: 10063: 10056: 10054: 10047: 10045: 10038: 10036: 10029: 10027: 10020: 10018: 10011: 10009: 9995: 9993: 9986: 9984: 9977: 9975: 9968: 9966: 9959: 9957: 9950: 9948: 9941: 9939: 9932: 9930: 9923: 9921: 9914: 9912: 9905: 9903: 9896: 9894: 9887: 9885: 9878: 9876: 9869: 9867: 9860: 9858: 9849: 9847: 9840: 9838: 9824: 9822: 9815: 9813: 9806: 9804: 9797: 9795: 9788: 9786: 9779: 9777: 9770: 9768: 9761: 9759: 9752: 9750: 9743: 9741: 9734: 9732: 9725: 9723: 9716: 9714: 9707: 9705: 9698: 9696: 9689: 9687: 9678: 9676: 9669: 9667: 9653: 9651: 9644: 9642: 9635: 9633: 9626: 9624: 9617: 9615: 9608: 9606: 9597: 9595: 9588: 9586: 9572: 9570: 9563: 9561: 9554: 9552: 9545: 9543: 9536: 9534: 9527: 9525: 9516: 9514: 9507: 9505: 9491: 9489: 9480: 9478: 9370: 9354: 9347: 9340: 9331: 9330: 9325: 9324:from Wikiversity 9317: 9316: 9315: 9308: 9300: 9299: 9298: 9291: 9283: 9282: 9281: 9274: 9266: 9265: 9264: 9254: 9238: 9237: 9236: 9229: 9163: 9140: 9125:(2nd ed.). 9106: 9105: 9103: 9102: 9082: 9076: 9075: 9073: 9072: 9053: 9047: 9034: 9028: 9027: 9017: 8985: 8979: 8978: 8934: 8928: 8927: 8899: 8893: 8892: 8874: 8868: 8867: 8849: 8843: 8842: 8822: 8816: 8815: 8813: 8812: 8797: 8791: 8782:Internet Archive 8780: 8770: 8764: 8763: 8743: 8737: 8736: 8734: 8733: 8718: 8712: 8711: 8709: 8708: 8692: 8686: 8685: 8683: 8682: 8663: 8657: 8654: 8648: 8647: 8635: 8629: 8628: 8626: 8624: 8615:. Archived from 8604: 8598: 8597: 8595: 8594: 8578: 8572: 8571: 8551: 8545: 8544: 8526: 8520: 8518: 8508: 8502: 8500: 8492: 8486: 8485: 8467: 8461: 8448: 8437: 8436: 8429: 8423: 8422: 8420: 8419: 8404: 8398: 8397: 8386:10.1038/318162a0 8357: 8351: 8350: 8340: 8334: 8333: 8331: 8330: 8314: 8305: 8304: 8302: 8301: 8286: 8280: 8279: 8271: 8265: 8264: 8262: 8261: 8245: 8239: 8238: 8236: 8235: 8216: 8210: 8207: 8201: 8200: 8163: 8157: 8156: 8140: 8134: 8133: 8112: 8106: 8103: 8097: 8096: 8080: 8070: 8064: 8063: 8061: 8060: 8054: 8048:. Archived from 8039: 8013: 8004: 7995: 7994: 7962: 7956: 7955: 7925: 7919: 7918: 7915:10.1063/1.460121 7888: 7882: 7881: 7859: 7853: 7852: 7850: 7849: 7834: 7828: 7827: 7791: 7785: 7784: 7774: 7757:(5–6): 430–462. 7742: 7736: 7735: 7704: 7698: 7697: 7653: 7647: 7637: 7631: 7628: 7622: 7619: 7613: 7612: 7610: 7609: 7581: 7575: 7574: 7572: 7533: 7524: 7518: 7517: 7473: 7467: 7464: 7458: 7455: 7449: 7448: 7446: 7445: 7417: 7411: 7410: 7408: 7407: 7390: 7384: 7383: 7381: 7380: 7365: 7359: 7358: 7310: 7304: 7303: 7281: 7275: 7274: 7256: 7250: 7249: 7247: 7241:. Archived from 7216: 7209: 7199: 7193: 7192: 7164: 7158: 7157: 7155: 7154: 7138: 7132: 7131: 7123: 7117: 7116: 7114: 7113: 7097: 7091: 7090: 7072: 7066: 7065: 7063: 7062: 7047: 7041: 7040: 7012: 7006: 7005: 7003: 7002: 6987: 6978: 6977: 6975: 6973: 6967: 6961:. Archived from 6956: 6947: 6941: 6940: 6922: 6916: 6915: 6913: 6911: 6896: 6890: 6889: 6869: 6863: 6862: 6844: 6838: 6837: 6821: 6815: 6809: 6807: 6806: 6797:. Archived from 6790: 6784: 6763: 6757: 6744: 6738: 6719: 6713: 6712: 6671: 6665: 6664: 6654: 6644: 6610: 6604: 6603: 6573: 6567: 6566: 6564: 6563: 6544: 6538: 6537: 6525: 6515: 6509: 6508: 6506: 6505: 6477: 6471: 6470: 6468: 6467: 6445: 6434: 6433: 6431: 6430: 6411: 6405: 6404: 6376: 6370: 6369: 6349: 6343: 6342: 6309:(3): 1546–1549. 6299:White, Mary Anne 6295: 6289: 6288: 6244: 6238: 6237: 6235: 6234: 6225:. Archived from 6219: 6213: 6212: 6210: 6186: 6180: 6179: 6177: 6176: 6148: 6142: 6141: 6113: 6107: 6106: 6104: 6103: 6087: 6081: 6078: 6061: 6017: 6011: 6010: 6008: 6007: 5979: 5968: 5967: 5942:(7): S755–S758. 5931: 5925: 5924: 5922: 5921: 5915: 5909:. Archived from 5892: 5866: 5857: 5846: 5845: 5834:10.1038/214587a0 5805: 5796: 5795: 5763: 5757: 5756: 5728: 5722: 5721: 5703: 5668: 5659: 5658: 5633: 5624: 5623: 5602: 5593: 5592: 5590: 5589: 5573: 5562: 5561: 5541: 5535: 5534: 5496: 5490: 5489: 5451: 5445: 5444: 5442: 5395: 5386: 5380: 5379: 5335: 5329: 5326: 5320: 5317: 5308: 5307: 5305: 5304: 5298: 5291: 5282: 5276: 5275: 5264:10.1038/276695a0 5239: 5233: 5232: 5230: 5206: 5200: 5199: 5197: 5196: 5182: 5173: 5172: 5155:Campbell Biology 5150: 5144: 5143: 5141: 5140: 5131:. Archived from 5125: 5119: 5118: 5100: 5091: 5080: 5079: 5068: 5062: 5061: 5046: 5040: 5039: 5037: 5036: 5024: 5018: 5017: 5015: 5014: 5003: 4997: 4996: 4978: 4972: 4966: 4960: 4959: 4957: 4955: 4941: 4935: 4929: 4914: 4913: 4911: 4910: 4900: 4894: 4893: 4891: 4890: 4885: 4877: 4871: 4870: 4868: 4867: 4862: 4854: 4848: 4847: 4838:(6): 1115–1142. 4827: 4818: 4817: 4797: 4788: 4787: 4769: 4763: 4762: 4744: 4733: 4732: 4703: 4697: 4696: 4685: 4644:Carbon footprint 4616:Ricinus communis 4612:castor oil plant 4514:in electronics. 4344:nuclear reactors 4283:Tungsten carbide 4209:kimberlite pipes 4129:flame retardants 4050:amorphous carbon 3791: 3790: 3789: 3713:), the unstable 3712: 3711: 3710: 3702: 3701: 3652: 3651: 3650: 3639:Carbon disulfide 3628: 3627: 3626: 3618: 3617: 3463: 3427:Carbon compounds 3391: 3388: 3365:molecular clouds 3286: 3267: 3265: 3238:upper atmosphere 3165: 3163: 3156:Thermal neutrons 3087:methane hydrates 3077: 3075: 3069: 3067: 3037: 3035: 2932: 2883: 2828:are given after 2788: 2781: 2774: 2711:amorphous carbon 2640:activated carbon 2581:carbon nanotubes 2565:amorphous carbon 2514:hexagonal system 2468:of electricity. 2437: 2436: 2429:tungsten carbide 2389:carbon disulfide 2379: 2378: 2377: 2363: 2362: 2361: 2347: 2346: 2345: 2337: 2336: 2135:transition metal 2121:The most common 2104:carbon nanotubes 2076:amorphous carbon 1955:chemical element 1924: 1917: 1910: 1901:Category: Carbon 1898: 1897: 1876: 1869: 1867: 1859: 1858: 1857: 1852: 1801: 1794: 1769: 1737: 1736: 1727: 1722: 1715: 1689: 1688: (3750 BCE) 1617: 1575: 1573: 1506: 1498:Lattice constant 1465: 1444:simple hexagonal 1422:Other properties 1327: 1319: 1311: 1303: 1295: 1287: 1279: 1271: 1263: 1254:Oxidation states 1200: 1170: 1169: 1125: 1086: 1085: 1026: 1019: 1012: 1005: 998: 991: 984: 977: 970: 963: 956: 949: 942: 935: 928: 921: 914: 907: 900: 893: 886: 879: 872: 865: 858: 851: 844: 837: 830: 823: 816: 809: 800: 793: 786: 779: 772: 765: 758: 751: 744: 737: 730: 723: 716: 709: 702: 695: 688: 681: 674: 667: 660: 653: 646: 639: 632: 625: 618: 611: 604: 597: 590: 583: 574: 567: 560: 553: 546: 539: 532: 525: 518: 511: 504: 497: 490: 483: 476: 469: 458: 451: 442: 435: 428: 421: 414: 407: 400: 393: 386: 379: 372: 365: 358: 351: 344: 337: 328: 321: 312: 305: 298: 291: 284: 277: 268: 261: 252: 245: 238: 231: 224: 217: 208: 201: 192: 183: 177: 176: 172: 171: 168: 167: 142: 140: 124: 58: 51: 49: 41: 12078: 12077: 12073: 12072: 12071: 12069: 12068: 12067: 12063:Reducing agents 12018: 12017: 12016: 12011: 12010: 12005: 12000: 11995: 11990: 11972: 11894: 11813: 11745: 11650: 11343: 11336: 11306: 11301: 11282:Metal carbonyls 11260: 11239: 11197: 11188: 11184: 11176: 11172: 11164: 11156: 11148: 11144: 11126: 11118: 11110: 11102: 11094: 11069: 11060: 11030: 11025: 10987: 10978:Metallic carbon 10954: 10951: 10950: 10949: 10947: 10938: 10935: 10934: 10933: 10931: 10917: 10909: 10906: 10905: 10904: 10902: 10893: 10890: 10889: 10888: 10886: 10881:(atomic carbon) 10877: 10874: 10873: 10872: 10870: 10856: 10842:Carbon nanofoam 10823: 10815: 10812: 10811: 10810: 10808: 10799: 10796: 10795: 10794: 10792: 10773: 10738: 10728: 10694: 10684:Diamond (cubic) 10666: 10661: 10631: 10626: 10625: 10624: 10590: 10581: 10579: 10572: 10570: 10563: 10561: 10554: 10552: 10545: 10543: 10536: 10534: 10527: 10525: 10518: 10516: 10509: 10507: 10500: 10498: 10491: 10489: 10482: 10480: 10473: 10471: 10464: 10462: 10455: 10453: 10446: 10444: 10437: 10435: 10428: 10426: 10419: 10417: 10410: 10408: 10401: 10399: 10392: 10390: 10383: 10381: 10374: 10372: 10365: 10363: 10356: 10354: 10347: 10345: 10338: 10336: 10329: 10327: 10320: 10318: 10311: 10309: 10302: 10300: 10286: 10284: 10277: 10275: 10268: 10266: 10259: 10257: 10250: 10248: 10241: 10239: 10232: 10230: 10223: 10221: 10214: 10212: 10205: 10203: 10196: 10194: 10187: 10185: 10178: 10176: 10169: 10167: 10160: 10158: 10151: 10149: 10142: 10140: 10133: 10131: 10124: 10122: 10115: 10113: 10106: 10104: 10097: 10095: 10088: 10086: 10079: 10077: 10070: 10068: 10061: 10059: 10052: 10050: 10043: 10041: 10034: 10032: 10025: 10023: 10016: 10014: 10007: 10005: 9991: 9989: 9982: 9980: 9973: 9971: 9964: 9962: 9955: 9953: 9946: 9944: 9937: 9935: 9928: 9926: 9919: 9917: 9910: 9908: 9901: 9899: 9892: 9890: 9883: 9881: 9874: 9872: 9865: 9863: 9856: 9854: 9845: 9843: 9836: 9834: 9820: 9818: 9811: 9809: 9802: 9800: 9793: 9791: 9784: 9782: 9775: 9773: 9766: 9764: 9757: 9755: 9748: 9746: 9739: 9737: 9730: 9728: 9721: 9719: 9712: 9710: 9703: 9701: 9694: 9692: 9685: 9683: 9674: 9672: 9665: 9663: 9649: 9647: 9640: 9638: 9631: 9629: 9622: 9620: 9613: 9611: 9604: 9602: 9593: 9591: 9584: 9582: 9568: 9566: 9559: 9557: 9550: 9548: 9541: 9539: 9532: 9530: 9523: 9521: 9512: 9510: 9503: 9501: 9487: 9485: 9476: 9474: 9363: 9358: 9328: 9318: 9313: 9311: 9301: 9296: 9294: 9284: 9279: 9277: 9273:from Wiktionary 9267: 9262: 9260: 9257: 9253:sister projects 9250:at Knowledge's 9244: 9234: 9232: 9224: 9170: 9160: 9137: 9114: 9109: 9100: 9098: 9083: 9079: 9070: 9068: 9055: 9054: 9050: 9044:Wayback Machine 9035: 9031: 8986: 8982: 8935: 8931: 8900: 8896: 8889: 8875: 8871: 8864: 8850: 8846: 8823: 8819: 8810: 8808: 8799: 8798: 8794: 8789:Wayback Machine 8771: 8767: 8744: 8740: 8731: 8729: 8720: 8719: 8715: 8706: 8704: 8693: 8689: 8680: 8678: 8665: 8664: 8660: 8655: 8651: 8636: 8632: 8622: 8620: 8605: 8601: 8592: 8590: 8579: 8575: 8552: 8548: 8541: 8527: 8523: 8509: 8505: 8493: 8489: 8482: 8468: 8464: 8458:Wayback Machine 8449: 8440: 8431: 8430: 8426: 8417: 8415: 8406: 8405: 8401: 8363: 8358: 8354: 8341: 8337: 8328: 8326: 8315: 8308: 8299: 8297: 8288: 8287: 8283: 8272: 8268: 8259: 8257: 8246: 8242: 8233: 8231: 8226:. 17 May 2005. 8218: 8217: 8213: 8208: 8204: 8164: 8160: 8141: 8137: 8113: 8109: 8104: 8100: 8093: 8071: 8067: 8058: 8056: 8052: 8011: 8005: 7998: 7968: 7963: 7959: 7926: 7922: 7889: 7885: 7860: 7856: 7847: 7845: 7836: 7835: 7831: 7792: 7788: 7743: 7739: 7705: 7701: 7654: 7650: 7638: 7634: 7629: 7625: 7620: 7616: 7607: 7605: 7598: 7582: 7578: 7570: 7531: 7525: 7521: 7474: 7470: 7465: 7461: 7456: 7452: 7443: 7441: 7434: 7418: 7414: 7405: 7403: 7391: 7387: 7378: 7376: 7367: 7366: 7362: 7347: 7329:David Christian 7311: 7307: 7300: 7282: 7278: 7271: 7257: 7253: 7245: 7214: 7200: 7196: 7175:(5437): 28–31. 7165: 7161: 7152: 7150: 7139: 7135: 7124: 7120: 7111: 7109: 7098: 7094: 7087: 7073: 7069: 7060: 7058: 7049: 7048: 7044: 7013: 7009: 7000: 6998: 6989: 6988: 6981: 6971: 6969: 6965: 6954: 6948: 6944: 6937: 6923: 6919: 6909: 6907: 6898: 6897: 6893: 6870: 6866: 6859: 6845: 6841: 6822: 6818: 6804: 6802: 6793: 6791: 6787: 6773:Wayback Machine 6764: 6760: 6754:Wayback Machine 6745: 6741: 6729:Wayback Machine 6720: 6716: 6691:(2956): 36–41. 6672: 6668: 6611: 6607: 6600: 6584:Wayback Machine 6574: 6570: 6561: 6559: 6546: 6545: 6541: 6534: 6516: 6512: 6503: 6501: 6494: 6478: 6474: 6465: 6463: 6446: 6437: 6428: 6426: 6413: 6412: 6408: 6377: 6373: 6350: 6346: 6296: 6292: 6245: 6241: 6232: 6230: 6221: 6220: 6216: 6187: 6183: 6174: 6172: 6165: 6149: 6145: 6114: 6110: 6101: 6099: 6088: 6084: 6028:(5887): 385–8. 6018: 6014: 6005: 6003: 5996: 5980: 5971: 5932: 5928: 5919: 5917: 5913: 5890:10.1.1.359.5715 5864: 5858: 5849: 5806: 5799: 5777: 5773: 5769: 5764: 5760: 5729: 5725: 5669: 5662: 5655: 5643:, eds. (2001). 5634: 5627: 5620: 5603: 5596: 5587: 5585: 5574: 5565: 5558: 5542: 5538: 5497: 5493: 5452: 5448: 5440: 5393: 5387: 5383: 5360:10.1038/421599b 5336: 5332: 5327: 5323: 5318: 5311: 5302: 5300: 5296: 5289: 5283: 5279: 5240: 5236: 5207: 5203: 5194: 5192: 5183: 5176: 5169: 5157:(10 ed.). 5151: 5147: 5138: 5136: 5127: 5126: 5122: 5098: 5092: 5083: 5070: 5069: 5065: 5048: 5047: 5043: 5034: 5032: 5025: 5021: 5012: 5010: 5005: 5004: 5000: 4993: 4979: 4975: 4967: 4963: 4953: 4951: 4943: 4942: 4938: 4930: 4917: 4908: 4906: 4902: 4901: 4897: 4888: 4886: 4883: 4879: 4878: 4874: 4865: 4863: 4860: 4856: 4855: 4851: 4828: 4821: 4798: 4791: 4784: 4770: 4766: 4759: 4745: 4736: 4704: 4700: 4687: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4673: 4629: 4553:Ötzi the Iceman 4520: 4465:precious metals 4453: 4412:extractor hoods 4336:electric motors 4273: 4255:Silicon carbide 4217: 4184:; for example, 4150: 4144: 4073: 4067: 4062: 4038:Richard Smalley 3920: 3897: 3893: 3844:metal carbonyls 3816: 3810: 3788: 3785: 3784: 3783: 3781: 3764: 3760: 3752: 3748: 3740: 3736: 3728: 3723:carbon trioxide 3720: 3709: 3706: 3705: 3704: 3700: 3697: 3696: 3695: 3693: 3690:carbon suboxide 3683: 3649: 3646: 3645: 3644: 3642: 3625: 3622: 3621: 3620: 3616: 3613: 3612: 3611: 3609: 3598:paleoatmosphere 3595: 3589: 3577:Norman Horowitz 3461: 3434: 3429: 3423: 3415:carbon fixation 3413:, a process of 3405:. For example, 3389: 3379: 3373: 3323:alpha particles 3307: 3299:Main articles: 3297: 3284: 3281:proton emission 3263: 3261: 3189: 3183: 3161: 3159: 3073: 3071: 3065: 3063: 3033: 3031: 2939: 2931: 2927: 2924:diatomic carbon 2902:Young's modulus 2884: 2881: 2843: 2813:hexagonal cells 2783: 2776: 2769: 2753: 2726:cubic structure 2715:carbon nanotube 2708: 2704: 2700: 2601:carbon nanofoam 2585:carbon nanobuds 2554: 2548: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2382: 2376: 2373: 2372: 2371: 2369: 2367: 2360: 2357: 2356: 2355: 2353: 2351: 2344: 2341: 2340: 2339: 2335: 2332: 2331: 2330: 2328: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2178: 2176:Characteristics 2131:carbon monoxide 2123:oxidation state 1928: 1903: 1872: 1865: 1863: 1855: 1854: 1850: 1849: 1797: 1792: 1767: 1760: 1753:abundance 1726: 1708: 1687: 1664: 1641: 1615: 1582:Young's modulus 1571: 1569: 1534: 1512: 1507: 1476: 1471: 1466: 1385: 1383: 1378:Covalent radius 1372: 1329:(a mildly 1323: 1315: 1307: 1299: 1291: 1283: 1275: 1267: 1259: 1242: 1206: 1204: 1194: 1163: 1079: 1075: 1044: 1042: 1038: 1036: 1032: 1024: 1017: 1010: 1003: 996: 989: 982: 975: 968: 961: 954: 947: 940: 933: 926: 919: 912: 905: 898: 891: 884: 877: 870: 863: 856: 849: 842: 835: 828: 821: 814: 807: 798: 791: 784: 777: 770: 763: 756: 749: 742: 735: 728: 721: 714: 707: 700: 693: 686: 679: 672: 665: 658: 651: 644: 637: 630: 623: 616: 609: 602: 595: 588: 581: 572: 565: 558: 551: 544: 537: 530: 523: 516: 509: 502: 495: 488: 481: 474: 467: 456: 449: 440: 433: 426: 419: 412: 405: 398: 391: 384: 377: 370: 363: 356: 349: 342: 335: 326: 319: 310: 303: 296: 289: 282: 275: 266: 259: 250: 243: 236: 229: 222: 215: 206: 199: 190: 181: 150: 138: 136: 122: 116: 104: 61: 47: 43: 40: 35: 28: 21: 12: 11: 5: 12076: 12066: 12065: 12060: 12055: 12050: 12045: 12040: 12035: 12030: 12013: 12012: 12009: 12008: 12003: 11998: 11993: 11988: 11985:Chemical bonds 11981: 11980: 11978: 11974: 11973: 11969: 11968: 11963: 11958: 11953: 11948: 11943: 11938: 11933: 11928: 11923: 11918: 11913: 11908: 11903: 11898: 11891: 11888: 11887: 11882: 11877: 11872: 11867: 11862: 11857: 11852: 11847: 11842: 11837: 11832: 11827: 11822: 11817: 11810: 11807: 11806: 11802: 11801: 11798: 11795: 11792: 11789: 11786: 11783: 11780: 11777: 11774: 11771: 11768: 11765: 11760: 11757: 11754: 11749: 11742: 11737: 11733: 11732: 11729: 11724: 11719: 11714: 11709: 11704: 11699: 11694: 11689: 11684: 11679: 11674: 11669: 11664: 11659: 11654: 11647: 11642: 11636: 11635: 11630: 11625: 11620: 11615: 11610: 11605: 11600: 11595: 11590: 11585: 11580: 11575: 11570: 11565: 11560: 11555: 11553: 11548: 11542: 11541: 11536: 11531: 11526: 11521: 11516: 11511: 11506: 11501: 11496: 11491: 11486: 11481: 11476: 11471: 11466: 11461: 11459: 11454: 11448: 11447: 11442: 11437: 11432: 11427: 11422: 11417: 11412: 11406: 11405: 11402: 11397: 11392: 11387: 11382: 11377: 11372: 11366: 11365: 11362: 11360: 11358: 11356: 11348: 11345: 11344: 11335: 11334: 11327: 11320: 11312: 11303: 11302: 11300: 11299: 11294: 11289: 11284: 11279: 11274: 11268: 11266: 11262: 11261: 11259: 11258: 11253: 11247: 11245: 11244:Nanostructures 11241: 11240: 11238: 11237: 11232: 11227: 11222: 11217: 11212: 11205: 11203: 11199: 11198: 11196: 11195: 11190: 11186: 11182: 11178: 11174: 11170: 11166: 11162: 11158: 11154: 11150: 11146: 11142: 11138: 11133: 11128: 11124: 11120: 11116: 11112: 11108: 11104: 11100: 11096: 11092: 11088: 11083: 11077: 11075: 11071: 11070: 11059: 11058: 11051: 11044: 11036: 11027: 11026: 11024: 11023: 11018: 11013: 11008: 11003: 10997: 10995: 10989: 10988: 10986: 10985: 10983:Penta-graphene 10980: 10975: 10970: 10965: 10960: 10952: 10944: 10936: 10927: 10925: 10919: 10918: 10916: 10915: 10907: 10899: 10891: 10883: 10875: 10866: 10864: 10858: 10857: 10855: 10854: 10849: 10844: 10839: 10833: 10831: 10825: 10824: 10822: 10821: 10813: 10805: 10797: 10789: 10783: 10781: 10775: 10774: 10772: 10771: 10766: 10736: 10726: 10717: 10712: 10704: 10702: 10696: 10695: 10693: 10692: 10687: 10679: 10677: 10668: 10667: 10660: 10659: 10652: 10645: 10637: 10628: 10627: 10621: 10620: 10615: 10610: 10605: 10597: 10595: 10592: 10591: 10587: 10586: 10577: 10568: 10559: 10550: 10541: 10532: 10523: 10514: 10505: 10496: 10487: 10478: 10469: 10460: 10451: 10442: 10433: 10424: 10415: 10406: 10397: 10388: 10379: 10370: 10361: 10352: 10343: 10334: 10325: 10316: 10307: 10298: 10292: 10291: 10282: 10273: 10264: 10255: 10246: 10237: 10228: 10219: 10210: 10201: 10192: 10183: 10174: 10165: 10156: 10147: 10138: 10129: 10120: 10111: 10102: 10093: 10084: 10075: 10066: 10057: 10048: 10039: 10030: 10021: 10012: 10003: 9997: 9996: 9987: 9978: 9969: 9960: 9951: 9942: 9933: 9924: 9915: 9906: 9897: 9888: 9879: 9870: 9861: 9852: 9850: 9841: 9832: 9826: 9825: 9816: 9807: 9798: 9789: 9780: 9771: 9762: 9753: 9744: 9735: 9726: 9717: 9708: 9699: 9690: 9681: 9679: 9670: 9661: 9655: 9654: 9645: 9636: 9627: 9618: 9609: 9600: 9598: 9589: 9580: 9574: 9573: 9564: 9555: 9546: 9537: 9528: 9519: 9517: 9508: 9499: 9493: 9492: 9483: 9481: 9472: 9466: 9465: 9460: 9455: 9450: 9445: 9440: 9435: 9430: 9425: 9420: 9415: 9410: 9405: 9400: 9395: 9390: 9385: 9383: 9378: 9373: 9368: 9365: 9364: 9361:Periodic table 9357: 9356: 9349: 9342: 9334: 9327: 9326: 9309: 9307:from Wikibooks 9292: 9275: 9246: 9243: 9242: 9222: 9221: 9215: 9209: 9203: 9198: 9186: 9169: 9168:External links 9166: 9165: 9164: 9158: 9141: 9135: 9113: 9110: 9108: 9107: 9077: 9048: 9029: 9000:(3): 211–216. 8980: 8929: 8910:(2): 197–199. 8894: 8887: 8869: 8862: 8844: 8833:(5): 761–774. 8817: 8792: 8765: 8738: 8713: 8687: 8658: 8649: 8630: 8599: 8573: 8546: 8539: 8521: 8503: 8487: 8480: 8462: 8438: 8424: 8399: 8361: 8352: 8335: 8306: 8281: 8266: 8240: 8211: 8202: 8158: 8135: 8107: 8098: 8091: 8065: 8022:(2): 153–162. 7996: 7966: 7957: 7938:(5): 593–597. 7920: 7883: 7854: 7829: 7786: 7737: 7718:(5): 891–895. 7699: 7664:(3): 245–259. 7648: 7632: 7623: 7614: 7596: 7576: 7542:(1–4): 19–37. 7519: 7468: 7459: 7450: 7432: 7423:Star Formation 7412: 7385: 7360: 7345: 7327:. Foreword by 7305: 7298: 7276: 7269: 7251: 7248:on 2008-09-23. 7194: 7159: 7133: 7118: 7092: 7085: 7067: 7042: 7023:(3): 725–737. 7007: 6979: 6968:on 2 July 2016 6942: 6935: 6917: 6891: 6864: 6857: 6839: 6816: 6785: 6758: 6739: 6714: 6677:(2014-02-15). 6666: 6605: 6598: 6568: 6552:Sci Tech Daily 6539: 6532: 6510: 6492: 6472: 6435: 6406: 6371: 6344: 6290: 6239: 6214: 6181: 6163: 6143: 6124:(4): 923–925. 6108: 6094:. nypost.com. 6082: 6080: 6079: 6077:on 2009-05-31. 6012: 5994: 5969: 5926: 5847: 5797: 5775: 5771: 5767: 5758: 5739:(1): 109–114. 5723: 5686:(3): 156–161. 5660: 5653: 5625: 5618: 5608:, ed. (1997). 5606:Ebbesen, T. W. 5594: 5576:Unwin, Peter. 5563: 5556: 5536: 5491: 5464:(1): 101–107. 5446: 5404:(12): 126101. 5381: 5330: 5321: 5309: 5277: 5234: 5215:Nature Physics 5201: 5190:"CAS Registry" 5174: 5167: 5145: 5120: 5081: 5063: 5041: 5019: 5009:. Caer.uky.edu 4998: 4991: 4973: 4961: 4949:www.nde-ed.org 4936: 4915: 4895: 4872: 4849: 4819: 4808:(6): 357–361. 4789: 4782: 4764: 4757: 4734: 4698: 4679: 4677: 4674: 4672: 4671: 4666: 4661: 4656: 4651: 4646: 4641: 4636: 4630: 4628: 4625: 4594:Windscale fire 4519: 4516: 4452: 4449: 4424:Case hardening 4398:is used as an 4328:electroforming 4324:electroplating 4271: 4258:single crystal 4216: 4213: 4190:Udachnaya pipe 4146:Main article: 4143: 4140: 4069:Main article: 4066: 4063: 4061: 4058: 4020:forms such as 4018:nanostructured 3919: 3916: 3895: 3891: 3848:metal cyanides 3820:tetraethyllead 3812:Main article: 3809: 3806: 3798:covalent bonds 3786: 3762: 3758: 3750: 3746: 3738: 3734: 3726: 3718: 3707: 3698: 3681: 3680:molecule ((CN) 3647: 3623: 3614: 3593: 3588: 3585: 3579:, head of the 3458:photosynthesis 3433: 3430: 3425:Main article: 3422: 3419: 3407:photosynthetic 3375:Main article: 3372: 3369: 3327:nuclear fusion 3296: 3293: 3220:atomic weights 3194:of carbon are 3185:Main article: 3182: 3179: 2976:Carbon is the 2938: 2935: 2929: 2898:nanotechnology 2880: 2841: 2834:geodesic domes 2751: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2616:space elevator 2550:Main article: 2547: 2544: 2541: 2540: 2533: 2525: 2524: 2517: 2509: 2508: 2505: 2497: 2496: 2489: 2477: 2476: 2469: 2464:Graphite is a 2461: 2460: 2457: 2454:superlubricity 2449: 2448: 2441: 2421: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2385: 2384: 2380: 2374: 2365: 2358: 2349: 2342: 2333: 2278:covalent radii 2246: 2242: 2238: 2177: 2174: 2150:carbon dioxide 2053:all known life 1990:periodic table 1982:covalent bonds 1934: 1933: 1927: 1926: 1919: 1912: 1904: 1891: 1890: 1887: 1886: 1883: 1882: 1877: 1870: 1861: 1842: 1836: 1835: 1832: 1829: 1823: 1822: 1817: 1814: 1808: 1807: 1802: 1795: 1793:20.34 min 1790: 1785: 1781: 1780: 1775: 1770: 1765: 1755: 1750: 1747: 1746: 1741: 1740:Main isotopes 1733: 1732: 1729: 1728: 1725: 1724: 1717: 1709: 1702: 1701: 1695: 1691: 1690: 1678: 1672: 1671: 1667: 1666: 1663: 1662: 1659: 1656: 1652: 1650: 1644: 1643: 1638: 1632: 1631: 1628: 1622: 1621: 1618: 1612:Speed of sound 1608: 1607: 1604: 1598: 1597: 1594: 1588: 1587: 1584: 1578: 1577: 1566: 1560: 1559: 1553: 1547: 1546: 1543: 1537: 1536: 1531: 1525: 1524: 1521: 1515: 1514: 1501: 1499: 1495: 1494: 1483: 1479: 1478: 1460: 1458: 1452: 1451: 1440: 1434: 1433: 1428: 1424: 1423: 1419: 1418: 1414:Spectral lines 1402: 1401: 1398: 1392: 1391: 1380: 1374: 1373: 1371: 1370: 1363: 1360: 1357: 1353: 1351: 1345: 1344: 1341: 1335: 1334: 1256: 1250: 1249: 1245: 1244: 1239: 1233: 1232: 1225: 1223:Heat of fusion 1219: 1218: 1215: 1209: 1208: 1201: 1187: 1186: 1183: 1177: 1176: 1171: 1157: 1156: 1152: 1151: 1148: 1144: 1143: 1136: 1130: 1129: 1121: 1115: 1114: 1109: 1103: 1102: 1097: 1091: 1090: 1087: 1072: 1071: 1068: 1067: 1064: 1063: 1049: 1048: 1033: 1029: 1028: 1021: 1014: 1007: 1000: 993: 986: 979: 972: 965: 958: 951: 944: 937: 930: 923: 916: 909: 902: 895: 888: 881: 874: 867: 860: 853: 846: 839: 832: 825: 818: 811: 803: 802: 795: 788: 781: 774: 767: 760: 753: 746: 739: 732: 725: 718: 711: 704: 697: 690: 683: 676: 669: 662: 655: 648: 641: 634: 627: 620: 613: 606: 599: 592: 585: 577: 576: 569: 562: 555: 548: 541: 534: 527: 520: 513: 506: 499: 492: 485: 478: 471: 464: 462: 460: 453: 445: 444: 437: 430: 423: 416: 409: 402: 395: 388: 381: 374: 367: 360: 353: 346: 339: 332: 330: 323: 315: 314: 307: 300: 293: 286: 279: 272: 270: 263: 255: 254: 247: 240: 233: 226: 219: 212: 210: 203: 195: 194: 187: 185: 175: 164: 163: 161:periodic table 159:Carbon in the 156: 155: 152: 151: 149: 148: 134: 131: 129: 126: 125: 120: 110: 109: 106: 105: 103: 102: 101:diamond: clear 99: 95: 93: 89: 88: 83:and more (see 74: 68: 67: 63: 62: 59: 45: 38: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 12075: 12064: 12061: 12059: 12056: 12054: 12051: 12049: 12046: 12044: 12041: 12039: 12036: 12034: 12031: 12029: 12026: 12025: 12023: 12004: 11999: 11994: 11989: 11986: 11983: 11982: 11979: 11975: 11967: 11964: 11962: 11959: 11957: 11954: 11952: 11949: 11947: 11944: 11942: 11939: 11937: 11934: 11932: 11929: 11927: 11924: 11922: 11919: 11917: 11914: 11912: 11909: 11907: 11904: 11902: 11899: 11892: 11889: 11886: 11883: 11881: 11878: 11876: 11873: 11871: 11868: 11866: 11863: 11861: 11858: 11856: 11853: 11851: 11848: 11846: 11843: 11841: 11838: 11836: 11833: 11831: 11828: 11826: 11823: 11821: 11818: 11811: 11808: 11804: 11803: 11799: 11796: 11793: 11790: 11787: 11784: 11781: 11778: 11775: 11772: 11769: 11766: 11764: 11761: 11758: 11755: 11753: 11750: 11743: 11741: 11738: 11735: 11734: 11730: 11728: 11725: 11723: 11720: 11718: 11715: 11713: 11710: 11708: 11705: 11703: 11700: 11698: 11695: 11693: 11690: 11688: 11685: 11683: 11680: 11678: 11675: 11673: 11670: 11668: 11665: 11663: 11660: 11658: 11655: 11648: 11646: 11643: 11641: 11638: 11637: 11634: 11631: 11629: 11626: 11624: 11621: 11619: 11616: 11614: 11611: 11609: 11606: 11604: 11601: 11599: 11596: 11594: 11591: 11589: 11586: 11584: 11581: 11579: 11576: 11574: 11571: 11569: 11566: 11564: 11561: 11559: 11556: 11554: 11552: 11549: 11547: 11544: 11543: 11540: 11537: 11535: 11532: 11530: 11527: 11525: 11522: 11520: 11517: 11515: 11512: 11510: 11507: 11505: 11502: 11500: 11497: 11495: 11492: 11490: 11487: 11485: 11482: 11480: 11477: 11475: 11472: 11470: 11467: 11465: 11462: 11460: 11458: 11455: 11453: 11450: 11449: 11446: 11443: 11441: 11438: 11436: 11433: 11431: 11428: 11426: 11423: 11421: 11418: 11416: 11413: 11411: 11408: 11407: 11403: 11401: 11398: 11396: 11393: 11391: 11388: 11386: 11383: 11381: 11378: 11376: 11373: 11371: 11368: 11367: 11363: 11355: 11352: 11351: 11346: 11341: 11338:Compounds of 11333: 11328: 11326: 11321: 11319: 11314: 11313: 11310: 11298: 11295: 11293: 11290: 11288: 11287:Carbonic acid 11285: 11283: 11280: 11278: 11275: 11273: 11270: 11269: 11267: 11263: 11257: 11254: 11252: 11249: 11248: 11246: 11242: 11236: 11235:Thiofulminate 11233: 11231: 11228: 11226: 11223: 11221: 11218: 11216: 11213: 11210: 11207: 11206: 11204: 11200: 11194: 11191: 11189: 11179: 11177: 11167: 11165: 11159: 11157: 11151: 11149: 11139: 11137: 11134: 11132: 11129: 11127: 11121: 11119: 11113: 11111: 11105: 11103: 11097: 11095: 11089: 11087: 11084: 11082: 11079: 11078: 11076: 11072: 11067: 11064: 11057: 11052: 11050: 11045: 11043: 11038: 11037: 11034: 11022: 11019: 11017: 11014: 11012: 11009: 11007: 11004: 11002: 10999: 10998: 10996: 10994: 10990: 10984: 10981: 10979: 10976: 10974: 10971: 10969: 10966: 10964: 10961: 10959: 10958:(prismane C8) 10945: 10943: 10929: 10928: 10926: 10924: 10920: 10914: 10900: 10898: 10884: 10882: 10868: 10867: 10865: 10863: 10859: 10853: 10850: 10848: 10845: 10843: 10840: 10838: 10835: 10834: 10832: 10830: 10826: 10820: 10806: 10804: 10790: 10788: 10785: 10784: 10782: 10780: 10776: 10770: 10769:Glassy carbon 10767: 10764: 10763: 10758: 10757: 10752: 10751: 10746: 10745: 10740: 10739: 10731: 10730: 10721: 10718: 10716: 10713: 10711: 10710: 10706: 10705: 10703: 10701: 10697: 10691: 10688: 10686: 10685: 10681: 10680: 10678: 10676: 10675: 10669: 10665: 10658: 10653: 10651: 10646: 10644: 10639: 10638: 10635: 10619: 10616: 10614: 10611: 10609: 10606: 10604: 10601: 10600: 10593: 10584: 10575: 10566: 10557: 10548: 10539: 10530: 10521: 10512: 10503: 10494: 10485: 10476: 10467: 10458: 10449: 10440: 10431: 10422: 10413: 10404: 10395: 10386: 10377: 10368: 10359: 10350: 10341: 10332: 10323: 10314: 10305: 10297: 10293: 10289: 10280: 10271: 10262: 10253: 10244: 10235: 10226: 10217: 10208: 10199: 10190: 10181: 10172: 10163: 10154: 10145: 10136: 10127: 10118: 10109: 10100: 10091: 10082: 10073: 10064: 10055: 10046: 10037: 10028: 10019: 10010: 10002: 9998: 9994: 9985: 9976: 9967: 9958: 9949: 9940: 9931: 9922: 9913: 9904: 9895: 9886: 9877: 9868: 9859: 9848: 9839: 9831: 9827: 9823: 9814: 9805: 9796: 9787: 9778: 9769: 9760: 9751: 9742: 9733: 9724: 9715: 9706: 9697: 9688: 9677: 9668: 9660: 9656: 9652: 9643: 9634: 9625: 9616: 9607: 9596: 9587: 9579: 9575: 9571: 9562: 9553: 9544: 9535: 9526: 9515: 9506: 9498: 9494: 9490: 9479: 9471: 9467: 9464: 9459: 9454: 9449: 9444: 9439: 9434: 9429: 9424: 9419: 9414: 9409: 9404: 9399: 9394: 9389: 9382: 9377: 9372: 9371: 9366: 9362: 9355: 9350: 9348: 9343: 9341: 9336: 9335: 9332: 9323: 9322: 9310: 9306: 9305: 9293: 9289: 9288: 9276: 9272: 9271: 9259: 9258: 9255: 9249: 9241: 9231: 9230: 9227: 9219: 9216: 9213: 9210: 9207: 9204: 9202: 9199: 9196: 9195: 9190: 9187: 9185: 9181: 9180: 9175: 9172: 9171: 9161: 9155: 9151: 9147: 9142: 9138: 9132: 9128: 9124: 9120: 9116: 9115: 9096: 9092: 9088: 9081: 9066: 9062: 9058: 9052: 9045: 9041: 9038: 9033: 9025: 9021: 9016: 9011: 9007: 9003: 8999: 8995: 8991: 8984: 8976: 8972: 8968: 8964: 8960: 8956: 8952: 8948: 8944: 8940: 8933: 8925: 8921: 8917: 8913: 8909: 8905: 8898: 8890: 8884: 8880: 8873: 8865: 8859: 8855: 8848: 8840: 8836: 8832: 8828: 8821: 8806: 8802: 8796: 8790: 8786: 8783: 8778: 8777: 8769: 8761: 8757: 8754:(5): 347–62. 8753: 8749: 8742: 8728:on 2008-05-26 8727: 8723: 8717: 8703:on 2008-07-05 8702: 8698: 8691: 8677:on 2005-01-21 8676: 8672: 8668: 8662: 8653: 8646:(1/2): 35–40. 8645: 8641: 8634: 8618: 8614: 8610: 8603: 8589:on 2008-06-09 8588: 8584: 8577: 8569: 8565: 8561: 8557: 8550: 8542: 8536: 8532: 8525: 8516: 8515: 8507: 8498: 8491: 8483: 8477: 8473: 8466: 8459: 8455: 8452: 8447: 8445: 8443: 8434: 8428: 8413: 8409: 8403: 8395: 8391: 8387: 8383: 8379: 8375: 8371: 8367: 8356: 8348: 8347: 8339: 8324: 8320: 8313: 8311: 8296:on 2010-10-27 8295: 8291: 8285: 8277: 8270: 8255: 8251: 8244: 8229: 8225: 8221: 8215: 8206: 8198: 8194: 8190: 8186: 8182: 8178: 8174: 8170: 8162: 8154: 8150: 8146: 8139: 8131: 8127: 8123: 8120: 8119: 8111: 8102: 8094: 8088: 8084: 8079: 8078: 8069: 8055:on 2009-03-25 8051: 8047: 8043: 8038: 8033: 8029: 8025: 8021: 8017: 8010: 8003: 8001: 7992: 7988: 7984: 7980: 7976: 7972: 7961: 7953: 7949: 7945: 7941: 7937: 7933: 7932: 7924: 7916: 7912: 7908: 7904: 7900: 7896: 7895: 7887: 7879: 7875: 7871: 7867: 7866: 7858: 7843: 7839: 7833: 7825: 7821: 7817: 7813: 7809: 7805: 7801: 7797: 7790: 7782: 7778: 7773: 7768: 7764: 7760: 7756: 7752: 7748: 7741: 7733: 7729: 7725: 7721: 7717: 7713: 7709: 7703: 7695: 7691: 7687: 7683: 7679: 7675: 7671: 7667: 7663: 7659: 7652: 7646: 7642: 7636: 7627: 7618: 7603: 7599: 7593: 7589: 7588: 7580: 7569: 7565: 7561: 7557: 7553: 7549: 7545: 7541: 7537: 7530: 7523: 7515: 7511: 7507: 7503: 7499: 7495: 7491: 7487: 7483: 7479: 7472: 7463: 7454: 7439: 7435: 7429: 7425: 7424: 7416: 7402: 7401: 7396: 7389: 7374: 7370: 7364: 7356: 7352: 7348: 7342: 7338: 7334: 7330: 7326: 7325: 7320: 7319:Chrisp, Peter 7316: 7309: 7301: 7295: 7291: 7287: 7280: 7272: 7266: 7262: 7255: 7244: 7240: 7236: 7232: 7228: 7224: 7220: 7213: 7205: 7198: 7190: 7186: 7182: 7178: 7174: 7170: 7163: 7148: 7144: 7137: 7129: 7122: 7107: 7103: 7096: 7088: 7082: 7078: 7071: 7056: 7052: 7046: 7038: 7034: 7030: 7026: 7022: 7018: 7011: 6996: 6992: 6986: 6984: 6964: 6960: 6953: 6946: 6938: 6932: 6928: 6921: 6905: 6901: 6895: 6887: 6883: 6879: 6875: 6868: 6860: 6854: 6850: 6843: 6835: 6831: 6830:New Scientist 6827: 6820: 6813: 6801:on 2011-10-22 6800: 6796: 6789: 6782: 6781:New Scientist 6778: 6774: 6770: 6767: 6762: 6755: 6751: 6748: 6743: 6736: 6735: 6734:New Scientist 6730: 6726: 6723: 6718: 6710: 6706: 6702: 6698: 6694: 6690: 6686: 6685: 6684:New Scientist 6680: 6676: 6670: 6662: 6658: 6653: 6648: 6643: 6638: 6634: 6630: 6626: 6622: 6621: 6616: 6609: 6601: 6595: 6591: 6585: 6581: 6578: 6572: 6557: 6553: 6549: 6543: 6535: 6529: 6524: 6523: 6514: 6499: 6495: 6489: 6485: 6484: 6476: 6461: 6457: 6456: 6451: 6444: 6442: 6440: 6424: 6420: 6419:news.ncsu.edu 6416: 6410: 6402: 6398: 6394: 6390: 6386: 6382: 6375: 6367: 6363: 6359: 6355: 6348: 6340: 6336: 6332: 6328: 6324: 6320: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6294: 6286: 6282: 6278: 6274: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6258: 6254: 6250: 6243: 6229:on 2001-05-31 6228: 6224: 6218: 6209: 6204: 6200: 6196: 6192: 6185: 6170: 6166: 6160: 6156: 6155: 6147: 6139: 6135: 6131: 6127: 6123: 6119: 6112: 6097: 6093: 6086: 6076: 6072: 6068: 6063: 6062: 6059: 6055: 6051: 6047: 6043: 6039: 6035: 6031: 6027: 6023: 6016: 6001: 5997: 5991: 5987: 5986: 5978: 5976: 5974: 5965: 5961: 5957: 5953: 5949: 5945: 5941: 5937: 5930: 5916:on 2012-03-19 5912: 5908: 5904: 5900: 5896: 5891: 5886: 5882: 5878: 5874: 5870: 5863: 5856: 5854: 5852: 5843: 5839: 5835: 5831: 5827: 5823: 5819: 5815: 5811: 5804: 5802: 5793: 5789: 5785: 5781: 5762: 5754: 5750: 5746: 5742: 5738: 5734: 5727: 5719: 5715: 5711: 5707: 5702: 5697: 5693: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5667: 5665: 5656: 5650: 5646: 5642: 5638: 5632: 5630: 5621: 5615: 5611: 5607: 5601: 5599: 5583: 5579: 5572: 5570: 5568: 5559: 5553: 5550:. CRC Press. 5549: 5548: 5540: 5532: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5516: 5512: 5508: 5504: 5503: 5495: 5487: 5483: 5479: 5475: 5471: 5467: 5463: 5459: 5458: 5450: 5439: 5435: 5431: 5427: 5423: 5419: 5415: 5411: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5392: 5385: 5377: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5361: 5357: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5341: 5334: 5325: 5316: 5314: 5295: 5288: 5281: 5273: 5269: 5265: 5261: 5257: 5253: 5249: 5245: 5238: 5229: 5224: 5220: 5216: 5212: 5205: 5191: 5187: 5181: 5179: 5170: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5149: 5135:on 2012-11-01 5134: 5130: 5124: 5116: 5112: 5109:(3): 030001. 5108: 5104: 5097: 5090: 5088: 5086: 5077: 5073: 5067: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5045: 5030: 5023: 5008: 5002: 4994: 4988: 4984: 4977: 4970: 4965: 4950: 4946: 4940: 4933: 4928: 4926: 4924: 4922: 4920: 4905: 4899: 4882: 4876: 4859: 4853: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4833: 4826: 4824: 4815: 4811: 4807: 4803: 4796: 4794: 4785: 4783:0-8493-0486-5 4779: 4775: 4768: 4760: 4754: 4750: 4743: 4741: 4739: 4730: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4702: 4694: 4690: 4684: 4680: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4655: 4654:Carbon planet 4652: 4650: 4647: 4645: 4642: 4640: 4637: 4635: 4632: 4631: 4624: 4622: 4618: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4606: 4602: 4597: 4595: 4591: 4587: 4586:Wigner energy 4583: 4578: 4576: 4570: 4568: 4567: 4561: 4559: 4554: 4544: 4537: 4533: 4532:Sunray, Texas 4529: 4524: 4515: 4513: 4509: 4506:suitable for 4505: 4504:semiconductor 4501: 4497: 4493: 4487: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4475: 4468: 4466: 4461: 4458: 4448: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4392:laser printer 4389: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4375: 4371: 4366: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4351:iron smelting 4347: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4308: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4287: 4284: 4280: 4270: 4265: 4259: 4256: 4252: 4244: 4238: 4233: 4226: 4221: 4212: 4210: 4205: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4177: 4173: 4171: 4167: 4161: 4154: 4149: 4139: 4137: 4132: 4130: 4126: 4120: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4072: 4057: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4046:glassy carbon 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4011: 4006: 4004: 4000: 3995: 3994:Gaspard Monge 3991: 3986: 3981: 3977: 3970: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3928: 3924: 3915: 3913: 3903: 3899: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3872:aurophilicity 3868: 3863: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3815: 3805: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3766: 3756: 3744: 3732: 3724: 3716: 3691: 3687: 3679: 3675: 3674:pseudohalogen 3671: 3667: 3663: 3658: 3656: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3607: 3606:carbonic acid 3603: 3599: 3584: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3533: 3531: 3526: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3495: 3493: 3492: 3487: 3483: 3477: 3475: 3471: 3459: 3455: 3450: 3443: 3438: 3428: 3418: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3395: 3383: 3378: 3368: 3366: 3362: 3361:submillimeter 3357: 3355: 3350: 3348: 3344: 3339: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3306: 3302: 3292: 3290: 3282: 3277: 3275: 3271: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3196:atomic nuclei 3193: 3188: 3178: 3176: 3172: 3171:asteroid belt 3167: 3157: 3153: 3148: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3125: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3098: 3096: 3090: 3088: 3083: 3081: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3043: 3041: 3028: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3003:for tracking 3002: 2998: 2993: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2971: 2968: 2964: 2959: 2951: 2943: 2934: 2925: 2920: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2905: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2888: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2869:glassy carbon 2861: 2856: 2852: 2850: 2846: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2818:nanomaterials 2814: 2810: 2806: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2786: 2779: 2772: 2767: 2762: 2758: 2756: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2722:tetrahedrally 2716: 2712: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2679: 2675: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2632: 2623: 2619: 2617: 2612: 2608: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2597:glassy carbon 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2557:Atomic carbon 2553: 2538: 2534: 2531: 2527: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2515: 2511: 2510: 2506: 2503: 2499: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2467: 2463: 2462: 2458: 2455: 2451: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2439: 2438: 2435: 2432: 2430: 2427:in steel and 2426: 2398: 2397: 2396: 2394: 2390: 2327: 2326: 2325: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2310:carbon oxides 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2294:sulfuric acid 2291: 2287: 2282: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2262: 2260: 2256: 2250: 2236: 2235:mellitic acid 2232: 2228: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2182: 2173: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2125:of carbon in 2124: 2119: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2062:. Well-known 2061: 2056: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2021: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1986:valence shell 1983: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1966:atomic number 1963: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1951: 1950: 1944: 1940: 1932: 1929: | 1925: 1920: 1918: 1913: 1911: 1906: 1905: 1902: 1892: 1888: 1881: 1878: 1875: 1871: 1847: 1841: 1837: 1828: 1824: 1821: 1813: 1809: 1806: 1803: 1800: 1796: 1789: 1782: 1779: 1778:product 1776: 1774: 1771: 1764: 1759: 1756: 1754: 1751: 1749: 1748: 1745: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1723: 1718: 1716: 1711: 1710: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1696: 1692: 1686: 1682: 1679: 1677: 1673: 1668: 1660: 1657: 1654: 1653: 1651: 1649: 1645: 1639: 1637: 1636:Mohs hardness 1633: 1629: 1627: 1626:Poisson ratio 1623: 1619: 1616:thin rod 1613: 1609: 1605: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1593: 1592:Shear modulus 1589: 1585: 1583: 1579: 1567: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1554: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1542: 1538: 1532: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1520: 1516: 1510: 1505: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1474: 1469: 1464: 1459: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1439: 1435: 1432: 1429: 1425: 1420: 1415: 1408: 1403: 1399: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1381: 1379: 1375: 1368: 1364: 1361: 1358: 1355: 1354: 1352: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1326: 1320: 1318: 1312: 1310: 1304: 1302: 1296: 1294: 1288: 1286: 1280: 1278: 1272: 1270: 1264: 1262: 1257: 1255: 1251: 1246: 1240: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1214: 1210: 1202: 1198: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1182: 1178: 1175: 1172: 1168: 1162: 1158: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1135: 1131: 1128: 1122: 1120: 1116: 1113: 1112:period 2 1110: 1108: 1104: 1101: 1098: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1083: 1078: 1077:Atomic number 1073: 1062: 1054: 1050: 1047: 1034: 1027: 1022: 1020: 1015: 1013: 1008: 1006: 1001: 999: 994: 992: 987: 985: 980: 978: 973: 971: 966: 964: 959: 957: 952: 950: 945: 943: 938: 936: 931: 929: 927:Rutherfordium 924: 922: 917: 915: 910: 908: 903: 901: 896: 894: 889: 887: 882: 880: 875: 873: 868: 866: 861: 859: 854: 852: 847: 845: 840: 838: 833: 831: 826: 824: 819: 817: 812: 810: 805: 804: 801: 796: 794: 789: 787: 782: 780: 775: 773: 768: 766: 761: 759: 754: 752: 747: 745: 740: 738: 733: 731: 726: 724: 719: 717: 712: 710: 705: 703: 698: 696: 691: 689: 684: 682: 677: 675: 670: 668: 663: 661: 656: 654: 649: 647: 642: 640: 635: 633: 628: 626: 621: 619: 614: 612: 607: 605: 600: 598: 593: 591: 586: 584: 579: 578: 575: 570: 568: 563: 561: 556: 554: 549: 547: 542: 540: 535: 533: 528: 526: 521: 519: 514: 512: 507: 505: 500: 498: 493: 491: 486: 484: 479: 477: 472: 470: 465: 461: 459: 454: 452: 447: 446: 443: 438: 436: 431: 429: 424: 422: 417: 415: 410: 408: 403: 401: 396: 394: 389: 387: 382: 380: 375: 373: 368: 366: 361: 359: 354: 352: 347: 345: 340: 338: 333: 329: 324: 322: 317: 316: 313: 308: 306: 301: 299: 294: 292: 287: 285: 280: 278: 273: 269: 264: 262: 257: 256: 253: 248: 246: 241: 239: 234: 232: 227: 225: 220: 218: 213: 209: 204: 202: 197: 196: 193: 188: 184: 179: 178: 174: 173: 170: 169: 165: 162: 157: 153: 146: 135: 133: 132: 130: 127: 119: 115: 111: 107: 100: 97: 96: 94: 90: 86: 82: 78: 75: 73: 69: 64: 57: 52: 44:Carbon, 37: 33: 26: 19: 12006:Bond unknown 11339: 11292:Bicarbonates 11065: 11016:Carbon fiber 11006:Carbon black 10992: 10973:Cubic carbon 10922: 10861: 10828: 10778: 10760: 10754: 10748: 10742: 10733: 10723: 10722:, including 10707: 10699: 10682: 10671: 9531: 9319: 9302: 9290:from Commons 9285: 9268: 9247: 9192: 9178: 9145: 9122: 9112:Bibliography 9099:. Retrieved 9090: 9080: 9069:. Retrieved 9060: 9051: 9032: 8997: 8993: 8983: 8942: 8938: 8932: 8907: 8903: 8897: 8878: 8872: 8853: 8847: 8830: 8826: 8820: 8809:. Retrieved 8795: 8775: 8768: 8751: 8747: 8741: 8730:. Retrieved 8726:the original 8716: 8705:. Retrieved 8701:the original 8690: 8679:. Retrieved 8675:the original 8670: 8661: 8652: 8643: 8639: 8633: 8621:. Retrieved 8617:the original 8612: 8602: 8591:. Retrieved 8587:the original 8576: 8559: 8555: 8549: 8530: 8524: 8513: 8506: 8496: 8490: 8471: 8465: 8427: 8416:. Retrieved 8402: 8369: 8365: 8355: 8345: 8338: 8327:. Retrieved 8298:. Retrieved 8294:the original 8284: 8275: 8269: 8258:. Retrieved 8243: 8232:. Retrieved 8223: 8214: 8205: 8172: 8168: 8161: 8148: 8138: 8121: 8116: 8110: 8101: 8076: 8068: 8057:. Retrieved 8050:the original 8019: 8015: 7974: 7970: 7960: 7935: 7929: 7923: 7898: 7892: 7886: 7869: 7863: 7857: 7846:. Retrieved 7832: 7802:(1): 25–38. 7799: 7795: 7789: 7754: 7750: 7740: 7715: 7711: 7708:Loerting, T. 7702: 7661: 7657: 7651: 7635: 7626: 7617: 7606:. Retrieved 7586: 7579: 7539: 7535: 7522: 7481: 7477: 7471: 7462: 7453: 7442:. Retrieved 7422: 7415: 7404:. Retrieved 7398: 7388: 7377:. Retrieved 7363: 7323: 7308: 7285: 7279: 7260: 7254: 7243:the original 7225:(1): 1–124. 7222: 7218: 7197: 7172: 7168: 7162: 7151:. Retrieved 7136: 7127: 7121: 7110:. Retrieved 7095: 7076: 7070: 7059:. Retrieved 7045: 7020: 7016: 7010: 6999:. Retrieved 6970:. Retrieved 6963:the original 6958: 6945: 6926: 6920: 6908:. Retrieved 6894: 6881: 6877: 6867: 6848: 6842: 6829: 6819: 6803:. Retrieved 6799:the original 6788: 6780: 6761: 6742: 6732: 6717: 6688: 6682: 6669: 6624: 6618: 6608: 6589: 6571: 6560:. Retrieved 6551: 6542: 6521: 6513: 6502:. Retrieved 6482: 6475: 6464:. Retrieved 6453: 6427:. Retrieved 6418: 6409: 6384: 6380: 6374: 6361: 6357: 6347: 6306: 6302: 6293: 6252: 6248: 6242: 6231:. 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