341:
42:
383:, the US had lost interest in the new conference because treaties already limited its navy, its army was so small that further reduction was ludicrous and the proposed measures of air limitation were so vague that they meant little. He wrote that the conference would "probably meet in February or March 1932 and, discouraging as it may sound, it will probably go on and on". He had come to believe that armaments would never be abolished completely but that treaties might maintain military balances.
500:
213:
595:
194:, underwent a vast development in arms. During the course of the war, technology surrounding weaponry development and new types of arms emerged: specifically, a focus on not only land equipment and personal but also the navy and the air force, which Borg described as having "considerable weight and influence".
386:
The negotiations can be split into five distinctive categories or periods. As classified by the military historian Arther
Steiner, "first period - emphasis on security, second period - appointment of commissions, third period - the general commissions, fourth period - the technical commission and the
650:
later wrote that
Americans regarded the Geneva Conference as "a European peace conference with European political questions to be settled. The necessary work of settling them must be done by the leaders of Europe". Stimson realised that Germany's position in European affairs could not be ignored, as
482:
In addition, other discussions were brought up during the
General Commission such as whether the agreements were still in place during wartime, whether other regulatory bodies should be established to monitor and to enforce it and whether there should be demilitarised zones. Those issues were agreed
429:
defined national armaments as referring to generalised military forces including personnel, equipment, technology etc. The conference intended to differentiate between offensive and defensive weapons. The negotiations centred largely on offensive weapons to stop future attacks, rather than reduce
395:
This specifically focused on the time's geopolitical relations, which included Russia, Turkey, Iran, France and
Germany. The main focus was France and developing relations that reassured that it could safely disarm, which involved a development of American-French and Anglo-French relationships.
284:
had sent: "If all nations will agree wholly to eliminate from possession and use the weapons which make possible a successful attack, defences automatically will become impregnable and the frontiers and independence of every nation will become secure". The League of
Nations failed to ensure the
670:
The exact reasons are not clear or agreed by historians for exactly why the conference failed. However, most academic sources and historians blame a combination of the rise of Hitler, the consequent withdrawal of
Germany from the conference, the general unwillingness of nations to disarm, the
348:
Article 8 of the
Covenant stated that "the members of the League recognise that the maintenance of peace requires the reduction of national armaments to the lowest point consistent with national safety and the enforcement by common action of international obligations".
651:
it had been at Geneva in 1927 or at London in 1930, but he did not know how to reconcile German military ambition with French fear of its neighbour. Stimson hoped the
Europeans to find a solution. He also hesitated over further naval disarmament because of the
208:
resulted in a general antiwar sentiment and encouraged the general sentiment of disarmament. The
British Women's Society received 8 million signatures for disarmament and was accredited with a driving force behind the convening of the conference.
518:, the proposal that Hoover presented to the conference on the 22 June 1932 was a "potential turning point" by suggesting that the US would abolish all aircraft, submarines, military aviation, tanks, poison gas and one third of the battleships.
642:
the French were unwilling to disarm. The conference was ultimately adjourned in
November 1934. The British Foreign Office stated that “the failure of the Disarmament Conference would have incalculable consequences for Europe and the League ”.
404:
This began of 25 February 1933 and involved finding a representative from each state. Together, they formed the General Commission, which delegated into the Naval and Air Commissions. This stage was concluded by 18 March 1933.
197:
The developments included aircraft for infantry support, photographing infantry positioning and bombing; naval warfare, with submarines and German U-boats, and land armaments, including gases, machine guns and grenades.
613:
and then the Geneva Conference in October 1933. He temporarily rejoined the Geneva Conference under the Five-Power Agreement but quickly withdrew Germany again as progressions with the conference began to halt.
617:
The military superiority of Germany was a defining element of Hitler's ideology and foreign policy, which made the idea of disarmament unacceptable. As soon as Hitler rose to power, he began the process of
445:
disagreed by arguing that the offensive capabilities of tanks were tremendous and outweighed any defensive capabilities. The turmoil and the inability to agree halted the progression of the conference.
336:
had been created with "the ideal of establishing a family of nations united by shared goals of peace".” The Covenant of the League of Nations had been published on 28 April 1919 by unanimous agreement.
441:, was present at the conference. He contended that tanks, a new development from the First World War, were both offensive and defensive weapons and so could not be classified as either. However,
483:
upon with the ideal that the agreements set about should apply to both wartime and peacetime, a nonpolitical body should monitor disarmament and there should be no specific demilitarised zones.
173:
The conference's main objectives included defining aggressively-offensive weapons, reasonably-defensive weapons, abolishing submarines, aviation and heavy-duty tanks and limiting land forces.
1681:
626:
and the objective of the Disarmament Conference. Hitler drew on the unwillingness of other countries to disarm as a justification that Germany should not be forced to do the same.
536:
There was a failure to obtain a German-French agreement on German arms, as the French did not want to disarm without a guaranteed alliance if war broke out with Germany again.
273:
A preparatory commission was initiated by the League in 1925. By 1931, there was sufficient support to hold a conference, which duly began under the chairmanship of former
159:. Aimed towards a global reduction in arms, the conference was organised and campaigned for by the League of Nations with the main objective to avoid another world war.
352:
The Geneva Conference was convened by the League of Nations in 1932 to fulfil the terms of Article 8 and to progress towards world peace by the process of disarmament.
533:
The General Commission made progress with having nations agree on a number of terms. However, it was unsuccessful in having individual nations implement its terms.
1746:
1452:
274:
491:
This period was known for its high levels of debate, disagreement and technical issues. Essentially no agreement or progress occurred during this session.
162:
The conference symbolised global co-operation to a combined goal of limiting arms, but it is generally perceived as a failure because of the onset of the
1351:
571:
talked about " growing danger of military intervention against the USSR". That meant that like many other countries, the USSR was hesitant to disarm.
413:
The third period, the General Commission, had the bulk of the negotiations take place. The conference began to attempt to enact the goals of the
1825:
586:
and became hesitant and hostile to the whole idea of disarmament. Its disagreement caused it not to be present or involved with negotiations.
1830:
1739:
521:
The involvement of the United States "injected life into a nearly dead conference". However, these proposals were never passed through the
514:
acknowledged the failure and the lack of progress for the conference and proposed for the US to take the lead on disarmament. As argued by
228:
Article 160 stated that the German Army was to have no more than 7 infantry divisions, 3 cavalry divisions, 100,000 men and 4000 officers.
1705:
1445:
1698:
1845:
1840:
1835:
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17:
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251:
1666:
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270:. A substantial international nongovernmental campaign to promote disarmament also developed in the 1920s and the early 1930s.
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1334:
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426:
298:
267:
137:
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1618:
1542:
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1574:
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559:. The USSR was occupied with national issues and was rarely present at the conference. In addition, during the
525:, and although they showed the promise and the spirit of disarmament, they did not resonate in the conference.
1140:"Foreign Relations of the United States Diplomatic Papers, 1932, General, Volume I - Office of the Historian"
548:, and the French feared that they would be attacked again with no way to defend themselves if they disarmed.
605:
came to power in January 1933 and quickly gained complete authority over the German government. He withdrew
1885:
1880:
1875:
1784:
556:
430:
nations' defensive weapons. However, nations often disagreed about the technicalities of certain weaponry.
250:
of 1899 and 1907, which had failed in their primary objective. Although many contemporary commentators and
1251:
MĂĽller, Rolf-Dieter; Ancker, Janice W. (15 August 2016). "The Military in the Totalitarian FĂĽhrer State".
1640:
1623:
1595:
1552:
1497:
891:
1820:
1810:
1789:
848:
Webster, Andrew (19 August 2006). "From Versailles to Geneva: The many forms of interwar disarmament".
317:
as permanent members of the League of Nations Council. It included all the Allies that had signed the
1865:
1860:
1855:
1850:
1635:
1504:
280:. The motivation behind the talks can be summed up by an extract from the message that US President
234:
Article 168 limited the manufacture of munitions, which was to be overseen by the League of Nations.
717:
1769:
1764:
1527:
567:. That included a peacetime size of 1,100,000 and compulsory military service. In December 1931,
224:
laid out the terms for the Germans' conditional surrender, including their national disarmament.
201:
The aim of the Geneva Conference was disarmament that would target land, air and naval programs.
1408:
1111:
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1815:
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1293:
306:
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highly-unstable political and economic climate and the looming threat of another world war.
368:, with the intention of implementing strategies to fulfill Article 8 of the Covenant of the
1514:
639:
623:
462:
that had not been developed before the war along borders would be abolished. Also, coastal
318:
221:
155:
The conference was a response to the militarisation of global powers during and after the
8:
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1628:
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1027:
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769:
761:
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434:
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255:
1404:
Noel-Baker, Philip John. "First World Disarmament Conference and Why It Failed" (1979)
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The US then sent a delegate to Geneva and became heavily involved in the Conference.
442:
414:
369:
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247:
141:
744:
Borg, M. T (9 March 1992). "Reducing Offensive Capabilities - the Attempt of 1932".
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had committed themselves to disarmament in both the Treaty of Versailles and in the
41:
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1322:
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437:, a British military historian who was known largely for his strategy surrounding
375:
The US ambassador to Belgium and minister to Switzerland and conference delegate,
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1284:
Edelstein, David M. (15 September 2017). "The Resurgence of Interwar Germany".
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A key negotiation of the conference involved the discussions surrounding armed
417:, which primarily involved classifying classes of weaponry and fortifications.
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322:
302:
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861:
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869:
552:
263:
149:
1234:
1167:
James, Alan (1986). "The League of Nations: its life and times, 1920–1946".
1068:
Borg, M. T (1992). "Reducing Offensive Capabilities - the Attempt of 1932".
594:
499:
1564:
1010:
Steiner, Arthur (6 May 1933). "The Geneva Disarmament Conference of 1932".
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602:
167:
1380:
Davies, Thomas. "France and the World Disarmament Conference of 1932–34."
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708:
Stevenson, David (1 January 2016). "Land Armaments in Europe, 1866–1914".
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522:
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133:
129:
212:
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1537:
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458:. It was agreed unanimously that any fortifications remaining from the
1089:
765:
231:
Article 165 limited German guns, machine guns, ammunition, and rifles.
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471:
259:
205:
1180:
1407:
Schuman, Frederick L. Europe On The Eve 1933-1939 (1939) pp 28–54.
914:(United States Government Printing Office, Washington, 1943) pp. 10
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297:
The Geneva Conference involved all of the nations signatory to the
1353:
Peace and disarmament: naval rivalry & arms control, 1922-1933
1012:
The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science
246:
The first effort at international arms limitation was made at the
204:
After the war, the extensive death toll and the social effects of
140:. It was attended by 61 states, most of which were members of the
1415:
The Triumph of the Dark: European International History 1933-1939
656:
329:
that had vested interests in disarmament in Europe specifically.
1392:
Peace and Disarmament, Naval Rivalry and Arms Control, 1922-1933
819:. Columbia University Press. 31 December 1923. pp. 21–110.
541:
361:
191:
125:
544:
were vulnerable because of their geographical proximity to
145:
474:
could remain but not be worked on, extended or built up.
285:
success of the talks, which impacted the likelihood of a
1780:
Conference for the Reduction and Limitation of Armaments
132:, between February 1932 and November 1934 to accomplish
114:
Conference for the Reduction and Limitation of Armaments
258:, historians writing in the 1930s emphasised the quick
1460:
262:
before 1914. Also, all of the major powers except the
1112:"Sir Basil Liddell Hart | British military historian"
912:
Peace and War: United States Foreign Policy 1931-1941
1394:, The University Press of Kentucky, Lexington, 1995.
689:
First World Disarmament Conference and Why It Failed
124:, was an international conference of states held in
27:
1932–34 meeting in Switzerland on global disarmament
1754:
957:
634:Ultimately, when Hitler withdrew Germany from the
563:, Stalin led the modernisation and buildup of the
360:The conference convened on the 1 February 1932 in
817:The League of Nations and Miscellaneous Addresses
1802:
1401:, Palgrave MacMillan, Houndmills, New York, 2003
1255:. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 7–42.
1740:
1446:
1399:Britain and the Geneva Disarmament Conference
1356:. University Press of Kentucky. p. 150.
1217:The Stalin-Kaganovich Correspondence, 1931–36
815:"II. The Covenant of the League of Nations".
399:
49:speaking at the conference on 2 February 1932
1250:
788:"World War I | Facts, Causes, & History"
181:
1706:The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors
712:. Oxford University Press. pp. 41–60.
241:
1747:
1733:
1453:
1439:
1321:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
1319:German Rearmament and the West, 1932-1933
1283:
718:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198735267.003.0003
707:
477:
237:Article 170 limited importations of arms.
170:from both the conference and the League.
1713:To the Unknown British Soldier in France
593:
498:
339:
211:
1349:
1317:Bennett, Edward W. (31 December 2015).
1316:
1261:10.5810/kentucky/9780813167381.003.0001
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847:
589:
486:
420:
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252:Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles
166:five years later and the withdrawal of
14:
1803:
1699:A Peace Conference at the Quai d'Orsay
1667:American Commission to Negotiate Peace
1570:Possible cause of the Second World War
1294:10.7591/cornell/9781501707568.003.0005
1214:
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1001:
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958:Gumbrecht, Hans U. (5 February 1998).
387:fifth period - the Hoover Proposals".
254:blamed the outbreak of the war on the
1826:Diplomatic conferences in Switzerland
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960:In 1926 - Living on the Edge of Time
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710:Arms Races in International Politics
503:Portrait of President Herbert Hoover
1831:20th-century diplomatic conferences
1424:(1938), highly influential account
984:
910:United States Department of State,
551:In 1932 and 1933, the USSR, led by
292:
24:
1462:Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)
1241:
1203:
1157:
1129:
1046:
934:"League of Nations - The Covenant"
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379:, had observed not long after the
325:and all neutral countries such as
25:
1897:
1478:Covenant of the League of Nations
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427:Covenant of the League of Nations
344:Covenant of the League of Nations
299:Covenant of the League of Nations
268:Covenant of the League of Nations
138:Covenant of the League of Nations
1422:The Whispering Gallery Of Europe
40:
1846:1934 in international relations
1841:1933 in international relations
1836:1932 in international relations
1619:Partition of the Ottoman Empire
1591:Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye
1543:Hague conference on reparations
1343:
1310:
1277:
1104:
951:
598:Portrait of Adolf Hitler (1936)
582:on 18 September 1931 after the
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1755:Interwar Naval Arms Limitation
1672:Commission of Responsibilities
1575:International Opium Convention
904:
884:
841:
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287:second major European conflict
13:
1:
1785:Anglo-German Agreement (1935)
1253:Hitler's Wehrmacht, 1935-1945
674:
663:for a possible action in the
176:
1350:Fanning, Richard W. (1995).
1288:. Cornell University Press.
962:. Harvard University Press.
850:Journal of Strategic Studies
629:
332:According to Gumbrecht, the
122:World Disarmament Conference
7:
1641:Turkish War of Independence
1624:Conference of London (1920)
1596:Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine
1498:Little Treaty of Versailles
1082:10.1177/0022343392029002003
758:10.1177/0022343392029002003
622:, clearly defying both the
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10:
1902:
1374:
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892:"The Treaty of Versailles"
400:Appointment of commissions
190:, the world, particularly
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1636:Turkish National Movement
1609:
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1513:
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1219:. Yale University Press.
1070:Journal of Peace Research
862:10.1080/01402390600585050
746:Journal of Peace Research
555:underwent the widespread
275:British Foreign Secretary
182:Legacy of First World War
116:, generally known as the
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62:
54:
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34:
1770:Geneva Conference (1927)
1765:Washington Treaty (1922)
1382:Diplomacy and Statecraft
687:Philip John Noel-Baker,
242:Diplomatic preliminaries
216:The Treaty of Versailles
18:Geneva Conference (1932)
1390:Fanning, Richard Ward,
1384:15.4 (2004): 765-780.
1215:Shabad, Steven (2003).
1116:Encyclopedia Britannica
938:Encyclopedia Britannica
792:Encyclopedia Britannica
136:in accordance with the
1871:20th century in Geneva
646:US Secretary of State
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478:Additional discussions
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1533:Reparation Commission
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1169:International Affairs
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502:
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301:, which included the
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82:46.2044° N, 6.1432° E
1790:London Treaty (1936)
1775:London Treaty (1930)
1682:List of participants
1515:Treaty of Versailles
640:Treaty of Versailles
624:Treaty of Versailles
590:Departure of Germany
487:Technical Commission
421:Classifying weaponry
391:Emphasis on security
319:Treaty of Versailles
256:war guilt of Germany
222:Treaty of Versailles
1886:1934 in Switzerland
1881:1933 in Switzerland
1876:1932 in Switzerland
1629:San Remo conference
1584:Subsequent treaties
1553:Lausanne Conference
1397:Kitching, Carolyn,
897:Library of Congress
466:except between the
1646:Treaty of Lausanne
1523:"War guilt" clause
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569:Vyacheslav Molotov
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495:Hoover's proposals
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435:Basil Liddell Hart
409:General Commission
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282:Franklin Roosevelt
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1811:League of Nations
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1601:Treaty of Trianon
1493:Minority Treaties
1470:League of Nations
1336:978-1-4008-7199-5
1303:978-1-5017-0756-8
1270:978-0-8131-6738-1
1226:978-0-300-09367-4
1144:history.state.gov
834:978-0-231-89509-5
727:978-0-19-873526-7
661:aircraft carriers
653:Manchurian crisis
636:League of Nations
611:League of Nations
443:Winston Churchill
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381:London Conference
370:League of Nations
334:League of Nations
248:Hague Conferences
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106:League of Nations
35:Geneva Conference
16:(Redirected from
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1866:Events in Geneva
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164:Second World War
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1369:
1362:
1342:
1335:
1309:
1302:
1276:
1269:
1240:
1225:
1202:
1175:(1): 101–102.
1156:
1128:
1103:
1076:(2): 145–160.
1045:
983:
968:
950:
916:
903:
883:
856:(2): 225–246.
840:
833:
804:
779:
752:(2): 145–160.
733:
726:
693:
679:
678:
676:
673:
631:
628:
591:
588:
574:Additionally,
538:Czechoslovakia
530:
527:
512:Herbert Hoover
496:
493:
488:
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479:
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464:fortifications
456:fortifications
451:
450:Fortifications
448:
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377:Hugh S. Gibson
357:
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303:United Kingdom
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183:
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969:0-674-00055-2
965:
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793:
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771:
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723:
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621:
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612:
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566:
562:
558:
557:Soviet Famine
554:
553:Joseph Stalin
549:
547:
543:
539:
534:
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524:
519:
517:
513:
510:US President
508:
501:
492:
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264:United States
261:
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150:United States
147:
143:
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131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
66:November 1934
65:
61:
57:
53:
48:
43:
38:
33:
30:
19:
1816:Arms control
1779:
1711:
1704:
1697:
1565:Stresa Front
1488:Organisation
1421:
1414:
1398:
1391:
1381:
1352:
1345:
1318:
1312:
1285:
1279:
1252:
1235:j.ctt1bhknv0
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1168:
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1143:
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1115:
1106:
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1069:
1015:
1011:
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937:
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906:
895:
886:
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843:
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795:. Retrieved
791:
782:
749:
745:
709:
688:
683:
669:
645:
633:
616:
603:Adolf Hitler
601:
573:
550:
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532:
520:
509:
506:
490:
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453:
432:
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403:
394:
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374:
359:
356:Negotiations
351:
347:
331:
296:
272:
245:
219:
203:
200:
196:
185:
172:
168:Nazi Germany
161:
154:
121:
117:
113:
111:
103:Organised by
95:Participants
29:
1677:The Inquiry
1528:Reparations
1018:: 212–219.
659:had enough
565:Soviet Army
523:US Congress
366:Switzerland
327:Switzerland
186:During the
134:disarmament
130:Switzerland
90:Switzerland
79:Coordinates
71:Location(s)
1805:Categories
1548:Young Plan
1538:Dawes Plan
1363:0813130557
978:1066536066
675:References
468:Baltic Sea
177:Background
144:, but the
98:31 nations
1691:Paintings
1189:1468-2346
1098:220982933
1040:145367431
878:154909587
870:0140-2390
774:220982933
630:Aftermath
609:from the
580:Manchuria
472:North Sea
260:arms race
206:total war
1662:Big Four
1505:Mandates
665:Far East
638:and the
578:invaded
529:Problems
470:and the
148:and the
1560:Locarno
1483:Members
1375:Sources
1197:2620241
1032:1019055
657:US Navy
607:Germany
546:Germany
323:Germany
87:Country
1426:online
1409:online
1386:online
1360:
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1121:21 May
1096:
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876:
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797:27 May
772:
766:424049
764:
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691:(1979)
542:Poland
362:Geneva
307:France
192:Europe
126:Geneva
74:Geneva
55:Begins
1655:Other
1231:JSTOR
1193:JSTOR
1094:S2CID
1086:JSTOR
1036:S2CID
1028:JSTOR
874:S2CID
770:S2CID
762:JSTOR
576:Japan
321:with
315:Japan
311:Italy
1358:ISBN
1331:ISBN
1298:ISBN
1265:ISBN
1221:ISBN
1185:ISSN
1151:2020
1123:2020
974:OCLC
964:ISBN
945:2020
866:ISSN
829:ISBN
799:2020
722:ISBN
540:and
433:Sir
425:The
313:and
220:The
146:USSR
112:The
63:Ends
1323:doi
1290:doi
1257:doi
1177:doi
1078:doi
1020:doi
1016:168
858:doi
821:doi
754:doi
714:doi
120:or
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