Scientific method - Knowledge

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findings are to be true.") and economical ("The greater the financial and other interests and prejudices in a scientific field, the less likely the research findings are to be true" and "The hotter a scientific field (with more scientific teams involved), the less likely the research findings are to be true.") Hence: "Most research findings are false for most research designs and for most fields" and "As shown, the majority of modern biomedical research is operating in areas with very low pre- and poststudy probability for true findings." However: "Nevertheless, most new discoveries will continue to stem from hypothesis-generating research with low or very low pre-study odds," which means that *new* discoveries will come from research that, when that research started, had low or very low odds (a low or very low chance) of succeeding. Hence, if the scientific method is used to expand the frontiers of knowledge, research into areas that are outside the mainstream will yield the newest discoveries.

3313: 2522:, or allochthonous reasoning, typically is the formulation of a hypothesis followed by building mathematical constructs that can be tested in place of conducting physical laboratory experiments. This approach has two main factors: simplification/abstraction and secondly a set of correspondence rules. The correspondence rules lay out how the constructed model will relate back to reality-how truth is derived; and the simplifying steps taken in the abstraction of the given system are to reduce factors that do not bear relevance and thereby reduce unexpected errors. These steps can also help the researcher in understanding the important factors of the system, how far parsimony can be taken until the system becomes more and more unchangeable and thereby stable. Parsimony and related principles are further explored 6520:, and immediately recognizes the diffraction pattern of a helical structure. But additional questions remained, requiring additional iterations of their research. For example, the number of strands in the backbone of the helix (Crick suspected 2 strands, but cautioned Watson to examine that more critically), the location of the base pairs (inside the backbone or outside the backbone), etc. One key point was that they realized that the quickest way to reach a result was not to continue a mathematical analysis, but to build a physical model. Later that evening — Watson urges Wilkins to begin model-building immediately. But Wilkins agrees to do so only after Franklin's departure. 4728:"The sociology of knowledge is concerned with "the relationship between human thought and the social context in which it arises." So, on this reading, the sociology of science may be taken to be considered with the analysis of the social context of scientific thought. But scientific thought, most sociologists concede, is distinguished from other modes of thought precisely by virtue of its immunity from social determination — insofar as it is governed by reason rather than by tradition, and insofar as it is rational it escapes determination by "non-logical" social forces." — M. D. King leading into his article on 2050: 2805:. The one of a lab suspended in empty space is an example of a useful invariant observation. He imagined the absence of gravity and an experimenter free floating in the lab. — If now an entity pulls the lab upwards, accelerating uniformly, the experimenter would perceive the resulting force as gravity. The entity however would feel the work needed to accelerate the lab continuously. Through this experiment Einstein was able to equate gravitational and inertial mass; something unexplained by Newton's laws, and an early but "powerful argument for a generalised postulate of relativity". 907:), deriving predictions from them as logical consequences, and then carrying out experiments based on those predictions to determine whether the original conjecture was correct. However, there are difficulties in a formulaic statement of method. Though the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps, these actions are better considered as general principles. Not all steps take place in every scientific inquiry (nor to the same degree), and they are not always done in the same order. As noted by scientist and philosopher 1697:, so that some consideration will lead the scientist to repeat an earlier part of the process. Failure to develop an interesting hypothesis may lead a scientist to re-define the subject under consideration. Failure of a hypothesis to produce interesting and testable predictions may lead to reconsideration of the hypothesis or of the definition of the subject. Failure of an experiment to produce interesting results may lead a scientist to reconsider the experimental method, the hypothesis, or the definition of the subject. 2223: 1948:'s method of observation, which was to project the image of the Sun on a piece of paper through a pinhole aperture, instead of looking directly at the Sun. He disagreed with Brahe's conclusion that total eclipses of the Sun were impossible because, contrary to Brahe, he knew that there were historical accounts of total eclipses. Instead, he deduced that the images taken would become more accurate, the larger the aperture—this fact is now fundamental for optical system design. Another historic example here is the 5754:"Philosophy is written in this grand book – I mean the universe – which stands continually open to our gaze, but it cannot be understood unless one first learns to comprehend the language and interpret the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometrical figures, without which it is humanly impossible to understand a single word of it; without these, one is wandering around in a dark labyrinth." – Galileo Galilei, 2072: 6998:, on sabbatical from Pauling's lab and visiting Cambridge, advises Watson that the textbook form of the base pairs was incorrect for DNA base pairs; rather, the keto form of the base pairs should be used instead. This form allowed the bases' hydrogen bonds to pair 'unlike' with 'unlike', rather than to pair 'like' with 'like', as Watson was inclined to model, based on the textbook statements. On February 27, 1953, Watson was convinced enough to make cardboard models of the nucleotides in their keto form. 872: 13027: 462: 2317:

also'. If it was properly shown that 'this case' fulfils the conditions, the conclusion follows. An extension of this is the assumption of a solution to an open problem. This weaker kind of deductive reasoning will get used in current research, when multiple scientists or even teams of researchers are all gradually solving specific cases in working towards proving a larger theory. This often sees hypotheses being revised again and again as new proof emerges.

13861: 1437:, and others hypothesized that DNA had a helical structure. This implied that DNA's X-ray diffraction pattern would be 'x shaped'. This prediction followed from the work of Cochran, Crick and Vand (and independently by Stokes). The Cochran-Crick-Vand-Stokes theorem provided a mathematical explanation for the empirical observation that diffraction from helical structures produces x-shaped patterns. In their first paper, Watson and Crick also noted that the 3080:, the idea of a general and universal scientific method has been notably influential, and numerous studies (in the US) have shown that this framing of method often forms part of both students’ and teachers’ conception of science. This convention of traditional education has been argued against by scientists, as there is a consensus that educations' sequential elements and unified view of scientific method do not reflect how scientists actually work. 13836: 2160:, p. 27 notes "Words and ideas are originally phonetic and mental equivalences of the experiences coinciding with them. ... Such proto-ideas are at first always too broad and insufficiently specialized. ... Once a structurally complete and closed system of opinions consisting of many details and relations has been formed, it offers enduring resistance to anything that contradicts it". Sometimes, these relations have their elements assumed 1917: 573:(hypothetical explanations), deriving predictions from the hypotheses as logical consequences, and then carrying out experiments or empirical observations based on those predictions. A hypothesis is a conjecture based on knowledge obtained while seeking answers to the question. The hypothesis might be very specific or it might be broad. Scientists then test hypotheses by conducting experiments or studies. A scientific hypothesis must be 2456:

test show the implications to be true, new insights will be gained. It is important to be aware that a positive test here will at best strongly imply but not definitively prove the tested hypothesis, as deductive inference (A ⇒ B) is not equivalent like that; only (¬B ⇒ ¬A) is valid logic. Their positive outcomes however, as Hempel put it, provide "at least some support, some corroboration or confirmation for it". This is why

3860:, p. 192 recounts how Kepler used Giambattista della Porta's water-filled glass spheres to model the eye, and using an aperture to represent the entrance pupil of the eye, showed that the entire scene at the entrance pupil-focused on a single point of the rear of the glass sphere (representing the retina of the eye). This completed Kepler's investigation of the optical train, as it satisfied his application to astronomy. 2563:

been experimentally tested and for how long, and in their acceptance in the scientific community. In general, explanations become accepted over time as evidence accumulates on a given topic, and the explanation in question proves more powerful than its alternatives at explaining the evidence. Often subsequent researchers re-formulate the explanations over time, or combined explanations to produce new explanations.

4695:...Hawking & Mlodinow on criteria for a good theory: "The above criteria are obviously subjective. Elegance, for example, is not something easily measured, but it is highly prized among scientists." The idea of 'too baroque' is connected to 'simplicity': "a theory jammed with fudge factors is not very elegant. To paraphrase Einstein, a theory should be as simple as possible, but not simpler". See also: 7707:, Quotes from p. 30, expanded on in ch. 4: Gauch gives two simplified statements on what he calls "rational-knowledge claim". It is either "I hold belief X for reasons R with level of confidence C, where inquiry into X is within the domain of competence of method M that accesses the relevant aspects of reality" (inductive reasoning) or "I hold belief X because of presuppositions P." (deductive reasoning) 4937:, p. 3: "The scientific method 'is often misrepresented as a fixed sequence of steps,' rather than being seen for what it truly is, 'a highly variable and creative process' (AAAS 2000:18). The claim here is that science has general principles that must be mastered to increase productivity and enhance perspective, not that these principles provide a simple and automated sequence of steps to follow." 1662: 1521: 1427: 1282: 1029: 860: 2197: 4007:"What one does not in the least doubt one should not pretend to doubt; but a man should train himself to doubt," said Peirce in a brief intellectual autobiography. Peirce held that actual, genuine doubt originates externally, usually in surprise, but also that it is to be sought and cultivated, "provided only that it be the weighty and noble metal itself, and no counterfeit nor paper substitute". 935:. Nonetheless, the cycle of formulating hypotheses, testing and analyzing the results, and formulating new hypotheses, will resemble the cycle described below.The scientific method is an iterative, cyclical process through which information is continually revised. It is generally recognized to develop advances in knowledge through the following elements, in varying combinations or contributions: 13015: 477: 2036:

principles, and it steers actions, directing them towards coherent and beneficial outcomes. This understanding underscores the pivotal role of reason in shaping our understanding of the world and in informing our choices and behaviours. The following section will first explore beliefs and biases, and then get to the rational reasoning most associated with the sciences.

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debate, the continuation of which can be summed up as yet more of the proverbial 'flogging a dead horse'. We beg to differ. ... We shall claim that Feyerabend did endorse various scientific values, did accept rules of method (on a certain understanding of what these are), and did attempt to justify them using a meta methodology somewhat akin to the principle of

2830:. The Einstein example above, in the parlance of Mill would be an agreement between two values. In the context of invariance, it is a variable that remains unchanged through some kind of transformation or change in perspective. And discussion focused on symmetry would view the two perspectives as systems that share a relevant aspect and are therefore symmetrical. 4528:. Firstly: "we agree to tell the truth and we agree to be governed by rational argument from public evidence". And secondly, that ..."when the evidence is not sufficient to decide from rational argument, whether one point of view is right or another point of view is right, we agree to encourage competition and diversification". Thus echoing 3852:

Brahe's conclusion that total eclipses of the Sun were impossible because there were historical accounts of total eclipses. Instead, he deduced that the size of the aperture controls the sharpness of the projected image (the larger the aperture, the more accurate the image – this fact is now fundamental for optical system design).

975:. On the contrary, if the astronomically massive, the feather-light, and the extremely fast are removed from Einstein's theories – all phenomena Newton could not have observed – Newton's equations are what remain. Einstein's theories are expansions and refinements of Newton's theories and, thus, increase confidence in Newton's work. 2729:, which is often taken as an attribute of a good theory. Science tries to be simple. When gathered data supports multiple explanations, the most simple explanation for phenomena or the most simple formation of a theory is recommended by the principle of parsimony. Scientists go as far as to call simple proofs of complex statements 2337:. The uncertainty is often estimated by making repeated measurements of the desired quantity. Uncertainties may also be calculated by consideration of the uncertainties of the individual underlying quantities used. Counts of things, such as the number of people in a nation at a particular time, may also have an uncertainty due to 1783:. For significant or surprising results, other scientists may also attempt to replicate the results for themselves, especially if those results would be important to their own work. Replication has become a contentious issue in social and biomedical science where treatments are administered to groups of individuals. Typically an 1473:

intelligent species may be convincing with scientifically based speculation, no known experiment can test this hypothesis. Therefore, science itself can have little to say about the possibility. In the future, a new technique may allow for an experimental test and the speculation would then become part of accepted science.

5812:, pp. 2–3: "There is a danger that must be avoided. ... If we wish to do justice to the historical enterprise, we must take the past for what it was. And that means we must resist the temptation to scour the past for examples or precursors of modern science. ...My concern will be with the beginnings of scientific 3122:). They, too, influenced international science education, and the standards measured for have shifted since from the singular hypothesis-testing method to a broader conception of scientific methods. These scientific methods, which are rooted in scientific practices and not epistemology, are described as the 3 2499:, not a hypothesis. Following the initial question instead, a suitable "high-throughput method" of data-collection is determined, the resulting data processed and 'cleaned up', and conclusions drawn after. "This shift in focus elevates the data to the supreme role of revealing novel insights by themselves". 3417:, may be considered to be at odds with the scientific method, as some of the data may have been stripped of the parameters which might be material in alternative hypotheses for an explanation; thus the stripped data would only serve to support the null hypothesis in the predictive analytics application. 827:, accepted certain rules of method and attempted to justify those rules with a meta methodology. Staddon (2017) argues it is a mistake to try following rules in the absence of an algorithmic scientific method; in that case, "science is best understood through examples". But algorithmic methods, such as 9123:

In chapter six, Dewey analyzed what he called a "complete act of thought." Any such act, he wrote, consisted of the following five "logically distinct" steps: "(i) a felt difficulty; (ii) its location and definition; (iii) suggestion of possible solution; (iv) development by reasoning of the bearings

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On Dewey's Laboratory school in 1902: Cowles 2020 notes that Dewey regarded the Lab school as a collaboration between teachers and students. The five-step exposition was taken as mandatory, rather than descriptive. Dismayed by the Procrustean interpretation, Dewey attempted to tone down his five-step

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The sociology of knowledge is a concept in the discussion around scientific method, claiming the underlying method of science to be sociological. King explains that sociology distinguishes here between the system of ideas that govern the sciences through an inner logic, and the social system in which

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governing the progress of science. In essence, he said that for any specific method or norm of science, one can find a historic episode where violating it has contributed to the progress of science. He jokingly suggested that, if believers in the scientific method wish to express a single universally

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reduce to the objects of a common, putatively more basic domain of science, usually thought to be physics; as the thesis that all theories and results of the various sciences can or ought to be expressed in a common language or "universal slang"; or as the thesis that all the special sciences share a

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Sometimes ad-hoc modifications of a failing idea may also be dismissed as lacking "formal elegance". This appeal to what may be called "aesthetic" is hard to characterise, but essentially about a sort of familiarity. Though, argument based on "elegance" is contentious and over-reliance on familiarity

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with an open frame of mind and broadened his initial viewpoint even in unlikely directions. Once he had a sufficient body of ideas, he would try to simplify and thus find what worked among what did not. Specific to Krugman here was to "question the question". He recognised that prior work had applied

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the results of future experiments. This allows scientists to gain a better understanding of the topic under study, and later to use that understanding to intervene in its causal mechanisms (such as to cure disease). The better an explanation is at making predictions, the more useful it frequently can

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Once this translation into mathematics is complete, the resulting model, in place of the corresponding system, can be analysed through purely mathematical and computational means. The results of this analysis are of course also purely mathematical in nature and get translated back to the system as it

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effectiveness to the method. It is most-associated with data-mining projects or large-scale observation projects. In both these cases, it is often not at all clear what the results of proposed experiments will be, and thus knowledge will arise after the collection of data through inductive reasoning.

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The idea of there being two opposed justifications for truth has shown up through-out the history of scientific method as analysis versus synthesis, non-ampliative/ampliative, or even confirmation and verification. (And there are other kinds of reasoning.) One to use what is observed to build towards

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Scientists assume an attitude of openness and accountability on the part of those experimenting. Detailed record-keeping is essential, to aid in recording and reporting on the experimental results, and supports the effectiveness and integrity of the procedure. They will also assist in reproducing the

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It is a whole family of different theories, each of which is a good description of observations only in some range of physical situations...But just as there is no map that is a good representation of the earth's entire surface, there is no single theory that is a good representation of observations

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of difference and agreement—methods that would be referred back to in the context of contrast and invariance. But as tends to be the case, there is a difference between something being a basic consideration and something being given weight. Principles of invariance have only been given weight in the

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does simplicity concern the ontological commitments of a theory or its mathematical form?). Secondly, these criteria are imprecise, and so there is room for disagreement about the degree to which they hold. Thirdly, there can be disagreement about how they are to be weighted relative to one another,

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Most experimental results do not produce large changes in human understanding; improvements in theoretical scientific understanding typically result from a gradual process of development over time, sometimes across different domains of science. Scientific models vary in the extent to which they have

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The advantage the inductive method has over methods formulating a hypothesis that it is essentially free of "a researcher's preconceived notions" regarding their subject. On the other hand, inductive reasoning is always attached to a measure of certainty, as all inductively reasoned conclusions are.

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Goldhaber and Nieto published in 2010 the observation that if theoretical structures with "many closely neighboring subjects are described by connecting theoretical concepts, then the theoretical structure acquires a robustness which makes it increasingly hard – though certainly never

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Popper previously took ethical principles even further, going as far as to ascribe value to theories only if they were falsifiable. Popper used the falsifiability criterion to demarcate a scientific theory from a theory like astrology: both "explain" observations, but the scientific theory takes the

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If the predictions are not accessible by observation or experience, the hypothesis is not yet testable and so will remain to that extent unscientific in a strict sense. A new technology or theory might make the necessary experiments feasible. For example, while a hypothesis on the existence of other

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to cure this particular disease?" This stage frequently involves finding and evaluating evidence from previous experiments, personal scientific observations or assertions, as well as the work of other scientists. If the answer is already known, a different question that builds on the evidence can be

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An uncovered Petri dish sitting next to an open window became contaminated with mould spores. Fleming observed that the bacteria in proximity to the mould colonies were dying, as evidenced by the dissolving and clearing of the surrounding agar gel. He was able to isolate the mould and identified it

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v. 5, in paragraph 582, from 1898: "... inquiry of every type, fully carried out, has the vital power of self-correction and of growth. This is a property so deeply saturating its inmost nature that it may truly be said that there is but one thing needful for learning the truth, and that is a

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has yet been found. Once a counterexample, i.e. an entity contradicting/not explained by the theorem is found, we adjust the theorem, possibly extending the domain of its validity. This is a continuous way our knowledge accumulates, through the logic and process of proofs and refutations. (However,

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if new experimental observations are incompatible with what is found. That is, no theory can ever be considered final since new problematic evidence might be discovered. If such evidence is found, a new theory may be proposed, or (more commonly) it is found that modifications to the previous theory

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of this testing is what affords this method of inquiry to be reasoned deductively. The formulated hypothesis is assumed to be 'true', and from that 'true' statement implications are inferred. If the following tests show the implications to be false, it follows that the hypothesis was false also. If

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involves the evaluation of the experiment by experts, who typically give their opinions anonymously. Some journals request that the experimenter provide lists of possible peer reviewers, especially if the field is highly specialized. Peer review does not certify the correctness of the results, only

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at any stage. They might adopt the characterization and formulate their own hypothesis, or they might adopt the hypothesis and deduce their own predictions. Often the experiment is not done by the person who made the prediction, and the characterization is based on experiments done by someone else.

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between science and non-science, such as "scientist" and "pseudoscience", appearing. Throughout the 1830s and 1850s, when Baconianism was popular, naturalists like William Whewell, John Herschel and John Stuart Mill engaged in debates over "induction" and "facts" and were focused on how to generate

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The particular points raised are statistical ("The smaller the studies conducted in a scientific field, the less likely the research findings are to be true" and "The greater the flexibility in designs, definitions, outcomes, and analytical modes in a scientific field, the less likely the research

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is an error in their method. Eventually, the researcher decides the error is too persistent and systematic to be a coincidence. The highly controlled, cautious, and curious aspects of the scientific method are thus what make it well suited for identifying such persistent systematic errors. At this

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It is the natural limitations of scientific inquiry that there is no pure observation as theory is required to interpret empirical data, and observation is therefore influenced by the observer's conceptual framework. As science is an unfinished project, this does lead to difficulties. Namely, that

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Watson and Crick then produced their model, using this information along with the previously known information about DNA's composition, especially Chargaff's rules of base pairing. After considerable fruitless experimentation, being discouraged by their superior from continuing, and numerous false

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Invariably one came up against fundamental physical limits to the accuracy of measurement. ... The art of physical measurement seemed to be a matter of compromise, of choosing between reciprocally related uncertainties. ... Multiplying together the conjugate pairs of uncertainty limits mentioned,

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is credited with the famous saying that "Luck favours the prepared mind", but some psychologists have begun to study what it means to be 'prepared for luck' in the scientific context. Research is showing that scientists are taught various heuristics that tend to harness chance and the unexpected.

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A theory being assumed as true and subsequently built on is a common example of deductive reasoning. Theory building on Einstein's achievement can simply state that 'we have shown that this case fulfils the conditions under which general/special relativity applies, therefore its conclusions apply

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There is a large core of people who think there is such a thing as a scientific method that can be justified, although not all agree as to what this might be. But there are also a growing number of people who think that there is no method to be justified. For some, the whole idea is yesteryear's

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perspectives. Postmodernists argue that scientific knowledge is merely a discourse, devoid of any claim to fundamental truth. In contrast, realists within the scientific community maintain that science uncovers real and fundamental truths about reality. Many books have been written by scientists

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Claims of scientific truth can be opposed in three ways: by falsifying them, by questioning their certainty, or by asserting the claim itself to be incoherent. Incoherence, here, means internal errors in logic, like stating opposites to be true; falsification is what Popper would have called the

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of Memoir 27: "Consequently, to discover is simply to expedite an event that would occur sooner or later, if we had not troubled ourselves to make the discovery. Consequently, the art of discovery is purely a question of economics. The economics of research is, so far as logic is concerned, the

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Kepler was driven to this experiment after observing the partial solar eclipse at Graz, July 10, 1600. He used Tycho Brahe's method of observation, which was to project the image of the Sun on a piece of paper through a pinhole aperture, instead of looking directly at the Sun. He disagreed with

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How the sciences make knowledge has been taught in the context of "the" scientific method (singular) since the early 20th century. Various systems of education, including but not limited to the US, have taught the method of science as a process or procedure, structured as a definitive series of

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During the course of history, one theory has succeeded another, and some have suggested further work while others have seemed content just to explain the phenomena. The reasons why one theory has replaced another are not always obvious or simple. The philosophy of science includes the question:

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Deductive reasoning is the building of knowledge based on what has been shown to be true before. It requires the assumption of fact established prior, and, given the truth of the assumptions, a valid deduction guarantees the truth of the conclusion. Inductive reasoning builds knowledge not from

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Rationality embodies the essence of sound reasoning, a cornerstone not only in philosophical discourse but also in the realms of science and practical decision-making. According to the traditional viewpoint, rationality serves a dual purpose: it governs beliefs, ensuring they align with logical

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Once predictions are made, they can be sought by experiments. If the test results contradict the predictions, the hypotheses which entailed them are called into question and become less tenable. Sometimes the experiments are conducted incorrectly or are not very well designed when compared to a

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that is implicit in science. There are basic assumptions, derived from philosophy by at least one prominent scientist, that form the base of the scientific method – namely, that reality is objective and consistent, that humans have the capacity to perceive reality accurately, and that rational

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and those who followed him. After the establishment of the HD-method, it was often put aside as something of a "fishing expedition" though. It is still valid to some degree, but today's inductive method is often far removed from the historic approach—the scale of the data collected lending new

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is a technique for dealing with observational error. This technique uses the contrast between multiple samples, or observations, or populations, under differing conditions, to see what varies or what remains the same. We vary the conditions for the acts of measurement, to help isolate what has

4553:"At the heart of science is an essential balance between two seemingly contradictory attitudes—an openness to new ideas, no matter how bizarre or counterintuitive, and the most ruthlessly skeptical scrutiny of all ideas, old and new. This is how deep truths are winnowed from deep nonsense." — 1960:

Scientific endeavour can be characterised as the pursuit of truths about the natural world or as the elimination of doubt about the same. The former is the direct construction of explanations from empirical data and logic, the latter the reduction of potential explanations. It was established

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A more general inference against formalised method has been found through research involving interviews with scientists regarding their conception of method. This research indicated that scientists frequently encounter difficulty in determining whether the available evidence supports their

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to other scientists who wish to replicate their original results (or parts of their original results), extending to the sharing of any experimental samples that may be difficult to obtain. To protect against bad science and fraudulent data, government research-granting agencies such as the

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Science is a social enterprise, and scientific work tends to be accepted by the scientific community when it has been confirmed. Crucially, experimental and theoretical results must be reproduced by others within the scientific community. Researchers have given their lives for this vision;

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Kuhn (1977) identified: accuracy; consistency (both internal and with other relevant currently accepted theories); scope (its consequences should extend beyond the data it is required to explain); simplicity (organizing otherwise confused and isolated phenomena); fruitfulness (for further

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Smith, A. Mark (2001a). "Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's "De aspectibus", the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's "Kitāb al-Manāẓir": Volume One: Introduction and Latin text".

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It is essential that the outcome of testing such a prediction be currently unknown. Only in this case does a successful outcome increase the probability that the hypothesis is true. If the outcome is already known, it is called a consequence and should have already been considered while

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Principles of invariance have been a theme in scientific writing, and especially physics, since at least the early 20th century. The basic idea here is that good structures to look for are those independent of perspective, an idea that has featured earlier of course for example in

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Smith, A. Mark (2001b). "Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's "De aspectibus", the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's "Kitāb al-Manāẓir": Volume Two: English translation".

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Since new theories might be more comprehensive than what preceded them, and thus be able to explain more than previous ones, successor theories might be able to meet a higher standard by explaining a larger body of observations than their predecessors. For example, the theory of

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that, in the opinion of the reviewer, the experiments themselves were sound (based on the description supplied by the experimenter). If the work passes peer review, which occasionally may require new experiments requested by the reviewers, it will be published in a peer-reviewed

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had questioned the universality of the "scientific method" and in doing so largely replaced the notion of science as a homogeneous and universal method with that of it being a heterogeneous and local practice. In particular, Paul Feyerabend, in the 1975 first edition of his book

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the success of a hypothesis, or its service to science, lies not simply in its perceived "truth", or power to displace, subsume or reduce a predecessor idea, but perhaps more in its ability to stimulate the research that will illuminate ... bald suppositions and areas of

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has not been straightforward; scientific method has been the subject of intense and recurring debate throughout the history of science, and eminent natural philosophers and scientists have argued for the primacy of one or another approach to establishing scientific knowledge.

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views framed scientific inquiry as part of a broader spectrum and as spurred, like inquiry generally, by actual doubt, not mere verbal or "hyperbolic doubt", which he held to be fruitless. This "hyperbolic doubt" Peirce argues against here is of course just another name for

1071:, and proceeding to more complicated substances. Using clues painstakingly assembled over decades, beginning with its chemical composition, it was determined that it should be possible to characterize the physical structure of DNA, and the X-ray images would be the vehicle. 3869:

Sanches and Locke were both physicians. By his training in Rome and France, Sanches sought a method of science beyond that of the Scholastic Aristotelian school. Botanical gardens were added to the universities in Sanches' time to aid medical training before the 1600s.

2371:, after all. More general, claims to rational knowledge, and especially statistics, have to be put into their appropriate context. Simple statements such as '9 out of 10 doctors recommend' are therefore of unknown quality because they do not justify their methodology. 4292:. But let us now mention something to prove this convincingly: the fact that light travels in straight lines is clearly observed in the lights which enter into dark rooms through holes.... he entering light will be clearly observable in the dust which fills the air. 4122:

is a form of inductive reasoning. Conversely, assuming that a specific outcome will occur based on general trends observed across multiple experiments, as in "Most experiments have shown this pattern, so it will likely occur in this case as well," illustrates faulty

5540: 1265:, for example. His cautionary example was the gene; the gene was much more poorly understood before Watson and Crick's pioneering discovery of the structure of DNA; it would have been counterproductive to spend much time on the definition of the gene, before them. 3361:

When the scientific method employs statistics as a key part of its arsenal, there are mathematical and practical issues that can have a deleterious effect on the reliability of the output of scientific methods. This is described in a popular 2005 scientific paper

1976:, which holds that knowledge is created by the human intellect; later clarified by Popper to be built on prior theory. The scientific method embodies the position that reason alone cannot solve a particular scientific problem; it unequivocally refutes claims that 3345:, human bias, and randomness, the scientific method is more than resistant or tough – it actually benefits from such randomness in many ways (it is anti-fragile). Taleb believes that the more anti-fragile the system, the more it will flourish in the real world. 8440:

Whatever might be the ultimate goals of some scientists, science, as it is currently practised, depends on multiple overlapping descriptions of the world, each of which has a domain of applicability. In some cases this domain is very large, but in others quite

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Occam's razor, sometimes referred to as "ontological parsimony", is roughly stated as: Given a choice between two theories, the simplest is the best. This suggestion commonly is attributed to William of Ockham in the 14th-century, although it probably predates

1617:(JWST), entail expected costs of billions of dollars, and timeframes extending over decades. These kinds of institutions affect public policy, on a national or even international basis, and the researchers would require shared access to such machines and their 2320:

This way of presenting inductive and deductive reasoning shows part of why science is often presented as being a cycle of iteration. It is important to keep in mind that that cycle's foundations lie in reasoning, and not wholly in the following of procedure.

3172:. According to Fleck, scientists' work is based on a thought-style, that cannot be rationally reconstructed. It gets instilled through the experience of learning, and science is then advanced based on a tradition of shared assumptions held by what he called 2750:

The concept of parsimony should not be held to imply complete frugality in the pursuit of scientific truth. The general process starts at the opposite end of there being a vast number of potential explanations and general disorder. An example can be seen in

3129:

The scientific method, as a result of simplified and universal explanations, is often held to have reached a kind of mythological status; as a tool for communication or, at best, an idealisation. Education's approach was heavily influenced by John Dewey's,

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These institutions thereby reduce the research function to a cost/benefit, which is expressed as money, and the time and attention of the researchers to be expended, in exchange for a report to their constituents. Current large instruments, such as CERN's

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The practice of experimental control and reproducibility can have the effect of diminishing the potentially harmful effects of circumstance, and to a degree, personal bias. For example, pre-existing beliefs can alter the interpretation of results, as in

9218:

Traditionally 5, after Dewey's 1910 idea of a "complete act of thought". He held that thought-process best represented science (for education). These steps would end up being simplified and adjusted, often shortened to 4, or extended to include various

8075:

v. 4, pp. 37–38: "For it is not sufficient that a hypothesis should be a justifiable one. Any hypothesis that explains the facts is justified critically. But among justifiable hypotheses we have to select that one which is suitable for being tested by

765:, appearing in dictionaries and science textbooks, although there was little consensus over its meaning. Although there was growth through the middle of the twentieth century, by the 1960s and 1970s numerous influential philosophers of science such as 3087:

This version of the method of science has been a long-established standard in primary and secondary education, as well as the biomedical sciences. It has long been held to be an inaccurate idealisation of how some scientific inquiries are structured.

2530:

exists in reality via the previously determined correspondence rules—iteration following review and interpretation of the findings. The way such models are reasoned will often be mathematically deductive—but they don't have to be. An example here are

1778:

to produce the same results, this implies that the original results might have been in error. As a result, it is common for a single experiment to be performed multiple times, especially when there are uncontrolled variables or other indications of

4716:

The fact that the standards of scientific success shift with time does not only make the philosophy of science difficult; it also raises problems for the public understanding of science. We do not have a fixed scientific method to rally around and

3003:

3137:. Van der Ploeg (2016) indicated that Dewey's views on education had long been used to further an idea of citizen education removed from "sound education", claiming that references to Dewey in such arguments were undue interpretations (of Dewey). 1152:, performed on them. The measurements might be made in a controlled setting, such as a laboratory, or made on more or less inaccessible or unmanipulatable objects such as stars or human populations. The measurements often require specialized 8665:. Like singular statements and probability statements, they are empirically testable, but their tests do not have certain, definite results, do not result in strict verification or falsification but only in temporary acceptance or rejection. 4152:, 1920: "The relativity theory of physics reduces everything to relations; that is to say, it is structure, not material, which counts." — Weinert, giving the Einstein example and quoting: "Eddington, Space, Time and Gravitation (1920), 197" 3273:, a sociological approach that seeks to explain scientific knowledge without recourse to the truth or validity of scientific theories. It examines how scientific beliefs are shaped by social factors such as power, ideology, and interests. 2374:

Lack of familiarity with statistical methodologies can result in erroneous conclusions. Foregoing the easy example, multiple probabilities interacting is where, for example medical professionals, have shown a lack of proper understanding.

4708:

already in 1913. There is however a consensus that stating this somewhat nihilistic assertion without introduction and in too unexpected a fashion is counterproductive, confusing, and can even be damaging. There may never be one, too. As

2853:". The importance of scientific theories to be falsifiable finds especial emphasis in the philosophy of Karl Popper. The broader view here is testability, since it includes the former and allows for additional practical considerations. 2712:

It also is debatable whether existing scientific theories satisfy all these criteria, which may represent goals not yet achieved. For example, explanatory power over all existing observations is satisfied by no one theory at the moment.

2555:

be, and the more likely it will continue to explain a body of evidence better than its alternatives. The most successful explanations – those that explain and make accurate predictions in a wide range of circumstances – are often called

4479:

that "theories supplied by reason should be verified by sensory data, aided by instruments, and corroborated by trustworthy witnesses" were (and still are) considered "one of the first important formulations of the scientific method on

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Kuhn and Feyerabend acknowledged Hanson's pioneering work, although Feyerabend's views on methodological pluralism were more radical. Criticisms like those from Kuhn and Feyerabend prompted discussions leading to the development of the

4285:

argued the importance of forming questions and subsequently testing them: "How does light travel through transparent bodies? Light travels through transparent bodies in straight lines only... We have explained this exhaustively in our

4229:, the thought collectives within the respective fields will have to settle on common specialized terminology, publish their results and further intercommunicate with their colleagues using the common terminology, in order to progress. 1862:

The unfettered principles of science are to strive for accuracy and the creed of honesty; openness already being a matter of degrees. Openness is restricted by the general rigour of scepticism. And of course the matter of non-science.

5552:

It's probably best to get the bad news out of the way first, the so-called scientific method is a myth. ... If typical formulations were accurate, the only location true science would be taking place in would be grade-school

3998:, there are three 'reviewers': Simplicio, Sagredo, and Salviati, who serve as foil, antagonist, and protagonist. Galileo speaks for himself only briefly. But Einstein's 1905 papers were not peer-reviewed before their publication. 6970:, p. 53: The weekend (January 31 – February 1) — After seeing photo 51, Watson informed Bragg of the X-ray diffraction image of DNA in B form. Bragg permitted them to restart their research on DNA (that is, model building). 3877:

Berkeley served as foil to the materialist System of the World of Newton; Berkeley emphasizes that scientist should seek 'reduction to regularity'. Atherton (ed.) 1999 selects Locke, Berkeley, and Hume as part of the empiricist

5124: 1904:

Science has limits. Those limits are usually deemed to be answers to questions that aren't in science's domain, such as faith. Science has other limits as well, as it seeks to make true statements about reality. The nature of

8162: 5070:, p. 240: "Truth is sought for its own sake. And those who are engaged upon the quest for anything for its own sake are not interested in other things. Finding the truth is difficult, and the road to it is rough." – 2447:

test of those hypothetical consequences shows them to be false, it follows logically that the part of the theory that implied them was false also. If they show as true however, it does not prove the theory definitively.

971:, constantly developing more useful, accurate, and comprehensive models and methods. For example, when Einstein developed the Special and General Theories of Relativity, he did not in any way refute or discount Newton's 891:

is carried out. As in other areas of inquiry, science (through the scientific method) can build on previous knowledge, and can unify understanding of its topics of study over time. This model can be seen to underlie the

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leading doctrine concerning the art of discovery. Consequently, the conduct of abduction, which is chiefly a question of heuretic and is the first question of heuretic, is to be governed by economical considerations."

2136:

horse are splayed at the point when none of the horse's legs touch the ground, to the point of this image being included in paintings by its supporters. However, the first stop-action pictures of a horse's gallop by

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The goal shifts: after observing the x-ray diffraction pattern of DNA, and as time was of the essence, Watson and Crick realize that fastest way to discover DNA's structure was not by mathematical analysis, but by

2911:, arguing degrees of science being too fractured for a universal definition of its method to by useful. And those, who argue that the very attempt at definition is already detrimental to the free flow of ideas. 577:, implying that it is possible to identify a possible outcome of an experiment or observation that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis; otherwise, the hypothesis cannot be meaningfully tested. 3856:, p. 61, notes that Kepler's 1604 experiments produced the first correct account of vision and the eye, because he realized he could not accurately write about astronomical observation by ignoring the eye. 2914:

Additionally, there have been views on the social framework in which science is done, and the impact of the sciences social envrionment on research. Also, there is 'scientific method' as popularised by Dewey in

2439:, that are falsifiable via experiment is of central importance here, as not the hypothesis but its implications are what is tested. Basically, scientists will look at the hypothetical consequences a (potential) 11225: 9935: 4790:]. The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Translated by Cohen, I. Bernard; Whitman, Anne; Budenz, Julia. Includes "A Guide to Newton's Principia" by I. Bernard Cohen, pp. 1–370. (The 6155:, pp. 49–50: January 28, 1953 — Watson read Pauling's pre-print, and realized that in Pauling's model, DNA's phosphate groups had to be un-ionized. But DNA is an acid, which contradicts Pauling's model. 5725: 8219:

Kuhn, T.S. (1977) Objectivity, Value Judgment, and Theory Choice. In: Kuhn, T.S., Ed., The Essential Tension—Selected Studies in Scientific Tradition and Change, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago,

2084:, 1878, were used to answer the question of whether all four feet of a galloping horse are ever off the ground at the same time. This demonstrates a use of photography as an experimental tool in science. 9209:

Schuster & Powers hold that sources for research questions are: attempts to explain the cause of novel observations, verifying the predictions of existing theory, literature sources, and technology.

8583: : Wigner also differentiates between geometrical invariance principles, and the "new" ones that arose in the wake of Einstein's theories of relativity that he calls dynamic invariance principles. 4404:

wrote on the matter that not all approaches can be regarded as "equally suitable and deserving of equal resources" because such positions would "sap mathematics of its sense of direction and purpose".

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argued that mathematicians actually use contradiction, criticism, and revision as principles for improving their work. In like manner to science, where truth is sought, but certainty is not found, in

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established truth, but from a body of observations. It requires stringent scepticism regarding observed phenomena, because cognitive assumptions can distort the interpretation of initial perceptions.

1995:

but as the struggle to move from irritating, inhibitory doubts born of surprises, disagreements, and the like, and to reach a secure belief, the belief being that on which one is prepared to act. His

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but discarded. When Watson and Crick learned of Pauling's hypothesis, they understood from existing data that Pauling was wrong. and that Pauling would soon admit his difficulties with that structure.

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that leads a person with a particular belief to see things as reinforcing their belief, even if another observer might disagree (in other words, people tend to observe what they expect to observe).

7042:, p. 57: Saturday, February 28, 1953 — Watson tried 'like with like' and admitted these base pairs didn't have hydrogen bonds that line up. But after trying 'unlike with unlike', and getting 2649:. This question has a long history, and many scientists, as well as philosophers, have considered it. The objective is to be able to choose one theory as preferable to another without introducing 967:

The scientific method is not a single recipe: it requires intelligence, imagination, and creativity. In this sense, it is not a mindless set of standards and procedures to follow but is rather an

4453:: light rays from the sun are doubly refracted within the raindrops in the air, back to the observer. Refraction of the colors from the sun's light then forms the spread of colors in the rainbow. 3824:

Book Seven, Chapter Two p.220: — light travels through transparent bodies, such as air, water, glass, transparent stones, in straight lines. "Indeed, this is observable by means of experiment".

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who took all knowledge – even mathematical knowledge – to arise from experience through induction. The inductivist approach is still common place, though Mill's extreme views are outdated today.

1331:, and so on – to imagine possible explanations for a phenomenon under study. Albert Einstein once observed that "there is no logical bridge between phenomena and their theoretical principles." 4052:

condensed Kepler's law of for the planetary motion of Mars, Galileo's law of falling bodies, the motion of the planets of the Solar system, etc. into consequences of his three laws of motion.

1461:. It might predict the outcome of an experiment in a laboratory setting or the observation of a phenomenon in nature. The prediction can also be statistical and deal only with probabilities. 9791:

Dunbar, K., & Fugelsang, J. (2005). Causal Thinking in Science: How Scientists and Students Interpret the Unexpected. In M. E. Gorman, R.D. Tweney, D. Gooding & A. Kincannon (eds.),

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is a suggested explanation of a phenomenon, or alternately a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible correlation between or among a set of phenomena. Normally, hypotheses have the form of a

6516:, p. 52: Friday, January 30, 1953. Tea time — Franklin confronts Watson and his paper – "Of course it is wrong. DNA is not a helix." However, Watson then visits Wilkins' office, sees 3482: 1936:

An example here are the experiments of Kepler and Brahe, used by Hanson to illustrate the concept. Despite observing the same sunrise the two scientists came to different conclusions—their

1359:. The history of science is filled with stories of scientists claiming a "flash of inspiration", or a hunch, which then motivated them to look for evidence to support or refute their idea. 7283: 3348:

Psychologist Kevin Dunbar says the process of discovery often starts with researchers finding bugs in their experiments. These unexpected results lead researchers to try to fix what they

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Smolin, in 2013, espoused ethical principles rather than giving any potentially limited definition of the rules of inquiry. His ideas stand in the context of the scale of data–driven and

3437:. A model can be a simulation, mathematical or chemical formula, or set of proposed steps. Science is like mathematics in that researchers in both disciplines try to distinguish what is 2776:

pull in different directions. Introducing additional elements could simplify theory formulation, whereas simplifying a theory's ontology might lead to increased syntactical complexity.

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erroneous models to already present evidence, commenting that "intelligent commentary was ignored". Thus touching on the need to bridge the common bias against other circles of thought.

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On the web. N.B.: the web version does not have the 3 addenda by Born, 1950, 1964, in which he notes that all knowledge is subjective. Born then proposes a solution in Appendix 3 (1964)

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He demonstrated his conjecture that "light travels through transparent bodies in straight lines only" by placing a straight stick or a taut thread next to the light beam, as quoted in

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For instance, extrapolating from a single scientific observation, such as "This experiment yielded these results, so it should apply broadly," exemplifies inductive wishful thinking.

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paradigm, the stage of "characterization, observation, definition, ..." is more briefly summed up under the rubric of a Question. The question at some stage might be as basic as the

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emission theory of vision, using logic and deduction from experiment. He showed Euclid's first postulate of Optics to be hypothetical only, and fails to account for his experiments.

6982:, p. 54: Sunday, February 8, 1953 — Maurice Wilkes gave Watson and Crick permission to work on models, as Wilkes would not be building models until Franklin left DNA research. 3320:. One of his bacteria cultures got contaminated with mould in which surroundings the bacteria had died off; thereby the method of discovery was simply knowing what to look out for. 2363:, the collection of data, or the interpretation of results, all are subject to larger amounts of scrutiny than in comfortably logical environments. Statistical models go through a 4445:

recalled having seen Alhacen's manuscript as a youth, and arranged to get al-Fārisī a copy "from a distant country". al-Fārisī is now remembered for his Commentary on Alhacen's

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This is why the scientific method is often represented as circular – new information leads to new characterisations, and the cycle of science continues. Measurements collected

857:

The basic elements of the scientific method are illustrated by the following example (which occurred from 1944 to 1953) from the discovery of the structure of DNA (marked with

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will take sample data and extrapolate more general conclusions, which has to be justified — and scrutinised. It can even be said that statistical models are only ever useful,

11864: 8012: 7173: 2471:—the search for the most plausible explanation via logical inference. For example in biology, where general laws are few, as valid deductions rely on solid presuppositions. 1831:, have a policy that researchers must archive their data and methods so that other researchers can test the data and methods and build on the research that has gone before. 6323:

was real, but possibly an artifact of instrumentation (null hypothesis), so he went outside and disproved his null hypothesis by observing SN 1987a with the naked eye. The

1553:. If the experimental results confirm the predictions, then the hypotheses are considered more likely to be correct, but might still be wrong and continue to be subject to 1105:, but it has taken a long series of experiments and theoretical changes to establish this. While seeking the pertinent properties of the subjects, careful thought may also 6127:, p. 40: October 1951 — "That's what a helix should look like!" Crick exclaimed in delight (This is the Cochran-Crick-Vand-Stokes theory of the transform of a helix). 9887: 3058:

hypotheses. This reveals that there are no straightforward mappings between overarching methodological concepts and precise strategies to direct the conduct of research.

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conditions wherever possible. This is frequently possible in certain areas, such as in the biological sciences, and more difficult in other areas, such as in astronomy.

1144:, such as alchemy, and science, such as chemistry or biology. Scientific measurements are usually tabulated, graphed, or mapped, and statistical manipulations, such as 11786: 9932: 3493:) have suggested that mathematics is the result of practitioner bias and human limitation (including cultural ones), somewhat like the post-modernist view of science. 5041: 11671: 3409:

In general, the scientific method may be difficult to apply stringently to diverse, interconnected systems and large data sets. In particular, practices used within

1972:, which holds that knowledge is created by a process involving observation; scientific theories generalize observations. This is in opposition to stringent forms of 927:

generally agree on the following classification of method components. These methodological elements and organization of procedures tend to be more characteristic of

5949:, p. 92: "To raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old problems from a new angle, requires creative imagination and marks real advance in science." 5718: 2313:

of physics suggests that we still do not know at least some of the concepts surrounding Einstein's theory, it holds to this day and is being built on deductively.

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Einstein, Albert (1936, 1956) One may say "the eternal mystery of the world is its comprehensibility." From the article "Physics and Reality" (1936), reprinted in

3249:, extensively explored the theory-laden nature of observation in science. Hanson introduced the concept in 1958, emphasizing that observation is influenced by the 1445:, writing, "It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material". 12118: 3353:

point, the researcher will begin to think of theoretical explanations for the error, often seeking the help of colleagues across different domains of expertise.

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While the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps, it represents rather a set of general principles. Not all steps take place in every

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The term "scientific method" emerged in the 19th century, as a result of significant institutional development of science, and terminologies establishing clear

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posed. When applying the scientific method to research, determining a good question can be very difficult and it will affect the outcome of the investigation.

9230: 8716:(1956). 'It is one of the great realizations of Immanuel Kant that the setting up of a real external world would be senseless without this comprehensibility.' 4798: 3511:

show that the mathematical method and the scientific method differ in detail, while nevertheless resembling each other in using iterative or recursive steps.

3485:", is a very well-known account of the issue from a Nobel Prize-winning physicist. In fact, some observers (including some well-known mathematicians such as 8894:

Aikenhead, Glen S. (1987). "High-school graduates' beliefs about science-technology-society. III. Characteristics and limitations of scientific knowledge".

6917: 1634: 13869: 4587:(2004) noted the theme of invariance as a fundamental aspect of a scientific account of reality in many writings from around 1900 onward, such as works by 4400:

First rule of logic (F.R.L) Paragraph 1.136: From the first rule of logic, if we truly desire the goal of the inquiry we are not to waste our resources. —

2580:

are sufficient to explain the new evidence. The strength of a theory relates to how long it has persisted without major alteration to its core principles.

9958:': "When we are working intensively, we feel keenly the progress of our work; we are elated when our progress is rapid, we are depressed when it is slow." 7314: 2591:), which explained both the (previously unexplained) exceptions to Newton's laws and predicted and explained other observations such as the deflection of 2348:

In the case of measurement imprecision, there will simply be a 'probable deviation' expressing itself in a study's conclusions. Statistics are different.

2170:

has analyzed these elements in terms of limits to the accuracy of measurement and has related them to instrumental elements in a category of measurement.

7968: 2900:, and other theories have criticized these assumptions and given alternative accounts of the logic of science, but each has also itself been criticized. 2150:), which can result in a search for evidence that the new is true. Poorly attested beliefs can be believed and acted upon via a less rigorous heuristic. 2015:

in which the empirical data is put forward in the form of experience or other abstracted forms of knowledge as in current scientific practice the use of

6198: 3795:

1027) After anatomical investigation of the human eye, and an exhaustive study of human visual perception, Alhacen characterizes the first postulate of

1316:, stating that some particular instance of the phenomenon being studied has some characteristic and causal explanations, which have the general form of 1245:, as being well known to all." Einstein's paper then demonstrates that they (viz., absolute time and length independent of motion) were approximations. 6363:, p. 43: June 1952 — Watson had succeeded in getting X-ray pictures of TMV showing a diffraction pattern consistent with the transform of a helix. 4910:

v. 2, pp. 434–450, and elsewhere. N.B. 435.30 'living institution': Hibbert J. mis-transcribed 'living institution': ("constitution" for "institution")

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The goal here is to make the choice between theories less arbitrary. Nonetheless, these criteria contain subjective elements, and should be considered

2583:

Theories can also become subsumed by other theories. For example, Newton's laws explained thousands of years of scientific observations of the planets

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Specifically, the scientific method has featured in introductory science courses for biology, medicine, and psychology. Also, in education in general.

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wake of Einstein's theories of relativity, which reduced everything to relations and were thereby fundamentally unchangeable, unable to be varied. As

5259:. The optics of Giovan Battista della Porta (1535–1615): A Reassessment Workshop at Technische Universität Berlin, 24–25 October 2014. Archived from 3600:

involves restating unfamiliar definitions in your own words, resorting to geometrical figures, and questioning what we know and do not know already;

1395:". Scientists often use these terms to refer to a theory that is following the known facts but is nevertheless relatively simple and easy to handle. 1249:

cautions us that when characterizing a subject, however, it can be premature to define something when it remains ill-understood. In Crick's study of

4822: 2599:. Thus, in certain cases independent, unconnected, scientific observations can be connected, unified by principles of increasing explanatory power. 13879: 13874: 9280:"Reintroducing "the" Scientific Method to Introduce Scientific Inquiry in Schools?: A Cautioning Plea Not to Throw Out the Baby with the Bathwater" 6532:, p. 167: "The instant I saw the picture my mouth fell open and my pulse began to race." Page 168 shows the X-shaped pattern of the B-form of 4236: 599: 9911: 6554: 5493: 5032: 4102:, in 2005, has shown that not everybody respects the principles of statistical analysis; whether they be the principles of inference or otherwise. 3312: 2903:

There are several kinds of modern philosophical conceptualizations and attempts at definitions of the method of science. The one attempted by the

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it gives the illusion of determination; that questions necessarily lead to some kind of answers and answers are preceded by (specific) questions,

2534:. These generate empirical data "arbitrarily", and, while they may not be able to reveal universal principles, they can nevertheless be useful. 10566: 3363: 3205:) to conclude that the epistemic practices and reasonings within both scientific communities are different enough to introduce the concept of " 2367:, for which one could even say that awareness of potential biases is more important than the hard logic; errors in logic are easier to find in 11089: 6894: 4781: 4437:, which by then was some two centuries old: al-Fārisī's project was to write an advanced optics treatise, but he could not understand optical 3293:

which take on this problem and challenge the assertions of the postmodernists while defending science as a legitimate way of deriving truth.

1984:, appeals to tradition, commonly held beliefs, common sense, or currently held theories pose the only possible means of demonstrating truth. 13056: 11026: 5260: 8499:...I have already implicitly given my four basic rules for research. Let me now state them explicitly, then explain. Here are the rules: 7050:

memoir quoted above). Watson now felt confident enough to inform Crick. (Of course, 'unlike with unlike' increases the number of possible

4036:

used his own observations of the stars, as well as the observations by Chaldean and Babylonian astronomers to estimate Earth's precession.

2999:

Development of the idea has been troubled by accelerated advancement in technology that has opened up many new ways to look at the world.

2945:

of scientific method and subject matter. Scientific pluralists hold that science is not unified in one or more of the following ways: the

2330:

honest work of conjecture and refutation — certainty, perhaps, is where difficulties in telling truths from non-truths arise most easily.

5788:, p. xv: "The thesis of this book, as outlined in Chapter One, is that there are general principles applicable to all the sciences." 3257:

to show how preconceptions can affect both observation and description, and illustrated this with examples like the initial rejection of

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If we have made this our task, then there is no more rational procedure than the method of trial and error--of conjecture and refutation

3641:

is final or perfect. This means that, in non-axiomatic mathematics, we should not think that a theorem is ultimately true, only that no

2957:

and models that should be used. Some pluralists believe that pluralism is necessary due to the nature of science. Others say that since

8859:

Schickore, Jutta; Hangel, Nora (2019). ""It might be this, it should be that…" uncertainty and doubt in day-to-day research practice".

6821: 5610:, p. 72 lists ways to avoid the narrative fallacy and confirmation bias; the narrative fallacy being a substitute for explanation. 1573:

Depending on the predictions, the experiments can have different shapes. It could be a classical experiment in a laboratory setting, a

1217:

New theories are sometimes developed after realizing certain terms have not previously been sufficiently clearly defined. For example,

8937:

Osborne, Jonathan; Simon, Shirley; Collins, Sue (2003). "Attitudes towards science: A review of the literature and its implications".

6675:

however, I found that they formed invariant products of not one but two distinct kinds. ... The first group of limits were calculable

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suggested that physics' models of reality should simply be accepted where they prove to make useful predictions. He calls the concept

1014:

While this schema outlines a typical hypothesis/testing method, many philosophers, historians, and sociologists of science, including

13196: 12807: 10543: 3914:"no opinion, however absurd and incredible, can be imagined, which has not been maintained by some of the philosophers". —Descartes 12244: 11859: 11414:

Smith, A. Mark (2010). "ALHACEN ON REFRACTION: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of Book 7 of Alhacen's

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The topics of study, as expressed in the vocabulary of its scientists, are approached by a "single unified method". The topics are

3307: 2687:

Scientists will sometimes also list the very subjective criteria of "formal elegance" which can indicate multiple different things.

4327:, was translated from Arabic into Latin for European use as early as 1270. Hockney cites Friedrich Risner's 1572 Basle edition of 3477:

Nevertheless, the connection between mathematics and reality (and so science to the extent it describes reality) remains obscure.

13864: 13049: 12473: 9651: 2384: 543: 4858: 3261:

as an artefact of staining technique, and the differing interpretations of the same sunrise by Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler.

2809:

The feature, which suggests reality, is always some kind of invariance of a structure independent of the aspect, the projection.

10691: 9853: 6924: 6578: 5628: 4161:

The topics of study, as expressed in the vocabulary of its scientists, are approached by a "single unified method". A topic is

1366: 11879: 10173: 5108: 4055: 1886:"Those among us who are unwilling to expose their ideas to the hazard of refutation do not take part in the game of science." 12644: 11809: 11732: 11681: 11472: 11448: 11336: 11282: 11235: 11136: 11062: 11036: 10980: 10957: 10936: 10905: 10820: 10729: 10707: 10671: 10650: 10616: 10552: 10528: 10505: 10475: 10431: 10365: 10347: 10310: 10270: 10230: 9661: 9585: 9240: 9196: 8989: 8758: 8688: 8602: 8156: 8129: 7926: 7767: 7453: 7421: 7084: 5852: 5701: 5589: 5534: 5414: 5208: 4806: 4541:

The machinery of the mind can only transform knowledge, but never originate it, unless it be fed with facts of observation. —

3451:(capable of disproof). In mathematics, a statement need not yet be proved; at such a stage, that statement would be called a 1140:

The systematic, careful collection of measurements or counts of relevant quantities is often the critical difference between

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in the morning and evening due to atmospheric refraction even when the depression angle of the sun is 18° below the horizon.

3399: 2907:, who argue for the existence of a unified definition that is useful (or at least 'works' in every context of science). The 558:, testing it through experiments and statistical analysis, and adjusting or discarding the hypothesis based on the results. 3445:

at each stage of discovery. Models, in both science and mathematics, need to be internally consistent and also ought to be

3119: 2755:'s process, who makes explicit to "dare to be silly". He writes that in his work on new theories of international trade he 82: 10289: 13557: 13271: 12466: 12181: 12080: 12059: 12045: 11974:

Search for a Naturalistic World View: Vol. 1, Scientific Method and Epistemology, Vol. 2, Natural Science and Metaphysics

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Cochran W, Crick FHC and Vand V. (1952) "The Structure of Synthetic Polypeptides. I. The Transform of Atoms on a Helix",

1080: 1018:, claim that such descriptions of scientific method have little relation to the ways that science is actually practiced. 17: 11212: 3972:

Book II to Summary p.444 for Alhazen's experiments on color; pp.343—394 for his physiological experiments on the eye

3685:, Lakatos gave several basic rules for finding proofs and counterexamples to conjectures. He thought that mathematical ' 2737:

We are to admit no more causes of natural things than such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances.

2677:

In trying to look for such theories, scientists will, given a lack of guidance by empirical evidence, try to adhere to:

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itself is on pp. 371–946). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 791–796 ("Rules of Reasoning in Philosophy");

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of scientific and engineering practices, crosscutting concepts (interdisciplinary ideas), and disciplinary core ideas.

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rather than a definitive. Also, criteria such as these do not necessarily decide between alternative theories. Quoting

1075:

The scientific method depends upon increasingly sophisticated characterizations of the subjects of investigation. (The

880: 43: 7729: 5456: 3104:

it oversimplifies science, giving the impression that following a scientific process automatically leads to knowledge,

2427:, or hypothesis-testing method, or "traditional" scientific method is, as the name implies, based on the formation of 13266: 13259: 13242: 13121: 13111: 13093: 12827: 12822: 12775: 12456: 11913:, "Masked Confusion: A trusted source of health information misleads the public by prioritizing rigor over reality", 11206: 11179: 11159: 11008: 10843: 10799: 10560:

Entstehung und Entwickelung einer wissenschaftlichen Tatsache: Einführung in die Lehre vom Denkstil und Denkkollectiv

10091: 9817: 9708: 8642: 6737: 6667: 6638: 6112: 6056: 5652: 5118: 3146: 3115: 3031:

examined the history of science, and was led to deny that science is genuinely a methodological process. In his book

2866: 505: 11758:, vol. 15 in 'Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science', University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN, 1992. 9089:

Rudolph, John L. (2005). "Epistemology for the Masses: The Origins of "The Scientific Method" in American Schools".

4212:

Entstehung und Entwicklung einer wissenschaftlichen Tatsache: Einfǖhrung in die Lehre vom Denkstil und Denkkollektiv

4119: 2349: 13493: 10623:

Additional publication information is from the collection of first editions of the Library of Congress surveyed by

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McComas, William F. (1996). "Ten Myths of Science: Reexamining What We Think We Know About the Nature of Science".

8146: 7075: 6473: 4424: 9834: 3374:. Much research in metascience seeks to identify poor use of statistics and improve its use, an example being the 2703:" cannot determine scientific choice. First, which features of a theory satisfy these criteria may be disputable ( 2267: 605:

The history of scientific method considers changes in the methodology of scientific inquiry, as distinct from the

13602: 12837: 12007: 11587: 9356:"Beyond Hypothesis Testing: Investigating the Diversity of Scientific Methods in Science Teachers' Understanding" 4636: 2620: 2309:. His relativistic calculations matched observation much more closely than Newtonian theory did. Though, today's 2231: 2154:

impossible – to overturn". When a narrative is constructed its elements become easier to believe.

1701: 119: 3280:

critiques of science have themselves been the subject of intense controversy. This ongoing debate, known as the

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already vary in practice, there is no reason to believe this variation is wrong until a specific unification is

2406:

is used to advance fields of science where research objects have no definitive states of being. For example, in

1544:, a detailed X-ray diffraction image, which showed an X-shape and was able to confirm the structure was helical. 13912: 13907: 13072: 13007: 12174: 8288: 8244: 8204: 7321: 7297: 4675:

Colyvan (2001) listed simplicity/parsimony, unificatory/explanatory power, boldness/fruitfulness, and elegance;

4616: 4222: 4178: 4074:"Lettre de M. Le Verrier à M. Faye sur la théorie de Mercure et sur le mouvement du périhélie de cette planète" 3898: 3609: 2341:

limitations. Or counts may represent a sample of desired quantities, with an uncertainty that depends upon the

1874:. His thought is that science is a community effort by those who have accreditation and are working within the 87: 6931:(Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Series, 46, 2), Philadelphia, 1956, pp. 10–11, 32–34. 6710: 4068:

The difference is approximately 43 arc-seconds per century. And the precession of Mercury's orbit is cited in

3041:

to include all the approaches and methods used by scientists, and that there are no useful and exception-free

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formally stated this need for the "norms for rational theory choice". One of his discussions is reprinted in

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serves as a rule of thumb for choosing the most desirable amongst a group of equally explanatory hypotheses.

11439:

Thurs, Daniel (2011). "12. Scientific Methods". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.).

4684:(2010): simplicity/parsimony, unificatory/explanatory power, and elegance, but did not mention fruitfulness. 4655:

in a 2009 TED talk proclaimed that "the search for hard-to-vary explanations is the origin of all progress".

2379:

is the mathematical principle lining out how standing probabilities are adjusted given new information. The

1952:, credited as being found via mathematics because previous observers didn't know what they were looking at. 978:

An iterative, pragmatic scheme of the four points above is sometimes offered as a guideline for proceeding:

13789: 13619: 13547: 13247: 13176: 12697: 12690: 12032: 11720: 10400: 10395: 9993: 8316: 6771: 6416: 4124: 3742: 3700: 3662:, as shown by Poincaré, who demonstrated the technique of transforming tautologically true forms (viz. the 3490: 2503:

This measure of certainty can reach quite high degrees, though. For example, in the determination of large

2364: 1238: 593: 51: 10739:

Goldhaber, Alfred Scharff; Nieto, Michael Martin (January–March 2010), "Photon and graviton mass limits",

4753: 4076:, Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences (Paris), vol. 49 (1859), pp.379–383. 823:, said that debates over the scientific method continue, and argued that Feyerabend, despite the title of 12549: 12524: 12509: 11462: 9676:

Feyerabend, Paul K (1960) "Patterns of Discovery" The Philosophical Review (1960) vol. 69 (2) pp. 247–252

4991: 4830: 4604: 4069: 3712: 3235:: that the perspective of the researcher fundamentally affects their work; and, too, more radical views. 3209:", in contradiction with the idea that a so-called "scientific method" is unique and a unifying concept. 2424: 1820: 1610: 1323:

Scientists are free to use whatever resources they have – their own creativity, ideas from other fields,

724: 165: 9908: 7810:

Welsby, Philip D; Weatherall, Mark (1 October 2022). "Statistics: an introduction to basic principles".

7676: 6617:, pp. 57–59: Saturday, February 28, 1953 — Watson found the base-pairing mechanism which explained 4381:... .— C. S. Peirce, ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE LOGIC OF SCIENCE, SECOND PAPER. —HOW TO MAKE OUR IDEAS CLEAR. 1540:. Franklin immediately spotted the flaws which concerned the water content. Later Watson saw Franklin's 1172:, and the progress of a scientific field is usually intimately tied to their invention and improvement. 13902: 13597: 11595: 8630: 6846: 6721: 6551: 6408: 5489: 5029: 3937: 2460:

insisted on fielded hypotheses to be falsifieable, as successful tests imply very little otherwise. As

2275: 2077: 1614: 1606: 1492:, and that the amount of bending depends in a precise way on the strength of that gravitational field. 1313: 1226: 12098: 9520: 8809: 4073: 3933: 3873: 1744:

Published results of experiments can also serve as a hypothesis predicting their own reproducibility.

13847: 13804: 13799: 13774: 13689: 13679: 13674: 12722: 12702: 12610: 12606: 12529: 12221: 8537:"Relating covariation information to causal dimensions through principles of contrast and invariance" 7533: 7529: 7154:

On 6 August 1753, the Swedish scientist Georg Wilhelm Richmann was electrocuted in St. Petersburg ...

6143:'The structure that we propose is a three-chain structure, each chain being a helix' – Linus Pauling" 5798: 3023: 2391:

is a way to measure dependence, independence, or interdependence of the information under scrutiny.

2189:

fundamental truths – and the other to derive from those fundamental truths more specific principles.

2166:, or contain some other logical or methodological flaw in the process that ultimately produced them. 2162: 1909:

and the discussion on how scientific statements relate to reality is best left to the article on the

1832: 1044:). But the mechanism of storing genetic information (i.e., genes) in DNA was unclear. Researchers in 1011:

The iterative cycle inherent in this step-by-step method goes from point 3 to 6 and back to 3 again.

727:. Formulated in the 20th century, the model has undergone significant revision since first proposed. 10563: 7046:'s approval, the base pairs turned out to be identical in shape (as Watson stated above in his 1968 3458:

Mathematical work and scientific work can inspire each other. For example, the technical concept of

2495:

Where the traditional method of inquiry does both, the inductive approach usually formulates only a

1524:

Watson and Crick showed an initial (and incorrect) proposal for the structure of DNA to a team from

13684: 13587: 13234: 13181: 12727: 12367: 12352: 12341: 12318: 11083: 9969:(3 Dec 2006) Hamilton-Perelman’s Proof of the Poincaré Conjecture and the Geometrization Conjecture 9124:

of the suggestion; (v) further observation and experiment leading to its acceptance or rejection."

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Another important human bias that plays a role is a preference for new, surprising statements (see

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in 2005 pointed out that the method being used has led to many findings that cannot be replicated.

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Hypotheses (theoretical, hypothetical explanations of observations and measurements of the subject)

689: 337: 11050: 7440:. Historical & Cultural Astronomy. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 159–183. 3646:

if axioms are given for a branch of mathematics, this creates a logical system —Wittgenstein 1921

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which can later be described in terms of conventional physical units when communicating the work.

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There is no universally agreed upon definition of the method of science. This was expressed with

4221:, flourishing only after incubation periods. His selected question for investigation (1934) was " 3761: – Statement based on repeated empirical observations that describes some natural phenomenon 3659: 3332:, rather than sought out. This may explain why scientists so often express that they were lucky. 3067: 2885: 2667:

has explanatory power, meaning its consequences extend beyond the data it is required to explain;

2403: 2290: 2255: 2204: 2056: 2024: 1736: 1654: 1049: 924: 123: 11068:. Translated to English by Karen Jelved, Andrew D. Jackson, and Ole Knudsen, (translators 1997). 8121: 8115: 6074:

This chapter also discusses the different types of research questions and how they are produced.

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Mathematical Apocrypha Redux: More Stories and Anecdotes of Mathematicians and the Mathematical

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he action of thought is excited by the irritation of doubt, and ceases when belief is attained.

1807:. The specific journal that publishes the results indicates the perceived quality of the work. 1760: 1729: 1694: 1332: 1045: 547: 302: 8188: 6351:

to produce the diffraction pattern for a helix, per Crick's work on the transform of a helix."

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as 'superfluous and useless' (Book I, —thereby overturning Euclid's, Ptolemy's, and Galen's

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emphasizes the need for entertaining multiple alternative hypotheses, and avoiding artifacts.

656:

of the 16th and 17th centuries some of the most important developments were the furthering of

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that showed Newton's theory to be at least incomplete. The observed difference of Mercury's

960:(e.g., physics, chemistry, biology, and psychology). The elements above are often taught in 13726: 13669: 13572: 13552: 13510: 13426: 13421: 13396: 13321: 13088: 12750: 12745: 12620: 12504: 12409: 12382: 12264: 11601: 11506: 11302: 10760: 8946: 8903: 8536: 7375: 7127: 6348: 6275: 4744: 4232: 3692: 3663: 3638: 3605: 3414: 3403: 3325: 2932: 2823: 2588: 2353: 2306: 2016: 1949: 1875: 1853: 1625:

experimental results, likely by others. Traces of this approach can be seen in the work of

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Interpret the data and draw conclusions that serve as a starting point for a new hypothesis

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was conducted as powerful scientific theories extended beyond the realm of the observable.

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Lequeux, James (2021). "Urbain Jean Joseph Le Verrier: Predictions Leading to Discovery".

2798:

put it in 2009: "the search for hard-to-vary explanations is the origin of all progress".

2008:. It is a methodological route to certain knowledge by identifying what can't be doubted. 1965:

how the interpretation of empirical data is theory-laden, so neither approach is trivial.

1913:

here. More immediately topical limitations show themselves in the observation of reality.

8: 13917: 13719: 13709: 13567: 13537: 13461: 13446: 13406: 13401: 13326: 13211: 12812: 12494: 12387: 12362: 12347: 12276: 11915: 11709: 10717: 10004:"If you can't solve a problem, then there is an easier problem you can solve: find it." — 9139:

Spiece, Kelly R.; Colosi, Joseph (1 January 2000). "Redefining the "Scientific Method"".

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cites Alhazen several times as the likely source for the portraiture technique using the

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by its predicates, in a system of expressions. The unification process was formalized by

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Occam's razor might fall under the heading of "simple elegance", but it is arguable that

2725:

of a "good" theory have been debated for centuries, going back perhaps even earlier than

2623:. In subsequent modifications, it has also subsumed aspects of many other fields such as 2587:. However, these laws were then determined to be special cases of a more general theory ( 2556: 2508: 2468: 2432: 2380: 2183: 2179: 1780: 1489: 1458: 1355: 1324: 1176:

I am not accustomed to saying anything with certainty after only one or two observations.

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Characterizations (observations, definitions, and measurements of the subject of inquiry)

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and the scientific method can be found throughout history, for instance with the ancient

562: 555: 282: 177: 115: 12036: 12021: 11510: 11306: 11272: 10764: 10611:. Translated by Henry Crew & Alfonso de Salvio (reprint ed.). New York: Dover. 8950: 8907: 8268:

The Scientist as Philosopher: Philosophical Consequences of Great Scientific Discoveries

7379: 7131: 6279: 3767: – Extent to which truthness or falseness of a hypothesis/declaration can be tested 2464:

put it, “successful theories are those that survive elimination through falsification”.

919:

There are different ways of outlining the basic method used for scientific inquiry. The

807:, which concluded that the scientific method is a myth or, at best, an idealization. As 13764: 13634: 13436: 13336: 13331: 13116: 12960: 12915: 12802: 12625: 12446: 12281: 12271: 11799: 11793: 11741: 11537: 11494: 11427: 11402: 11372: 11256: 11250:

The "Commentary" That Saved the Text. The Hazardous Journey of Ibn al-Haytham's Arabic

10880: 10872: 10776: 10750: 10696: 10336: 9760: 9735: 9558: 9501: 9388: 9355: 9336: 9164: 9114: 9102: 9068: 9021: 8839: 8791: 8490: 8431: 8008: 7894: 7859: 7320:. Texas A&M University The motivation & cognition interface lab. Archived from 7227: 7198: 7145: 5816:, the methods by which they were formulated, and the uses to which they were put; ... " 5291: 5280:(Supplements to Witelo, in which the optical part of astronomy is treated) as cited in 4566: 4203: 4166: 3803:), and deduces that light must enter the eye, in order for us to see. He describes the 3796: 3686: 3504: 3433:

Science is the process of gathering, comparing, and evaluating proposed models against

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calls "Anti-fragility"; while some systems of investigation are fragile in the face of

3289: 3254: 3250: 3232: 3206: 3194: 3173: 2984: 2889: 2845:

are theories that resist falsification—a frustration that was expressed colourfully by

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observed in the natural world; its most recent major modification was unification with

2572: 2531: 2395: 2298: 2212: 2200: 2138: 2096: 1739:, passed onwards and used by others. Other scientists may start their own research and 1630: 1550: 1477: 1328: 1309: 1222: 1118: 1094: 800: 606: 523: 92: 72: 11766:

Representing and Intervening, Introductory Topics in the Philosophy of Natural Science

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Hoffmann, Banesh (1976), "'Because it's there': Man's struggle to understand Nature",

10296: 10253:"'More than Art': Clockwork Automata, the Extemporizing Actor, and the Brazen Head in 5581: 3423:

scientific discovery remains incomplete without considerations of the social practices

13852: 13835: 13816: 13386: 13356: 13019: 12792: 12649: 12439: 12298: 12237: 11805: 11771: 11728: 11677: 11542: 11524: 11468: 11444: 11342: 11332: 11324: 11278: 11231: 11202: 11175: 11142: 11132: 11115: 11058: 11032: 10976: 10953: 10932: 10914: 10901: 10884: 10839: 10816: 10795: 10725: 10703: 10667: 10646: 10612: 10548: 10524: 10501: 10494: 10471: 10454: 10427: 10380: 10361: 10343: 10306: 10266: 10226: 10087: 9879: 9874: 9813: 9765: 9704: 9657: 9591: 9581: 9493: 9435: 9393: 9375: 9328: 9301: 9246: 9236: 9192: 9156: 9106: 9060: 9025: 8985: 8962: 8919: 8876: 8783: 8754: 8684: 8648: 8638: 8598: 8556: 8482: 8406: 8380: 8294: 8284: 8240: 8200: 8152: 8125: 7938: 7922: 7899: 7881: 7835: 7827: 7823: 7763: 7718:"ESO Telescope Sees Star Dance Around Supermassive Black Hole, Proves Einstein Right" 7566: 7509:

Ketner, Kenneth Laine (2009). "Charles Sanders Peirce: Interdisciplinary Scientist".

7459: 7449: 7417: 7391: 7293: 7232: 7149: 6663: 6634: 6496: 6291: 6108: 6052: 5848: 5697: 5658: 5648: 5585: 5530: 5522: 5410: 5347: 5299: 5214: 5204: 5114: 4802: 4705: 4489:...an experimental approach was advocated by Galileo in 1638 with the publication of 3651: 3262: 3202: 3178:. Fleck also claims this phenomenon to be largely invisible to members of the group. 3077: 2790: 2756: 2670:

has unificatory power; as in its organizing otherwise confused and isolated phenomena

2628: 2496: 2461: 2376: 2360: 2286: 2146: 2104: 1937: 1836: 1768: 1686: 1529: 1403: 1125: 1090: 812: 701: 646: 481: 418: 342: 192: 134: 12890: 11079: 10780: 7634:'A myth is a belief given uncritical acceptance by members of a group ...' – Weiss, 7605:, p. 166 shows how the 'flying gallop' image propagated from China to the West. 6586: 5997: 5282:

Smith, A. Mark (June 2004). "What Is the History of Medieval Optics Really about?".

5234:"First general: The present state of natural philosophy and wherein it is deficient" 4992:

Physical thought from the Presocratics to the quantum physicists : an anthology

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has been proved using time as a mathematical concept in which objects can flow (see

3114:

The scientific method no longer features in the standards for US education of 2013 (

2005: 1810:

Scientists typically are careful in recording their data, a requirement promoted by

673: 13769: 13744: 13644: 13505: 13500: 13281: 12990: 12945: 12925: 12461: 12451: 12434: 11959: 11890: 11855: 11845: 11790:, 1st edition 1973, revised edition, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1988. 11704:

Inference, Explanation, and Other Frustrations: Essays in the Philosophy of Science

11558: 11532: 11514: 11394: 11364: 11310: 11268: 11043: 10864: 10768: 10638: 10595: 10581: 10331: 10170: 9869: 9755: 9747: 9550: 9485: 9427: 9383: 9367: 9291: 9148: 9098: 9052: 9017: 8954: 8911: 8868: 8746: 8618: 8548: 8474: 8276: 8027: 7889: 7871: 7819: 7755: 7441: 7383: 7222: 7212: 7135: 6630: 6283: 5968: 5689: 5640: 5577: 4987: 4624: 4491: 4310: 4149: 4021: 3902: 3270: 3198: 2992: 2978: 2954: 2942: 2726: 2664:

is consistent, both internally and with other relevant currently accepted theories;

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A strong formulation of the scientific method is not always aligned with a form of

1804: 1671: 1563: 1493: 1407: 1396: 1242: 1195: 1181: 956:

for possible mistakes. These activities do not describe all that scientists do but

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Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Volume I: Induction and Analogy in Mathematics

6679:

from a specification of the instrument. The second group could be calculated only

6536:, clearly indicating crucial details of its helical structure to Watson and Crick. 6432: 6420: 4739: 4737: 2207: – exaggerated in the case of Mercury, but observed in the case of 1814:(1896–1961) and others. Though not typically required, they might be requested to 1681:

which comprise it. They were guided by the bond lengths which had been deduced by

13784: 13629: 13607: 13376: 13291: 13276: 13041: 12980: 12940: 12862: 12817: 12654: 12559: 12544: 12519: 12333: 12313: 12155: 12151: 12092: 12040: 11875: 11868: 11751: 11644: 11630: 11624: 11615: 11611: 11554: 11519: 11224:

Rozhanskaya, Mariam; Levinova, I. S. (1996). "Statics". In Rushdī, Rāshid (ed.).

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Brown, Ronald A.; Kumar, Alok (2013). "The Scientific Method: Reality or Myth?".

8821: 8678: 8342: 8272: 7876: 7269: 7217: 7079: 6874: 6725: 6714: 6558: 6320: 6287: 6202: 6046: 6008: 5842: 5359: 5036: 4949: 4710: 4681: 4640: 4509: 3519: 3500: 3486: 3258: 3246: 3051: 3028: 3009: 2880: 2388: 2342: 2338: 2302: 2263: 2243: 2020: 2001: 1941: 1871: 1775: 1753: 1567: 1537: 1533: 1442: 1430: 1360: 1341: 1320:, stating that every instance of the phenomenon has a particular characteristic. 1297: 1218: 1015: 992: 908: 770: 709: 697: 693: 393: 388: 378: 267: 224: 160: 12107: 11105: 9229:

Stangor, Charles; Walinga, Jennifer; BC Open Textbook Project; BCcampus (2014).

8958: 8750: 7783: 7445: 6691:(conceptual category), whereas in the second each unit would add one additional 5569: 3496: 3054:, and researchers are to be prudent with their resources during their inquiry. 2722: 2301:

between Newtonian theory and observation was one of the things that occurred to

2222: 2019:

and reliance on abstract typologies and theories is normally accepted. In 2010,

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Weinberg, (1995) “The Methods of Science … And Those By Which We Live”, page: 8

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with the instrument. ... In the first case each unit would add one additional

5765: 5075: 4734: 4620: 4612: 4592: 4433: 4369:, and so forth. The questions of the inquirer spiral until the goal is reached. 4319: 4306: 4288: 4099: 3968: 3820: 3804: 3787: 3758: 3677:

Lakatos proposed an account of mathematical knowledge based on Polya's idea of

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An example for how inductive and deductive reasoning works can be found in the

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The scientific method is iterative. At any stage, it is possible to refine its

1629:(190–120 BCE), when determining a value for the precession of the Earth, while 1419: 932: 837: 776: 466: 433: 383: 143: 12161: 12137: 12112: 10772: 10573:

Edited by Thaddeus J. Trenn and Robert K. Merton. Foreword by Robert K. Merton

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Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Volume II: Patterns of Plausible Reasoning

9250: 9228: 8872: 8335: 6867: 6499: 4331:. Hockney quotes Alhazen as the first clear description of the camera obscura. 4237:

Perceptual control theory § The methodology of modeling, and PCT as model

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Measurements in scientific work are usually accompanied by estimates of their

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King, M. D. (1971). "Reason, Tradition, and the Progressiveness of Science".

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Crawford S, Stucki L (1990). "Peer review and the changing research record".

5662: 5096:, p. 139. (This quotation is from Alhazen's critique of Ptolemy's books 4652: 4644: 4608: 4302: 3655: 3624:

involves reconsidering and re-examining the result and the path taken to it.

3534: 3478: 3333: 3285: 3277: 3190: 2795: 2484: 2274:

was able to unify prior theory and measurements into the consequences of his

1921: 1682: 1582: 1434: 1293: 1285: 1258: 1250: 1246: 1194:

The scientific definition of a term sometimes differs substantially from its

1141: 1037: 945:

Predictions (inductive and deductive reasoning from the hypothesis or theory)

751:

The term "scientific method" came into popular use in the twentieth century;

685: 661: 347: 9595: 8652: 8552: 8298: 6792: 6001: 5519:"That the scientific method accurately reflects what scientists actually do" 5218: 4524:

Lee Smolin, in his 2013 essay "There Is No Scientific Method", espouses two

1720:, that is: "the body of the heavens is rarer than the body of air". In 1079 1132:, as in "Why is the sky blue?" but can also be open-ended, as in "How can I 13614: 13473: 13411: 13146: 12995: 12975: 12930: 12905: 12895: 12867: 12797: 12755: 12629: 12583: 12554: 12534: 12147: 11979: 11900: 11828: 11546: 11119: 11022: 10891: 10538: 9927: 9769: 9751: 9397: 8915: 8741:; Bonk, Thomas (2011). "Unity of Science and Logical Empiricism: A Reply". 8738: 7903: 7839: 7794: 7717: 7387: 7236: 7055: 6431:

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10458: 9883: 5693: 5644: 3750: – All procedures for the numerical representation of empirical facts 3466:, and timelessness was a hallmark of a mathematical topic. But today, the 3316:

A famous example of discovery being stumbled upon was Alexander Fleming's

3110:

and, it holds that scientific theories arise from observed phenomena only.

2884:

explanations exist for elements of the real world. These assumptions from

2467:

Deductive reasoning in this mode of inquiry will sometimes be replaced by

2141:

showed this to be false, and that the legs are instead gathered together.

13649: 13346: 13316: 13301: 13166: 13161: 12985: 12970: 12955: 12935: 12852: 12780: 12597: 12587: 12574: 12539: 12489: 12419: 12372: 12259: 12249: 12076: 11889:. Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 53–70. Archived from 11833:

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In statistical analysis, expected and unexpected bias is a large factor.

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Test the hypothesis by performing an experiment and collecting data in a

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since at least the 17th century. The scientific method involves careful

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The philosophy of knowledge arising through observation is also called

3471: 3452: 3434: 3222: 2893: 2692: 2444: 2436: 2428: 2092: 2012: 1996: 1977: 1969: 1767:(1753) when attempting to replicate the 1752 kite-flying experiment of 1728:

was able to infer that Earth's atmosphere was 50 miles thick, based on

1709: 1678: 1666:

starts, Watson and Crick were able to infer the essential structure of

1626: 1513: 1450: 1363:

made such creativity the centerpiece of his discussion of methodology.

1305: 1098: 904: 900: 792: 713: 705: 657: 618: 570: 569:

is often similar. The process in the scientific method involves making

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Language and Learning, The Debate between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky

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holds and prove or disprove those instead of the theory itself. If an

2324: 2281:

Another common example of inductive reasoning is the observation of a

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overlap in meaning in common discourse, but have distinct meanings in

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risk of making predictions that decide whether it is right or wrong:

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makes several specific predictions about the observable structure of

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5905: 1955: 1916: 1570:

is one technique for discovering the important factor in an effect.

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knowledge. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a debate over

12659: 12377: 11617:

Science: Men, Methods, Goals: A Reader: Methods of Physical Science

10868: 10279: 9518: 7803: 7027: 6707: 6517: 6428: 6332: 6328: 5098: 4596: 3982: 3689:' are a valid way to discover mathematical conjectures and proofs. 3608:, involves free and heuristic construction of plausible arguments, 3549: 3410: 3197:

has conducted a comparative study of two scientific fields (namely

3091:

The taught presentation of science had to defend demerits such as:

2814: 2616: 1925: 1700:

This manner of iteration can span decades and sometimes centuries.

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Theory and Reality: An introduction to the philosophy of science

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6767: 5844:

Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science

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Science applied to complex systems can involve elements such as

2965:

proven. Finally, some hold that pluralism should be allowed for

27:

Interplay between observation, experiment, and theory in science

13736: 12424: 12125:

Using the scientific method for designing science fair projects

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Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge

10591: 10564:

English translation by Thaddeus J. Trenn and Fred Bradley, 1979

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5315: 5313: 4902:

with added notes. Reprinted with previously unpublished part,

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3284:, is the result of conflicting values and assumptions between 3050:'. As has been argued before him however, this is uneconomic; 2817:, ‘Physical Reality’ (1953), 149 — as quoted by Weinert (2004) 723:

the distance to clarify his ideas, gradually resulting in the

10105:"Charles A. Weibel (ca. 1995) History of Homological Algebra" 8826:

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7051: 6842: 6598:... in order to learn, one must desire to learn ... 4459: 4299:, p. 136 to prove that light travels in a straight line. 2592: 2452: 2266:(and others) were then able to build their early theories by 2259: 2251: 2239: 1991:

characterized inquiry in general not as the pursuit of truth

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false conclusions are drawn, because of limited information.

1906: 1586: 1485: 1053: 1040:, and that DNA contained genetic information (Oswald Avery's 1036:

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pair held together by at least two hydrogen bonds. ..."

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Reason, tradition, and the progressiveness of science (1971)

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can be done at several national archives in the U.S. or the

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5310: 5028:), translated into English from German by M. Schwarz, from 4799:

Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica#Rules of Reason

4085:...simplified and (post-modern) philosophy notwithstanding. 3459: 2483:

to deriving scientific truth first rose to prominence with

1602: 1387:

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Twenty-three hundred years ago, Aristotle proposed that a

4193:; 'predicted but not yet observed'; 'corroborates', etc.). 3650:

5.13; Lakatos claimed that proofs from such a system were

2923:(1892), as used in fairly uncritical manner in education. 2611:, how species adapt to their environments, and many other 1566:

can then help us figure out what the important factor is.

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and those who followed him. Experiments were advocated by

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7700: 7698: 7696: 7429: 6533: 5348:(Fall 2021) George Berkeley, 3.2.3 Scientific explanation 4743:

Stillwell's review (p. 381) of Poincaré's efforts on the

4354: 4140: 3699:, once replied "durch planmässiges Tattonieren" (through 3637:, what Lakatos tried to establish was that no theorem of 3098:

it suggests a singular methodology of deriving knowledge,

1928:, 2 August 1932; interpretable only through prior theory. 1899: 1717: 1667: 1210:. Scientific quantities are often characterized by their 297: 11852:, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1998. Paperback 2003. 9036: 7656: 6087:(1546), p. 141. Quoted and translated in C.D. O'Malley, 4945: 4943: 4020:. A radical proponent of this approach to knowledge was 3084:

steps: observation, hypothesis, prediction, experiment.

2826:

in physics is often had in the more specific context of

1847: 1441:

structure they proposed provided a simple mechanism for

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Weinert (2004) noted the recurring theme of invariance;

4261:

did not exist in nature; thirteen hundred years later,

3782: 3780: 3726:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

3717:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

2234:. It took thousands of years of measurements, from the 12108:

The scientific method from a philosophical perspective

11840:

A Historical Introduction to the Philosophy of Science

11804:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 10195: 10183: 9180: 9178: 8852: 8828:, 1st published, 1975. Reprinted, Verso, London, 1978. 8534: 8071:

Peirce, Charles S., Carnegie application (L75, 1902),

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Actes X Congrès internationale d'histoire des sciences

4565:

The scientific method requires testing and validation

3524: 2132:

A historical example is the belief that the legs of a

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to the validity of a predicated expression (that is,

50:

For notable practitioners in previous centuries, see

11327:(1988) , Limbrick, Elaine; Thomson, Douglas (eds.), 9134: 9132: 8516: 7991: 7989: 7987: 7985: 7983: 7981: 7979: 7977: 7941:

right. Book, including the assertion, introduced in

7675:

Hepburn, Brian; Andersen, Hanne (13 November 2015).

7104:, but attributed to Alhazen rather than Ibn Mu'adh.) 6888:"James Crutchfield (2003) "Complex Systems Theory?"" 6793:"NIF (2021) What Is the National Ignition Facility?" 6443:, as compared to Einstein's desk prediction of 1.75 5574:

Advances in Experimental Social Psychology Volume 18

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but never a complete representation of circumstances

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that results from entertaining a single hypothesis,

952:

Each element of the scientific method is subject to

788:, and Gauch 2003, disagree with Feyerabend's claim. 780:, argued against there being any universal rules of 11801:

Epistemic cultures: how the sciences make knowledge

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Jones & Bartlett. p. 7853: 7851: 7849: 7650: 7620: 7614: 7407: 7405: 6644: 6427:, and Eddington's expedition to the island of 6366: 6315:, illustrates how to avoid confirmation bias: 6044: 5958: 5946: 5779: 5625:Theories of Scientific Method: An Introduction 5529:, Harvard University Press, pp. 210–218, 5483: 5481: 5447: 5445: 4827:Oxford Dictionaries: British and World English 4372: 4155: 4062: 3932:From the hypothesis, deduce valid forms using 3917: 3874:(1689) An Essay Concerning Human Understanding 3364:Why Most Published Research Findings Are False 3301: 2937:Scientific pluralism is a position within the 2647:What criteria are satisfied by a 'good' theory 1644: 887:The scientific method is the process by which 13057: 12182: 12119:Lecture on Scientific Method by Greg Anderson 11227:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 11021: 10716: 9521:"Kamal al-Din Abu'l Hasan Muhammad Al-Farisi" 9410: 9273: 9271: 9269: 8586: 8528: 8253: 8186: 8062: 7971:pp. 21, 30, 55, 152, 161, 277, 360, 448, 580 7743: 7565:. Random House Digital, Inc. pp. 51–52. 7496: 6327:experiment, in Japan, independently observed 5877: 5875: 5837: 5370: 4788:Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy 4039: 4027: 3847: 3845: 3843: 3385: 2991:thesis, that the objects investigated by the 1498:observations made during a 1919 solar eclipse 719:A sea voyage from America to Europe afforded 499: 11934:Unended Quest, An Intellectual Autobiography 11797: 11441:Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science 11114:(2nd ed.), Princeton University Press, 11028:Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica 10544:Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact 9933:Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact 9810:The Incomplete Guide to the Art of Discovery 9733: 9575: 9469: 9138: 9079: 8767: 8737: 8232: 8001: 7788: 7061: 6880: 6610: 6608: 6606: 5803: 5745: 5527:Newton's Apple and Other Myths about Science 5512: 5510: 5023: 4930: 4928: 4689: 4512:can stand to be called a 'universal method'. 4345: 4343: 4341: 4339: 4246:Notes: Problem-solving via scientific method 4226: 4223:HOW, THEN, DID THIS EMPIRICAL FACT ORIGINATE 4218: 3975: 3017: 2875:of the scientific method, at what separates 2542:Scientific inquiry generally aims to obtain 1787:gets the treatment, such as a drug, and the 1593:hypotheses used for constructing the plane. 1007:Retest (frequently done by other scientists) 805:Newton's Apple and Other Myths about Science 12031: 11994:Real Science: what it is, and what it means 11871:, Paragon House, St. Paul, Minnesota, 2017. 10999: 10826:. 1877, 1879. Reprinted with a foreword by 10702:, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 10379:, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 10355: 9780: 8802: 8567: 8359: 8239:. Oxford University Press. pp. 78–79. 8228: 8226: 8145:Cracraft, J.; Donoghue, M.J., eds. (2005). 8138: 8114:Hall, B.K.; Hallgrímsson, B., eds. (2008). 8033: 7846: 7602: 7552: 7550: 7548: 7402: 6958:, p. 220 Book Seven covers refraction. 6092: 5898: 5896: 5740:science is best understood through examples 5478: 5442: 4783:Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica 4775: 4773: 4473: 3891: 3881: 3554: 2856: 2268:generalizing the collected data inductively 1466: 1128:can refer to the explanation of a specific 879:. This diagram represents one variant, and 13064: 13050: 12189: 12175: 11887:The Nature of Science in Science Education 10465: 10358:Oxford Dictionary of Scientific Quotations 10165:(4), pp. 378–383, on Jeremy Gray's (2013) 10152: 9691:, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997 9318: 9266: 8939:International Journal of Science Education 8861:European Journal for Philosophy of Science 8399:Stephen Hawking; Leonard Mlodinow (2010). 8310: 8308: 8189:"Chapter 9: Rationality and Theory Choice" 7916: 7776: 7557:Stephen Hawking; Leonard Mlodinow (2010). 7542:v. 5, paragraphs 438–463, see 443 and 451. 6949: 6706:National Science Foundation (NSF) (2021) 6662:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 1–4. 6585:. v. 1. paragraphs 135–140. Archived from 6509: 6507: 5872: 5773: 5719:"Whatever Happened to History of Science?" 5619: 5404: 4460:Notes: Philosophical expressions of method 4391: 3840: 3038: 2584: 2091:Scientific methodology often directs that 1842: 1660: 1519: 1425: 1280: 1113:; these observations often demand careful 1027: 985:Gather information and resources (observe) 858: 849:, which still stand as scientific method. 530:that has characterized the development of 506: 492: 12845: 12808:Relationship between religion and science 12196: 11536: 11518: 11331:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 11329:That Nothing is Known (Quod nihil scitur) 11267: 10900:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 10894:(1976), John Worrall; Elie Zahar (eds.), 10794:(expanded ed.), Penguin Publishing, 10754: 9992:George Lakoff and Rafael E. Núñez (2000) 9873: 9759: 9420:Education, Citizenship and Social Justice 9387: 9295: 8893: 8843: 8355: 8353: 8351: 8191:. In James Conant, John Haugeland (ed.). 7893: 7875: 7857: 7226: 7216: 7196: 7139: 6603: 6319:, in Chile, was initially skeptical that 5507: 5432: 5430: 5428: 5426: 5093: 5050: 4925: 4751:iterations for Poincaré to arrive at the 4483: 4416: 4414: 4336: 4296: 3908: 3863: 3570:Deduction: prediction from the hypothesis 3140: 2872: 2514: 2385:Bayesian estimation of mutual information 2055:Flying gallop as shown by this painting ( 1893:The Logic of Scientific Discovery (2002 ) 1704:can be built upon. For example: By 1027, 1292:. This hypothesis was also considered by 1268: 829:disproof of existing theory by experiment 550:. Scientific inquiry includes creating a 11996:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 11907:, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1991. 11719: 11716:, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1980. 11292: 11078: 10970: 10913: 10632: 10218: 10140:Comptes rendusde l’Academie des Sciences 9954:, p. 131 in the section on 'Modern 9851: 9354:Ioannidou, Olga; Erduran, Sibel (2021). 9235:. : BCcampus, BC Open Textbook Project. 8831: 8592: 8458: 8405:. Random House Digital, Inc. p. 8. 8391: 8381:"§4.1 Methodological Incommensurability" 8223: 8151:. Oxford University Press. p. 592. 7704: 7590: 7545: 7365: 7353: 7306: 7275: 7039: 6991: 6979: 6967: 6929:A Survey of Islamic Astronomical Tables, 6925:translation from Arabic to Latin in 1116 6818:"ISS (2021) International Space Station" 6614: 6513: 6391: 6360: 6164: 6152: 6124: 6032: 5893: 5847:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 5809: 5791: 5337: 5145: 4770: 4263:Alhazen disproved Aristotle's hypothesis 4104:For broader coverage of this topic, see 4086: 3311: 3308:Role of chance in scientific discoveries 3185:in an academic scientific laboratory by 2571:Scientific knowledge is closely tied to 2523: 2221: 2195: 1915: 870: 31:For broader coverage of this topic, see 11874: 11725:What Science Knows: And How It Knows It 11690: 11480: 11323: 10944: 10890: 10786: 10513: 10468:The Investigation of the Physical World 10189: 10146: 10067: 9998: 9812:. New York: Columbia University Press. 9653:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 9540: 9088: 9007: 8810:Unification: A Multidisciplinary Survey 8581:. Indiana University Press. p. 15. 8464: 8423: 8321:. TED talk. Event occurs at 15:05min. 8314: 8305: 8264: 8107: 7749: 7668: 7662: 7435: 7312: 6546: 6544: 6542: 6504: 6302: 6266:(16 October 1964). "Strong Inference". 6020: 5716: 5683: 5400: 5398: 5331: 5067: 4559: 3853: 3834: 2801:An example here can be found in one of 1253:, he actually found it easier to study 957: 948:Experiments (tests of all of the above) 808: 803:Daniel Thurs' chapter in the 2015 book 704:, by idealists as well as empiricists 581: 14: 13895: 12115:by Paul Newall at The Galilean Library 11964:Four Decades of Scientific Explanation 11553: 11383: 11353: 11230:. Psychology Press. pp. 274–298. 11188: 11169: 11154: 11049: 10926: 10833: 10807: 10633:Gauch Jr, Hugh G. (12 December 2002). 10393: 10374: 10284:Natural Philosophy of Cause and Chance 10250: 10201: 10167:Henri Poincaré: A Scientific Biography 9807: 9042: 8773: 8676: 8576: 8348: 8087:How to Think Straight About Psychology 8007: 7942: 7858:Ioannidis, John P.A. (1 August 2005). 7523: 7508: 7411: 7315:"Science: Conjectures and refutations" 7116:"Benjamin Franklin and lightning rods" 7113: 7007: 6943: 6657: 6579:"F.R.L. [First Rule of Logic]" 6576: 6529: 6344: 6221: 6217: 6215: 6213: 6211: 6136: 5902: 5567: 5487: 5436: 5423: 5198: 5182: 4919: 4881: 4779: 4529: 4441:using his best resources. His mentor, 4411: 4397: 4251: 4225:AND IN WHAT DOES IT CONSIST?". But by 3539: 3155: 2639: 2345:used and the number of samples taken. 2289:in 1859 pointed out problems with the 1900:Theory's interactions with observation 852: 819:and Howard Sankey, in their 2007 book 680:, brought to particular prominence by 546:can distort the interpretation of the 13045: 12170: 12138:Richard Feynman on the Key to Science 12099:Introduction to the scientific method 11666: 11639:Readings in the Philosophy of Science 11483:Johannes Kepler and the New Astronomy 11457: 11438: 11413: 11244: 11124: 11104: 10659: 10624: 10609:Dialogues concerning two new sciences 10537: 10439: 10421: 10330: 10305:, Berlin; New York: Springer Verlag, 10294: 10158:John Stillwell, reviewer (Apr 2014). 10055: 10043: 10005: 9986: 9951: 9775:as a member of the Penicillium genus. 9703:, University of Nebraska Press, 2000 9637: 9625: 9613: 9609: 9277: 9185:Schuster, D.P.; Powers, W.J. (2005). 8979: 8743:Otto Neurath and the Unity of Science 8670: 8617: 8541:European Journal of Social Psychology 8522: 8473:(2). Sage Publications, Inc.: 25–31. 8452: 8372: 8176: 8101: 8056: 7961: 7945:"Do doctors understand test results?" 7476: 7249: 7197:Ioannidis, John P. A. (August 2005). 7085:Archive for History of Exact Sciences 6955: 6835: 6760: 6262: 6256: 6179: 6051:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 5985: 5926: 5881: 5825: 5785: 5607: 5516: 5389: 5281: 5231: 5006: 4934: 4420: 4214: 4072:: U. Le Verrier (1859), (in French), 3857: 3418: 3324:Somewhere between 33% and 50% of all 2673:and is fruitful for further research. 2537: 2413: 2157: 2039: 1848:Honesty, openness, and falsifiability 958:apply mostly to experimental sciences 811:are beliefs, they are subject to the 752: 609:itself. The development of rules for 12133:an online book by Richard D. Jarrard 11922:Piattelli-Palmarini, Massimo (ed.), 11489: 11046:and Anne Whitman's 1999 translation. 10851: 10690: 10426:, University of Pennsylvania Press, 10278: 10225:. Vol. 1. Trafford Publishing. 9649: 9475: 8623:"From falsifiability to testability" 8465:Krugman, Paul (1993). "How I Work". 7995: 6810: 6785: 6539: 6250: 5395: 4963: 4877: 4875: 4525: 3981:The Sun's rays are still visible at 2684:and look for invariant observations. 2350:Inductive statistical generalisation 1618: 1349:) described the incipient stages of 1021: 899:The overall process involves making 796: 13558:Digital media use and mental health 13272:Sociology of the history of science 12081:Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project 12060:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 12046:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 11954:Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature 11592:The Art of Scientific Investigation 11088:, London: Walter Scott Publishing, 11073:Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography 10929:Dictionary of Scientific Quotations 9734:Tan, Sy; Tatsumura, Y (July 2015). 9411:van der Ploeg, Piet (8 June 2016). 9321:Journal of College Science Teaching 8837: 8236:The Indispensability of Mathematics 8089:. Boston: Pearson Education. p. 123 7681:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 6730: 6700: 6660:Information, Mechanism, and Meaning 6225:"How to Make Our Ideas Clear" 6208: 5886: 5770:Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo 5717:Staddon, John (16 September 2020). 5345:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 5024: 4504:Popper, in his 1963 publication of 4106:§ Relationship with statistics 3955: 3833:The full title translation is from 3739: – Scientific study of science 3701:systematic palpable experimentation 3695:, when asked how he came about his 3503:, the construction of mathematical 3296: 2474: 1708:, based on his measurements of the 1233:. These ideas were skipped over by 24: 11660:What Is This Thing Called Science? 11570: 11201:, Taylor & Francis e-Library, 11031:, University of California Press, 11010:Science and Civilisation in China 10462:Public domain in the US. 236 pages 9463:The Social Construction of Reality 9103:10.1111/j.1748-5959.2005.tb00039.x 9022:10.1111/j.1949-8594.1996.tb10205.x 8379:Bird, Alexander (11 August 2011). 8030:’ experiments with childbed fever. 7917:Gigerenzer, Gerd (31 March 2015). 7114:Krider, E. Philip (January 2006). 6866:James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) 6843:"JWST (2021) WEBB Space Telescope" 5576:. Vol. 18. pp. 247–305. 5464:. pp. 312–365. Archived from 3555:Hypothesis: a proposed explanation 3422: 3231:sociologists built the concept of 3101:it overemphasises experimentation, 2841:. The opposite of something being 1940:leading to differing conclusions. 1823:, and science journals, including 1712:of light, was able to deduce that 1476:For example, Einstein's theory of 1449:Any useful hypothesis will enable 815:as Taleb points out. Philosophers 561:Although procedures vary from one 44:Scientific method (disambiguation) 25: 13929: 13267:Sociology of scientific ignorance 13112:History and philosophy of science 13094:Economics of scientific knowledge 12828:Sociology of scientific knowledge 12823:Sociology of scientific ignorance 12776:History and philosophy of science 12144:Lectures on the Scientific Method 12001: 11936:, Open Court, La Salle, IL, 1982. 11861:Understanding Scientific Progress 11195:The Logic of Scientific Discovery 11161:The Logic of Scientific Discovery 10919:The Beginnings of Western Science 10356:Bynum, W.F.; Porter, Roy (2005), 9973:revised from H.D.Cao and X.P.Zhu 9832: 9793:Scientific and Technical Thinking 9426:(2). SAGE Publications: 145–159. 8187:Thomas S Kuhn (1 November 2002). 7285:The logic of scientific discovery 6683:from a specification of what was 6095:, p. 597: "Andreas Vesalius" 5799:(Dec 2007) Unification Algorithms 5684:Staddon, John (1 December 2017). 5158:Rozhanskaya & Levinova (1996) 4872: 4325:Opticae Thesaurus, Alhazen Arabis 4269:, thus deducing the existence of 3733: – Study of research methods 3213:Situated cognition and relativism 3147:Sociology of scientific knowledge 2972: 2867:Sociology of scientific knowledge 2547: 2174:Deductive and inductive reasoning 13860: 13859: 13834: 13025: 13013: 10965:Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment 10963:. Memoir of a researcher in the 10834:Judson, Horace Freeland (1979), 10500:, New York: Simon and Schuster, 10128: 10097: 10061: 10024: 10011: 9961: 9945: 9901: 9875:10.1097/00000542-198405000-00026 9845: 9679: 9670: 9643: 9631: 9619: 9602: 9569: 9512: 9446: 9257: 9212: 8984:. University of Illinois Press. 8815: 8611: 8360:Baker, Alan (25 February 2010). 8318:A new way to explain explanation 8213: 8079: 7824:10.1136/postgradmedj-2020-139446 7710: 7596: 7517: 7511:The Logic of Interdisciplinarity 7502: 7470: 7288:(Reprint of translation of 1935 7255: 7190: 7159: 7107: 7033: 7001: 6985: 6973: 6961: 6911: 6222:Peirce, Charles Sanders (1877). 5903:Peirce, Charles Sanders (1877). 4882:Peirce, Charles Sanders (1908). 4722: 4698: 4658: 4547: 4217:, p. xxvii recognizes that 4196: 4130: 4112: 4092: 4079: 4010: 4001: 3988: 3961: 3588: 2953:of scientific knowledge, or the 2681:parsimony in causal explanations 2567:Properties of scientific inquiry 2305:as a possible early test of his 2070: 2048: 1589:is an experiment that tests the 791:Later stances include physicist 475: 460: 11092:from the original on 2007-09-29 10724:, University of Chicago Press, 10680:from the original on 2023-11-29 10466:di Francia, G. Toraldo (1981), 10408:from the original on 2020-06-24 10394:Riskin, Jessica (2 July 2020). 10319:from the original on 2023-11-29 10265:, Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, 10239:from the original on 2023-11-29 10117:from the original on 2021-09-06 9890:from the original on 2021-08-29 9716:, Oxford University Press, 2000 8325:from the original on 2018-11-04 8315:Deutsch, David (October 2009). 8165:from the original on 2023-11-29 7943:Kremer, William (6 July 2014). 7921:. New York, New York: Penguin. 7782:Brad Snowder's Astronomy Pages 7732:from the original on 2020-05-15 7179:from the original on 2014-04-29 6900:from the original on 2021-04-18 6849:from the original on 2012-01-04 6824:from the original on 2005-09-07 6799:from the original on 2017-07-31 6774:from the original on 2021-09-01 6748:from the original on 2020-04-25 6624: 6476:from the original on 2017-08-31 6458: 6447:. – Antonina Vallentin (1954), 6401: 6385: 6173: 6158: 6146: 6130: 6118: 6098: 6091:, (1964), p. 116. As quoted by 6077: 6065:from the original on 2023-11-29 6038: 5952: 5940: 5861:from the original on 2023-11-29 5831: 5731:from the original on 2021-08-27 5710: 5629:McGill–Queen's University Press 5613: 5543:from the original on 2023-11-29 5496:from the original on 2016-08-07 5490:"There is No Scientific Method" 5352: 5270: 5244: 5225: 5192: 5163: 5127:from the original on 2023-11-29 4958:Philosophy of Inductive Science 4861:from the original on 2023-11-29 4498: 4465: 4427:came by his manuscript copy of 4379:Never fail to recognize an idea 4276: 3926: 3827: 3251:observer's conceptual framework 3118:) that replaced those of 1996 ( 3047: 2871:Philosophy of science looks at 2708:especially when they conflict." 2232:history of gravitational theory 1747: 1740: 1414:Predictions from the hypothesis 762: 747:Modern use and critical thought 617:Different early expressions of 598:For a chronological guide, see 13073:Science and technology studies 12217:Analytic–synthetic distinction 10931:, London: IOP Publishing Ltd, 10666:, Cambridge University Press, 10637:. Cambridge University Press. 10590:] (in Italian and Latin), 10470:, Cambridge University Press, 10396:"Just Use Your Thinking Pump!" 10219:Alikuzai, Hamid Wahed (2013). 9967:Huai-Dong Cao and Xi-Ping Zhu 9097:(3). : 341–376, quote on 366. 9091:History of Education Quarterly 9010:School Science and Mathematics 8782:(4). Guilford Press: 550–561. 7754:. DE GRUYTER. pp. 33–52. 7416:, Cambridge University Press, 6500:(2021) Photograph 51 explained 6002:Discourse on the Method/Part 2 5906:"The Fixation of Belief" 5525:; Kampourakis, Kostas (eds.), 4843: 4815: 3940:. Avoid invalid forms such as 3807:as part of this investigation. 3648:Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus 3610:working backward from the goal 3265:led to different conclusions. 3039:could possibly be broad enough 2941:that rejects various proposed 2803:Einstein's thought experiments 2030: 1507: 1229:and the means for determining 988:Form an explanatory hypothesis 13: 1: 11727:, New York: Encounter Books, 11598:, Melbourne, Australia, 1950. 10927:Mackay, Alan L., ed. (1991), 10921:, University of Chicago Press 10663:Scientific Method in Practice 10635:Scientific Method in Practice 10520:The Character of Physical Law 10302:The Philosophy Behind Physics 10145:(1892), 633–636. as cited by 10072:Euler's formula for polyhedra 9852:Schaefer, Carl F (May 1984). 8627:The philosophy of Karl Popper 8014:Philosophy Of Natural Science 7726:European Southern Observatory 7067:Goldstein, Bernard R. (1977) 6927:, as cited by E. S. Kennedy, 6742:lhc-commissioning.web.cern.ch 5582:10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60146-X 5570:"When Belief Creates Reality" 5358:Margaret Atherton (ed.) 1999 4986:(رسالة في الضوء) as cited in 4763: 3724: – Pragmatic methodology 3429:Relationship with mathematics 2783: 2634: 2621:modern evolutionary synthesis 2226:Inductive Deductive Reasoning 1962: 1689:'s X-ray diffraction images. 1288:proposed that DNA might be a 1189: 1093:conjectured, correctly, that 915:Factors of scientific inquiry 841:, and Galileo (1638) and his 821:Theories of Scientific Method 13620:Normalization process theory 13177:Philosophy of social science 12055:"Confirmation and Induction" 11798:Knorr Cetina, Karin (1999). 11746:Reason in the Age of Science 11520:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1007279 11131:. Ishi Press International. 11099:– via The Mead Project 11017:, Cambridge University Press 10992:The Autobiography of Science 10971:McElheny, Victor K. (2004), 10643:10.1017/cbo9780511815034.011 10558:. (written in German, 1935, 10401:The New York Review of Books 10255:Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay 10251:Borlik, Todd Andrew (2011), 9994:Where Mathematics Comes From 9141:The American Biology Teacher 9045:The American Biology Teacher 8577:Wigner, Eugene Paul (1967). 8383:. In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). 8364:. In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). 8085:Stanovich, Keith E. (2007). 7933:leads: (n=1000) only 21% of 7877:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124 7812:Postgraduate Medical Journal 7651:Goldhaber & Nieto (2010) 7615:Goldhaber & Nieto (2010) 7282:Karl Raimund Popper (2002). 7218:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124 7022:was identical in shape to a 6417:General theory of relativity 6288:10.1126/science.146.3642.347 6089:Andreas Vesalius of Brussels 5947:Einstein & Infeld (1938) 5236:. In Waller, Richard (ed.). 4954:History of Inductive Science 4585:The Scientist as Philosopher 4262: 3743:Outline of scientific method 3666:) into or out of forms from 3357:Relationship with statistics 3061: 2926: 2833:Related principles here are 2716: 2419:Hypothetico-deductive method 2402:, the concept together with 1638: 1633:can be seen in the works of 964:as "the scientific method". 594:History of scientific method 566: 52:History of scientific method 7: 12550:Hypothetico-deductive model 12525:Deductive-nomological model 12510:Constructivist epistemology 12158:(archived 21 January 2013). 11756:Cognitive Models of Science 10660:Gauch, Hugh G. Jr. (2003), 10523:, Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 10299:; Peter E. Hodgson (eds.), 9523:. University of St. Andrews 8959:10.1080/0950069032000032199 8751:10.1007/978-94-007-0143-4_2 8432:"Epistemological pluralism" 8148:Assembling the tree of life 8073:New Elements of Mathematics 8026:Hempel illustrates this at 7937:got an example question on 7784:( Precession of the Equinox 7446:10.1007/978-3-030-54218-4_5 7338:Conjectures and Refutations 7096:was printed by F Risner in 6621:using his cardboard models. 6577:Peirce, Charles S. (1899). 5884:, p. 10 calls this an 5458:Conjectures and Refutations 5030:"Abhandlung über das Licht" 4971:Epicurus' Scientific Method 4605:Olivier Costa de Beauregard 4506:Conjectures and Refutations 4125:deductive probability logic 4070:Tests of general relativity 3713:Empirical limits in science 3706: 3670:, or more abstractly, from 3328:are estimated to have been 3302:Role of chance in discovery 2949:of its subject matter, the 2919:(1910) and Karl Pearson in 2763: 2550:that scientists can use to 2425:hypothetico-deductive model 2394:Beyond commonly associated 2125:How to Make Our Ideas Clear 1821:National Science Foundation 1774:If an experiment cannot be 1645:Communication and iteration 1611:International Space Station 1581:. Even taking a plane from 1577:study or an archaeological 1381:The Mass-Extinction Debates 1032:In 1950, it was known that 866: 725:hypothetico-deductive model 565:to another, the underlying 10: 13934: 13243:construction of technology 11499:PLOS Computational Biology 11481:Voelkel, James R. (2001), 10836:The Eighth Day of Creation 10422:Dales, Richard C. (1973), 10211: 9555:10.1177/030631286016001009 9372:10.1007/s11191-020-00185-9 9297:10.1007/s11191-021-00235-w 9232:Introduction to psychology 8663:are not strictly refutable 8631:Cambridge University Press 8579:Symmetries and reflections 8479:10.1177/056943459303700204 7799:On the System of the World 7018:pair held together by two 6658:MacKay, Donald M. (1969). 6409:Royal Astronomical Society 6106:The Astonishing Hypothesis 5772:pp. 237–238, as quoted by 5764:, 1623), as translated by 5092:Ithaca 1962, as quoted in 5084:, translated by S. Pines, 4973:. Cornell University Press 4571:before ideas are accepted. 4230: 4181:might take, then serve as 4120:Statistical generalisation 4103: 4050:On the System of the World 3627:Building on Pólya's work, 3421:, pp. 38–50 notes "a 3386:Science of complex systems 3305: 3216: 3181:Comparably, following the 3144: 3065: 3046:valid rule, it should be ' 3021: 2996:common scientific method. 2976: 2930: 2860: 2609:diversity of life on Earth 2575:and can remain subject to 2177: 1851: 1751: 1648: 1615:James Webb Space Telescope 1607:National Ignition Facility 1511: 1467:formulating the hypothesis 1417: 1272: 597: 591: 587: 283:Interdisciplinary sciences 49: 29: 13830: 13775:Politicization of science 13735: 13521: 13290: 13225: 13137: 13102: 13079: 13004: 12836: 12738: 12668: 12611:Semantic view of theories 12530:Epistemological anarchism 12482: 12467:dependent and independent 12204: 12095:by Steven D. Schafersman. 12022:Resources in your library 11676:, New York: Basic Books, 11485:, Oxford University Press 11014:Introductory Orientations 10994:(2nd ed.), Doubleday 10952:, New York: W.W. Norton, 10773:10.1103/RevModPhys.82.939 10375:Cowles, Henry M. (2020), 10295:Brody, Thomas A. (1993), 9854:"Regarding the Misuse of 9740:Singapore Medical Journal 9576:Knorr-Cetina, K. (1999). 9543:Social Studies of Science 8873:10.1007/s13194-019-0253-9 8593:Einstein, Albert (1961). 7603:Needham & Wang (1954) 6165:Einstein, Albert (1949). 6093:Bynum & Porter (2005) 5623:; Sankey, Howard (2007). 5517:Thurs, Daniel P. (2015), 4906:v. 6, paragraphs 452–85, 4853:Oxford English Dictionary 4363:who else might know this? 4054:See Motte's translation ( 3656:internally logically true 3604:, which Pólya takes from 3575: 3560: 3545: 3530: 3523: 3518: 3253:. He used the concept of 3024:Epistemological anarchism 3018:Epistemological anarchism 2886:methodological naturalism 1980:, political or religious 1833:Scientific data archiving 1420:Prediction § Science 13182:Philosophy of technology 12353:Intertheoretic reduction 12342:Ignoramus et ignorabimus 12319:Functional contextualism 12121:(archived 28 April 2006) 11170:Popper, Karl R. (1963), 10338:The Landmarks of Science 9650:Kuhn, Thomas S. (2009). 9432:10.1177/1746197916648283 8980:Bauer, Henry H. (1992). 8117:Strickberger's Evolution 7760:10.1515/9783110325867.33 7412:Hanson, Norwood (1958), 7252:, pp. xxvii–xxviii. 7054:, if this scheme were a 6738:"LHC long term schedule" 6466:"The Secret of Photo 51" 6192:Aristotle (trans. 1853) 5488:Smolin, Lee (May 2013). 5276:Kepler, Johannes (1604) 5199:Inwood, Stephen (2003). 4754:Poincaré homology sphere 4633:Alistair Cameron Crombie 3956:building physical models 3942:affirming the consequent 3771: 3722:Evidence-based practices 2877:science from non-science 2857:Philosophy and discourse 1335:, borrowing a page from 690:Giambattista della Porta 338:Research and development 12838:Philosophers of science 12616:Scientific essentialism 12565:Model-dependent realism 12500:Constructive empiricism 12393:Evidence-based practice 12103:University of Rochester 11614:and Capaldi, Nicholas, 11588:Beveridge, William I.B. 10809:Jevons, William Stanley 10451:D. C. Heath and Company 9907:Anderson, Chris (2008) 9722:, Economist Books, 2003 9720:Intellectual Impostures 9360:Science & Education 9284:Science & Education 8553:10.1002/ejsp.2420250407 8430:E Brian Davies (2006). 8341:8 November 2022 at the 8275:. pp. 62–74 (72). 7626:Ronald R. Sims (2003). 7579:model-dependent realism 7483:The Demon-Haunted World 7263:NIH Data Sharing Policy 6230:Popular Science Monthly 6104:Crick, Francis (1994), 5911:Popular Science Monthly 5688:. New York: Routledge. 4969:Elizabeth Asmis (1985) 4868:– via OED Online. 4780:Newton, Isaac (1999) . 4383:Popular Science Monthly 4351:inquiry-based education 4323:, at that time denoted 4265:, using experiments on 3318:discovery of penicillin 3227:On the idea of Fleck's 3068:Philosophy of education 2780:will breed stagnation. 2532:Monte-Carlo simulations 2404:probabilistic reasoning 2078:Muybridge's photographs 2025:model-dependent realism 1843:Foundational principles 1655:Scholarly communication 1261:, rather than to study 1237:with, "I do not define 925:philosophers of science 13255:Sociology of knowledge 12921:Alfred North Whitehead 12911:Charles Sanders Peirce 11984:Conceptual Revolutions 11691:Crombie, A.C. (1953), 11459:Taleb, Nassim Nicholas 11125:Pólya, George (2009). 11085:Science and Hypothesis 11051:Ørsted, Hans Christian 11042:, Third edition. From 10897:Proofs and Refutations 10838:, Simon and Schuster, 10815:, Dover Publications, 10134:Henri Poincaré, Sur l’ 10083:H.S.M. Coxeter (1973) 9918:. Wired Magazine 16.07 9752:10.11622/smedj.2015105 9278:Emden, Markus (2021). 8916:10.1002/sce.3730710402 8502:Listen to the Gentiles 8467:The American Economist 7967:Christopher M. Bishop 7752:Reason and Rationality 7388:10.1103/PhysRev.43.491 6236:: 286–302 – via 5670:reflective equilibrium 5320:Galileo Galilei (1638) 5232:Hooke, Robert (1705). 4829:, 2016, archived from 4719: 4713:described it in 1995: 4474: 4471:His assertions in the 4443:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi 4425:Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī 3683:Proofs and Refutations 3634:Proofs and Refutations 3326:scientific discoveries 3321: 3239:Norwood Russell Hanson 3141:Sociology of knowledge 3015: 2959:scientific disciplines 2873:the underpinning logic 2820: 2748: 2710: 2520:Mathematical modelling 2515:Mathematical modelling 2487:and particularly with 2431:and their testing via 2365:process for validation 2227: 2219: 2130: 1929: 1897: 1761:Georg Wilhelm Richmann 1730:atmospheric refraction 1695:accuracy and precision 1691: 1675:of the physical shapes 1631:controlled experiments 1619:adjunct infrastructure 1546: 1447: 1385: 1333:Charles Sanders Peirce 1314:existential statements 1302: 1269:Hypothesis development 1187: 1154:scientific instruments 1073: 1042:transforming principle 962:the educational system 884: 672:approach described by 538:coupled with rigorous 245:Extrascientific fields 13913:Philosophy of science 13908:Scientific Revolution 13822:Transition management 13812:Technology assessment 13780:Regulation of science 13755:Evidence-based policy 13640:Sociotechnical system 13489:Traditional knowledge 13369:Psychology of science 13342:Mapping controversies 13248:shaping of technology 13207:Social constructivism 13172:Philosophy of science 13129:History of technology 13020:Philosophy portal 12771:Hard and soft science 12766:Faith and rationality 12635:Scientific skepticism 12415:Scientific Revolution 12198:Philosophy of science 12146:by Nick Josh Karean, 11627:, W.A. Benjamin, 1968 11602:Bernstein, Richard J. 11493:(12 September 2019). 10602:English translation: 10030:George Pólya (1954), 10017:George Pólya (1954), 8776:Science & Society 8714:Out of My Later Years 8677:Krantz, S.G. (2005). 8505:Question the question 8233:Mark Colyvan (2001). 7414:Patterns of Discovery 6437:Greenwich Observatory 6419:. One expedition, to 6167:The World as I See It 5694:10.4324/9781315100708 5645:10.4324/9781315711959 5568:Snyder, Mark (1984). 4896:: 90–112 – via 4714: 4388:, January 1878, p.286 4317:, which is Alhazen's 4177:. The values which a 3754:Research transparency 3748:Quantitative research 3489:, and others such as 3339:Nassim Nicholas Taleb 3315: 3001: 2939:philosophy of science 2863:Philosophy of science 2807: 2735: 2701: 2659:(the trivial element) 2548:testable explanations 2408:statistical mechanics 2225: 2199: 2113: 1919: 1911:philosophy of science 1884: 1658: 1651:Scientific literature 1599:Large Hadron Collider 1526:King's College London 1517: 1423: 1418:Further information: 1371: 1278: 1174: 1166:particle accelerators 1109:some definitions and 1025: 929:experimental sciences 894:scientific revolution 881:there are many others 874: 831:have been used since 654:scientific revolution 544:cognitive assumptions 526:method for acquiring 482:Philosophy portal 414:Science communication 258:Communication studies 13727:Women in engineering 13573:Financial technology 13553:Digital anthropology 13322:Criticism of science 13235:Actor–network theory 13197:Religion and science 13089:Economics of science 12746:Criticism of science 12621:Scientific formalism 12505:Constructive realism 12410:Scientific pluralism 12383:Problem of induction 11714:The Scientific Image 11710:Fraassen, Bas C. van 10718:Godfrey-Smith, Peter 10547:, Univ. of Chicago, 9981:(2) (2006), 165–492. 8808:Kevin Knight (1989) 8659:universal statements 8334:Also available from 8271:. Berlin; New York: 7497:Godfrey-Smith (2003) 7102:Liber de crepusculis 7094:Treatise On Twilight 6349:Tobacco mosaic virus 5988:, esp. chapters 5–8. 5932:Peirce, Charles S., 5839:Godfrey-Smith, Peter 5371:Godfrey-Smith (2003) 5104:Planetary Hypotheses 4908:The Essential Peirce 4745:Euler characteristic 4359:is this answer true? 4233:Cognitive revolution 4219:facts have lifetimes 4048:Isaac Newton (1727) 3664:Euler characteristic 3639:informal mathematics 3425:that condition it". 3415:predictive analytics 3404:scientific modelling 3043:methodological rules 2933:Scientific pluralism 2507:, which are used in 2481:inductivist approach 2307:theory of relativity 2017:scientific modelling 1950:discovery of Neptune 1854:Scientific integrity 1726:Treatise On Twilight 1716:was less dense than 1559:experimental control 1318:universal statements 1275:Hypothesis formation 1198:usage. For example, 1059:pictures of various 1050:Cambridge University 921:scientific community 801:historian of science 611:scientific reasoning 371:Scientific integrity 353:Vocational education 288:Knowledge management 178:Behavioural sciences 42:For other uses, see 13568:Engineering studies 13538:Cyborg anthropology 13327:Demarcation problem 13212:Social epistemology 12813:Rhetoric of science 12751:Descriptive science 12495:Confirmation holism 12388:Scientific evidence 12348:Inductive reasoning 12277:Demarcation problem 12037:"Scientific Method" 11944:Renewing Philosophy 11916:Scientific American 11876:McComas, William F. 11742:Gadamer, Hans-Georg 11695:, Oxford: Clarendon 11511:2019PLSCB..15E7279V 11307:1976PhT....29b..51S 11071:Peirce, C.S. – see 10765:2010RvMP...82..939G 10627:, pp. 261–264. 10160:Notices of the AMS. 9466:(London, 1967), 16. 8951:2003IJSEd..25.1049O 8908:1987SciEd..71..459A 8822:Feyerabend, Paul K. 8009:Hempel, Carl Gustav 7677:"Scientific Method" 7380:1933PhRv...43..491A 7290:Logik der Forschung 7132:2006PhT....59a..42K 6820:. 12 January 2015. 6407:In March 1917, the 6280:1964Sci...146..347P 5917:: 1–15 – via 5081:Critique of Ptolemy 4823:"scientific method" 4747:notes that it took 4583:Friedel Weinert in 4508:argued that merely 4204:Thought collectives 4169:, which describe a 3687:thought experiments 3672:homological algebra 3589:Test and experiment 3520:Mathematical method 3468:Poincaré conjecture 3392:transdisciplinarity 3229:thought collectives 3199:high energy physics 3175:thought collectives 3164:thought, echoed in 3156:Thought collectives 3152:those ideas arise. 3072:Scientific literacy 2757:reviewed prior work 2640:Confirmation theory 2557:scientific theories 2509:encryption software 2469:abductive reasoning 2433:deductive reasoning 2381:boy or girl paradox 2184:Inductive reasoning 2180:Deductive reasoning 2082:The Horse in Motion 1732:of the sun's rays. 1490:gravitational field 1459:deductive reasoning 1356:abductive reasoning 1325:inductive reasoning 1241:, space, place and 1225:begins by defining 1126:scientific question 1079:can also be called 1034:genetic inheritance 853:Elements of inquiry 688:, and performed by 556:inductive reasoning 18:Scientific research 13848:History of science 13765:Funding of science 13635:Skunkworks project 13332:Double hermeneutic 13117:History of science 13032:Science portal 12961:Carl Gustav Hempel 12916:Wilhelm Windelband 12803:Questionable cause 12626:Scientific realism 12447:Underdetermination 12282:Empirical evidence 12272:Creative synthesis 12131:Scientific Methods 12091:2018-01-01 at the 12035:; Hepburn, Brian. 11867:2018-02-20 at the 11794:Karin Knorr Cetina 11772:Heisenberg, Werner 11635:Grandy, Richard E. 11623:2023-04-13 at the 11325:Sanches, Francisco 11164:(English ed.) 10915:Lindberg, David C. 10569:2023-04-06 at the 10176:2021-07-04 at the 9938:2021-08-26 at the 9914:2021-05-02 at the 9478:History and Theory 9452:Here, King quotes 8657:Consequently, the 8511:Simplify, simplify 8418:in all situations. 7559:"What is reality?" 7268:2012-05-13 at the 7078:2022-09-21 at the 6873:2021-12-23 at the 6724:2021-08-20 at the 6713:2021-08-17 at the 6557:2011-05-24 at the 6201:2021-09-10 at the 6083:Andreas Vesalius, 6007:2021-09-01 at the 5797:Maribel Fernández 5523:Numbers, Ronald L. 5035:2019-12-30 at the 4526:ethical principles 3376:misuse of p-values 3322: 3233:situated cognition 3207:epistemic cultures 3195:Karin Knorr Cetina 2985:logical positivism 2921:Grammar of Science 2890:Logical positivist 2822:The discussion on 2573:empirical findings 2538:Scientific inquiry 2414:Methods of inquiry 2396:survey methodology 2361:Research questions 2228: 2220: 2213:apsidal precession 2139:Eadweard Muybridge 2057:Théodore Géricault 2040:Beliefs and biases 1930: 1805:scientific journal 1785:experimental group 1781:experimental error 1551:crucial experiment 1478:general relativity 1329:Bayesian inference 1310:mathematical model 1221:'s first paper on 1119:empirical research 885: 797:ethical principles 763:popular guidelines 607:history of science 582:scientific inquiry 467:Science portal 13903:Scientific method 13890: 13889: 13817:Technology policy 13548:Dematerialization 13357:black swan events 13039: 13038: 12881: 12880: 12793:Normative science 12650:Uniformitarianism 12405:Scientific method 12299:Explanatory power 12077:Scientific method 12068:Scientific method 12013:Scientific method 12008:Library resources 11960:Salmon, Wesley C. 11856:Maxwell, Nicholas 11846:Maxwell, Nicholas 11811:978-0-674-25894-5 11734:978-1-59403-207-3 11683:978-0-465-09137-9 11491:Voit, Eberhard O. 11474:978-1-4000-6351-2 11450:978-0-226-31783-0 11350:Critical edition. 11338:978-0-521-35077-8 11315:10.1063/1.3023315 11284:978-0-87663-712-8 11269:Sambursky, Shmuel 11237:978-0-415-12411-9 11138:978-4-87187-830-2 11064:978-0-691-04334-0 11038:978-0-520-08817-7 10982:978-0-7382-0866-4 10959:978-0-393-30450-3 10938:978-0-7503-0106-0 10923:2nd edition 2007. 10907:978-0-521-29038-8 10830:, New York, 1958. 10822:978-1-4304-8775-3 10731:978-0-226-30063-4 10709:978-0-8047-2285-8 10673:978-0-521-01708-4 10652:978-0-521-81689-2 10618:978-0-486-60099-4 10554:978-0-226-25325-1 10530:978-0-262-56003-0 10507:978-0-671-20156-2 10477:978-0-521-29925-1 10433:978-0-8122-1057-6 10367:978-0-19-858409-4 10349:978-0-8160-2137-6 10342:, Facts on File, 10332:Bruno, Leonard C. 10312:978-0-387-55914-8 10272:978-0-7546-6865-7 10232:978-1-4907-1446-2 10085:Regular Polytopes 9833:Taleb, Nassim N. 9663:978-1-4432-5544-8 9587:978-0-674-25893-8 9242:978-1-77420-005-6 9198:978-0-7817-5565-8 8991:978-0-252-06436-4 8896:Science Education 8760:978-94-007-0142-7 8690:978-0-88385-554-6 8604:978-0-517-88441-6 8158:978-0-19-517234-8 8131:978-0-7637-0066-9 8104:, pp. 44–45. 7928:978-0-14-312710-9 7818:(1164): 793–798. 7769:978-3-11-032514-0 7728:. 16 April 2020. 7593:, pp. 29–31. 7499:, pp. 19–74. 7455:978-3-030-54217-7 7423:978-0-521-05197-2 7141:10.1063/1.2180176 7098:Opticae Thesaurus 6922:De Motu Stellarum 6631:Mill, John Stuart 6497:Cynthia Wolberger 6375:Acta Crystallogr. 6335:at the same time. 6253:, pp. 37–38. 5854:978-0-226-30062-7 5774:di Francia (1981) 5703:978-1-315-10070-8 5591:978-0-12-015218-6 5536:978-0-674-91547-3 5416:978-0-8018-7943-2 5210:978-1-931561-56-3 5020:Treatise on Light 4984:Treatise on Light 4982:Alhacen (c.1035) 4808:978-0-520-08817-7 4637:Margaret Morrison 4599:(1949 and 1953), 4329:Opticae Thesaurus 3596:In Pólya's view, 3594: 3593: 3525:Scientific method 3263:Intersubjectivity 3203:molecular biology 3078:science education 2629:molecular biology 2497:research question 2147:Appeal to novelty 2105:confirmation bias 1938:intersubjectivity 1837:World Data Center 1769:Benjamin Franklin 1741:enter the process 1687:Rosalind Franklin 1637:(853–929 CE) and 1530:Rosalind Franklin 1404:confirmation bias 1091:Benjamin Franklin 1082:unsolved problems 1022:Characterizations 982:Define a question 813:narrative fallacy 753:Dewey's 1910 book 702:Francisco Sanches 647:William of Ockham 520:scientific method 516: 515: 429:Scientific method 419:Science education 360: 359: 343:Strategic studies 135:Scientific fields 16:(Redirected from 13925: 13863: 13862: 13838: 13790:Right to science 13770:Horizon scanning 13745:Academic freedom 13645:Technical change 13506:Women in science 13501:Unity of science 13282:Strong programme 13066: 13059: 13052: 13043: 13042: 13030: 13029: 13018: 13017: 13016: 12991:Bas van Fraassen 12946:Hans Reichenbach 12926:Bertrand Russell 12843: 12842: 12669:Philosophy of... 12452:Unity of science 12245:Commensurability 12191: 12184: 12177: 12168: 12167: 12113:Theory-ladenness 12064: 12050: 12041:Zalta, Edward N. 11901:Misak, Cheryl J. 11897: 11895: 11884: 11815: 11752:Giere, Ronald N. 11737: 11696: 11686: 11645:Burks, Arthur W. 11631:Brody, Baruch A. 11612:Brody, Baruch A. 11564: 11560:The Double Helix 11555:Watson, James D. 11550: 11540: 11522: 11486: 11477: 11467:, Random House, 11454: 11435: 11410: 11380: 11349: 11317: 11287: 11263: 11241: 11219: 11217: 11211:, archived from 11200: 11184: 11165: 11150: 11122: 11100: 11098: 11097: 11067: 11044:I. Bernard Cohen 11041: 11018: 10995: 10985: 10962: 10941: 10922: 10910: 10887: 10848: 10825: 10804: 10783: 10758: 10734: 10712: 10701: 10687: 10686: 10685: 10656: 10622: 10598: 10596:House of Elzevir 10557: 10533: 10515:Feynman, Richard 10510: 10499: 10486:Einstein, Albert 10480: 10461: 10436: 10416: 10414: 10413: 10389: 10370: 10352: 10341: 10326: 10325: 10324: 10287: 10275: 10247: 10245: 10244: 10205: 10199: 10193: 10187: 10181: 10156: 10150: 10132: 10126: 10125: 10123: 10122: 10116: 10109: 10101: 10095: 10081: 10075: 10065: 10059: 10053: 10047: 10041: 10035: 10028: 10022: 10015: 10009: 10002: 9996: 9990: 9984: 9965: 9959: 9949: 9943: 9925: 9919: 9905: 9899: 9898: 9896: 9895: 9877: 9849: 9843: 9842: 9837:. Archived from 9830: 9824: 9823: 9805: 9796: 9789: 9778: 9777: 9763: 9731: 9725: 9683: 9677: 9674: 9668: 9667: 9647: 9641: 9635: 9629: 9628:, p. xxviii 9623: 9617: 9616:, pp. 38–50 9606: 9600: 9599: 9573: 9567: 9566: 9538: 9532: 9531: 9529: 9528: 9516: 9510: 9509: 9473: 9467: 9450: 9444: 9443: 9417: 9408: 9402: 9401: 9391: 9351: 9345: 9344: 9316: 9310: 9309: 9299: 9290:(5): 1037–1039. 9275: 9264: 9261: 9255: 9254: 9226: 9220: 9216: 9210: 9208: 9206: 9205: 9182: 9173: 9172: 9136: 9127: 9126: 9086: 9077: 9076: 9040: 9034: 9033: 9005: 8996: 8995: 8977: 8971: 8970: 8945:(9): 1049–1079. 8934: 8928: 8927: 8891: 8885: 8884: 8856: 8850: 8849: 8847: 8835: 8829: 8819: 8813: 8806: 8800: 8799: 8771: 8765: 8764: 8735: 8729: 8726: 8717: 8710: 8701: 8700: 8698: 8697: 8674: 8668: 8667: 8615: 8609: 8608: 8590: 8584: 8582: 8574: 8565: 8564: 8532: 8526: 8520: 8514: 8508:Dare to be silly 8498: 8462: 8456: 8450: 8444: 8443: 8427: 8421: 8420: 8402:The Grand Design 8395: 8389: 8388: 8376: 8370: 8369: 8357: 8346: 8333: 8331: 8330: 8312: 8303: 8302: 8262: 8251: 8250: 8230: 8221: 8217: 8211: 8210: 8180: 8174: 8173: 8171: 8170: 8142: 8136: 8135: 8111: 8105: 8099: 8090: 8083: 8077: 8069: 8060: 8054: 8048: 8037: 8031: 8025: 8023: 8022: 8005: 7999: 7993: 7972: 7965: 7959: 7958: 7956: 7955: 7932: 7914: 7908: 7907: 7897: 7879: 7855: 7844: 7843: 7807: 7801: 7792: 7786: 7780: 7774: 7773: 7747: 7741: 7740: 7738: 7737: 7714: 7708: 7702: 7691: 7690: 7688: 7687: 7672: 7666: 7665:, pp. 1–19. 7660: 7654: 7648: 7639: 7633: 7624: 7618: 7612: 7606: 7600: 7594: 7588: 7582: 7576: 7563:The Grand Design 7554: 7543: 7540:Collected Papers 7537: 7521: 7515: 7514: 7506: 7500: 7494: 7488: 7487: 7474: 7468: 7467: 7433: 7427: 7426: 7409: 7400: 7399: 7363: 7357: 7351: 7345: 7335: 7333: 7332: 7326: 7319: 7310: 7304: 7303: 7279: 7273: 7259: 7253: 7247: 7241: 7240: 7230: 7220: 7194: 7188: 7187: 7185: 7184: 7178: 7171: 7163: 7157: 7156: 7143: 7111: 7105: 7065: 7059: 7037: 7031: 7005: 6999: 6989: 6983: 6977: 6971: 6965: 6959: 6953: 6947: 6941: 6932: 6915: 6909: 6908: 6906: 6905: 6899: 6892: 6884: 6878: 6864: 6858: 6857: 6855: 6854: 6839: 6833: 6832: 6830: 6829: 6814: 6808: 6807: 6805: 6804: 6789: 6783: 6782: 6780: 6779: 6764: 6758: 6756: 6754: 6753: 6734: 6728: 6704: 6698: 6697: 6655: 6642: 6628: 6622: 6619:Chargaff's rules 6612: 6601: 6600: 6595: 6594: 6583:Collected Papers 6574: 6563: 6548: 6537: 6527: 6521: 6511: 6502: 6494: 6485: 6484: 6482: 6481: 6462: 6456: 6405: 6399: 6389: 6383: 6370: 6364: 6358: 6352: 6342: 6336: 6306: 6300: 6299: 6260: 6254: 6248: 6242: 6241: 6227: 6219: 6206: 6189: 6183: 6177: 6171: 6170: 6162: 6156: 6150: 6144: 6142: 6134: 6128: 6122: 6116: 6102: 6096: 6081: 6075: 6073: 6071: 6070: 6042: 6036: 6030: 6024: 6018: 6012: 5995: 5989: 5983: 5977: 5976: 5956: 5950: 5944: 5938: 5934:Collected Papers 5930: 5924: 5922: 5908: 5900: 5891: 5879: 5870: 5869: 5867: 5866: 5835: 5829: 5823: 5817: 5807: 5801: 5795: 5789: 5783: 5777: 5752: 5743: 5742: 5737: 5736: 5730: 5723: 5714: 5708: 5707: 5681: 5675: 5674: 5617: 5611: 5605: 5596: 5595: 5565: 5556: 5555: 5549: 5548: 5514: 5505: 5504: 5502: 5501: 5485: 5476: 5475: 5470: 5463: 5449: 5440: 5434: 5421: 5420: 5402: 5393: 5387: 5374: 5368: 5362: 5356: 5350: 5341: 5335: 5329: 5323: 5317: 5308: 5307: 5274: 5268: 5267: 5265: 5258: 5248: 5242: 5241: 5229: 5223: 5222: 5196: 5190: 5180: 5174: 5167: 5161: 5155: 5149: 5143: 5137: 5135: 5133: 5132: 5094:Sambursky (1975) 5065: 5054: 5051:Sambursky (1975) 5027: 5026: 5016: 5010: 5004: 4995: 4988:Shmuel Sambursky 4980: 4974: 4967: 4961: 4947: 4938: 4932: 4923: 4917: 4911: 4904:Collected Papers 4901: 4887: 4879: 4870: 4869: 4867: 4866: 4856: 4847: 4841: 4840: 4839: 4838: 4819: 4813: 4812: 4777: 4758: 4741: 4732: 4726: 4720: 4702: 4696: 4693: 4687: 4662: 4656: 4625:Nicholas Maxwell 4617:Michael Friedman 4581: 4572: 4563: 4557: 4551: 4545: 4539: 4533: 4522: 4513: 4502: 4496: 4492:Two New Sciences 4487: 4481: 4477: 4469: 4454: 4418: 4405: 4395: 4389: 4376: 4370: 4347: 4334: 4315:Kitab al-Manazir 4311:Charles M. Falco 4297:Sambursky (1975) 4280: 4274: 4255: 4240: 4227:Fleck 1979, p.27 4200: 4194: 4173:of mathematical 4159: 4153: 4150:Arthur Eddington 4147: 4138: 4134: 4128: 4116: 4110: 4096: 4090: 4083: 4077: 4066: 4060: 4046: 4037: 4031: 4025: 4022:John Stuart Mill 4014: 4008: 4005: 3999: 3996:Two New Sciences 3992: 3986: 3979: 3973: 3965: 3959: 3951: 3945: 3930: 3924: 3921: 3915: 3912: 3906: 3903:Jacques Herbrand 3895: 3889: 3885: 3879: 3867: 3861: 3849: 3838: 3831: 3825: 3817: 3808: 3784: 3727: 3718: 3514: 3513: 3491:Lakoff and Núñez 3297:Limits of method 3271:strong programme 3013: 2993:special sciences 2979:Unity of science 2955:research methods 2898:falsificationist 2818: 2746: 2585:almost perfectly 2475:Inductive method 2389:random variables 2168:Donald M. MacKay 2128: 2074: 2052: 2004:associated with 1895: 1816:supply this data 1791:gets a placebo. 1702:Published papers 1664: 1663: 1555:further testing. 1523: 1522: 1494:Arthur Eddington 1429: 1428: 1408:strong inference 1402:To minimize the 1383: 1284: 1283: 1212:units of measure 1196:natural language 1185: 1182:Andreas Vesalius 1089:.) For example, 1063:, starting with 1031: 1030: 998:Analyze the data 862: 861: 843:Two New Sciences 563:field of inquiry 508: 501: 494: 480: 479: 478: 465: 464: 424:Research funding 293:Language studies 225:Applied sciences 161:Natural sciences 131: 130: 59: 58: 47: 40: 21: 13933: 13932: 13928: 13927: 13926: 13924: 13923: 13922: 13893: 13892: 13891: 13886: 13826: 13785:Research ethics 13731: 13630:Reverse salient 13524: 13517: 13293: 13286: 13277:Sociotechnology 13221: 13133: 13098: 13075: 13070: 13040: 13035: 13024: 13014: 13012: 13000: 12981:Paul Feyerabend 12941:Michael Polanyi 12877: 12863:Galileo Galilei 12832: 12818:Science studies 12734: 12664: 12655:Verificationism 12560:Instrumentalism 12545:Foundationalism 12520:Conventionalism 12478: 12314:Feminist method 12200: 12195: 12156:Richard Dawkins 12152:Michael Shermer 12093:Wayback Machine 12053: 12033:Andersen, Hanne 12028: 12027: 12026: 12016: 12015: 12011: 12004: 11999: 11930:Popper, Karl R. 11893: 11882: 11869:Wayback Machine 11819:Kuhn, Thomas S. 11812: 11735: 11721:Franklin, James 11684: 11625:Wayback Machine 11578:Bauer, Henry H. 11573: 11571:Further reading 11568: 11505:(9): e1007279. 11475: 11451: 11399:10.2307/3657357 11369:10.2307/3657358 11339: 11285: 11238: 11215: 11209: 11198: 11190:Popper, Karl R. 11182: 11156:Popper, Karl R. 11139: 11111:How to Solve It 11095: 11093: 11080:Poincaré, Henri 11065: 11039: 11005:Wang, Ling (王玲) 11001:Needham, Joseph 10983: 10975:, Basic Books, 10960: 10946:McCarty, Maclyn 10939: 10908: 10853:Kuhn, Thomas S. 10846: 10823: 10802: 10742:Rev. Mod. Phys. 10732: 10710: 10683: 10681: 10674: 10653: 10619: 10605:Galileo Galilei 10578:Galileo Galilei 10571:Wayback Machine 10555: 10531: 10508: 10490:Infeld, Leopold 10478: 10434: 10411: 10409: 10387: 10368: 10350: 10322: 10320: 10313: 10297:Luis de la Peña 10273: 10242: 10240: 10233: 10214: 10209: 10208: 10200: 10196: 10188: 10184: 10178:Wayback Machine 10157: 10153: 10133: 10129: 10120: 10118: 10114: 10107: 10103: 10102: 10098: 10082: 10078: 10066: 10062: 10054: 10050: 10042: 10038: 10029: 10025: 10016: 10012: 10003: 9999: 9991: 9987: 9966: 9962: 9950: 9946: 9940:Wayback Machine 9926: 9922: 9916:Wayback Machine 9906: 9902: 9893: 9891: 9850: 9846: 9831: 9827: 9820: 9806: 9799: 9790: 9781: 9732: 9728: 9697:, Picador. 1999 9684: 9680: 9675: 9671: 9664: 9648: 9644: 9636: 9632: 9624: 9620: 9607: 9603: 9588: 9574: 9570: 9539: 9535: 9526: 9524: 9517: 9513: 9490:10.2307/2504396 9474: 9470: 9454:Peter L. Berger 9451: 9447: 9415: 9409: 9405: 9352: 9348: 9317: 9313: 9276: 9267: 9262: 9258: 9243: 9227: 9223: 9217: 9213: 9203: 9201: 9199: 9183: 9176: 9153:10.2307/4450823 9137: 9130: 9087: 9080: 9057:10.2307/4451400 9041: 9037: 9006: 8999: 8992: 8978: 8974: 8935: 8931: 8892: 8888: 8857: 8853: 8836: 8832: 8820: 8816: 8807: 8803: 8772: 8768: 8761: 8736: 8732: 8727: 8720: 8711: 8704: 8695: 8693: 8691: 8675: 8671: 8645: 8616: 8612: 8605: 8591: 8587: 8575: 8568: 8533: 8529: 8521: 8517: 8463: 8459: 8451: 8447: 8436:PhilSci Archive 8428: 8424: 8413: 8396: 8392: 8377: 8373: 8358: 8349: 8343:Wayback Machine 8328: 8326: 8313: 8306: 8291: 8281:10.1007/b138529 8273:Springer-Verlag 8263: 8254: 8247: 8231: 8224: 8218: 8214: 8207: 8181: 8177: 8168: 8166: 8159: 8143: 8139: 8132: 8112: 8108: 8100: 8093: 8084: 8080: 8070: 8063: 8055: 8051: 8038: 8034: 8020: 8018: 8006: 8002: 7994: 7975: 7966: 7962: 7953: 7951: 7929: 7915: 7911: 7856: 7847: 7808: 7804: 7793: 7789: 7781: 7777: 7770: 7748: 7744: 7735: 7733: 7722:Science Release 7716: 7715: 7711: 7705:Gauch Jr (2002) 7703: 7694: 7685: 7683: 7673: 7669: 7661: 7657: 7649: 7642: 7636:Business Ethics 7631: 7625: 7621: 7613: 7609: 7601: 7597: 7591:Gauch Jr (2002) 7589: 7585: 7573: 7555: 7546: 7522: 7518: 7507: 7503: 7495: 7491: 7475: 7471: 7456: 7434: 7430: 7424: 7410: 7403: 7368:Physical Review 7364: 7360: 7354:Gauch Jr (2002) 7352: 7348: 7330: 7328: 7324: 7317: 7311: 7307: 7300: 7280: 7276: 7270:Wayback Machine 7260: 7256: 7248: 7244: 7195: 7191: 7182: 7180: 7176: 7169: 7165: 7164: 7160: 7112: 7108: 7080:Wayback Machine 7066: 7062: 7040:McElheny (2004) 7038: 7034: 7006: 7002: 6992:McElheny (2004) 6990: 6986: 6980:McElheny (2004) 6978: 6974: 6968:McElheny (2004) 6966: 6962: 6954: 6950: 6942: 6935: 6916: 6912: 6903: 6901: 6897: 6890: 6886: 6885: 6881: 6875:Wayback Machine 6865: 6861: 6852: 6850: 6841: 6840: 6836: 6827: 6825: 6816: 6815: 6811: 6802: 6800: 6791: 6790: 6786: 6777: 6775: 6766: 6765: 6761: 6751: 6749: 6736: 6735: 6731: 6726:Wayback Machine 6715:Wayback Machine 6705: 6701: 6670: 6656: 6645: 6629: 6625: 6615:McElheny (2004) 6613: 6604: 6592: 6590: 6575: 6566: 6559:Wayback Machine 6549: 6540: 6528: 6524: 6514:McElheny (2004) 6512: 6505: 6495: 6488: 6479: 6477: 6464: 6463: 6459: 6406: 6402: 6398:April 25, 1953. 6392:McElheny (2004) 6390: 6386: 6371: 6367: 6361:McElheny (2004) 6359: 6355: 6343: 6339: 6321:supernova 1987a 6311:, for teaching 6307: 6303: 6261: 6257: 6249: 6245: 6220: 6209: 6203:Wayback Machine 6194:Prior Analytics 6190: 6186: 6178: 6174: 6163: 6159: 6153:McElheny (2004) 6151: 6147: 6140: 6139:, p. 157. 6135: 6131: 6125:McElheny (2004) 6123: 6119: 6103: 6099: 6082: 6078: 6068: 6066: 6059: 6043: 6039: 6033:McElheny (2004) 6031: 6027: 6019: 6015: 6009:Wayback Machine 5996: 5992: 5984: 5980: 5957: 5953: 5945: 5941: 5931: 5927: 5901: 5894: 5887:epistemic cycle 5880: 5873: 5864: 5862: 5855: 5836: 5832: 5824: 5820: 5810:Lindberg (2007) 5808: 5804: 5796: 5792: 5784: 5780: 5753: 5746: 5734: 5732: 5728: 5721: 5715: 5711: 5704: 5682: 5678: 5655: 5618: 5614: 5606: 5599: 5592: 5566: 5559: 5546: 5544: 5537: 5515: 5508: 5499: 5497: 5486: 5479: 5471:on 2017-10-13. 5468: 5461: 5451: 5450: 5443: 5435: 5424: 5417: 5403: 5396: 5388: 5377: 5369: 5365: 5360:The Empiricists 5357: 5353: 5342: 5338: 5330: 5326: 5318: 5311: 5275: 5271: 5263: 5256: 5250: 5249: 5245: 5230: 5226: 5211: 5197: 5193: 5181: 5177: 5168: 5164: 5156: 5152: 5146:Alikuzai (2013) 5144: 5140: 5130: 5128: 5121: 5107: 5078:965 – c. 1040) 5066: 5057: 5037:Wayback Machine 5017: 5013: 5005: 4998: 4981: 4977: 4968: 4964: 4956:(1837), and in 4950:William Whewell 4948: 4941: 4933: 4926: 4918: 4914: 4890:Hibbert Journal 4880: 4873: 4864: 4862: 4849: 4848: 4844: 4836: 4834: 4821: 4820: 4816: 4809: 4778: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4742: 4735: 4727: 4723: 4703: 4699: 4694: 4690: 4663: 4659: 4641:Richard Feynman 4582: 4575: 4564: 4560: 4552: 4548: 4540: 4536: 4523: 4516: 4510:Trial and Error 4503: 4499: 4488: 4484: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4457: 4419: 4412: 4408: 4396: 4392: 4377: 4373: 4367:can I ask them? 4348: 4337: 4281: 4277: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4243: 4239: 4208:denkkollektiven 4201: 4197: 4160: 4156: 4148: 4141: 4135: 4131: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4097: 4093: 4087:Gauch Jr (2002) 4084: 4080: 4067: 4063: 4047: 4040: 4032: 4028: 4015: 4011: 4006: 4002: 3993: 3989: 3980: 3976: 3966: 3962: 3952: 3948: 3931: 3927: 3922: 3918: 3913: 3909: 3896: 3892: 3886: 3882: 3868: 3864: 3850: 3841: 3832: 3828: 3818: 3811: 3797:Euclid's Optics 3785: 3778: 3774: 3725: 3716: 3709: 3660:rewriting forms 3501:problem solving 3487:Gregory Chaitin 3431: 3388: 3359: 3310: 3304: 3299: 3247:Paul Feyerabend 3225: 3215: 3158: 3149: 3143: 3074: 3064: 3052:problem solvers 3029:Paul Feyerabend 3026: 3020: 3014: 3010:Steven Weinberg 3008: 2981: 2975: 2935: 2929: 2905:unificationists 2869: 2859: 2849:as them being " 2819: 2813: 2786: 2766: 2747: 2741: 2719: 2642: 2637: 2569: 2546:in the form of 2540: 2517: 2477: 2421: 2416: 2343:sampling method 2339:data collection 2327: 2186: 2178:Main articles: 2176: 2129: 2119: 2089: 2088: 2087: 2086: 2085: 2075: 2066: 2065: 2064: 2053: 2042: 2033: 2002:Cartesian doubt 1958: 1942:Johannes Kepler 1902: 1896: 1890: 1872:reproducibility 1860: 1850: 1845: 1798:The process of 1756: 1754:Reproducibility 1750: 1737:can be archived 1661: 1657: 1647: 1641:(965–1039 CE). 1568:Factor analysis 1538:Raymond Gosling 1534:Maurice Wilkins 1520: 1516: 1510: 1484:, such as that 1443:DNA replication 1431:James D. Watson 1426: 1422: 1416: 1384: 1378: 1361:Michael Polanyi 1342:Prior Analytics 1298:James D. Watson 1281: 1277: 1271: 1219:Albert Einstein 1192: 1186: 1180: 1142:pseudo-sciences 1095:St. Elmo's fire 1028: 1024: 1016:Paul Feyerabend 1004:Publish results 933:social sciences 917: 909:William Whewell 877:ongoing process 869: 863:and indented). 859: 855: 835:(1027) and his 771:Paul Feyerabend 749: 710:George Berkeley 698:Galileo Galilei 694:Johannes Kepler 603: 596: 590: 512: 476: 474: 459: 454: 453: 409: 408: 399: 398: 394:Research ethics 389:Logical fallacy 379:Reproducibility 374: 373: 362: 361: 198:Anthropological 144:Formal sciences 128: 127: 107: 83:Article indexes 55: 48: 41: 30: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 13931: 13921: 13920: 13915: 13910: 13905: 13888: 13887: 13885: 13884: 13883: 13882: 13877: 13872: 13857: 13856: 13855: 13850: 13845: 13831: 13828: 13827: 13825: 13824: 13819: 13814: 13809: 13808: 13807: 13802: 13795:Science policy 13792: 13787: 13782: 13777: 13772: 13767: 13762: 13757: 13752: 13750:Digital divide 13747: 13741: 13739: 13733: 13732: 13730: 13729: 13724: 13723: 13722: 13717: 13712: 13707: 13702: 13694: 13693: 13692: 13687: 13682: 13677: 13672: 13666:Technological 13664: 13663: 13662: 13652: 13647: 13642: 13637: 13632: 13627: 13622: 13617: 13612: 13611: 13610: 13605: 13600: 13595: 13590: 13580: 13575: 13570: 13565: 13560: 13555: 13550: 13545: 13543:Design studies 13540: 13535: 13529: 13527: 13519: 13518: 13516: 13515: 13514: 13513: 13503: 13498: 13497: 13496: 13486: 13481: 13479:Scientometrics 13476: 13471: 13470: 13469: 13464: 13459: 13454: 13449: 13444: 13439: 13434: 13429: 13424: 13416: 13415: 13414: 13409: 13404: 13399: 13394: 13389: 13384: 13379: 13371: 13366: 13361: 13360: 13359: 13352:Paradigm shift 13349: 13344: 13339: 13334: 13329: 13324: 13319: 13314: 13309: 13304: 13298: 13296: 13288: 13287: 13285: 13284: 13279: 13274: 13269: 13264: 13263: 13262: 13252: 13251: 13250: 13245: 13237: 13231: 13229: 13223: 13222: 13220: 13219: 13214: 13209: 13204: 13199: 13194: 13192:Postpositivism 13189: 13184: 13179: 13174: 13169: 13164: 13159: 13154: 13152:Antipositivism 13149: 13143: 13141: 13135: 13134: 13132: 13131: 13126: 13125: 13124: 13122:and technology 13114: 13108: 13106: 13100: 13099: 13097: 13096: 13091: 13085: 13083: 13077: 13076: 13069: 13068: 13061: 13054: 13046: 13037: 13036: 13034: 13022: 13010: 13005: 13002: 13001: 12999: 12998: 12993: 12988: 12983: 12978: 12973: 12968: 12966:W. V. O. Quine 12963: 12958: 12953: 12948: 12943: 12938: 12933: 12928: 12923: 12918: 12913: 12908: 12903: 12901:Rudolf Steiner 12898: 12893: 12891:Henri Poincaré 12888: 12882: 12879: 12878: 12876: 12875: 12870: 12865: 12860: 12855: 12849: 12847: 12840: 12834: 12833: 12831: 12830: 12825: 12820: 12815: 12810: 12805: 12800: 12795: 12790: 12789: 12788: 12778: 12773: 12768: 12763: 12761:Exact sciences 12758: 12753: 12748: 12742: 12740: 12739:Related topics 12736: 12735: 12733: 12732: 12731: 12730: 12725: 12720: 12715: 12710: 12705: 12698:Social science 12695: 12694: 12693: 12691:Space and time 12683: 12678: 12672: 12670: 12666: 12665: 12663: 12662: 12657: 12652: 12647: 12642: 12637: 12632: 12623: 12618: 12613: 12604: 12595: 12590: 12577: 12572: 12567: 12562: 12557: 12552: 12547: 12542: 12537: 12532: 12527: 12522: 12517: 12512: 12507: 12502: 12497: 12492: 12486: 12484: 12480: 12479: 12477: 12476: 12471: 12470: 12469: 12464: 12454: 12449: 12444: 12443: 12442: 12437: 12432: 12422: 12417: 12412: 12407: 12402: 12400:Scientific law 12397: 12396: 12395: 12385: 12380: 12375: 12370: 12365: 12360: 12355: 12350: 12345: 12338: 12337: 12336: 12331: 12321: 12316: 12311: 12309:Falsifiability 12306: 12301: 12296: 12295: 12294: 12284: 12279: 12274: 12269: 12268: 12267: 12257: 12252: 12247: 12242: 12241: 12240: 12238:Mill's Methods 12230: 12219: 12214: 12208: 12206: 12202: 12201: 12194: 12193: 12186: 12179: 12171: 12165: 12164: 12159: 12141: 12135: 12127: 12122: 12116: 12110: 12105: 12096: 12083: 12074: 12065: 12051: 12025: 12024: 12018: 12017: 12006: 12005: 12003: 12002:External links 12000: 11998: 11997: 11987: 11977: 11970:Shimony, Abner 11967: 11957: 11950:Rorty, Richard 11947: 11940:Putnam, Hilary 11937: 11927: 11920: 11911:Oreskes, Naomi 11908: 11898: 11896:on 2014-07-01. 11878:, ed. (1998). 11872: 11853: 11843: 11836: 11826: 11816: 11810: 11791: 11782:Holton, Gerald 11779: 11769: 11759: 11749: 11739: 11733: 11717: 11707: 11697: 11688: 11682: 11668:Crick, Francis 11664: 11655:Chalmers, Alan 11652: 11642: 11628: 11609: 11599: 11585: 11574: 11572: 11569: 11567: 11566: 11551: 11487: 11478: 11473: 11464:The Black Swan 11455: 11449: 11436: 11411: 11393:(5): 339–819. 11381: 11351: 11337: 11321: 11320: 11319: 11283: 11277:, Pica Press, 11271:, ed. (1975), 11265: 11242: 11236: 11221: 11207: 11186: 11180: 11167: 11152: 11137: 11102: 11076: 11069: 11063: 11047: 11037: 11019: 10997: 10987: 10981: 10968: 10958: 10942: 10937: 10924: 10911: 10906: 10888: 10869:10.1086/349468 10863:(2): 161–193, 10849: 10844: 10831: 10821: 10805: 10800: 10788:Hockney, David 10784: 10749:(1): 939–979, 10736: 10730: 10714: 10708: 10694:, ed. (1994), 10688: 10672: 10657: 10651: 10630: 10629: 10628: 10617: 10574: 10553: 10535: 10529: 10511: 10506: 10482: 10476: 10463: 10437: 10432: 10419: 10418: 10417: 10386:978-0674976191 10385: 10372: 10366: 10353: 10348: 10328: 10311: 10292: 10276: 10271: 10248: 10231: 10215: 10213: 10210: 10207: 10206: 10204:, p. 100. 10194: 10190:Lakatos (1976) 10182: 10151: 10147:Lakatos (1976) 10136:analysis situs 10127: 10096: 10076: 10068:Lakatos (1976) 10060: 10058:, p. 144. 10048: 10046:, p. 142. 10036: 10023: 10010: 9997: 9985: 9983: 9982: 9975:Asian J. Math. 9960: 9944: 9920: 9900: 9862:Anesthesiology 9844: 9841:on 2013-05-07. 9825: 9818: 9797: 9779: 9746:(7): 366–367. 9726: 9724: 9723: 9717: 9711: 9698: 9692: 9678: 9669: 9662: 9642: 9630: 9618: 9612:, p. 27, 9601: 9586: 9568: 9549:(1): 173–187. 9533: 9511: 9468: 9458:Thomas Luckman 9445: 9403: 9366:(2): 345–364. 9346: 9311: 9265: 9256: 9241: 9221: 9211: 9197: 9174: 9128: 9078: 9051:(9): 645–646. 9035: 8997: 8990: 8972: 8929: 8902:(4): 459–487. 8886: 8851: 8830: 8814: 8801: 8766: 8759: 8739:Neurath†, Otto 8730: 8718: 8702: 8689: 8669: 8643: 8619:Keuth, Herbert 8610: 8603: 8585: 8566: 8547:(4): 435–455. 8527: 8515: 8513: 8512: 8509: 8506: 8503: 8457: 8455:, p. 269. 8445: 8422: 8412:978-0553907070 8411: 8390: 8371: 8347: 8304: 8289: 8252: 8245: 8222: 8212: 8205: 8175: 8157: 8137: 8130: 8106: 8091: 8078: 8061: 8059:, p. 159. 8049: 8032: 8000: 7973: 7960: 7939:Bayes' theorem 7935:gynaecologists 7927: 7909: 7845: 7802: 7787: 7775: 7768: 7742: 7709: 7692: 7667: 7663:Lakatos (1976) 7655: 7653:, p. 942. 7640: 7619: 7617:, p. 940. 7607: 7595: 7583: 7572:978-0553907070 7571: 7544: 7516: 7501: 7489: 7469: 7454: 7428: 7422: 7401: 7374:(6): 491–494. 7358: 7346: 7340:and is linked 7305: 7298: 7274: 7254: 7242: 7189: 7158: 7106: 7060: 7032: 7020:hydrogen bonds 7000: 6994:, p. 56: 6984: 6972: 6960: 6948: 6933: 6910: 6879: 6859: 6834: 6809: 6784: 6759: 6729: 6699: 6668: 6643: 6623: 6602: 6564: 6538: 6522: 6503: 6486: 6457: 6400: 6394:, p. 68: 6384: 6365: 6353: 6337: 6301: 6274:(3642): 347–. 6264:Platt, John R. 6255: 6243: 6207: 6205:via Wikisource 6184: 6172: 6157: 6145: 6129: 6117: 6097: 6076: 6057: 6037: 6025: 6023:, p. 252. 6021:McCarty (1985) 6013: 5998:René Descartes 5990: 5978: 5967:(3): 223–228. 5951: 5939: 5925: 5892: 5871: 5853: 5830: 5818: 5802: 5790: 5778: 5766:Stillman Drake 5744: 5709: 5702: 5676: 5653: 5612: 5597: 5590: 5557: 5535: 5506: 5477: 5441: 5422: 5415: 5394: 5375: 5373:, p. 236. 5363: 5351: 5343:Lisa Downing, 5336: 5332:Sanches (1988) 5324: 5309: 5290:(2): 180–194. 5269: 5266:on 2018-05-27. 5253:various papers 5243: 5224: 5209: 5191: 5175: 5162: 5150: 5148:, p. 154. 5138: 5119: 5076:Ibn Al-Haytham 5068:Hockney (2006) 5055: 5053:, p. 136. 5025:رسالة في الضوء 5011: 5009:Book 7, p.270 4996: 4975: 4962: 4939: 4924: 4922:, p. 273. 4912: 4871: 4842: 4814: 4807: 4768: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4759: 4733: 4721: 4706:Neurath's boat 4697: 4688: 4686: 4685: 4679: 4676: 4673: 4657: 4621:John D. Norton 4613:Lawrence Sklar 4593:Ernst Cassirer 4589:Henri Poincaré 4573: 4558: 4546: 4534: 4532:, p. viii 4514: 4497: 4482: 4463: 4461: 4458: 4456: 4455: 4447:Book of Optics 4434:Book of Optics 4409: 4407: 4406: 4390: 4371: 4335: 4333: 4332: 4320:Book of Optics 4307:camera obscura 4300: 4289:Book of Optics 4275: 4249: 4247: 4244: 4242: 4241: 4195: 4154: 4139: 4129: 4111: 4100:John Ioannidis 4091: 4078: 4061: 4038: 4026: 4009: 4000: 3987: 3974: 3969:Book of Optics 3960: 3946: 3925: 3916: 3907: 3890: 3880: 3862: 3854:Voelkel (2001) 3839: 3835:Voelkel (2001) 3826: 3821:Book of Optics 3809: 3805:camera obscura 3788:Book of Optics 3775: 3773: 3770: 3769: 3768: 3762: 3759:Scientific law 3756: 3751: 3745: 3740: 3734: 3728: 3719: 3708: 3705: 3643:counterexample 3616:is the strict 3592: 3591: 3586: 3577: 3573: 3572: 3567: 3562: 3558: 3557: 3552: 3547: 3543: 3542: 3537: 3532: 3528: 3527: 3522: 3517: 3430: 3427: 3400:control theory 3396:systems theory 3387: 3384: 3368:John Ioannidis 3358: 3355: 3306:Main article: 3303: 3300: 3298: 3295: 3219:Postpositivism 3214: 3211: 3183:field research 3170:normal science 3157: 3154: 3145:Main article: 3142: 3139: 3112: 3111: 3108: 3105: 3102: 3099: 3096: 3063: 3060: 3034:Against Method 3022:Main article: 3019: 3016: 3006: 2977:Main article: 2974: 2973:Unificationism 2971: 2931:Main article: 2928: 2925: 2858: 2855: 2851:not even wrong 2847:Wolfgang Pauli 2835:falsifiability 2811: 2791:Mill's Methods 2785: 2782: 2765: 2762: 2742:Isaac Newton, 2739: 2718: 2715: 2689: 2688: 2685: 2682: 2675: 2674: 2671: 2668: 2665: 2662: 2651:cognitive bias 2641: 2638: 2636: 2633: 2568: 2565: 2539: 2536: 2516: 2513: 2476: 2473: 2420: 2417: 2415: 2412: 2400:field research 2377:Bayes' theorem 2326: 2323: 2311:Standard Model 2283:counterexample 2276:laws of motion 2217:Sagittarius A* 2175: 2172: 2117: 2076: 2069: 2068: 2067: 2054: 2047: 2046: 2045: 2044: 2043: 2041: 2038: 2032: 2029: 2006:René Descartes 1957: 1954: 1901: 1898: 1888: 1849: 1846: 1844: 1841: 1793:John Ioannidis 1765:ball lightning 1763:was killed by 1752:Main article: 1749: 1746: 1646: 1643: 1613:(ISS), or the 1609:(NIF), or the 1512:Main article: 1509: 1506: 1415: 1412: 1379:William Glen, 1376: 1369:observes that 1273:Main article: 1270: 1267: 1191: 1188: 1178: 1048:laboratory at 1023: 1020: 1009: 1008: 1005: 1002: 999: 996: 989: 986: 983: 950: 949: 946: 943: 940: 916: 913: 868: 865: 854: 851: 838:Book of Optics 825:Against Method 777:Against Method 748: 745: 674:René Descartes 592:Main article: 589: 586: 514: 513: 511: 510: 503: 496: 488: 485: 484: 456: 455: 452: 451: 446: 441: 436: 434:Science policy 431: 426: 421: 416: 410: 406: 405: 404: 401: 400: 397: 396: 391: 386: 384:Cognitive bias 381: 375: 369: 368: 367: 364: 363: 358: 357: 356: 355: 350: 345: 340: 335: 330: 325: 320: 315: 310: 305: 300: 295: 290: 285: 280: 275: 270: 265: 260: 255: 247: 246: 242: 241: 240: 239: 238: 237: 232: 222: 221: 220: 215: 210: 208:Criminological 205: 200: 195: 190: 185: 175: 174: 173: 168: 158: 157: 156: 151: 138: 137: 129: 114: 113: 112: 109: 108: 106: 105: 100: 95: 90: 85: 80: 75: 69: 66: 65: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 13930: 13919: 13916: 13914: 13911: 13909: 13906: 13904: 13901: 13900: 13898: 13881: 13878: 13876: 13873: 13871: 13868: 13867: 13866: 13858: 13854: 13851: 13849: 13846: 13844: 13841: 13840: 13837: 13833: 13832: 13829: 13823: 13820: 13818: 13815: 13813: 13810: 13806: 13803: 13801: 13798: 13797: 13796: 13793: 13791: 13788: 13786: 13783: 13781: 13778: 13776: 13773: 13771: 13768: 13766: 13763: 13761: 13758: 13756: 13753: 13751: 13748: 13746: 13743: 13742: 13740: 13738: 13734: 13728: 13725: 13721: 13718: 13716: 13713: 13711: 13708: 13706: 13703: 13701: 13698: 13697: 13695: 13691: 13688: 13686: 13683: 13681: 13678: 13676: 13673: 13671: 13668: 13667: 13665: 13661: 13658: 13657: 13656: 13655:Technoscience 13653: 13651: 13648: 13646: 13643: 13641: 13638: 13636: 13633: 13631: 13628: 13626: 13625:Media studies 13623: 13621: 13618: 13616: 13613: 13609: 13606: 13604: 13601: 13599: 13596: 13594: 13591: 13589: 13586: 13585: 13584: 13581: 13579: 13576: 13574: 13571: 13569: 13566: 13564: 13563:Early adopter 13561: 13559: 13556: 13554: 13551: 13549: 13546: 13544: 13541: 13539: 13536: 13534: 13533:Co-production 13531: 13530: 13528: 13526: 13520: 13512: 13509: 13508: 13507: 13504: 13502: 13499: 13495: 13492: 13491: 13490: 13487: 13485: 13482: 13480: 13477: 13475: 13472: 13468: 13465: 13463: 13460: 13458: 13455: 13453: 13450: 13448: 13445: 13443: 13440: 13438: 13435: 13433: 13430: 13428: 13425: 13423: 13420: 13419: 13417: 13413: 13410: 13408: 13405: 13403: 13400: 13398: 13395: 13393: 13390: 13388: 13385: 13383: 13382:communication 13380: 13378: 13375: 13374: 13372: 13370: 13367: 13365: 13364:Pseudoscience 13362: 13358: 13355: 13354: 13353: 13350: 13348: 13345: 13343: 13340: 13338: 13335: 13333: 13330: 13328: 13325: 13323: 13320: 13318: 13315: 13313: 13312:Boundary-work 13310: 13308: 13307:Bibliometrics 13305: 13303: 13300: 13299: 13297: 13295: 13289: 13283: 13280: 13278: 13275: 13273: 13270: 13268: 13265: 13261: 13258: 13257: 13256: 13253: 13249: 13246: 13244: 13241: 13240: 13238: 13236: 13233: 13232: 13230: 13228: 13224: 13218: 13217:Transhumanism 13215: 13213: 13210: 13208: 13205: 13203: 13200: 13198: 13195: 13193: 13190: 13188: 13185: 13183: 13180: 13178: 13175: 13173: 13170: 13168: 13165: 13163: 13160: 13158: 13155: 13153: 13150: 13148: 13145: 13144: 13142: 13140: 13136: 13130: 13127: 13123: 13120: 13119: 13118: 13115: 13113: 13110: 13109: 13107: 13105: 13101: 13095: 13092: 13090: 13087: 13086: 13084: 13082: 13078: 13074: 13067: 13062: 13060: 13055: 13053: 13048: 13047: 13044: 13033: 13028: 13023: 13021: 13011: 13009: 13006: 13003: 12997: 12994: 12992: 12989: 12987: 12984: 12982: 12979: 12977: 12974: 12972: 12969: 12967: 12964: 12962: 12959: 12957: 12954: 12952: 12951:Rudolf Carnap 12949: 12947: 12944: 12942: 12939: 12937: 12934: 12932: 12929: 12927: 12924: 12922: 12919: 12917: 12914: 12912: 12909: 12907: 12904: 12902: 12899: 12897: 12894: 12892: 12889: 12887: 12886:Auguste Comte 12884: 12883: 12874: 12871: 12869: 12866: 12864: 12861: 12859: 12858:Francis Bacon 12856: 12854: 12851: 12850: 12848: 12844: 12841: 12839: 12835: 12829: 12826: 12824: 12821: 12819: 12816: 12814: 12811: 12809: 12806: 12804: 12801: 12799: 12796: 12794: 12791: 12787: 12786:Pseudoscience 12784: 12783: 12782: 12779: 12777: 12774: 12772: 12769: 12767: 12764: 12762: 12759: 12757: 12754: 12752: 12749: 12747: 12744: 12743: 12741: 12737: 12729: 12726: 12724: 12721: 12719: 12716: 12714: 12711: 12709: 12706: 12704: 12701: 12700: 12699: 12696: 12692: 12689: 12688: 12687: 12684: 12682: 12679: 12677: 12674: 12673: 12671: 12667: 12661: 12658: 12656: 12653: 12651: 12648: 12646: 12645:Structuralism 12643: 12641: 12638: 12636: 12633: 12631: 12627: 12624: 12622: 12619: 12617: 12614: 12612: 12608: 12607:Received view 12605: 12603: 12599: 12596: 12594: 12591: 12589: 12585: 12581: 12578: 12576: 12573: 12571: 12568: 12566: 12563: 12561: 12558: 12556: 12553: 12551: 12548: 12546: 12543: 12541: 12538: 12536: 12533: 12531: 12528: 12526: 12523: 12521: 12518: 12516: 12515:Contextualism 12513: 12511: 12508: 12506: 12503: 12501: 12498: 12496: 12493: 12491: 12488: 12487: 12485: 12481: 12475: 12472: 12468: 12465: 12463: 12460: 12459: 12458: 12455: 12453: 12450: 12448: 12445: 12441: 12438: 12436: 12433: 12431: 12428: 12427: 12426: 12423: 12421: 12418: 12416: 12413: 12411: 12408: 12406: 12403: 12401: 12398: 12394: 12391: 12390: 12389: 12386: 12384: 12381: 12379: 12376: 12374: 12371: 12369: 12366: 12364: 12361: 12359: 12356: 12354: 12351: 12349: 12346: 12344: 12343: 12339: 12335: 12332: 12330: 12327: 12326: 12325: 12322: 12320: 12317: 12315: 12312: 12310: 12307: 12305: 12302: 12300: 12297: 12293: 12290: 12289: 12288: 12285: 12283: 12280: 12278: 12275: 12273: 12270: 12266: 12263: 12262: 12261: 12258: 12256: 12253: 12251: 12248: 12246: 12243: 12239: 12236: 12235: 12234: 12231: 12229: 12228: 12224: 12220: 12218: 12215: 12213: 12210: 12209: 12207: 12203: 12199: 12192: 12187: 12185: 12180: 12178: 12173: 12172: 12169: 12163: 12160: 12157: 12153: 12149: 12145: 12142: 12139: 12136: 12134: 12132: 12128: 12126: 12123: 12120: 12117: 12114: 12111: 12109: 12106: 12104: 12100: 12097: 12094: 12090: 12087: 12084: 12082: 12078: 12075: 12073: 12069: 12066: 12062: 12061: 12056: 12052: 12048: 12047: 12042: 12038: 12034: 12030: 12029: 12023: 12020: 12019: 12014: 12009: 11995: 11991: 11988: 11985: 11981: 11980:Thagard, Paul 11978: 11975: 11971: 11968: 11965: 11961: 11958: 11955: 11951: 11948: 11945: 11941: 11938: 11935: 11931: 11928: 11925: 11921: 11918: 11917: 11912: 11909: 11906: 11902: 11899: 11892: 11888: 11881: 11877: 11873: 11870: 11866: 11863: 11862: 11857: 11854: 11851: 11847: 11844: 11841: 11838:Losee, John, 11837: 11834: 11830: 11829:Latour, Bruno 11827: 11824: 11820: 11817: 11813: 11807: 11803: 11802: 11795: 11792: 11789: 11788: 11783: 11780: 11777: 11773: 11770: 11767: 11763: 11760: 11757: 11753: 11750: 11747: 11743: 11740: 11736: 11730: 11726: 11722: 11718: 11715: 11711: 11708: 11705: 11701: 11698: 11694: 11689: 11685: 11679: 11675: 11674: 11669: 11665: 11662: 11661: 11656: 11653: 11650: 11646: 11643: 11640: 11636: 11632: 11629: 11626: 11622: 11619: 11618: 11613: 11610: 11607: 11603: 11600: 11597: 11593: 11589: 11586: 11583: 11579: 11576: 11575: 11562: 11561: 11556: 11552: 11548: 11544: 11539: 11534: 11530: 11526: 11521: 11516: 11512: 11508: 11504: 11500: 11496: 11492: 11488: 11484: 11479: 11476: 11470: 11466: 11465: 11460: 11456: 11452: 11446: 11442: 11437: 11433: 11429: 11425: 11421: 11417: 11416:De Aspectibus 11412: 11408: 11404: 11400: 11396: 11392: 11388: 11382: 11378: 11374: 11370: 11366: 11362: 11358: 11352: 11348: 11344: 11340: 11334: 11330: 11326: 11322: 11316: 11312: 11308: 11304: 11300: 11296: 11295:Physics Today 11290: 11289: 11286: 11280: 11276: 11275: 11270: 11266: 11262: 11258: 11254: 11251: 11247: 11243: 11239: 11233: 11229: 11228: 11222: 11218:on 2013-07-22 11214: 11210: 11208:0-203-99462-0 11204: 11197: 11196: 11191: 11187: 11183: 11181:0-415-28594-1 11177: 11174:, Routledge, 11173: 11168: 11163: 11162: 11157: 11153: 11148: 11144: 11140: 11134: 11130: 11127: 11121: 11117: 11113: 11112: 11107: 11106:Pólya, George 11103: 11091: 11087: 11086: 11081: 11077: 11074: 11070: 11066: 11060: 11057:, Princeton, 11056: 11052: 11048: 11045: 11040: 11034: 11030: 11029: 11024: 11023:Newton, Isaac 11020: 11016: 11015: 11011: 11006: 11002: 10998: 10993: 10988: 10984: 10978: 10974: 10969: 10966: 10961: 10955: 10951: 10947: 10943: 10940: 10934: 10930: 10925: 10920: 10916: 10912: 10909: 10903: 10899: 10898: 10893: 10892:Lakatos, Imre 10889: 10886: 10882: 10878: 10874: 10870: 10866: 10862: 10858: 10854: 10850: 10847: 10845:0-671-22540-5 10841: 10837: 10832: 10829: 10824: 10818: 10814: 10810: 10806: 10803: 10801:0-14-200512-6 10797: 10793: 10789: 10785: 10782: 10778: 10774: 10770: 10766: 10762: 10757: 10752: 10748: 10744: 10743: 10737: 10733: 10727: 10723: 10719: 10715: 10711: 10705: 10700: 10699: 10693: 10692:Glen, William 10689: 10679: 10675: 10669: 10665: 10664: 10658: 10654: 10648: 10644: 10640: 10636: 10631: 10626: 10620: 10614: 10610: 10606: 10601: 10600: 10597: 10593: 10589: 10585: 10584: 10579: 10575: 10572: 10568: 10565: 10561: 10556: 10550: 10546: 10545: 10540: 10539:Fleck, Ludwik 10536: 10532: 10526: 10522: 10521: 10516: 10512: 10509: 10503: 10498: 10497: 10491: 10487: 10483: 10479: 10473: 10469: 10464: 10460: 10456: 10452: 10448: 10447: 10442: 10438: 10435: 10429: 10425: 10420: 10407: 10403: 10402: 10397: 10392:Reviewed in: 10391: 10390: 10388: 10382: 10378: 10373: 10369: 10363: 10359: 10354: 10351: 10345: 10340: 10339: 10333: 10329: 10318: 10314: 10308: 10304: 10303: 10298: 10293: 10291: 10286:, Peter Smith 10285: 10281: 10277: 10274: 10268: 10264: 10263: 10258: 10256: 10249: 10238: 10234: 10228: 10224: 10223: 10217: 10216: 10203: 10202:Mackay (1991) 10198: 10192:, p. 55. 10191: 10186: 10179: 10175: 10172: 10168: 10164: 10161: 10155: 10149:, p. 162 10148: 10144: 10141: 10137: 10131: 10113: 10106: 10100: 10093: 10092:9780486614809 10089: 10086: 10080: 10073: 10069: 10064: 10057: 10052: 10045: 10040: 10033: 10027: 10020: 10014: 10008:, p. 114 10007: 10001: 9995: 9989: 9980: 9976: 9972: 9971: 9970: 9964: 9957: 9953: 9948: 9942: 9941: 9937: 9934: 9929: 9924: 9917: 9913: 9910: 9904: 9889: 9885: 9881: 9876: 9871: 9867: 9863: 9859: 9857: 9848: 9840: 9836: 9829: 9821: 9819:9780231076203 9815: 9811: 9804: 9802: 9794: 9788: 9786: 9784: 9776: 9771: 9767: 9762: 9757: 9753: 9749: 9745: 9741: 9737: 9730: 9721: 9718: 9715: 9712: 9710: 9709:0-8032-7995-7 9706: 9702: 9699: 9696: 9693: 9690: 9687: 9686: 9685:For example: 9682: 9673: 9665: 9659: 9655: 9654: 9646: 9639: 9634: 9627: 9622: 9615: 9611: 9605: 9597: 9593: 9589: 9583: 9579: 9572: 9564: 9560: 9556: 9552: 9548: 9544: 9537: 9522: 9515: 9507: 9503: 9499: 9495: 9491: 9487: 9484:(1). : 3–32. 9483: 9479: 9472: 9465: 9464: 9459: 9455: 9449: 9441: 9437: 9433: 9429: 9425: 9421: 9414: 9407: 9399: 9395: 9390: 9385: 9381: 9377: 9373: 9369: 9365: 9361: 9357: 9350: 9342: 9338: 9334: 9330: 9326: 9322: 9315: 9307: 9303: 9298: 9293: 9289: 9285: 9281: 9274: 9272: 9270: 9260: 9252: 9248: 9244: 9238: 9234: 9233: 9225: 9215: 9200: 9194: 9190: 9189: 9181: 9179: 9170: 9166: 9162: 9158: 9154: 9150: 9146: 9142: 9135: 9133: 9125: 9120: 9116: 9112: 9108: 9104: 9100: 9096: 9092: 9085: 9083: 9074: 9070: 9066: 9062: 9058: 9054: 9050: 9046: 9039: 9031: 9027: 9023: 9019: 9015: 9011: 9004: 9002: 8993: 8987: 8983: 8976: 8968: 8964: 8960: 8956: 8952: 8948: 8944: 8940: 8933: 8925: 8921: 8917: 8913: 8909: 8905: 8901: 8897: 8890: 8882: 8878: 8874: 8870: 8866: 8862: 8855: 8846: 8841: 8834: 8827: 8823: 8818: 8811: 8805: 8797: 8793: 8789: 8785: 8781: 8777: 8770: 8762: 8756: 8752: 8748: 8744: 8740: 8734: 8725: 8723: 8715: 8709: 8707: 8692: 8686: 8682: 8681: 8673: 8666: 8664: 8660: 8654: 8650: 8646: 8644:9780521548304 8640: 8636: 8632: 8628: 8624: 8620: 8614: 8606: 8600: 8596: 8589: 8580: 8573: 8571: 8562: 8558: 8554: 8550: 8546: 8542: 8538: 8531: 8525:, p. 27. 8524: 8519: 8510: 8507: 8504: 8501: 8500: 8496: 8492: 8488: 8484: 8480: 8476: 8472: 8468: 8461: 8454: 8449: 8442: 8438:. p. 4. 8437: 8433: 8426: 8419: 8414: 8408: 8404: 8403: 8394: 8386: 8382: 8375: 8367: 8363: 8356: 8354: 8352: 8344: 8340: 8337: 8324: 8320: 8319: 8311: 8309: 8300: 8296: 8292: 8286: 8282: 8278: 8274: 8270: 8269: 8261: 8259: 8257: 8248: 8242: 8238: 8237: 8229: 8227: 8216: 8208: 8202: 8198: 8194: 8190: 8184: 8179: 8164: 8160: 8154: 8150: 8149: 8141: 8133: 8127: 8123: 8119: 8118: 8110: 8103: 8098: 8096: 8088: 8082: 8074: 8068: 8066: 8058: 8053: 8047: 8046: 8045:Novum Organum 8041: 8040:Francis Bacon 8036: 8029: 8016: 8015: 8010: 8004: 7997: 7992: 7990: 7988: 7986: 7984: 7982: 7980: 7978: 7970: 7964: 7950: 7946: 7940: 7936: 7930: 7924: 7920: 7913: 7905: 7901: 7896: 7891: 7887: 7883: 7878: 7873: 7869: 7865: 7864:PLOS Medicine 7861: 7854: 7852: 7850: 7841: 7837: 7833: 7829: 7825: 7821: 7817: 7813: 7806: 7800: 7796: 7791: 7785: 7779: 7771: 7765: 7761: 7757: 7753: 7746: 7731: 7727: 7723: 7719: 7713: 7706: 7701: 7699: 7697: 7682: 7678: 7671: 7664: 7659: 7652: 7647: 7645: 7637: 7629: 7623: 7616: 7611: 7604: 7599: 7592: 7587: 7580: 7574: 7568: 7564: 7560: 7553: 7551: 7549: 7541: 7538:Reprinted in 7535: 7531: 7527: 7520: 7512: 7505: 7498: 7493: 7485: 7484: 7479: 7473: 7465: 7461: 7457: 7451: 7447: 7443: 7439: 7432: 7425: 7419: 7415: 7408: 7406: 7397: 7393: 7389: 7385: 7381: 7377: 7373: 7369: 7362: 7355: 7350: 7343: 7339: 7327:on 2013-09-09 7323: 7316: 7313:Karl Popper. 7309: 7301: 7295: 7291: 7287: 7286: 7278: 7271: 7267: 7264: 7258: 7251: 7246: 7238: 7234: 7229: 7224: 7219: 7214: 7210: 7206: 7205: 7204:PLOS Medicine 7200: 7193: 7175: 7168: 7162: 7155: 7151: 7147: 7142: 7137: 7133: 7129: 7125: 7121: 7120:Physics Today 7117: 7110: 7103: 7099: 7095: 7091: 7087: 7086: 7081: 7077: 7074: 7070: 7064: 7057: 7053: 7049: 7045: 7044:Jerry Donohue 7041: 7036: 7029: 7025: 7021: 7017: 7013: 7009: 7008:Watson (1968) 7004: 6997: 6996:Jerry Donohue 6993: 6988: 6981: 6976: 6969: 6964: 6957: 6952: 6945: 6944:Smith (2001b) 6940: 6938: 6930: 6926: 6923: 6919: 6914: 6896: 6889: 6883: 6876: 6872: 6869: 6863: 6848: 6844: 6838: 6823: 6819: 6813: 6798: 6794: 6788: 6773: 6769: 6763: 6747: 6743: 6739: 6733: 6727: 6723: 6720: 6716: 6712: 6709: 6703: 6696: 6694: 6690: 6686: 6682: 6678: 6671: 6669:0-262-63032-X 6665: 6661: 6654: 6652: 6650: 6648: 6640: 6639:1-4102-0252-6 6636: 6632: 6627: 6620: 6616: 6611: 6609: 6607: 6599: 6589:on 2012-01-06 6588: 6584: 6580: 6573: 6571: 6569: 6560: 6556: 6553: 6547: 6545: 6543: 6535: 6531: 6530:Watson (1968) 6526: 6519: 6515: 6510: 6508: 6501: 6498: 6493: 6491: 6475: 6471: 6467: 6461: 6454: 6450: 6446: 6442: 6438: 6434: 6430: 6426: 6422: 6421:Sobral, Ceará 6418: 6414: 6413:total eclipse 6410: 6404: 6397: 6393: 6388: 6381: 6377: 6376: 6369: 6362: 6357: 6350: 6346: 6345:Judson (1979) 6341: 6334: 6330: 6326: 6322: 6318: 6314: 6313:physics first 6310: 6309:Leon Lederman 6305: 6297: 6293: 6289: 6285: 6281: 6277: 6273: 6269: 6265: 6259: 6252: 6247: 6239: 6235: 6231: 6226: 6218: 6216: 6214: 6212: 6204: 6200: 6197: 6195: 6188: 6181: 6176: 6168: 6161: 6154: 6149: 6138: 6137:Judson (1979) 6133: 6126: 6121: 6114: 6113:0-684-19431-7 6110: 6107: 6101: 6094: 6090: 6086: 6080: 6064: 6060: 6058:9780781755658 6054: 6050: 6049: 6041: 6035:, p. 34. 6034: 6029: 6022: 6017: 6010: 6006: 6003: 5999: 5994: 5987: 5982: 5974: 5970: 5966: 5962: 5955: 5948: 5943: 5935: 5929: 5920: 5916: 5912: 5907: 5899: 5897: 5889: 5888: 5883: 5878: 5876: 5860: 5856: 5850: 5846: 5845: 5840: 5834: 5827: 5822: 5815: 5811: 5806: 5800: 5794: 5787: 5782: 5776:, p. 10. 5775: 5771: 5767: 5763: 5762: 5757: 5756:Il Saggiatore 5751: 5749: 5741: 5727: 5720: 5713: 5705: 5699: 5695: 5691: 5687: 5680: 5673: 5671: 5664: 5660: 5656: 5654:9780773533448 5650: 5646: 5642: 5638: 5634: 5630: 5626: 5622: 5616: 5609: 5604: 5602: 5593: 5587: 5583: 5579: 5575: 5571: 5564: 5562: 5554: 5542: 5538: 5532: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5513: 5511: 5495: 5491: 5484: 5482: 5474: 5467: 5460: 5459: 5454: 5448: 5446: 5439:, p. 264 5438: 5437:Cowles (2020) 5433: 5431: 5429: 5427: 5418: 5412: 5408: 5401: 5399: 5391: 5386: 5384: 5382: 5380: 5372: 5367: 5361: 5355: 5349: 5346: 5340: 5333: 5328: 5321: 5316: 5314: 5305: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5289: 5285: 5279: 5273: 5262: 5255: 5254: 5247: 5239: 5235: 5228: 5220: 5216: 5212: 5206: 5202: 5195: 5188: 5184: 5183:Borlik (2011) 5179: 5173:, Bk.&VI. 5172: 5166: 5159: 5154: 5147: 5142: 5126: 5122: 5120:9780871698629 5116: 5112: 5111: 5105: 5101: 5100: 5095: 5091: 5087: 5083: 5082: 5077: 5073: 5069: 5064: 5062: 5060: 5052: 5049:as quoted in 5048: 5044: 5043: 5038: 5034: 5031: 5021: 5015: 5008: 5003: 5001: 4993: 4990:, ed. (1975) 4989: 4985: 4979: 4972: 4966: 4959: 4955: 4951: 4946: 4944: 4936: 4931: 4929: 4921: 4920:Popper (1959) 4916: 4909: 4905: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4886: 4878: 4876: 4860: 4855: 4854: 4846: 4833:on 2016-06-20 4832: 4828: 4824: 4818: 4810: 4804: 4800: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4784: 4776: 4774: 4769: 4756: 4755: 4750: 4746: 4740: 4738: 4731: 4725: 4718: 4712: 4707: 4701: 4692: 4683: 4680: 4677: 4674: 4670: 4669: 4667: 4661: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4645:Robert Nozick 4642: 4638: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4609:Eugene Wigner 4606: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4580: 4578: 4570: 4569: 4562: 4556: 4550: 4544: 4538: 4531: 4530:Popper (1963) 4527: 4521: 4519: 4511: 4507: 4501: 4494: 4493: 4486: 4478: 4476: 4468: 4464: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4435: 4430: 4426: 4423:recounts how 4422: 4417: 4415: 4410: 4403: 4399: 4398:Peirce (1899) 4394: 4387: 4384: 4380: 4375: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4346: 4344: 4342: 4340: 4330: 4326: 4322: 4321: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4303:David Hockney 4301: 4298: 4294: 4293: 4291: 4290: 4284: 4279: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4254: 4250: 4238: 4234: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4199: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4158: 4151: 4146: 4144: 4133: 4126: 4121: 4115: 4107: 4101: 4095: 4088: 4082: 4075: 4071: 4065: 4059: 4057: 4051: 4045: 4043: 4035: 4030: 4023: 4019: 4013: 4004: 3997: 3991: 3984: 3978: 3971: 3970: 3964: 3957: 3950: 3943: 3939: 3938:modus tollens 3935: 3929: 3920: 3911: 3904: 3900: 3894: 3884: 3876: 3875: 3866: 3859: 3855: 3848: 3846: 3844: 3837:, p. 60. 3836: 3830: 3823: 3822: 3816: 3814: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3789: 3783: 3781: 3776: 3766: 3763: 3760: 3757: 3755: 3752: 3749: 3746: 3744: 3741: 3738: 3735: 3732: 3729: 3723: 3720: 3714: 3711: 3710: 3704: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3675: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3635: 3630: 3625: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3598:understanding 3590: 3587: 3585: 3581: 3578: 3574: 3571: 3568: 3566: 3563: 3559: 3556: 3553: 3551: 3548: 3544: 3541: 3538: 3536: 3535:Understanding 3533: 3529: 3526: 3521: 3516: 3515: 3512: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3479:Eugene Wigner 3475: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3456: 3454: 3450: 3449: 3444: 3441:from what is 3440: 3436: 3426: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3407: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3383: 3379: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3354: 3351: 3346: 3344: 3340: 3337:This is what 3335: 3334:Louis Pasteur 3331: 3330:stumbled upon 3327: 3319: 3314: 3309: 3294: 3291: 3287: 3286:postmodernist 3283: 3279: 3278:postmodernist 3274: 3272: 3266: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3234: 3230: 3224: 3220: 3210: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3179: 3177: 3176: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3153: 3148: 3138: 3136: 3134: 3127: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3109: 3106: 3103: 3100: 3097: 3094: 3093: 3092: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3079: 3073: 3069: 3059: 3055: 3053: 3049: 3048:anything goes 3044: 3040: 3036: 3035: 3030: 3025: 3011: 3005: 3000: 2997: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2980: 2970: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2934: 2924: 2922: 2918: 2912: 2910: 2906: 2901: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2868: 2864: 2854: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2831: 2829: 2825: 2816: 2810: 2806: 2804: 2799: 2797: 2796:David Deutsch 2792: 2781: 2777: 2775: 2771: 2761: 2758: 2754: 2745: 2738: 2734: 2732: 2728: 2727:Occam's razor 2724: 2714: 2709: 2706: 2700: 2698: 2694: 2686: 2683: 2680: 2679: 2678: 2672: 2669: 2666: 2663: 2660: 2656: 2655: 2654: 2652: 2648: 2632: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2607:explains the 2606: 2600: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2581: 2578: 2577:falsification 2574: 2564: 2560: 2558: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2535: 2533: 2527: 2525: 2521: 2512: 2510: 2506: 2500: 2498: 2493: 2490: 2486: 2485:Francis Bacon 2482: 2472: 2470: 2465: 2463: 2459: 2454: 2449: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2411: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2392: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2372: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2357: 2355: 2351: 2346: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2331: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2279: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2224: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2185: 2181: 2171: 2169: 2165: 2164: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2149: 2148: 2142: 2140: 2135: 2126: 2122: 2116: 2112: 2110: 2106: 2100: 2098: 2095:be tested in 2094: 2083: 2079: 2073: 2062: 2058: 2051: 2037: 2028: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2009: 2007: 2003: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1985: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1966: 1964: 1953: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1934: 1927: 1923: 1922:cloud chamber 1918: 1914: 1912: 1908: 1894: 1891:Karl Popper, 1887: 1883: 1879: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1864: 1859: 1855: 1840: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1817: 1813: 1808: 1806: 1801: 1796: 1794: 1790: 1789:control group 1786: 1782: 1777: 1772: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1755: 1745: 1742: 1738: 1733: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1698: 1696: 1690: 1688: 1684: 1683:Linus Pauling 1680: 1676: 1673: 1669: 1656: 1652: 1642: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1622: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1594: 1592: 1591:aerodynamical 1588: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1571: 1569: 1565: 1564:Mill's canons 1560: 1556: 1552: 1545: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1515: 1505: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1474: 1470: 1468: 1462: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1446: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1435:Francis Crick 1432: 1421: 1411: 1409: 1405: 1400: 1398: 1397:Occam's Razor 1394: 1390: 1382: 1375: 1370: 1368: 1364: 1362: 1358: 1357: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1343: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1321: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1301: 1299: 1295: 1294:Francis Crick 1291: 1287: 1286:Linus Pauling 1276: 1266: 1264: 1260: 1259:visual system 1256: 1252: 1251:consciousness 1248: 1247:Francis Crick 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1215: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1183: 1177: 1173: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1162:spectroscopes 1159: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1138: 1135: 1134:design a drug 1131: 1127: 1122: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1083: 1078: 1072: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1038:Gregor Mendel 1035: 1019: 1017: 1012: 1006: 1003: 1000: 997: 994: 990: 987: 984: 981: 980: 979: 976: 974: 970: 969:ongoing cycle 965: 963: 959: 955: 947: 944: 941: 938: 937: 936: 934: 930: 926: 922: 912: 910: 906: 902: 897: 895: 890: 882: 878: 873: 864: 850: 848: 844: 840: 839: 834: 830: 826: 822: 818: 814: 810: 806: 802: 798: 794: 789: 787: 783: 779: 778: 772: 768: 764: 760: 759: 754: 744: 742: 738: 733: 728: 726: 722: 717: 715: 711: 707: 703: 699: 695: 691: 687: 686:Francis Bacon 683: 679: 675: 671: 667: 663: 662:Francis Bacon 659: 655: 650: 648: 644: 640: 636: 632: 628: 624: 620: 615: 612: 608: 601: 595: 585: 583: 578: 576: 572: 568: 564: 559: 557: 553: 549: 545: 541: 537: 533: 529: 525: 521: 509: 504: 502: 497: 495: 490: 489: 487: 486: 483: 472: 468: 463: 458: 457: 450: 447: 445: 442: 440: 437: 435: 432: 430: 427: 425: 422: 420: 417: 415: 412: 411: 403: 402: 395: 392: 390: 387: 385: 382: 380: 377: 376: 372: 366: 365: 354: 351: 349: 348:Urban studies 346: 344: 341: 339: 336: 334: 331: 329: 326: 324: 321: 319: 316: 314: 311: 309: 306: 304: 301: 299: 296: 294: 291: 289: 286: 284: 281: 279: 276: 274: 271: 269: 266: 264: 261: 259: 256: 254: 251: 250: 249: 248: 244: 243: 236: 233: 231: 228: 227: 226: 223: 219: 216: 214: 211: 209: 206: 204: 201: 199: 196: 194: 191: 189: 186: 184: 183:Psychological 181: 180: 179: 176: 172: 171:Life sciences 169: 167: 164: 163: 162: 159: 155: 152: 150: 147: 146: 145: 142: 141: 140: 139: 136: 133: 132: 125: 121: 117: 111: 110: 104: 101: 99: 96: 94: 91: 89: 86: 84: 81: 79: 76: 74: 71: 70: 68: 67: 64: 61: 60: 57: 53: 45: 38: 34: 19: 13870:Associations 13705:criticism of 13615:Leapfrogging 13598:linear model 13484:Team science 13474:Scientocracy 13451: 13397:Neo-colonial 13147:Anthropocene 12996:Larry Laudan 12976:Imre Lakatos 12931:Otto Neurath 12906:Karl Pearson 12896:Pierre Duhem 12868:Isaac Newton 12798:Protoscience 12756:Epistemology 12630:Anti-realism 12628: / 12609: / 12600: / 12586: / 12584:Reductionism 12582: / 12555:Inductionism 12535:Evolutionism 12404: 12340: 12227:a posteriori 12226: 12222: 12148:Kevin Padian 12130: 12058: 12044: 12012: 11993: 11983: 11973: 11963: 11953: 11943: 11933: 11923: 11914: 11904: 11891:the original 11886: 11860: 11849: 11839: 11832: 11822: 11800: 11785: 11775: 11765: 11762:Hacking, Ian 11755: 11745: 11724: 11713: 11703: 11700:Earman, John 11692: 11672: 11658: 11648: 11638: 11616: 11605: 11591: 11581: 11559: 11502: 11498: 11482: 11463: 11440: 11423: 11419: 11415: 11390: 11386: 11363:(4): 1–337. 11360: 11356: 11328: 11301:(2): 51–53, 11298: 11294: 11291:Reviewed in 11273: 11253: 11249: 11246:Sabra, A. I. 11226: 11213:the original 11194: 11171: 11160: 11129: 11126: 11110: 11094:, retrieved 11084: 11054: 11027: 11013: 11009: 10991: 10972: 10949: 10928: 10918: 10896: 10860: 10856: 10835: 10812: 10791: 10746: 10740: 10721: 10697: 10682:, retrieved 10662: 10634: 10625:Bruno (1989) 10608: 10587: 10582: 10559: 10542: 10519: 10495: 10467: 10446:How we think 10445: 10423: 10410:. Retrieved 10399: 10376: 10357: 10337: 10321:, retrieved 10301: 10283: 10261: 10254: 10241:. Retrieved 10221: 10197: 10185: 10166: 10162: 10159: 10154: 10142: 10139: 10130: 10119:. Retrieved 10099: 10084: 10079: 10063: 10056:Pólya (1957) 10051: 10044:Pólya (1957) 10039: 10031: 10026: 10018: 10013: 10006:Pólya (1957) 10000: 9988: 9978: 9974: 9963: 9952:Pólya (1957) 9947: 9931: 9928:Ludwik Fleck 9923: 9903: 9892:. Retrieved 9865: 9861: 9855: 9847: 9839:the original 9828: 9809: 9792: 9773: 9743: 9739: 9729: 9719: 9713: 9700: 9694: 9688: 9681: 9672: 9652: 9645: 9640:, p. 27 9638:Fleck (1979) 9633: 9626:Fleck (1979) 9621: 9614:Fleck (1979) 9610:Fleck (1979) 9608:As cited in 9604: 9577: 9571: 9546: 9542: 9536: 9525:. Retrieved 9514: 9481: 9477: 9471: 9461: 9448: 9423: 9419: 9406: 9363: 9359: 9349: 9324: 9320: 9314: 9287: 9283: 9259: 9231: 9224: 9214: 9202:. Retrieved 9187: 9147:(1): 32–40. 9144: 9140: 9122: 9094: 9090: 9048: 9044: 9038: 9016:(1): 10–16. 9013: 9009: 8981: 8975: 8942: 8938: 8932: 8899: 8895: 8889: 8864: 8860: 8854: 8845:math/0702396 8833: 8825: 8817: 8804: 8779: 8775: 8769: 8742: 8733: 8713: 8694:. Retrieved 8679: 8672: 8662: 8658: 8656: 8626: 8613: 8594: 8588: 8578: 8544: 8540: 8530: 8523:Fleck (1979) 8518: 8470: 8466: 8460: 8453:Gauch (2003) 8448: 8439: 8435: 8425: 8416: 8401: 8393: 8384: 8374: 8365: 8362:"Simplicity" 8327:. 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Retrieved 4852: 4845: 4835:, retrieved 4831:the original 4826: 4817: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4782: 4752: 4748: 4729: 4724: 4715: 4700: 4691: 4665: 4660: 4647:(2001), and 4584: 4568:a posteriori 4567: 4561: 4549: 4537: 4505: 4500: 4490: 4485: 4472: 4467: 4446: 4432: 4421:Sabra (2007) 4393: 4385: 4382: 4374: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4328: 4324: 4318: 4314: 4287: 4278: 4253: 4215:Fleck (1979) 4211: 4207: 4198: 4190: 4186: 4157: 4132: 4114: 4094: 4089:, p. 33 4081: 4064: 4053: 4029: 4012: 4003: 3995: 3990: 3977: 3967: 3963: 3949: 3934:modus ponens 3928: 3919: 3910: 3893: 3883: 3871: 3865: 3858:Smith (2004) 3829: 3819: 3792: 3786: 3691: 3682: 3676: 3652:tautological 3647: 3632: 3629:Imre Lakatos 3626: 3621: 3613: 3601: 3597: 3595: 3497:George Pólya 3495: 3476: 3457: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3432: 3419:Fleck (1979) 3408: 3389: 3380: 3360: 3349: 3347: 3329: 3323: 3282:science wars 3275: 3267: 3259:Golgi bodies 3241:, alongside 3237: 3228: 3226: 3180: 3174: 3159: 3150: 3133:How We Think 3131: 3128: 3123: 3113: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3075: 3056: 3032: 3027: 3002: 2998: 2989:reductionist 2982: 2951:epistemology 2936: 2920: 2917:How We Think 2916: 2913: 2908: 2904: 2902: 2870: 2843:hard-to-vary 2842: 2832: 2821: 2808: 2800: 2787: 2778: 2773: 2769: 2767: 2753:Paul Krugman 2749: 2743: 2736: 2730: 2720: 2711: 2704: 2702: 2690: 2676: 2658: 2657:is accurate 2646: 2643: 2625:biochemistry 2619:to form the 2601: 2582: 2570: 2561: 2541: 2528: 2518: 2501: 2494: 2489:Isaac Newton 2478: 2466: 2450: 2445:experimental 2422: 2393: 2373: 2358: 2347: 2332: 2328: 2319: 2315: 2280: 2229: 2191: 2187: 2161: 2158:Fleck (1979) 2156: 2152: 2145: 2143: 2131: 2124: 2114: 2107:; this is a 2101: 2090: 2081: 2063:; see below. 2034: 2010: 1992: 1989:C. S. Peirce 1986: 1967: 1959: 1935: 1931: 1903: 1892: 1885: 1880: 1865: 1861: 1858:Open science 1828: 1824: 1812:Ludwik Fleck 1809: 1797: 1788: 1784: 1773: 1757: 1748:Confirmation 1734: 1725: 1699: 1692: 1670:by concrete 1659: 1623: 1595: 1575:double-blind 1572: 1547: 1518: 1475: 1471: 1463: 1448: 1439:double helix 1424: 1401: 1386: 1380: 1372: 1367:William Glen 1365: 1354: 1340: 1322: 1303: 1290:triple helix 1279: 1235:Isaac Newton 1227:simultaneity 1216: 1193: 1175: 1158:thermometers 1139: 1123: 1115:measurements 1111:observations 1086: 1081: 1076: 1074: 1041: 1026: 1013: 1010: 993:reproducible 977: 972: 966: 951: 918: 898: 886: 856: 846: 842: 836: 828: 824: 820: 804: 790: 775: 758:How We Think 756: 750: 729: 721:C. S. Peirce 718: 682:Isaac Newton 666:Robert Hooke 651: 616: 604: 579: 560: 519: 517: 470: 428: 303:Liberal arts 203:Sociological 149:Mathematical 56: 37:Epistemology 13715:theories of 13700:and society 13696:Technology 13690:transitions 13680:determinism 13675:convergence 13650:Technocracy 13432:controversy 13418:Scientific 13402:post-normal 13347:Metascience 13317:Consilience 13302:Antiscience 13167:Neo-Luddism 13162:Fuzzy logic 12986:Ian Hacking 12971:Thomas Kuhn 12956:Karl Popper 12936:C. D. Broad 12853:Roger Bacon 12781:Non-science 12723:Linguistics 12703:Archaeology 12598:Rationalism 12588:Determinism 12575:Physicalism 12540:Fallibilism 12490:Coherentism 12420:Testability 12373:Observation 12368:Objectivity 12329:alternative 12260:Correlation 12250:Consilience 11990:Ziman, John 10828:Ernst Nagel 10441:Dewey, John 8633:. pp. 8183:Thomas Kuhn 8028:Semmelweiss 8017:. p. 7 7870:(8): e124. 7478:Sagan, Carl 7211:(8): e124. 6708:NSF Reports 6693:atomic fact 6445:arc-seconds 6441:arc-seconds 6317:Ian Shelton 6251:Glen (1994) 5761:The Assayer 5631:. pp. 5553:classrooms. 4666:good theory 4649:Tim Maudlin 4543:C.S. Peirce 4402:Terence Tao 4271:outer space 4175:expressions 4018:inductivism 3936:, or using 3765:Testability 3737:Metascience 3731:Methodology 3499:'s work on 3481:'s paper, " 3448:falsifiable 3435:observables 3372:metascience 3343:human error 3243:Thomas Kuhn 3168:concept of 2963:empirically 2947:metaphysics 2839:testability 2437:predictions 2369:peer review 2335:uncertainty 2121:C.S. Peirce 2059:, 1821) is 2031:Rationality 1974:rationalism 1946:Tycho Brahe 1868:big science 1800:peer review 1714:outer space 1679:nucleotides 1508:Experiments 1502:gravitation 1488:bends in a 1451:predictions 1146:correlation 1130:observation 1057:diffraction 954:peer review 901:conjectures 847:The Assayer 817:Robert Nola 786:Karl Popper 767:Thomas Kuhn 761:, inspired 741:antirealism 678:inductivism 670:rationalist 643:Roger Bacon 575:falsifiable 571:conjectures 548:observation 536:observation 407:Instruments 328:Professions 323:War studies 230:Engineering 13918:Empiricism 13897:Categories 13853:Technology 13805:science of 13800:history of 13685:revolution 13593:disruptive 13583:Innovation 13578:Hype cycle 13523:Technology 13494:ecological 13467:skepticism 13457:misconduct 13442:enterprise 13260:scientific 13187:Positivism 13157:Empiricism 13139:Philosophy 12873:David Hume 12846:Precursors 12728:Psychology 12708:Economics‎ 12602:Empiricism 12593:Pragmatism 12580:Positivism 12570:Naturalism 12440:scientific 12324:Hypothesis 12287:Experiment 12072:PhilPapers 11096:2007-08-01 10684:2020-05-09 10449:, Boston: 10412:2020-06-24 10360:, Oxford, 10323:2020-05-09 10243:2023-06-03 10121:2021-08-28 9894:2021-08-29 9868:(5): 505. 9527:2007-06-07 9251:1014457300 9219:practices. 9204:2024-05-20 8696:2024-08-29 8329:2018-09-16 8290:3540205802 8246:0195166612 8206:0226457990 8169:2020-10-20 8021:2024-04-30 7954:2024-04-24 7919:Risk Savvy 7736:2020-04-17 7686:2024-04-21 7577:See also: 7526:The Monist 7331:2013-01-22 7299:0415278430 7183:2014-04-28 7100:(1572) as 7069:Ibn Mu'adh 6918:al-Battani 6904:2018-05-27 6853:2021-08-22 6828:2021-08-22 6803:2021-08-22 6778:2021-08-30 6752:2021-08-22 6593:2012-01-06 6480:2017-09-11 6382:, 581–586. 6325:Kamiokande 6238:Wikisource 6069:2021-11-27 5919:Wikisource 5865:2020-05-09 5735:2021-08-27 5547:2020-10-20 5500:2016-06-07 5185:, p. 5171:Opus Majus 5131:2021-11-27 4898:Wikisource 4865:2018-05-31 4837:2016-05-28 4764:References 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658:empiricism 619:empiricism 552:hypothesis 542:, because 540:scepticism 449:Technology 318:Philosophy 308:Literature 278:Humanities 268:Futurology 218:Linguistic 103:Philosophy 98:Literature 88:Glossaries 13760:Factor 10 13588:diffusion 13427:consensus 13422:community 13387:education 13227:Sociology 13202:Scientism 13081:Economics 12713:Geography 12681:Chemistry 12640:Scientism 12435:ladenness 12255:Construct 12233:Causality 11596:Heinemann 11529:1553-7358 11347:462156333 11192:(2005) , 11158:(1959) , 11147:706968824 11025:(1999) , 10885:144294881 10756:0809.1003 10607:(2003) . 10280:Born, Max 9956:heuristic 9498:1468-2303 9440:1746-1979 9380:0926-7220 9333:0047-231X 9306:0926-7220 9161:0002-7685 9111:0018-2680 9065:0002-7685 9030:0036-6803 8967:0950-0693 8924:0036-8326 8881:1879-4912 8788:0036-8237 8621:(2004) . 8561:0046-2772 8487:0569-4345 7996:Voit 2019 7886:1549-1277 7832:0032-5473 7464:2509-310X 7396:0031-899X 7150:110623159 7126:(1): 42. 6689:dimension 6329:neutrinos 5663:144602109 5018:Alhazen, 4792:Principia 4629:Alan Cook 4386:Volume 12 4179:predicate 3618:Euclidean 3614:synthesis 3565:Synthesis 3509:heuristic 3462:arose in 3062:Education 2967:normative 2927:Pluralism 2770:parsimony 2731:beautiful 2717:Parsimony 2605:evolution 2544:knowledge 2134:galloping 2109:heuristic 2061:falsified 1997:pragmatic 1987:In 1877, 1926:positrons 1876:community 1605:, or the 1562:changed. 1482:spacetime 1455:reasoning 1393:beautiful 1337:Aristotle 1263:free will 1255:awareness 1208:mechanics 1061:molecules 973:Principia 639:Al-Biruni 528:knowledge 524:empirical 439:Scientist 193:Political 13880:Scholars 13875:Journals 13865:Category 13839:Portals 13720:transfer 13710:dynamics 13660:feminist 13462:priority 13447:literacy 13407:rhetoric 13373:Science 13337:Logology 13008:Category 12660:Vitalism 12483:Theories 12457:Variable 12378:Paradigm 12265:function 12223:A priori 12212:Analysis 12205:Concepts 12089:Archived 11992:(2000). 11865:Archived 11723:(2009), 11670:(1988), 11621:Archived 11557:(1968), 11547:31513575 11461:(2007), 11432:20787647 11261:20617660 11248:(2007), 11108:(1957), 11090:archived 11082:(1905), 11053:(1997), 11007:(1954), 10948:(1985), 10917:(2007), 10811:(1874), 10790:(2006), 10781:14395472 10720:(2003), 10678:archived 10580:(1638), 10567:Archived 10541:(1979), 10517:(1965), 10492:(1938), 10443:(1910), 10406:Archived 10334:(1989), 10317:archived 10282:(1949), 10237:Archived 10174:Archived 10112:Archived 9936:Archived 9912:Archived 9888:Archived 9770:26243971 9596:39539508 9398:34720429 9341:43631913 9119:20461985 8796:40399117 8653:54503549 8495:25603965 8339:Archived 8323:Archived 8299:53434974 8220:320-339. 8163:Archived 8011:(1966). 7949:BBC News 7904:16060722 7840:34039698 7730:Archived 7480:(1995). 7356:, ch. 1. 7266:Archived 7237:16060722 7174:Archived 7076:Archived 7028:cytosine 6895:Archived 6871:Archived 6847:Archived 6822:Archived 6797:Archived 6772:Archived 6746:Archived 6722:Archived 6711:Archived 6677:a priori 6555:Archived 6518:photo 51 6474:Archived 6449:Einstein 6429:Principe 6333:SN 1987a 6296:17739513 6199:Archived 6063:Archived 6005:Archived 5859:Archived 5841:(2009). 5814:theories 5768:(1957), 5726:Archived 5541:archived 5494:Archived 5455:(1963). 5304:15338543 5219:53006741 5125:Archived 5099:Almagest 5033:Archived 4859:Archived 4796:see also 4711:Weinberg 4643:(1997), 4639:(1995), 4635:(1994), 4631:(1994), 4627:(1993), 4623:(1992), 4619:(1983), 4615:(1974), 4611:(1967), 4607:(1966), 4603:(1958), 4597:Max Born 4595:(1920), 4591:(1902), 4480:record". 4098:... and 3983:twilight 3905:in 1930. 3707:See also 3697:theorems 3668:homology 3602:analysis 3550:Analysis 3411:Big data 3007:— 2828:symmetry 2815:Max Born 2812:— 2774:elegance 2764:Elegance 2740:— 2617:genetics 2613:patterns 2387:between 2303:Einstein 2256:European 2236:Chaldean 2163:a priori 2118:— 1889:— 1776:repeated 1672:modeling 1583:New York 1542:photo 51 1377:— 1179:— 1156:such as 1087:unknowns 1077:subjects 1065:crystals 867:Overview 635:Avicenna 627:Epicurus 554:through 444:Research 333:Religion 235:Medicine 213:Military 188:Economic 166:Physical 154:Computer 78:Category 33:Research 13843:Science 13525:studies 13437:dissent 13377:citizen 13294:studies 13292:Science 13239:Social 13104:History 12718:History 12686:Physics 12676:Biology 12474:more... 12462:control 12358:Inquiry 12101:at the 12079:at the 12043:(ed.). 11754:(ed.), 11702:(ed.), 11538:6742218 11507:Bibcode 11407:3657357 11377:3657358 11303:Bibcode 11128:Reprint 11120:4140462 11012:Vol. 1: 10761:Bibcode 10212:Sources 9930:(1979) 9884:6711862 9761:4520913 9506:2504396 9389:8550242 9169:4450823 9073:4451400 8947:Bibcode 8904:Bibcode 8336:YouTube 7895:1182327 7797:(1727) 7638:p. 15." 7630:p. 21: 7376:Bibcode 7228:1182327 7128:Bibcode 7024:guanine 7016:thymine 7012:adenine 6552:Draft D 6472:. 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