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citizens. Despite this, no mental or physical trend is identifiable that differentiates criminals from non-criminals. Public response to criminals may be indignant or sympathetic. Indignant responses involve resentment and a desire for vengeance, wishing to see criminals removed from society or made to suffer for harm that they cause. Sympathetic responses involve compassion and understanding, seeking to rehabilitate or forgive criminals and absolve them of blame.
2913:. Repeat victimization may also occur when a potential victim appears to be a viable target, such as when indicating wealth in a less affluent region. Many of the traits that indicate criminality also indicate victimality; victims of crime are more likely to engage in unlawful behavior and respond to provocation. Overall demographic trends of victims and criminals are often similar, and victims are more likely to have engaged in criminal activities themselves.
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233:
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2265:(the citizen's duty to obey the law) and a theory of enforcement, which identifies the legitimate goals of enforcement and punishment. Legislation must conform to a theory of legitimacy, which describes the circumstances under which a particular person or group is entitled to make law, and a theory of legislative justice, which describes the law they are entitled or obliged to make.
4073:...it was part of the task of a legal theorist to explain the 'normativity' or 'authority' of law, by which they meant 'our sense that 'legal' norms provide agents with special reasons for acting, reasons they would not have if the norm were not a 'legal' one'...this may be a matter calling more for a psychological or sociological explanation, rather than a philosophical one.
2216:"This law of nature, being co-eval with mankind and dictated by God himself, is of course superior in obligation to any other. It is binding over all the globe, in all countries, and at all times: no human laws are of any validity, if contrary to this; and such of them as are valid derive all their force, and all their authority, mediately or immediately, from this original."
2103:, either studying criminal acts on an individual level or the relationship of crime and the community. Due to the wide range of concepts associated with crime and the disagreement on a precise definition, the focus of criminology can vary considerably. Various theories within criminology provide different descriptions and explanations for crime, including
1968:. There is no limit to what can be considered a crime in a legal system, so there may not be a unifying principle used to determine whether an action should be designated as a crime. From a legal perspective, crimes are generally wrong actions that are severe enough to warrant punishment that infringes on the perpetrator's liberties.
3222:; groups that are less integrated with society or that are forcibly integrated with society are more likely to engage in crime. Involvement in the community, such as through a church, decreases the likelihood of crime, while associating with criminals increases the likelihood of becoming a criminal as well.
2232:
in accepting the calculating nature of human beings and the existence of an objective morality. He denied that the legal validity of a norm depends on whether its content conforms to morality. Thus, in
Austinian terms, a moral code can objectively determine what people ought to do, the law can embody
2483:
White-collar crime refers to financially motivated, nonviolent or non-directly violent crime committed by individuals, businesses and government professionals. The crimes are believed to be committed by middle- or upper-class individuals for financial gains. Typical white-collar crimes could include
2282:
Restrictions on behavior existed in all prehistoric societies. Crime in early human society was seen as a personal transgression and was addressed by the community as a whole rather than through a formal legal system, often through the use of custom, religion, or the rule of a tribal leader. Some of
2165:
Information and statistics about crime in a given jurisdiction are collected as crime estimates, typically produced by national or international agencies. Methods to collect crime statistics may vary, even between jurisdictions within the same nation. Under-reporting of crime is common, particularly
1944:
The exact definition of crime is a philosophical issue without an agreed upon answer. Fields such as law, politics, sociology, and psychology define crime in different ways. Crimes may be variously considered as wrongs against individuals, against the community, or against the state. The criminality
2268:
There are natural-law theorists who have accepted the idea of enforcing the prevailing morality as a primary function of the law. This view entails the problem that it makes any moral criticism of the law impossible: if conformity with natural law forms a necessary condition for legal validity, all
4036:
The moral standards...which
Dworkin (in line with natural law theory) treats as capable of being morally objective & true, thus function as a direct source of law and...as already law, except when their fit with the whole set of social-fact sources in the relevant community is so weak that it
2875:
A criminal is an individual who commits a crime. What constitutes a criminal can vary depending on the context and the law, and it often carries a pejorative connotation. Criminals are often seen as embodying certain stereotypes or traits and are seen as a distinct type of person from law-abiding
2550:
as opposed to white-collar crime which is associated with crime committed by someone of a higher-level social class. These crimes are primarily small scale, for immediate beneficial gain to the individual or group involved in them. Examples of blue-collar crime include
Narcotic production or
2896:
Several factors affect an individual's likelihood of becoming a victim. Some factors may cause victims of crime to experience short-term or long-term "repeat victimization". Common long-term victims are those that have close relationships with the criminal, manifesting in crimes such as
3138:
If a crime is committed, the individual responsible is considered to be liable for the crime. For liability to exist, the individual must be capable of understanding the criminal process and the relevant authority must have legitimate power to establish what constitutes a crime.
2379:
in the 12th century. He established a system of traveling judges that tried accused criminals in each region of
England by applying precedent from previous rulings. Legal developments in 12th century England also resulted in the earliest known recording of official crime data.
2955:. Historically, criminal codes have often divided criminals by class or caste, prescribing different penalties depending on status. In some tribal societies, an entire clan is recognized as liable for a crime. In many cases, disputes over a crime in this system lead to a
2207:
beings, concluding that it becomes morally appropriate that they should behave in a way that conforms to their rational nature. Thus, to be valid, any law must conform to natural law and coercing people to conform to that law is morally acceptable. In the 1760s,
2920:. Victims, on their own, may lack the economies of scale that could allow them to administer a penal system, let alone to collect any fines levied by a court. Historically, from ancient times until the 19th century, many societies believed that non-human
2609:. Some violent crimes, such as assault, may be committed with the intention of causing harm. Other violent crimes, such as robbery, may use violence to further another goal. Violent crime is distinct from noncriminal types of violence, such as
3123:
Whether a crime can be resolved through financial compensation varies depending on the culture and the specific context of the crime. Historically, many societies have absolved acts of homicide through compensation to the victim's relatives.
3066:
and punish criminals in a way that knowingly causes suffering. This may arise out of a feeling that criminals deserve to suffer and that punishment should exist for its own sake. The existence of punishment also creates an effect of
3229:. Some genes have been found to affect traits that may incline individuals toward criminal activity, but no biological or physiological trait has been found to directly cause or compel criminal actions. One biological factor is the
3252:
Crime is often a high priority political issue in developed countries, regardless of the country's crime rates. People that are not regularly exposed to crime most often experience it through media, including news reporting and
2858:. Inchoate crimes are defined by substantial action to facilitate a crime with the intention of the crime's occurrence. This is distinct from simple preparation for or consideration of criminal activity. They are unique in that
3265:
in new stories about criminals significantly over-represent the prevalence of violent crime, and news reporting will often overemphasize a specific type of crime for a period of time, creating a "crime wave" effect.
2260:
rejects Hart's theory and proposes that all individuals should expect the equal respect and concern of those who govern them as a fundamental political right. He offers a theory of compliance overlaid by a theory of
1963:
Legal and political definitions of crime consider actions that are banned by authorities or punishable by law. Crime is defined by the criminal law of a given jurisdiction, including all actions that are subject to
2924:
were capable of committing crimes, and prosecuted and punished them accordingly. Prosecutions of animals gradually dwindled during the 19th century, although a few were recorded as late as the 1910s and 1920s.
2356:
Europe and East Asia, central government was limited and crime was defined locally. Towns established their own criminal justice systems, while crime in the countryside was defined by the social hierarchies of
2884:
A victim is an individual who has been treated unjustly or made to suffer. In the context of crime, the victim is the individual that is harmed by a violation of criminal law. Victimization is associated with
2325:. Most acts recognized as crimes in ancient societies, such as violence and theft, have persisted to the modern era. The criminal justice system of Imperial China existed unbroken for over 2,000 years.
2828:. Due to their unique relation to the state, political crimes are often encouraged by one nation against another, and it is political alignment rather than the act itself that determines criminality.
1945:
of an action is dependent on its context; acts of violence will be seen as crimes in many circumstances but as permissible or desirable in others. Crime was historically seen as a manifestation of
3173:, and they are defined through the consensus of the involved states. International crimes are not prosecuted through a standard legal system, though international organizations may establish
3058:
the criminal act. Punishment is generally reserved for serious offenses. Individuals regularly engage in activity that could be scrutinized under criminal law but are deemed inconsequential.
2404:
in the 19th century caused crime to become an immediate issue that affected society, prompting government intervention in crime and the establishment of criminology as its own field.
3388:
3233:, as men are significantly more likely to commit crimes than women in virtually all cultures. Crimes committed by men also tend to be more severe than those committed by women.
317:
3108:
Developed nations are less likely to use physical punishments. Instead, they will impose financial penalties or imprisonment. In places with widespread corruption or limited
8202:
5313:
Hipp, J. R.; Curran, P. J.; Bollen, K. A.; Bauer, D. J. (1 June 2004). "Crimes of
Opportunity or Crimes of Emotion? Testing Two Explanations of Seasonal Change in Crime".
2336:. The understanding of crime and sin were closely associated with one another for much of history, and conceptions of crime took on many of the ideas associated with sin.
6863:
3384:
3014:
suspected perpetrators of crimes. Law enforcement may focus on policing individual crimes, or it may focus on bringing down overall crime rates. One common variant,
3203:. A person that commits a criminal act typically believes that its benefits will outweigh the risk of being caught and punished. Negative economic factors, such as
2763:
2862:
of criminal intention is generally enough to absolve the perpetrator of criminal liability, as their actions are no longer facilitating a potential future crime.
6898:
6690:
3438:
2269:
valid law must, by definition, count as morally just. Thus, on this line of reasoning, the legal validity of a norm necessarily entails its moral justice.
2850:
Inchoate crime is crime that is carried out in anticipation of other illegal actions but does not cause direct harm. Examples of inchoate crimes include
2688:
Public order crime is crime that violates a society's norms about what constitutes socially acceptable behavior. Examples of public order crimes include
4514:
Van den
Bogaard, Joop; Wiegman, Oene (1991). "Property Crime Victimization: The Effectiveness of Police Services for Victims of Residential Burglary".
952:
2019:, the predominant moral beliefs of society determine the legal definition as well as the social definition of crime. This system is less prominent in
8195:
6858:
2456:
through radio and television in the mid-20th century allowed for the sensationalism of crime. This created well-known stories of criminals such as
2621:. Acts of violence are most often perceived as deviant when they are committed as an overreaction or a disproportionate response to provocation.
6888:
3002:
The enforcement of criminal law seeks to prevent crime and sanction crimes that do occur. This enforcement is carried out by the state through
8742:
2460:, and it allowed for dramatization that perpetuates misconceptions about crime. Forensic science was popularized in the 1980s, establishing
2670:, the complexity and anonymity of computer systems may help criminal employees camouflage their operations. The victims of the most costly
2332:
and corresponded to acts that were believed to invoke the anger of a deity. This idea was further popularized with the development of the
2187:
to coerce compliance with its laws has proven a consistent theoretical problem. One of the earliest justifications involved the theory of
73:; in other words, something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant and applicable law. One proposed definition is that a crime or
8188:
4891:
See
Polinsky & Shavell (1997) on the fundamental divergence between the private and the social motivation for using the legal system.
6868:
4024:
6755:
2233:
whatever norms the legislature decrees to achieve social utility, but every individual remains free to choose what to do. Similarly,
8117:
6683:
5861:
569:
8537:
4707:
2388:
In the modern era, crime came to be seen as an issue affecting society rather than conflicts between individuals. Writers such as
2736:, which posits that public order crimes increase the likelihood of other types of crime. Some public order crimes are considered
1931:
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3413:
3360:
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As public opinion of morality changes over time, actions that were once condemned as crimes may be considered justifiable.
2666:. The scope of financial crimes has expanded significantly since the beginning of modern economics in the 17th century. In
302:
2437:. Crime increasingly came to be seen as a societal issue, and criminal law was seen as a means to protect the public from
9234:
6676:
5758:
Lipsey, Mark W.; Landenberger, Nana A.; Chapman, Gabrielle L. "Rehabilitation: An
Assessment of Theory and Research". In
17:
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The victims may only want compensation for the injuries suffered, while remaining indifferent to a possible desire for
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Psychological definitions consider the state of mind of perpetrators and their relationship with their environment.
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8483:
7657:
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The state determines what actions are considered criminal in the scope of the law. Criminalization has significant
1982:
countries can define offences that the courts alone have developed over the years, without any actual legislation:
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Political crime is crime that directly challenges or threatens the state. Examples of political crimes include
2221:
1803:
1056:
753:
733:
307:
4037:
would be more accurate (according to
Dworkin) to say that judges who apply them are applying morality not law.
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6745:
1958:
1813:
914:
909:
763:
6535:
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7258:
6893:
6878:
6707:
5854:
4420:"Can we Trust Crime Predictors and Crime Categories? Expansions on the Potential Problem of Generalization"
2306:. The latter influenced the conception of crime across several civilizations over the following millennia.
1888:
1797:
564:
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6643:
81:) is an act harmful not only to some individual but also to a community, society, or the state ("a public
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9012:
8737:
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6934:
6715:
5188:
3904:. William Blackstone Collection (Library of Congress). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 41.
3170:
3081:. Different criminological theories propose different methods of rehabilitation, including strengthening
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considerations, as it can infringe on rights of autonomy and subject individuals to unjust punishment.
2584:
2321:
regarded assaults as a matter of private compensation. The most significant Roman law concept involved
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1924:
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1135:
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39:
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Bottoms, Anthony E.; Costello, Andrew. "Understanding Repeat
Victimization: A Longitudinal Study". In
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movement of the early-20th century similarly held that crime was caused primarily by genetic factors.
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8588:
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Thus the necessary and sufficient conditions for the truth of a proposition of law involved internal
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35:
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Social factors similarly affect the likelihood of criminal activity. Crime corresponds heavily with
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1828:
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871:
277:
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5847:
4010:
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3158:
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1979:
1646:
758:
593:
399:
337:
2893:. Victimology is the study of victims, including their role in crime and how they are affected.
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8220:
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6914:
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6648:
6452:
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2009:
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31:
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include banks, brokerage houses, insurance companies, and other large financial institutions.
100:
are to be prohibited exists worldwide. What precisely is a criminal offence is defined by the
65:
definitions have been provided for certain purposes. The most popular view is that crime is a
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Authorities may respond to crime through corrections, carrying out punishment as a means to
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4009:. 3.2 Natural law & (purely) positive law as concurrent dimensions of legal reasoning.
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1971:
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8:
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Davie, Neil. "Born for Evil? Biological Theories of Crime in Historical Perspective". In
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2191:. This posits that the nature of the world or of human beings underlies the standards of
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1776:
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In the United Kingdom, for instance, the definitions provided by section 243(2) of the
3294:
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3219:
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seeks to understand and mitigate the causes of a criminal's unlawful action to prevent
3027:
3015:
2693:
2683:
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2333:
2209:
2108:
2020:
1983:
1965:
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518:
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332:
202:
164:
148:
132:
4419:
3871:. Regan, Richard J., Baumgarth, William P. (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Hackett Pub.
3835:
2037:
defines crime not only as harm to others or to society, but also as harm to the self.
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8180:
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7759:
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7335:
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6735:
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6386:
6039:
6004:
5797:
5776:
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5643:
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5442:
5405:
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5208:
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5017:
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4603:
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4014:
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3915:
3905:
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3208:
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1859:
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1209:
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778:
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419:
156:
66:
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Hanson, Rochelle F.; Sawyer, Genelle K.; Begle, Angela M.; Hubel, Grace S. (2010).
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Taking rights seriously : [with a new appendix, a response to critics]
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When the perpetrator of a crime is found guilty of the crime, the state delivers a
3018:, seeks to prevent crime by integrating police into the community and public life.
2986:
2845:
2821:
2737:
2725:
2671:
2521:
2442:
2441:
behavior. This idea was associated with a larger trend in the western world toward
2419:
2366:
2302:), and the first known criminal code that incorporated retaliatory justice was the
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2225:
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2135:
2127:
2100:
2092:
2028:
1808:
1766:
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544:
490:
177:
5374:"Sex Differences In Crime: Do Means and Within-Sex Variation Have Similar Causes?"
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9017:
8997:
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A Gift of Fire: Social, Legal, and Ethical Issues for Computing and The Internet
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4485:"Modelling Property Crime Using the British Crime Survey. What Have We Learnt?"
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3082:
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Through most of history, reporting of crime was generally local. The advent of
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2203:, which is the first principle of human acts". He regarded people as by nature
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2016:
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1822:
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1239:
640:
267:
144:
50:
8562:
5610:
On the Disutility and Discounting of Imprisonment and the Theory of Deterrence
2162:. Besides sociology, criminology is often associated with law and psychology.
180: – be accompanied by the "intention to do something criminal" (
9333:
9032:
9002:
8902:
8847:
8727:
8392:
8022:
7981:
7867:
7847:
7819:
7769:
7734:
7708:
7703:
7696:
7647:
7587:
7427:
7417:
7375:
7298:
7293:
7223:
7182:
7106:
6668:
6322:
6220:
6024:
5974:
5600:
Polinsky, A. Mitchell. (1980). "Private versus Public Enforcement of Fines".
5446:
5397:
5334:
5263:
5212:
5021:
4607:
4443:
3853:
3787:
3721:
3550:
3254:
2952:
2741:
2580:
2461:
2389:
2284:
2234:
2058:
2024:
1628:
1482:
1194:
1144:
796:
628:
538:
436:
170:
Usually, to be classified as a crime, the "act of doing something criminal" (
109:
5826:
5244:
5227:
5204:
5132:
3952:
3886:
3779:
2744:
have moved toward decriminalization of victimless crimes in the modern era.
8504:
8478:
8154:
7904:
7872:
7827:
7565:
7560:
7531:
7444:
7422:
7390:
7323:
7303:
7197:
7137:
7127:
7079:
7037:
7015:
6958:
6760:
6630:
6565:
6170:
6059:
6044:
4827:
4500:
3989:
3919:
3211:, can increase the incentive to commit crime, while severe punishments can
3204:
2974:
2934:
2902:
2859:
2701:
2614:
2610:
2547:
2509:
2505:
2497:
2434:
2397:
2396:
developed as a long-term penalty for crime in the 18th century. Increasing
2393:
2314:
2310:
2167:
2131:
2076:
1869:
1432:
1356:
1229:
1214:
1126:
977:
791:
365:
205:) are not automatically punished by the state, but can be enforced through
160:
152:
105:
101:
58:
8542:
6653:
5326:
3542:
3349:
Farmer, Lindsay: "Crime, definitions of", in Cane and Conoghan (editors),
2939:
Virtually all countries in the 21st century have criminal law grounded in
8519:
8446:
8441:
8381:
8076:
8017:
8007:
7804:
7799:
7637:
7538:
7454:
7413:
7380:
7345:
7268:
7192:
7142:
7057:
6334:
6330:
6240:
5989:
5903:
4199:
3304:
3244:, while onset of crime at younger age predicts a longer criminal career.
3240:
with a small fraction of individuals re-offending many times due to high
3153:
International criminal law typically addresses serious offenses, such as
3109:
3045:
2948:
2906:
2829:
2751:
2659:
2618:
2337:
2249:
2238:
2204:
2188:
2151:
2072:
2054:
2034:
2005:
1988:
1884:
1640:
1636:
1502:
1159:
1088:
1012:
836:
623:
528:
475:
342:
297:
220:
194:
140:
5144:
5120:
8451:
8398:
8386:
8329:
8310:
8140:
8069:
7949:
7887:
7632:
7553:
7548:
7506:
7488:
7476:
7437:
7283:
7273:
7233:
7218:
7202:
7152:
7089:
7084:
6625:
6411:
6292:
6287:
6165:
6049:
6029:
6019:
5999:
5953:
5928:
5898:
5254:
5189:"Law, language and community: some preconditions of criminal liability"
4915:"The Historical and Contemporary Prosecution and Punishment of Animals"
4067:
4050:
3844:
3286:
3241:
3098:
3078:
3049:
2944:
2855:
2785:
2767:
2590:
2546:
Blue-collar crime is any crime committed by an individual from a lower
2513:
2485:
2453:
2372:
2170:
may be used to determine the frequency of crime in a given population.
2147:
2000:
As a sociological concept, crime is associated with actions that cause
1975:
1905:
1791:
1743:
1598:
1593:
1427:
1219:
1199:
1189:
1169:
1121:
1041:
994:
856:
851:
657:
172:
5613:, NBER Working Papers 6259, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
4809:
4404:
3097:
for physical and mental ailments. Rehabilitative programs may include
2199:
wrote in the 13th century: "the rule and measure of human acts is the
9303:
8047:
8012:
7954:
7929:
7794:
7691:
7679:
7664:
7652:
7580:
7498:
7471:
7355:
6829:
6595:
6575:
6560:
6495:
6401:
6396:
6365:
6355:
6317:
6255:
6235:
6175:
6150:
4839:
4837:
3237:
3162:
2825:
2824:
of a given state, and they are necessarily applied against political
2809:
2801:
2789:
2755:
2729:
2705:
2655:
2644:
2430:
2358:
2318:
2262:
2068:
1733:
1728:
1702:
1671:
1661:
1623:
1517:
1497:
1437:
1412:
1386:
1366:
1351:
495:
431:
62:
9320:
8323:
8135:
5947:
5372:
Rowe, David C.; Vazsonyi, Alexander T.; Flannery, Daniel J. (1995).
3280:
8096:
8081:
7784:
7669:
7466:
7010:
6797:
6515:
6485:
6406:
6350:
6302:
6277:
6259:
6195:
6160:
6131:
6113:
6108:
6091:
6054:
6034:
5013:
4599:
3258:
3174:
3166:
3154:
3117:
3113:
2910:
2805:
2759:
2747:
2740:
in which no specific victim can be identified. Most nations in the
2717:
2689:
2636:
2594:
2560:
2423:
2422:, arguing that certain people are naturally born as criminals. The
2192:
2184:
2155:
2084:
1854:
1786:
1738:
1692:
1656:
1608:
1583:
1521:
1457:
1422:
1306:
1283:
1278:
1261:
1224:
1204:
1001:
635:
582:
232:
224:
182:
9286:
4834:
3818:
Fajnzylber, Pablo; Lederman, Daniel; Loayza, Norman (2002-07-01).
2241:, with lawmakers able to adopt any law as a means to a moral end.
8305:
8229:
7986:
7934:
7914:
7862:
7674:
7592:
7408:
7370:
7318:
6615:
6457:
6423:
6391:
6360:
6307:
6282:
6230:
6210:
6205:
6185:
6155:
6118:
6103:
6014:
5979:
5839:
3094:
3086:
3055:
2851:
2793:
2663:
2606:
2598:
2593:
against another person. Common examples of violent crime include
2564:
2529:
2493:
2096:
2012:, and societal attitudes determine what is considered criminal.
1771:
1723:
1666:
1613:
1588:
1562:
1492:
1472:
1467:
1447:
1417:
1288:
1273:
1184:
1149:
1111:
969:
666:
128:
117:
5657:
Shoham, Shlomo Giora; Knepper, Paul; Kett, Martin, eds. (2010).
3177:
to investigate and rule on egregious offenses such as genocide.
3165:. As with all international law, these laws are created through
8235:
8086:
7939:
7684:
7575:
7570:
7516:
7187:
6814:
6520:
6345:
6215:
6074:
5908:
4977:
3011:
3007:
2921:
2797:
2568:
2200:
1651:
1477:
1311:
1244:
1072:
613:
247:
89:
5421:"Age, Gender, and Crime in a Stockholm Birth Cohort to Age 64"
5294:
5036:
2328:
Many of the earliest conceptions of crime are associated with
61:, have any simple and universally accepted definition, though
30:"Criminal" and "Criminals" redirect here. For other uses, see
9228:
8573:
8027:
7971:
7877:
7718:
7521:
6245:
6190:
6140:
3932:
3557:
2836:
law-abiding citizens may also be considered political crime.
2640:
2556:
2489:
2341:
2245:
2126:
Subfields of criminology and related fields of study include
1507:
1452:
1402:
608:
136:
97:
82:
5270:
5108:
5060:
4965:
3465:
3257:. Exposure of crime through news stories is associated with
2392:
saw crime as a societal issue as early as the 17th century.
1949:, but this has been superseded by modern criminal theories.
8473:
8353:
7909:
7857:
7713:
7111:
7027:
6570:
6297:
5640:
An Eye for an Eye: A Global History of Crime and Punishment
5228:"Are Crimes against Humanity More Serious than War Crimes?"
5096:
4746:
3728:
2956:
2813:
2001:
1946:
1874:
1603:
1361:
198:
151:, or, depending on the nature of their offence, to undergo
93:
5543:
Criminology: Past, Present and Future: A Critical Overview
5282:
5048:
3071:
that discourages criminal action for fear of punishment.
6981:
6864:
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
5757:
5150:
5138:
5126:
5084:
5072:
4734:
4722:
4663:
4551:
4257:
3764:"Official Crime Statistics: Their use and Interpretation"
3385:
Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992
2329:
70:
5477:
5465:
3817:
6899:
International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals
5353:
4182:
Roman law: linguistic, social and philosophical aspects
3649:
3639:
3637:
3612:
3610:
3608:
3581:
3506:
2589:
Violent crime is crime that involves an act of violent
131:
for committing a crime. In modern societies, there are
8210:
6950:
5790:
Welsh, Brandon C.; Farrington, David P., eds. (2012).
5341:
4794:"The impact of crime victimization on quality of life"
4791:
4775:
4773:
4513:
4293:
4269:
3453:
5607:
Polinsky, A. Mitchell & Shavell, Steven. (1997).
5312:
4953:
4861:
4849:
4641:
4639:
4637:
4563:
4317:
4281:
4083:
4081:
3496:
3494:
3492:
2429:
The concept of crime underwent a period of change as
2313:
systematized law and applied their system across the
8319:
5943:
5453:
5425:
Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology
5371:
4329:
4235:
4233:
4100:
4098:
4096:
3634:
3605:
3276:
2252:, and that the state's agents used state power with
5696:O'Neill, Megan. "The Police Response to Crime". In
5564:
Crimes Against the State: From Treason to Terrorism
5419:Carlsson, Christoffer; Sivertsson, Fredrik (2021).
4873:
4770:
4758:
4687:
4341:
4305:
3899:
3593:
3477:
3403:
2770:societies or those heavily influenced by religion.
108:. While many have a catalogue of crimes called the
85:"). Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law.
6854:International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg Trials)
5418:
5168:
5156:
4941:
4634:
4622:
4526:
4245:
4218:
4206:
4161:
4149:
4110:
4078:
3967:
3740:
3622:
3489:
3334:Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition on CD-ROM
5706:
5697:
5688:
5679:
5656:
4675:
4651:
4230:
4093:
2369:, feudal justice survived into the 19th century.
27:Illegal behavior defined by existing criminal law
9331:
6884:Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia
6859:International Military Tribunal for the Far East
4708:"Defining Inchoate Crime: An Incomplete Attempt"
3965:
2340:developed its own system of criminal justice as
5812:
5789:
5704:
4900:See Polinsky (1980) on the enforcement of fines
4843:
3866:
3408:(7 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
6698:
5772:The Oxford Handbook of Crime and Public Policy
5604:, Vol. IX, No. 1, (January), pp. 105–127.
5499:
5114:
5066:
4983:
4971:
4472:(Report). Australian Institute of Criminology.
4393:International Journal of Conflict and Violence
3563:
3471:
2464:as a new method to prevent and analyze crime.
189:While every crime violates the law, not every
8589:
8196:
6966:
6684:
5855:
5831:
4179:
3142:
3112:, crime may be punished extralegally through
3039:
2375:first developed in England under the rule of
1925:
946:
5518:
5378:Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
5300:
5288:
5276:
3261:and inaccurate perceptions of crime trends.
2732:. Public order crime is associated with the
2344:spread in the seventh and eighth centuries.
2008:. Under this definition, crime is a type of
5811:Skogan, Wesley G. "Disorder and Crime". In
5695:
5054:
5042:
4705:
2820:. Political crimes are associated with the
2433:was widely accepted in the years following
2287:. The earliest known criminal code was the
127:) has the power to severely restrict one's
8596:
8582:
8203:
8189:
6973:
6959:
6869:International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
6691:
6677:
5862:
5848:
5719:Crime Victims: Theory, Policy and Practice
5581:
5102:
5090:
5078:
4998:"The Optimal Structure of Law Enforcement"
4752:
4669:
4581:
4538:
4516:Journal of Social Behavior and Personality
3734:
3698:"Whither the Sociological Study of Crime?"
2635:Common examples of property crime include
1932:
1918:
953:
939:
6889:Special Panels of the Dili District Court
5504:(7th ed.). Oxford University Press.
5500:Ashworth, Andrew; Horder, Jeremy (2013).
5436:
5253:
5243:
4908:
4906:
4817:
4464:
4066:
3937:(2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
3843:
3761:
8118:History of the American legal profession
4417:
3345:
3343:
3336:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2009.
3180:
3036:to determine the penalty for the crime.
1992:to develop various common law offences.
5793:The Oxford Handbook of Crime Prevention
5151:Lipsey, Landenberger & Chapman 2004
5139:Lipsey, Landenberger & Chapman 2004
5127:Lipsey, Landenberger & Chapman 2004
4995:
4482:
4122:
4051:"Kelsen, Hart, & legal normativity"
3974:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
3695:
3399:
3397:
3191:Criminal behavior determinants include
2283:the oldest extant writings are ancient
2173:
14:
9332:
5810:
5759:
5740:The Blackwell Companion to Criminology
5736:
5715:
5539:
5483:
5471:
5459:
5347:
5225:
4912:
4903:
4879:
4867:
4855:
4779:
4764:
4740:
4728:
4569:
4557:
4386:
4335:
4323:
4002:
3933:Hart, Herbert Lionel Adolphus (1994).
3655:
3643:
3616:
3599:
3587:
3524:
3512:
3500:
3483:
3459:
3428:
8577:
8184:
6954:
6672:
5843:
5830:
5768:
5686:
5677:
5660:International Handbook of Criminology
5519:Bantekas, Ilias; Nash, Susan (2009).
5412:
5359:
5306:
5232:European Journal of International Law
4929:from the original on 29 December 2019
4628:
4382:
4380:
4347:
4311:
4299:
3813:
3811:
3809:
3807:
3805:
3757:
3755:
3746:
3691:
3689:
3441:from the original on 27 February 2013
3340:
3327:
3325:
3021:
2959:that lasts over several generations.
2766:are commonly recognized as crimes in
2677:
2650:Examples of financial crimes include
2472:
2414:in the late-19th century. This was a
2347:
2178:
9235:
5722:(2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan.
5637:
5616:
5560:
5186:
5174:
5162:
4959:
4947:
4693:
4681:
4657:
4645:
4532:
4389:"Violence, Crime, and Violent Crime"
4287:
4275:
4263:
4251:
4239:
4224:
4212:
4167:
4155:
4116:
4104:
4087:
3628:
3578:, John A. Yogis, Q.C., Barrons: 2003
3394:
3247:
2832:that is carried out by the state to
2535:
4548:. Third Ed. "Employee Crime" (2008)
4424:Applied Spatial Analysis and Policy
4048:
3902:Commentaries on the laws of England
2980:
49:is an unlawful act punishable by a
24:
5869:
4712:Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law
4377:
3802:
3752:
3686:
3422:
3322:
2991:
2962:
2773:
147:to a form of reparation such as a
25:
9366:
8515:Evidence law in the United States
7102:Restitution and unjust enrichment
5822:
5707:Shoham, Knepper & Kett (2010)
5698:Shoham, Knepper & Kett (2010)
5689:Shoham, Knepper & Kett (2010)
5680:Shoham, Knepper & Kett (2010)
4387:Felson, Richard B. (2009-05-01).
3355:, Oxford University Press, 2008 (
2839:
2624:
1986:. The courts used the concept of
9312:
9295:
9278:
9261:
9244:
8743:Democratic Republic of the Congo
8322:
8149:
8148:
8134:
6463:Perverting the course of justice
5946:
5937:
5885:. Not all types are listed here.
5678:Pease, Ken. "Crime Science". In
5365:
5219:
5002:The Journal of Law and Economics
4706:Cahill, Michael T. (2011–2012).
4006:Natural Law & Natural Rights
3279:
2574:
2277:
1568:Perverting the course of justice
968:
308:Risk & actuarial criminology
231:
8113:History of the legal profession
6201:Intellectual property violation
5620:The Dynamics of Political Crime
5193:Oxford Journal of Legal Studies
5180:
4989:
4894:
4885:
4785:
4699:
4575:
4507:
4476:
4458:
4411:
4353:
4173:
4042:
4027:from the original on 2019-08-06
3996:
3959:
3926:
3893:
3860:
3762:MacDonald, Ziggy (2002-02-01).
3661:
3569:
3531:Oxford Journal of Legal Studies
3518:
3352:The New Oxford Companion to Law
3231:disparity between men and women
2928:
2865:
2146:, criminal sociology, criminal
2067:. Criminology is a subfield of
1463:Intellectual property violation
193:counts as a crime. Breaches of
8603:
8369:Deferred prosecution agreement
6930:International humanitarian law
6874:Special Court for Sierra Leone
4489:British Journal of Criminology
3869:On law, morality, and politics
3377:
3187:Causes and correlates of crime
2361:. In some places, such as the
2183:Justifying the state's use of
116:nations no such comprehensive
13:
1:
5813:Welsh & Farrington (2012)
5584:The Other Side of Criminology
5582:Hoefnagels, G. Peter (1973).
5493:
4049:Bix, Brian H. (August 2015).
3836:10.1016/S0014-2921(01)00096-4
3429:Easton, Mark (17 June 2010).
3389:Prevention of Crimes Act 1871
2383:
2292:
2063:The study of crime is called
2040:
1959:Legalism (Western philosophy)
212:
176:) must – with
88:The notion that acts such as
53:or other authority. The term
6894:Special Tribunal for Lebanon
6879:International Criminal Court
5769:Tonry, Michael, ed. (2011).
5602:The Journal of Legal Studies
4465:Bricknell, Samantha (2008).
4418:Connealy, Nathan T. (2020).
4184:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh U.P.
3900:Blackstone, William (1979).
3820:"What causes violent crime?"
3714:10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.711
3404:Elizabeth A. Martin (2003).
3127:
3062:seeks to create a system of
2889:and a long-term decrease in
2237:saw the law as an aspect of
1995:
1798:Ignorantia juris non excusat
135:to which investigations and
7:
6935:International speech crimes
6716:Customary international law
5796:. Oxford University Press.
5775:. Oxford University Press.
5737:Sumner, Colin, ed. (2004).
5390:10.1177/0022427895032001004
4844:Bottoms & Costello 2010
4798:Journal of Traumatic Stress
3696:Sampson, Robert J. (2000).
3387:and by the Schedule to the
3272:
3236:Crime distribution shows a
2870:
2418:school of thought based in
2408:Anthropological criminology
2140:anthropological criminology
1952:
10:
9371:
7780:International legal theory
7259:International slavery laws
7254:International human rights
7249:International criminal law
6756:Convention Against Torture
6700:International criminal law
6226:Possessing stolen property
5617:Ross, Jeffrey Ian (2003).
5522:International Criminal Law
5502:Principles of Criminal Law
5438:10.1007/s40865-021-00172-w
5115:Ashworth & Horder 2013
5067:Ashworth & Horder 2013
4984:Ashworth & Horder 2013
4972:Ashworth & Horder 2013
4483:Tseloni, A. (2002-01-01).
4436:10.1007/s12061-019-09323-5
4361:"White-Collar Crime - FBI"
3702:Annual Review of Sociology
3564:Ashworth & Horder 2013
3472:Ashworth & Horder 2013
3184:
3149:International criminal law
3146:
3143:International criminal law
3131:
3043:
3040:Corrections and punishment
3025:
2995:
2984:
2966:
2932:
2843:
2777:
2681:
2628:
2585:Offence against the person
2578:
2539:
2476:
2272:
2052:
2031:over other moral beliefs.
2023:societies that prioritize
2015:In legal systems based on
1956:
1488:Possessing stolen property
1136:Offense against the person
288:Expressive function of law
40:Criminals (disambiguation)
29:
8609:
8528:
8492:
8484:Presentence investigation
8434:
8339:
8317:
8219:
8128:
8105:
7995:
7833:Administration of justice
7818:
7727:
7618:
7497:
7399:
7120:
6988:
6925:Joint criminal enterprise
6907:
6838:
6769:
6706:
6640:
6605:
6505:
6472:
6421:
6375:
6269:
6129:
5963:
5935:
5891:
5878:
5837:
5832:Articles related to crime
5638:Roth, Mitchel P. (2014).
5546:. Palgrave Macmillan UK.
5540:Fattah, Ezzat A. (1997).
5226:Frulli, M. (2001-04-01).
4582:Wertheimer, Alan (1977).
3966:Dworkin, Ronald. (1978).
3525:Lamond, G. (2007-01-01).
3010:, which are empowered to
2879:
2071:that addresses issues of
1782:Diminished responsibility
1576:Crimes against the public
36:Criminal (disambiguation)
7610:Basic structure doctrine
7460:Natural and legal rights
7341:Public international law
6845:(in order of foundation)
6325:(such as prohibition of
5586:. Springer Netherlands.
5567:. Taylor & Francis.
5525:. Taylor & Francis.
5301:Bantekas & Nash 2009
5289:Bantekas & Nash 2009
5277:Bantekas & Nash 2009
4996:Shavell, Steven (1993).
4053:. 3.3 Law and morality.
3867:Thomas, Aquinas (2002).
3824:European Economic Review
3406:Oxford Dictionary of Law
3315:
3300:Law and order (politics)
3004:law enforcement agencies
2764:invoking the name of God
2467:
2117:differential association
2048:
1711:Crimes against the state
1631:(such as prohibition of
278:Differential association
45:In ordinary language, a
7790:Principle of typicality
7264:International trade law
6980:
6783:Crimes against humanity
5187:Duff, R. (1998-06-01).
4467:Trends in violent crime
4130:"The Ur-Nammu Law Code"
3780:10.1111/1468-0297.00685
3576:Canadian Law Dictionary
3159:crimes against humanity
2317:. The initial rules of
2166:in developing nations.
1395:Crimes against property
1085:(also called violation)
338:Symbolic interactionism
8426:Statute of limitations
8221:Criminal investigation
6940:Universal jurisdiction
6915:Command responsibility
6808:Incitement to genocide
6746:United Nations Charter
6443:Miscarriage of justice
5716:Spalek, Basia (2017).
5561:Head, Michael (2016).
5008:(1, Part 2): 255–287.
4180:Daube, David. (1969).
3227:genetic cause of crime
2518:copyright infringement
2416:biological determinist
2224:(1790–1859), an early
2212:described the thesis:
1847:Other common-law areas
1680:Crimes against animals
1548:Miscarriage of justice
1530:Crimes against justice
318:Social disorganization
139:must adhere. If found
32:Crime (disambiguation)
9068:Saint Kitts and Nevis
8364:Criminal jurisdiction
7785:Principle of legality
7544:Delegated legislation
7244:Intellectual property
6438:Malfeasance in office
5881:Note: Crimes vary by
5623:. SAGE Publications.
5327:10.1353/sof.2004.0074
5245:10.1093/ejil/12.2.329
5205:10.1093/ojls/18.2.189
4003:Finnis, John (2015).
3215:crime in some cases.
3193:cost–benefit analysis
3181:Causes and correlates
2887:post-traumatic stress
2734:broken windows theory
2105:social control theory
2101:preventative measures
1753:Defenses to liability
1543:Malfeasance in office
827:Biosocial criminology
534:Uniform Crime Reports
253:Biosocial criminology
143:, an offender may be
9173:United Arab Emirates
8404:Inquisitorial system
8341:Criminal prosecution
8281:Reasonable suspicion
8256:Exigent circumstance
8003:Barristers' chambers
7945:Legal representation
7883:Justice of the peace
7229:Financial regulation
6841:International courts
6741:Nuremberg principles
6531:Cybersex trafficking
6293:Censorship violation
4913:Girgen, Jen (2003).
4501:10.1093/bjc/42.1.109
4266:, p. 84, 91–94.
3768:The Economic Journal
3171:international custom
3103:vocational education
2447:centre-left politics
2195:or constructs them.
2174:Foundational systems
1972:English criminal law
1599:Censorship violation
1322:Cybersex trafficking
702:Solitary confinement
203:breaches of contract
191:violation of the law
57:does not, in modern
9153:Trinidad and Tobago
8421:Preliminary hearing
8038:Election commission
7750:Expressive function
7279:Landlord–tenant law
7178:Consumer protection
6788:Crime of aggression
6751:Genocide Convention
6323:Illegal consumption
5995:Criminal negligence
5815:, pp. 173–188.
5762:, pp. 211–227.
5709:, pp. 649–680.
5700:, pp. 483–510.
5141:, pp. 212–213.
5045:, pp. 485–486.
4846:, pp. 674–675.
4743:, pp. 125–126.
4731:, pp. 123–124.
4584:"Victimless Crimes"
4560:, pp. 173–174.
3543:10.1093/ojls/gqm018
3060:Retributive justice
2710:breach of the peace
2698:public intoxication
2410:was popularized by
2334:Abrahamic religions
2144:criminal psychology
1984:common law offences
1777:Defense of property
1629:Illegal consumption
1165:Criminal negligence
1065:Severity of offense
892:Radical criminology
263:Collective efficacy
18:Criminal activities
8753:Dominican Republic
8349:Adversarial system
8291:Search and seizure
8261:Knock-and-announce
8212:Criminal procedure
7996:Legal institutions
7863:Lawsuit/Litigation
7853:Dispute resolution
7658:Catholic canon law
7366:State of emergency
7329:Will and testament
7053:Law of obligations
7006:Constitutional law
6996:Administrative law
6793:Crime of apartheid
6731:Geneva Conventions
6526:Child sexual abuse
6491:Wildlife smuggling
6481:Cruelty to animals
6270:Against the public
6099:Negligent homicide
6010:False imprisonment
5965:Against the person
5642:. Reaktion Books.
4919:Animal Law Journal
4399:(1): 23–39 Pages.
4278:, pp. 97–105.
4135:Schøyen Collection
4068:10.4000/revus.3984
3935:The concept of law
3527:"What is a Crime?"
3370:2016-06-04 at the
3295:Crime displacement
3225:There is no known
3220:social integration
3028:Criminal procedure
3022:Criminal procedure
3016:community policing
2694:drug-related crime
2684:Public-order crime
2678:Public order crime
2668:occupational crime
2506:labor racketeering
2479:White-collar crime
2473:White-collar crime
2348:Post-classical era
2210:William Blackstone
2179:Natural-law theory
2109:subcultural theory
2087:. It includes the
2021:liberal democratic
1966:criminal procedure
1698:Wildlife smuggling
1688:Cruelty to animals
1317:Child sexual abuse
1269:Negligent homicide
1180:False imprisonment
1077:Indictable offense
1021:Scope of criminal
178:certain exceptions
149:community sentence
9226:
9225:
9220:
9219:
8571:
8570:
8553:Wikimedia Commons
8500:Criminal defenses
8435:Charges and pleas
8359:Bill of attainder
8296:Search of persons
8178:
8177:
7838:Constitutionalism
7760:Law and economics
7598:Act of parliament
7336:Product liability
7289:Legal archaeology
7214:Environmental law
7208:Entertainment law
7048:International law
6948:
6947:
6774:international law
6736:Nuremberg Charter
6726:Hague Conventions
6666:
6665:
6649:Wikimedia Commons
6607:Inchoate offenses
6551:Indecent exposure
6040:Human trafficking
6005:Domestic violence
5691:, pp. 23–49.
5649:978-1-78023-359-8
5486:, pp. 63–64.
5474:, pp. 14–16.
5362:, pp. 44–45.
5303:, pp. 10–11.
5105:, pp. 17–18.
4986:, pp. 32–33.
4962:, pp. 23–24.
4810:10.1002/jts.20508
4755:, pp. 16–17.
4405:10.4119/IJCV-2791
4302:, pp. 23–24.
4290:, pp. 63–64.
3774:(477): F85–F106.
3737:, pp. 57–66.
3658:, pp. 36–37.
3590:, pp. 35–36.
3515:, pp. 31–35.
3462:, pp. 30–37.
3415:978-0-19-860756-4
3361:978-0-19-929054-3
3248:Public perception
3209:income inequality
2899:domestic violence
2818:unlawful assembly
2738:victimless crimes
2722:street harassment
2542:Blue-collar crime
2536:Blue-collar crime
2402:industrialization
2304:Code of Hammurabi
2095:of crime and its
1942:
1941:
1342:Indecent exposure
1210:Human trafficking
1175:Domestic violence
1103:Inchoate offenses
963:
962:
709:
708:
646:Prisoners' rights
550:Positivist school
157:life imprisonment
104:of each relevant
16:(Redirected from
9362:
9325:
9317:
9316:
9315:
9308:
9300:
9299:
9298:
9291:
9283:
9282:
9281:
9274:
9266:
9265:
9264:
9257:
9249:
9248:
9247:
9237:
9023:Papua New Guinea
8598:
8591:
8584:
8575:
8574:
8332:
8327:
8326:
8286:Right to silence
8205:
8198:
8191:
8182:
8181:
8153:
8152:
8151:
8139:
8138:
7962:Question of fact
7843:Criminal justice
7173:Construction law
7168:Conflict of laws
7133:Agricultural law
6975:
6968:
6961:
6952:
6951:
6908:Related concepts
6846:
6803:Genocidal intent
6693:
6686:
6679:
6670:
6669:
6313:Ethnic cleansing
6251:Trespass to land
6146:Arms trafficking
5956:
5951:
5950:
5941:
5864:
5857:
5850:
5841:
5840:
5828:
5827:
5816:
5807:
5786:
5763:
5754:
5733:
5710:
5701:
5692:
5683:
5682:, pp. 3–22.
5674:
5653:
5634:
5597:
5578:
5557:
5536:
5515:
5487:
5481:
5475:
5469:
5463:
5457:
5451:
5450:
5440:
5416:
5410:
5409:
5369:
5363:
5357:
5351:
5345:
5339:
5338:
5321:(4): 1333–1372.
5310:
5304:
5298:
5292:
5286:
5280:
5274:
5268:
5267:
5257:
5247:
5223:
5217:
5216:
5184:
5178:
5172:
5166:
5160:
5154:
5148:
5142:
5136:
5130:
5124:
5118:
5112:
5106:
5100:
5094:
5088:
5082:
5076:
5070:
5064:
5058:
5052:
5046:
5040:
5034:
5033:
4993:
4987:
4981:
4975:
4969:
4963:
4957:
4951:
4945:
4939:
4938:
4936:
4934:
4910:
4901:
4898:
4892:
4889:
4883:
4877:
4871:
4865:
4859:
4853:
4847:
4841:
4832:
4831:
4821:
4789:
4783:
4777:
4768:
4762:
4756:
4750:
4744:
4738:
4732:
4726:
4720:
4719:
4703:
4697:
4691:
4685:
4679:
4673:
4667:
4661:
4655:
4649:
4643:
4632:
4626:
4620:
4619:
4579:
4573:
4567:
4561:
4555:
4549:
4542:
4536:
4530:
4524:
4523:
4511:
4505:
4504:
4480:
4474:
4473:
4471:
4462:
4456:
4455:
4415:
4409:
4408:
4384:
4375:
4374:
4372:
4371:
4357:
4351:
4345:
4339:
4333:
4327:
4321:
4315:
4309:
4303:
4297:
4291:
4285:
4279:
4273:
4267:
4261:
4255:
4249:
4243:
4237:
4228:
4222:
4216:
4210:
4204:
4203:
4177:
4171:
4165:
4159:
4153:
4147:
4146:
4144:
4142:
4126:
4120:
4114:
4108:
4102:
4091:
4085:
4076:
4075:
4070:
4046:
4040:
4039:
4033:
4032:
4000:
3994:
3993:
3973:
3963:
3957:
3956:
3930:
3924:
3923:
3897:
3891:
3890:
3864:
3858:
3857:
3847:
3830:(7): 1323–1357.
3815:
3800:
3799:
3759:
3750:
3744:
3738:
3732:
3726:
3725:
3693:
3684:
3683:
3681:
3680:
3665:
3659:
3653:
3647:
3641:
3632:
3626:
3620:
3614:
3603:
3597:
3591:
3585:
3579:
3573:
3567:
3561:
3555:
3554:
3522:
3516:
3510:
3504:
3498:
3487:
3481:
3475:
3469:
3463:
3457:
3451:
3450:
3448:
3446:
3431:"What is crime?"
3426:
3420:
3419:
3401:
3392:
3381:
3375:
3347:
3338:
3337:
3329:
3289:
3284:
3283:
3201:crime of passion
3093:, and providing
2987:Criminal justice
2981:Criminal justice
2846:Inchoate offense
2822:political agenda
2522:money laundering
2443:social democracy
2420:social darwinism
2367:Kingdom of Italy
2301:
2297:
2294:
2289:Code of Ur-Nammu
2160:forensic science
2136:crime statistics
2128:crime prevention
2029:multiculturalism
2010:social construct
1974:and the related
1934:
1927:
1920:
1891:
1762:Actual innocence
1619:Ethnic cleansing
1513:Trespass to land
1408:Arms trafficking
972:
965:
964:
955:
948:
941:
588:
587:
545:Crime statistics
471:
235:
217:
216:
79:criminal offence
21:
9370:
9369:
9365:
9364:
9363:
9361:
9360:
9359:
9330:
9329:
9328:
9318:
9313:
9311:
9307:from Wikivoyage
9301:
9296:
9294:
9284:
9279:
9277:
9267:
9262:
9260:
9256:from Wiktionary
9250:
9245:
9243:
9240:
9236:sister projects
9233:at Knowledge's
9227:
9222:
9221:
9216:
8605:
8602:
8572:
8567:
8524:
8488:
8469:Peremptory plea
8463:Nolo contendere
8430:
8335:
8328:
8321:
8315:
8271:Pretextual stop
8266:Miranda warning
8215:
8214:(investigation)
8209:
8179:
8174:
8147:
8133:
8124:
8101:
8092:Political party
8065:Legal education
8053:Law enforcement
8033:Court of equity
7991:
7967:Question of law
7920:Practice of law
7900:Judicial review
7814:
7765:Legal formalism
7745:Comparative law
7740:Contract theory
7723:
7643:Legal pluralism
7614:
7603:Act of Congress
7527:Executive order
7493:
7395:
7314:Nationality law
7239:Immigration law
7163:Competition law
7116:
6984:
6979:
6949:
6944:
6920:Superior orders
6903:
6847:
6844:
6843:
6834:
6776:
6773:
6765:
6721:Peremptory norm
6702:
6697:
6667:
6662:
6636:
6635:
6634:
6601:
6600:
6599:
6581:Sex trafficking
6507:Sexual offenses
6501:
6500:
6499:
6473:Against animals
6468:
6467:
6466:
6417:
6416:
6415:
6371:
6370:
6369:
6265:
6264:
6263:
6181:False pretenses
6125:
6124:
6123:
6087:Preterintention
5959:
5952:
5945:
5942:
5933:
5887:
5874:
5868:
5833:
5825:
5804:
5783:
5751:
5730:
5671:
5650:
5631:
5594:
5575:
5554:
5533:
5512:
5496:
5491:
5490:
5482:
5478:
5470:
5466:
5458:
5454:
5417:
5413:
5370:
5366:
5358:
5354:
5350:, pp. 5–6.
5346:
5342:
5311:
5307:
5299:
5295:
5287:
5283:
5279:, pp. 2–3.
5275:
5271:
5224:
5220:
5185:
5181:
5173:
5169:
5161:
5157:
5149:
5145:
5137:
5133:
5125:
5121:
5113:
5109:
5103:Hoefnagels 1973
5101:
5097:
5091:Hoefnagels 1973
5089:
5085:
5079:Hoefnagels 1973
5077:
5073:
5065:
5061:
5053:
5049:
5041:
5037:
4994:
4990:
4982:
4978:
4970:
4966:
4958:
4954:
4946:
4942:
4932:
4930:
4911:
4904:
4899:
4895:
4890:
4886:
4878:
4874:
4866:
4862:
4854:
4850:
4842:
4835:
4790:
4786:
4778:
4771:
4763:
4759:
4753:Hoefnagels 1973
4751:
4747:
4739:
4735:
4727:
4723:
4704:
4700:
4696:, pp. 3–4.
4692:
4688:
4680:
4676:
4670:Hoefnagels 1973
4668:
4664:
4656:
4652:
4644:
4635:
4627:
4623:
4580:
4576:
4568:
4564:
4556:
4552:
4543:
4539:
4531:
4527:
4512:
4508:
4481:
4477:
4469:
4463:
4459:
4416:
4412:
4385:
4378:
4369:
4367:
4359:
4358:
4354:
4346:
4342:
4334:
4330:
4326:, pp. 4–5.
4322:
4318:
4310:
4306:
4298:
4294:
4286:
4282:
4274:
4270:
4262:
4258:
4250:
4246:
4238:
4231:
4223:
4219:
4211:
4207:
4192:
4178:
4174:
4166:
4162:
4154:
4150:
4140:
4138:
4128:
4127:
4123:
4115:
4111:
4103:
4094:
4086:
4079:
4047:
4043:
4030:
4028:
4021:
4001:
3997:
3982:
3964:
3960:
3945:
3931:
3927:
3912:
3898:
3894:
3879:
3865:
3861:
3816:
3803:
3760:
3753:
3745:
3741:
3735:Hoefnagels 1973
3733:
3729:
3694:
3687:
3678:
3676:
3667:
3666:
3662:
3654:
3650:
3642:
3635:
3627:
3623:
3615:
3606:
3598:
3594:
3586:
3582:
3574:
3570:
3566:, pp. 1–2.
3562:
3558:
3523:
3519:
3511:
3507:
3499:
3490:
3482:
3478:
3474:, pp. 2–3.
3470:
3466:
3458:
3454:
3444:
3442:
3427:
3423:
3416:
3402:
3395:
3382:
3378:
3372:Wayback Machine
3348:
3341:
3331:
3330:
3323:
3318:
3310:Organized crime
3285:
3278:
3275:
3250:
3189:
3183:
3151:
3145:
3136:
3134:Legal liability
3130:
3083:social networks
3052:
3044:Main articles:
3042:
3030:
3024:
3000:
2998:Law enforcement
2994:
2992:Law enforcement
2989:
2983:
2971:
2969:Criminalization
2965:
2963:Criminalization
2937:
2931:
2891:quality of life
2882:
2873:
2868:
2848:
2842:
2782:
2780:Political crime
2776:
2774:Political crime
2726:excessive noise
2686:
2680:
2633:
2627:
2587:
2579:Main articles:
2577:
2544:
2538:
2502:insider trading
2481:
2475:
2470:
2412:Cesare Lombroso
2386:
2350:
2299:
2295:
2280:
2275:
2181:
2176:
2121:labeling theory
2061:
2053:Main articles:
2051:
2043:
1998:
1961:
1955:
1938:
1879:
1443:False pretenses
1372:Sex trafficking
1298:Sexual offenses
1257:Preterintention
1093:Summary offense
959:
930:
929:
905:
897:
896:
822:Anthropological
812:
804:
803:
719:
711:
710:
585:
575:
574:
524:Critical theory
509:
501:
500:
481:State-corporate
469:
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371:Cesare Lombroso
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5218:
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5179:
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5119:
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5071:
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5047:
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4860:
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4784:
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4594:(4): 302–318.
4574:
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4562:
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2254:responsibility
2230:utilitarianism
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9129:
9126:
9124:
9121:
9119:
9116:
9114:
9111:
9109:
9106:
9104:
9101:
9099:
9096:
9094:
9091:
9089:
9086:
9084:
9081:
9079:
9076:
9074:
9071:
9069:
9066:
9064:
9061:
9059:
9056:
9054:
9051:
9049:
9046:
9044:
9041:
9039:
9036:
9034:
9031:
9029:
9026:
9024:
9021:
9019:
9016:
9014:
9011:
9009:
9006:
9004:
9001:
8999:
8996:
8994:
8991:
8989:
8986:
8984:
8981:
8979:
8976:
8974:
8971:
8969:
8966:
8964:
8961:
8959:
8956:
8954:
8951:
8949:
8946:
8944:
8941:
8939:
8936:
8934:
8931:
8929:
8926:
8924:
8921:
8919:
8916:
8914:
8911:
8909:
8906:
8904:
8901:
8899:
8896:
8894:
8891:
8889:
8886:
8884:
8881:
8879:
8876:
8874:
8871:
8869:
8866:
8864:
8861:
8859:
8856:
8854:
8851:
8849:
8846:
8844:
8841:
8839:
8836:
8834:
8831:
8829:
8826:
8824:
8821:
8819:
8816:
8814:
8811:
8809:
8806:
8804:
8801:
8799:
8796:
8794:
8791:
8789:
8786:
8784:
8781:
8779:
8776:
8774:
8771:
8769:
8766:
8764:
8761:
8759:
8756:
8754:
8751:
8749:
8746:
8744:
8741:
8739:
8736:
8734:
8731:
8729:
8726:
8724:
8721:
8719:
8716:
8714:
8711:
8709:
8706:
8704:
8701:
8699:
8696:
8694:
8691:
8689:
8686:
8684:
8681:
8679:
8676:
8674:
8671:
8669:
8666:
8664:
8661:
8659:
8656:
8654:
8651:
8649:
8646:
8644:
8641:
8639:
8636:
8634:
8631:
8629:
8626:
8624:
8621:
8619:
8616:
8614:
8611:
8608:
8599:
8594:
8592:
8587:
8585:
8580:
8579:
8576:
8564:
8561:
8559:
8556:
8554:
8551:
8549:
8546:
8544:
8541:
8539:
8536:
8534:
8531:
8530:
8527:
8521:
8518:
8516:
8513:
8511:
8508:
8506:
8503:
8501:
8498:
8497:
8495:
8493:Related areas
8491:
8485:
8482:
8480:
8477:
8475:
8472:
8470:
8467:
8465:
8464:
8460:
8458:
8455:
8453:
8450:
8448:
8445:
8443:
8440:
8439:
8437:
8433:
8427:
8424:
8422:
8419:
8417:
8414:
8412:
8411:
8407:
8405:
8402:
8400:
8397:
8395:
8394:
8393:Habeas corpus
8390:
8388:
8385:
8383:
8380:
8378:
8376:
8375:Ex post facto
8372:
8370:
8367:
8365:
8362:
8360:
8357:
8355:
8352:
8350:
8347:
8346:
8344:
8342:
8338:
8331:
8325:
8320:
8312:
8309:
8307:
8304:
8302:
8299:
8297:
8294:
8292:
8289:
8287:
8284:
8282:
8279:
8277:
8274:
8272:
8269:
8267:
8264:
8262:
8259:
8257:
8254:
8252:
8249:
8247:
8244:
8242:
8239:
8237:
8234:
8232:
8231:
8227:
8226:
8224:
8222:
8218:
8213:
8206:
8201:
8199:
8194:
8192:
8187:
8186:
8183:
8171:
8170:
8166:
8164:
8163:
8159:
8157:
8156:
8145:
8143:
8142:
8137:
8131:
8130:
8127:
8119:
8116:
8115:
8114:
8111:
8110:
8108:
8104:
8098:
8095:
8093:
8090:
8088:
8085:
8083:
8080:
8078:
8075:
8071:
8068:
8067:
8066:
8063:
8059:
8056:
8055:
8054:
8051:
8049:
8046:
8044:
8041:
8039:
8036:
8034:
8031:
8029:
8026:
8024:
8023:Civil society
8021:
8019:
8016:
8014:
8011:
8009:
8006:
8004:
8001:
8000:
7998:
7994:
7988:
7985:
7983:
7982:Trier of fact
7980:
7978:
7975:
7973:
7970:
7968:
7965:
7963:
7960:
7956:
7953:
7951:
7948:
7946:
7943:
7941:
7938:
7936:
7933:
7931:
7928:
7926:
7923:
7922:
7921:
7918:
7916:
7913:
7911:
7908:
7906:
7903:
7901:
7898:
7896:
7893:
7889:
7886:
7884:
7881:
7880:
7879:
7876:
7874:
7871:
7869:
7868:Legal opinion
7866:
7864:
7861:
7859:
7856:
7854:
7851:
7849:
7848:Court-martial
7846:
7844:
7841:
7839:
7836:
7834:
7831:
7829:
7826:
7825:
7823:
7821:
7820:Jurisprudence
7817:
7811:
7808:
7806:
7803:
7801:
7798:
7796:
7793:
7791:
7788:
7786:
7783:
7781:
7778:
7776:
7773:
7771:
7768:
7766:
7763:
7761:
7758:
7756:
7753:
7751:
7748:
7746:
7743:
7741:
7738:
7736:
7733:
7732:
7730:
7726:
7720:
7717:
7715:
7712:
7710:
7709:Statutory law
7707:
7705:
7704:Socialist law
7702:
7698:
7697:Byzantine law
7695:
7694:
7693:
7690:
7686:
7683:
7681:
7678:
7676:
7673:
7671:
7668:
7666:
7663:
7659:
7656:
7655:
7654:
7651:
7650:
7649:
7648:Religious law
7646:
7644:
7641:
7639:
7636:
7634:
7631:
7629:
7626:
7625:
7623:
7621:
7620:Legal systems
7617:
7611:
7608:
7604:
7601:
7599:
7596:
7594:
7591:
7590:
7589:
7588:Statutory law
7586:
7582:
7579:
7578:
7577:
7574:
7572:
7569:
7567:
7564:
7562:
7559:
7555:
7552:
7550:
7547:
7545:
7542:
7541:
7540:
7537:
7533:
7530:
7528:
7525:
7523:
7520:
7519:
7518:
7515:
7513:
7510:
7508:
7505:
7504:
7502:
7500:
7496:
7490:
7487:
7485:
7482:
7478:
7475:
7473:
7470:
7469:
7468:
7465:
7461:
7458:
7457:
7456:
7453:
7451:
7448:
7446:
7443:
7439:
7436:
7435:
7434:
7431:
7429:
7426:
7424:
7421:
7419:
7418:Statutory law
7415:
7412:
7410:
7407:
7406:
7404:
7402:
7398:
7392:
7389:
7387:
7384:
7382:
7379:
7377:
7376:Transport law
7374:
7372:
7369:
7367:
7364:
7362:
7359:
7357:
7354:
7352:
7349:
7347:
7344:
7342:
7339:
7337:
7334:
7330:
7327:
7325:
7322:
7321:
7320:
7317:
7315:
7312:
7310:
7307:
7305:
7302:
7300:
7297:
7295:
7294:Legal fiction
7292:
7290:
7287:
7285:
7282:
7280:
7277:
7275:
7272:
7270:
7267:
7265:
7262:
7260:
7257:
7255:
7252:
7250:
7247:
7245:
7242:
7240:
7237:
7235:
7232:
7230:
7227:
7225:
7224:Financial law
7222:
7220:
7217:
7215:
7212:
7209:
7206:
7204:
7201:
7199:
7196:
7194:
7191:
7189:
7186:
7184:
7183:Corporate law
7181:
7179:
7176:
7174:
7171:
7169:
7166:
7164:
7161:
7159:
7156:
7154:
7151:
7149:
7146:
7144:
7141:
7139:
7136:
7134:
7131:
7129:
7126:
7125:
7123:
7119:
7113:
7110:
7108:
7107:Statutory law
7105:
7103:
7100:
7096:
7093:
7092:
7091:
7088:
7086:
7083:
7081:
7078:
7074:
7071:
7069:
7066:
7065:
7064:
7061:
7059:
7056:
7054:
7051:
7049:
7046:
7044:
7041:
7039:
7036:
7034:
7031:
7029:
7026:
7022:
7019:
7018:
7017:
7014:
7012:
7009:
7007:
7004:
7002:
6999:
6997:
6994:
6993:
6991:
6989:Core subjects
6987:
6983:
6976:
6971:
6969:
6964:
6962:
6957:
6956:
6953:
6941:
6938:
6936:
6933:
6931:
6928:
6926:
6923:
6921:
6918:
6916:
6913:
6912:
6910:
6906:
6900:
6897:
6895:
6892:
6890:
6887:
6885:
6882:
6880:
6877:
6875:
6872:
6870:
6867:
6865:
6862:
6860:
6857:
6855:
6852:
6851:
6849:
6842:
6837:
6831:
6828:
6826:
6823:
6821:
6820:Slave trading
6818:
6816:
6813:
6809:
6806:
6804:
6801:
6800:
6799:
6796:
6794:
6791:
6789:
6786:
6784:
6781:
6780:
6778:
6775:
6768:
6762:
6759:
6757:
6754:
6752:
6749:
6747:
6744:
6742:
6739:
6737:
6734:
6732:
6729:
6727:
6724:
6722:
6719:
6717:
6714:
6713:
6711:
6709:
6705:
6701:
6694:
6689:
6687:
6682:
6680:
6675:
6674:
6671:
6660:
6657:
6655:
6652:
6650:
6647:
6645:
6642:
6639:
6632:
6629:
6627:
6624:
6622:
6619:
6617:
6614:
6610:
6608:
6604:
6597:
6594:
6592:
6589:
6587:
6584:
6582:
6579:
6577:
6574:
6572:
6569:
6567:
6564:
6562:
6559:
6557:
6554:
6552:
6549:
6547:
6544:
6542:
6541:Homosexuality
6539:
6537:
6534:
6532:
6529:
6527:
6524:
6522:
6519:
6517:
6514:
6510:
6508:
6504:
6497:
6494:
6492:
6489:
6487:
6484:
6482:
6479:
6475:
6471:
6464:
6461:
6459:
6456:
6454:
6451:
6449:
6446:
6444:
6441:
6439:
6436:
6434:
6431:
6427:
6425:
6420:
6413:
6410:
6408:
6405:
6403:
6400:
6398:
6395:
6393:
6390:
6388:
6385:
6381:
6379:
6374:
6367:
6364:
6362:
6359:
6357:
6354:
6352:
6349:
6347:
6344:
6342:
6341:Miscegenation
6339:
6336:
6332:
6328:
6324:
6321:
6319:
6316:
6314:
6311:
6309:
6306:
6304:
6301:
6299:
6296:
6294:
6291:
6289:
6286:
6284:
6281:
6279:
6276:
6272:
6268:
6261:
6257:
6254:
6252:
6249:
6247:
6244:
6242:
6239:
6237:
6234:
6232:
6229:
6227:
6224:
6222:
6221:Pickpocketing
6219:
6217:
6214:
6212:
6209:
6207:
6204:
6202:
6199:
6197:
6194:
6192:
6189:
6187:
6184:
6182:
6179:
6177:
6174:
6172:
6169:
6167:
6164:
6162:
6159:
6157:
6154:
6152:
6149:
6147:
6144:
6142:
6139:
6135:
6133:
6128:
6120:
6117:
6115:
6112:
6110:
6107:
6105:
6102:
6100:
6097:
6093:
6090:
6089:
6088:
6085:
6081:
6078:
6077:
6076:
6073:
6071:
6068:
6065:
6061:
6058:
6056:
6053:
6051:
6048:
6046:
6043:
6041:
6038:
6036:
6033:
6031:
6028:
6026:
6025:Home invasion
6023:
6021:
6018:
6016:
6013:
6011:
6008:
6006:
6003:
6001:
5998:
5996:
5993:
5991:
5988:
5986:
5983:
5981:
5978:
5976:
5975:Assassination
5973:
5972:
5968:
5966:
5962:
5955:
5949:
5944:
5940:
5930:
5927:
5925:
5922:
5920:
5917:
5915:
5912:
5910:
5907:
5905:
5902:
5900:
5897:
5896:
5894:
5890:
5886:
5884:
5877:
5873:
5865:
5860:
5858:
5853:
5851:
5846:
5845:
5842:
5836:
5829:
5814:
5809:
5808:
5805:
5803:9780199940783
5799:
5795:
5794:
5788:
5784:
5782:9780199940264
5778:
5774:
5773:
5767:
5761:
5760:Sumner (2004)
5756:
5755:
5752:
5750:9780631220923
5746:
5742:
5741:
5735:
5731:
5729:9781137505330
5725:
5721:
5720:
5714:
5708:
5703:
5699:
5694:
5690:
5685:
5681:
5676:
5675:
5672:
5670:9781420085525
5666:
5663:. CRC Press.
5662:
5661:
5655:
5651:
5645:
5641:
5636:
5632:
5630:9780803970458
5626:
5622:
5621:
5615:
5612:
5611:
5606:
5603:
5599:
5595:
5593:9789026806698
5589:
5585:
5580:
5576:
5574:9781317157939
5570:
5566:
5565:
5559:
5555:
5553:9781349258383
5549:
5545:
5544:
5538:
5534:
5532:9781135241803
5528:
5524:
5523:
5517:
5513:
5511:9780199672684
5507:
5503:
5498:
5497:
5485:
5480:
5473:
5468:
5461:
5456:
5448:
5444:
5439:
5434:
5430:
5426:
5422:
5415:
5407:
5403:
5399:
5395:
5391:
5387:
5384:(1): 84–100.
5383:
5379:
5375:
5368:
5361:
5356:
5349:
5344:
5336:
5332:
5328:
5324:
5320:
5316:
5315:Social Forces
5309:
5302:
5297:
5290:
5285:
5278:
5273:
5265:
5261:
5256:
5251:
5246:
5241:
5237:
5233:
5229:
5222:
5214:
5210:
5206:
5202:
5198:
5194:
5190:
5183:
5177:, p. 23.
5176:
5171:
5165:, p. 24.
5164:
5159:
5152:
5147:
5140:
5135:
5128:
5123:
5117:, p. 16.
5116:
5111:
5104:
5099:
5092:
5087:
5080:
5075:
5069:, p. 18.
5068:
5063:
5056:
5051:
5044:
5039:
5031:
5027:
5023:
5019:
5015:
5011:
5007:
5003:
4999:
4992:
4985:
4980:
4974:, p. 22.
4973:
4968:
4961:
4956:
4950:, p. 48.
4949:
4944:
4928:
4924:
4920:
4916:
4909:
4907:
4897:
4888:
4881:
4876:
4869:
4864:
4857:
4852:
4845:
4840:
4838:
4829:
4825:
4820:
4815:
4811:
4807:
4803:
4799:
4795:
4788:
4781:
4776:
4774:
4766:
4761:
4754:
4749:
4742:
4737:
4730:
4725:
4717:
4713:
4709:
4702:
4695:
4690:
4683:
4678:
4671:
4666:
4659:
4654:
4648:, p. 11.
4647:
4642:
4640:
4638:
4630:
4625:
4617:
4613:
4609:
4605:
4601:
4597:
4593:
4589:
4585:
4578:
4571:
4566:
4559:
4554:
4547:
4541:
4535:, p. 13.
4534:
4529:
4522:(6): 329–362.
4521:
4517:
4510:
4502:
4498:
4494:
4490:
4486:
4479:
4468:
4461:
4453:
4449:
4445:
4441:
4437:
4433:
4429:
4425:
4421:
4414:
4406:
4402:
4398:
4394:
4390:
4383:
4381:
4366:
4362:
4356:
4350:, p. 43.
4349:
4344:
4338:, p. 14.
4337:
4332:
4325:
4320:
4314:, p. 38.
4313:
4308:
4301:
4296:
4289:
4284:
4277:
4272:
4265:
4260:
4254:, p. 64.
4253:
4248:
4241:
4236:
4234:
4227:, p. 36.
4226:
4221:
4215:, p. 42.
4214:
4209:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4187:
4183:
4176:
4170:, p. 47.
4169:
4164:
4158:, p. 26.
4157:
4152:
4137:
4136:
4131:
4125:
4119:, p. 46.
4118:
4113:
4106:
4101:
4099:
4097:
4090:, p. 18.
4089:
4084:
4082:
4074:
4069:
4064:
4060:
4056:
4052:
4045:
4038:
4026:
4022:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4007:
3999:
3991:
3987:
3983:
3977:
3972:
3971:
3962:
3954:
3950:
3946:
3940:
3936:
3929:
3921:
3917:
3913:
3907:
3903:
3896:
3888:
3884:
3880:
3874:
3870:
3863:
3855:
3851:
3846:
3841:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3814:
3812:
3810:
3808:
3806:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3781:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3758:
3756:
3748:
3743:
3736:
3731:
3723:
3719:
3715:
3711:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3692:
3690:
3674:
3670:
3669:"Criminology"
3664:
3657:
3652:
3646:, p. 38.
3645:
3640:
3638:
3631:, p. 10.
3630:
3625:
3619:, p. 29.
3618:
3613:
3611:
3609:
3601:
3596:
3589:
3584:
3577:
3572:
3565:
3560:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3536:
3532:
3528:
3521:
3514:
3509:
3502:
3497:
3495:
3493:
3486:, p. 49.
3485:
3480:
3473:
3468:
3461:
3456:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3425:
3417:
3411:
3407:
3400:
3398:
3390:
3386:
3380:
3373:
3369:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3353:
3346:
3344:
3335:
3328:
3326:
3321:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3292:
3288:
3282:
3277:
3270:
3267:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3255:crime fiction
3245:
3243:
3239:
3234:
3232:
3228:
3223:
3221:
3216:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3188:
3178:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3150:
3140:
3135:
3125:
3121:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3106:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3070:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3051:
3047:
3037:
3035:
3029:
3019:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3005:
2999:
2988:
2978:
2976:
2970:
2960:
2958:
2954:
2953:socialist law
2950:
2946:
2942:
2936:
2926:
2923:
2919:
2914:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2894:
2892:
2888:
2877:
2863:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2847:
2837:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2781:
2771:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2743:
2742:Western world
2739:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2685:
2675:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2648:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2632:
2622:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2586:
2582:
2581:Violent crime
2575:Violent crime
2572:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2549:
2543:
2533:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2498:Ponzi schemes
2495:
2491:
2487:
2480:
2465:
2463:
2462:DNA profiling
2459:
2455:
2450:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2427:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2390:Thomas Hobbes
2381:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2355:
2345:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2326:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2307:
2305:
2290:
2286:
2278:Early history
2270:
2266:
2264:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2242:
2240:
2236:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2215:
2214:
2213:
2211:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2171:
2169:
2163:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2124:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2113:strain theory
2110:
2106:
2102:
2099:, as well as
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2060:
2059:Crime science
2056:
2046:
2038:
2036:
2032:
2030:
2026:
2025:individualism
2022:
2018:
2013:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1993:
1991:
1990:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1967:
1960:
1950:
1948:
1935:
1930:
1928:
1923:
1921:
1916:
1915:
1913:
1912:
1907:
1904:
1903:
1902:
1901:
1897:
1896:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1852:
1851:
1850:
1846:
1845:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1824:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1814:Justification
1812:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1799:
1795:
1793:
1790:
1788:
1785:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1759:
1758:
1757:
1754:
1751:
1750:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1716:
1715:
1714:
1710:
1709:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1685:
1684:
1683:
1679:
1678:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1647:Miscegenation
1645:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1627:
1625:
1622:
1620:
1617:
1615:
1612:
1610:
1607:
1605:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1581:
1580:
1579:
1575:
1574:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1536:
1535:
1534:
1533:
1529:
1528:
1523:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1483:Pickpocketing
1481:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1446:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1401:
1400:
1399:
1398:
1394:
1393:
1388:
1385:
1383:
1380:
1378:
1375:
1373:
1370:
1368:
1365:
1363:
1360:
1358:
1355:
1353:
1350:
1348:
1345:
1343:
1340:
1338:
1335:
1333:
1332:Homosexuality
1330:
1328:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1308:
1305:
1304:
1303:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1295:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1275:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1263:
1260:
1259:
1258:
1255:
1251:
1248:
1247:
1246:
1243:
1241:
1238:
1235:
1231:
1228:
1226:
1223:
1221:
1218:
1216:
1213:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1203:
1201:
1198:
1196:
1195:Home invasion
1193:
1191:
1188:
1186:
1183:
1181:
1178:
1176:
1173:
1171:
1168:
1166:
1163:
1161:
1158:
1156:
1153:
1151:
1148:
1146:
1145:Assassination
1143:
1142:
1141:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1133:
1128:
1125:
1123:
1120:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1110:
1109:
1108:
1107:
1104:
1101:
1100:
1094:
1090:
1087:
1084:
1081:
1078:
1074:
1071:
1070:
1069:
1068:
1064:
1063:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1040:
1038:
1035:
1033:
1030:
1029:
1028:
1027:
1024:
1020:
1019:
1014:
1011:
1009:
1006:
1004:
1003:
999:
997:
996:
992:
991:
990:
989:
986:
983:
982:
979:
976:
975:
971:
967:
966:
956:
951:
949:
944:
942:
937:
936:
934:
933:
926:
923:
921:
920:Organizations
918:
916:
913:
911:
908:
907:
901:
900:
893:
890:
888:
885:
883:
880:
878:
875:
873:
870:
868:
867:Environmental
865:
863:
860:
858:
855:
853:
850:
848:
845:
843:
840:
838:
835:
833:
830:
828:
825:
823:
820:
818:
815:
814:
808:
807:
798:
795:
793:
790:
789:
787:
785:
784:Postmodernist
782:
780:
777:
775:
774:Neo-classical
772:
770:
767:
765:
762:
760:
757:
755:
752:
750:
749:Environmental
747:
745:
742:
740:
737:
735:
732:
730:
727:
725:
722:
721:
715:
714:
703:
700:
698:
695:
693:
690:
688:
685:
683:
680:
678:
677:Participatory
675:
674:
673:
672:
668:
665:
664:
659:
656:
654:
651:
647:
644:
642:
639:
638:
637:
634:
630:
627:
625:
622:
620:
617:
616:
615:
612:
610:
607:
605:
602:
600:
597:
595:
592:
591:
590:
589:
584:
579:
578:
571:
568:
566:
563:
561:
558:
556:
553:
551:
548:
546:
543:
540:
539:Crime mapping
537:
535:
532:
530:
527:
525:
522:
520:
517:
515:
512:
511:
505:
504:
497:
494:
492:
489:
487:
486:Transnational
484:
482:
479:
477:
474:
472:
467:
465:
462:
460:
457:
455:
454:International
452:
450:
447:
445:
442:
438:
435:
434:
433:
430:
426:
423:
421:
418:
417:
415:
411:
408:
406:
403:
401:
398:
397:
395:
394:
391:
385:
384:
377:
374:
372:
369:
367:
364:
362:
359:
358:
352:
351:
344:
341:
339:
336:
334:
331:
329:
326:
324:
321:
319:
316:
314:
311:
309:
306:
304:
301:
299:
296:
294:
291:
289:
286:
284:
281:
279:
276:
274:
271:
269:
266:
264:
261:
259:
256:
254:
251:
249:
246:
245:
239:
238:
234:
230:
229:
226:
222:
219:
218:
210:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
187:
185:
184:
179:
175:
174:
168:
166:
162:
161:jurisdictions
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
121:
119:
115:
111:
110:criminal code
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
86:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
41:
37:
33:
19:
9345:Criminal law
9319:
9302:
9285:
9273:from Commons
9268:
9251:
9230:
9188:Vatican City
9103:South Africa
9078:Saudi Arabia
8505:Criminal law
8479:Plea bargain
8461:
8416:Precognition
8408:
8391:
8374:
8228:
8167:
8160:
8146:
8132:
7905:Jurisdiction
7873:Legal remedy
7828:Adjudication
7728:Legal theory
7566:Ratification
7561:Promulgation
7532:Proclamation
7512:Codification
7445:Human rights
7433:Divine right
7423:Constitution
7391:Women in law
7309:Military law
7304:Marriage law
7299:Maritime law
7198:Election law
7138:Aviation law
7128:Abortion law
7080:Property law
7020:
7016:Criminal law
6761:Rome Statute
6631:Solicitation
6566:Prostitution
6556:Masturbation
6387:Lèse-majesté
6376:Against the
6171:Embezzlement
6060:Manslaughter
6045:Intimidation
5883:jurisdiction
5880:
5871:
5792:
5771:
5739:
5718:
5659:
5639:
5619:
5608:
5601:
5583:
5563:
5542:
5521:
5501:
5479:
5467:
5462:, p. 4.
5455:
5428:
5424:
5414:
5381:
5377:
5367:
5355:
5343:
5318:
5314:
5308:
5296:
5291:, p. 6.
5284:
5272:
5235:
5231:
5221:
5196:
5192:
5182:
5170:
5158:
5146:
5134:
5122:
5110:
5098:
5086:
5074:
5062:
5055:O'Neill 2010
5050:
5043:O'Neill 2010
5038:
5005:
5001:
4991:
4979:
4967:
4955:
4943:
4931:. Retrieved
4922:
4918:
4896:
4887:
4882:, p. 2.
4875:
4863:
4851:
4801:
4797:
4787:
4782:, p. 3.
4767:, p. 4.
4760:
4748:
4736:
4724:
4715:
4711:
4701:
4689:
4684:, p. 2.
4677:
4665:
4660:, p. 1.
4653:
4631:, p. 3.
4624:
4591:
4587:
4577:
4565:
4553:
4545:
4544:Sara Baase,
4540:
4528:
4519:
4515:
4509:
4492:
4488:
4478:
4460:
4427:
4423:
4413:
4396:
4392:
4368:. Retrieved
4364:
4355:
4343:
4331:
4319:
4307:
4295:
4283:
4271:
4259:
4247:
4242:, p. 8.
4220:
4208:
4181:
4175:
4163:
4151:
4139:. Retrieved
4133:
4124:
4112:
4107:, p. 9.
4072:
4058:
4054:
4044:
4035:
4029:. Retrieved
4005:
3998:
3969:
3961:
3934:
3928:
3901:
3895:
3868:
3862:
3827:
3823:
3771:
3767:
3749:, p. 7.
3742:
3730:
3705:
3701:
3677:. Retrieved
3675:. 2021-07-27
3672:
3663:
3651:
3624:
3602:, p. 3.
3595:
3583:
3575:
3571:
3559:
3534:
3530:
3520:
3508:
3503:, p. 5.
3479:
3467:
3455:
3443:. Retrieved
3434:
3424:
3405:
3379:
3365:Google Books
3350:
3333:
3268:
3251:
3235:
3224:
3217:
3205:unemployment
3190:
3152:
3137:
3122:
3107:
3073:
3053:
3031:
3001:
2975:human rights
2972:
2938:
2935:Criminal law
2929:Criminal law
2915:
2903:embezzlement
2895:
2883:
2874:
2866:Participants
2860:renunciation
2849:
2783:
2746:
2702:prostitution
2687:
2649:
2634:
2615:use of force
2611:self-defense
2588:
2548:social class
2545:
2510:embezzlement
2482:
2451:
2435:World War II
2428:
2406:
2398:urbanization
2394:Imprisonment
2387:
2371:
2351:
2327:
2322:
2315:Roman Empire
2308:
2281:
2267:
2243:
2219:
2182:
2164:
2132:criminal law
2125:
2097:perpetrators
2093:consequences
2077:social order
2073:social norms
2064:
2062:
2044:
2033:
2014:
2006:social norms
2004:and violate
1999:
1987:
1980:Commonwealth
1970:
1962:
1943:
1839:Self-defense
1796:
1719:Lèse-majesté
1433:Embezzlement
1357:Prostitution
1347:Masturbation
1230:Manslaughter
1215:Intimidation
1127:Solicitation
1000:
993:
978:Criminal law
872:Experimental
594:Denunciation
560:Quantitative
470:Public-order
425:White-collar
389:
366:Hans Eysenck
188:
181:
171:
169:
159:or, in some
153:imprisonment
122:
106:jurisdiction
102:criminal law
87:
78:
74:
59:criminal law
54:
46:
44:
9350:Criminology
9253:Definitions
9133:Switzerland
9108:South Korea
9073:Saint Lucia
9038:Philippines
8993:North Korea
8983:New Zealand
8863:Ivory Coast
8768:El Salvador
8613:Afghanistan
8563:Wikiversity
8520:Legal abuse
8457:Information
8447:Arraignment
8442:Alford plea
8382:Extradition
8077:Legislature
8008:Bureaucracy
7805:Rule of man
7800:Rule of law
7775:Libertarian
7638:Chinese law
7539:Legislation
7489:Regulations
7477:Law reports
7455:Natural law
7351:Reparations
7346:Refugee law
7269:Jurimetrics
7210:(Media law)
7148:Banking law
7143:Amnesty law
7121:Disciplines
7058:Private law
6536:Fornication
6453:Obstruction
6433:Compounding
6241:Tax evasion
5990:Child abuse
5904:Misdemeanor
5484:Fattah 1997
5472:Fattah 1997
5460:Fattah 1997
5348:Sumner 2004
5255:2158/209025
4880:Spalek 2017
4868:Fattah 1997
4856:Fattah 1997
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4729:Fattah 1997
4570:Skogan 2012
4558:Skogan 2012
4336:Fattah 1997
4324:Sumner 2004
3845:10438/12228
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3305:Rule of law
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3110:rule of law
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4312:Davie 2010
4300:Davie 2010
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