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citizens. Despite this, no mental or physical trend is identifiable that differentiates criminals from non-criminals. Public response to criminals may be indignant or sympathetic. Indignant responses involve resentment and a desire for vengeance, wishing to see criminals removed from society or made to suffer for harm that they cause. Sympathetic responses involve compassion and understanding, seeking to rehabilitate or forgive criminals and absolve them of blame.
2902:. Repeat victimization may also occur when a potential victim appears to be a viable target, such as when indicating wealth in a less affluent region. Many of the traits that indicate criminality also indicate victimality; victims of crime are more likely to engage in unlawful behavior and respond to provocation. Overall demographic trends of victims and criminals are often similar, and victims are more likely to have engaged in criminal activities themselves.
8167:
9263:
9297:
222:
959:
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2254:(the citizen's duty to obey the law) and a theory of enforcement, which identifies the legitimate goals of enforcement and punishment. Legislation must conform to a theory of legitimacy, which describes the circumstances under which a particular person or group is entitled to make law, and a theory of legislative justice, which describes the law they are entitled or obliged to make.
4062:...it was part of the task of a legal theorist to explain the 'normativity' or 'authority' of law, by which they meant 'our sense that 'legal' norms provide agents with special reasons for acting, reasons they would not have if the norm were not a 'legal' one'...this may be a matter calling more for a psychological or sociological explanation, rather than a philosophical one.
2205:"This law of nature, being co-eval with mankind and dictated by God himself, is of course superior in obligation to any other. It is binding over all the globe, in all countries, and at all times: no human laws are of any validity, if contrary to this; and such of them as are valid derive all their force, and all their authority, mediately or immediately, from this original."
2092:, either studying criminal acts on an individual level or the relationship of crime and the community. Due to the wide range of concepts associated with crime and the disagreement on a precise definition, the focus of criminology can vary considerably. Various theories within criminology provide different descriptions and explanations for crime, including
1957:. There is no limit to what can be considered a crime in a legal system, so there may not be a unifying principle used to determine whether an action should be designated as a crime. From a legal perspective, crimes are generally wrong actions that are severe enough to warrant punishment that infringes on the perpetrator's liberties.
3211:; groups that are less integrated with society or that are forcibly integrated with society are more likely to engage in crime. Involvement in the community, such as through a church, decreases the likelihood of crime, while associating with criminals increases the likelihood of becoming a criminal as well.
2221:
in accepting the calculating nature of human beings and the existence of an objective morality. He denied that the legal validity of a norm depends on whether its content conforms to morality. Thus, in
Austinian terms, a moral code can objectively determine what people ought to do, the law can embody
2472:
White-collar crime refers to financially motivated, nonviolent or non-directly violent crime committed by individuals, businesses and government professionals. The crimes are believed to be committed by middle- or upper-class individuals for financial gains. Typical white-collar crimes could include
2271:
Restrictions on behavior existed in all prehistoric societies. Crime in early human society was seen as a personal transgression and was addressed by the community as a whole rather than through a formal legal system, often through the use of custom, religion, or the rule of a tribal leader. Some of
2154:
Information and statistics about crime in a given jurisdiction are collected as crime estimates, typically produced by national or international agencies. Methods to collect crime statistics may vary, even between jurisdictions within the same nation. Under-reporting of crime is common, particularly
1933:
The exact definition of crime is a philosophical issue without an agreed upon answer. Fields such as law, politics, sociology, and psychology define crime in different ways. Crimes may be variously considered as wrongs against individuals, against the community, or against the state. The criminality
2257:
There are natural-law theorists who have accepted the idea of enforcing the prevailing morality as a primary function of the law. This view entails the problem that it makes any moral criticism of the law impossible: if conformity with natural law forms a necessary condition for legal validity, all
4025:
The moral standards...which
Dworkin (in line with natural law theory) treats as capable of being morally objective & true, thus function as a direct source of law and...as already law, except when their fit with the whole set of social-fact sources in the relevant community is so weak that it
2864:
A criminal is an individual who commits a crime. What constitutes a criminal can vary depending on the context and the law, and it often carries a pejorative connotation. Criminals are often seen as embodying certain stereotypes or traits and are seen as a distinct type of person from law-abiding
2539:
as opposed to white-collar crime which is associated with crime committed by someone of a higher-level social class. These crimes are primarily small scale, for immediate beneficial gain to the individual or group involved in them. Examples of blue-collar crime include
Narcotic production or
2885:
Several factors affect an individual's likelihood of becoming a victim. Some factors may cause victims of crime to experience short-term or long-term "repeat victimization". Common long-term victims are those that have close relationships with the criminal, manifesting in crimes such as
3127:
If a crime is committed, the individual responsible is considered to be liable for the crime. For liability to exist, the individual must be capable of understanding the criminal process and the relevant authority must have legitimate power to establish what constitutes a crime.
2368:
in the 12th century. He established a system of traveling judges that tried accused criminals in each region of
England by applying precedent from previous rulings. Legal developments in 12th century England also resulted in the earliest known recording of official crime data.
2944:. Historically, criminal codes have often divided criminals by class or caste, prescribing different penalties depending on status. In some tribal societies, an entire clan is recognized as liable for a crime. In many cases, disputes over a crime in this system lead to a
2196:
beings, concluding that it becomes morally appropriate that they should behave in a way that conforms to their rational nature. Thus, to be valid, any law must conform to natural law and coercing people to conform to that law is morally acceptable. In the 1760s,
2909:. Victims, on their own, may lack the economies of scale that could allow them to administer a penal system, let alone to collect any fines levied by a court. Historically, from ancient times until the 19th century, many societies believed that non-human
2598:. Some violent crimes, such as assault, may be committed with the intention of causing harm. Other violent crimes, such as robbery, may use violence to further another goal. Violent crime is distinct from noncriminal types of violence, such as
3112:
Whether a crime can be resolved through financial compensation varies depending on the culture and the specific context of the crime. Historically, many societies have absolved acts of homicide through compensation to the victim's relatives.
3055:
and punish criminals in a way that knowingly causes suffering. This may arise out of a feeling that criminals deserve to suffer and that punishment should exist for its own sake. The existence of punishment also creates an effect of
3218:. Some genes have been found to affect traits that may incline individuals toward criminal activity, but no biological or physiological trait has been found to directly cause or compel criminal actions. One biological factor is the
3241:
Crime is often a high priority political issue in developed countries, regardless of the country's crime rates. People that are not regularly exposed to crime most often experience it through media, including news reporting and
2847:. Inchoate crimes are defined by substantial action to facilitate a crime with the intention of the crime's occurrence. This is distinct from simple preparation for or consideration of criminal activity. They are unique in that
3254:
in new stories about criminals significantly over-represent the prevalence of violent crime, and news reporting will often overemphasize a specific type of crime for a period of time, creating a "crime wave" effect.
2249:
rejects Hart's theory and proposes that all individuals should expect the equal respect and concern of those who govern them as a fundamental political right. He offers a theory of compliance overlaid by a theory of
1952:
Legal and political definitions of crime consider actions that are banned by authorities or punishable by law. Crime is defined by the criminal law of a given jurisdiction, including all actions that are subject to
2913:
were capable of committing crimes, and prosecuted and punished them accordingly. Prosecutions of animals gradually dwindled during the 19th century, although a few were recorded as late as the 1910s and 1920s.
2345:
Europe and East Asia, central government was limited and crime was defined locally. Towns established their own criminal justice systems, while crime in the countryside was defined by the social hierarchies of
2873:
A victim is an individual who has been treated unjustly or made to suffer. In the context of crime, the victim is the individual that is harmed by a violation of criminal law. Victimization is associated with
2314:. Most acts recognized as crimes in ancient societies, such as violence and theft, have persisted to the modern era. The criminal justice system of Imperial China existed unbroken for over 2,000 years.
2817:. Due to their unique relation to the state, political crimes are often encouraged by one nation against another, and it is political alignment rather than the act itself that determines criminality.
1934:
of an action is dependent on its context; acts of violence will be seen as crimes in many circumstances but as permissible or desirable in others. Crime was historically seen as a manifestation of
3162:, and they are defined through the consensus of the involved states. International crimes are not prosecuted through a standard legal system, though international organizations may establish
3047:
the criminal act. Punishment is generally reserved for serious offenses. Individuals regularly engage in activity that could be scrutinized under criminal law but are deemed inconsequential.
2393:
in the 19th century caused crime to become an immediate issue that affected society, prompting government intervention in crime and the establishment of criminology as its own field.
3377:
3222:, as men are significantly more likely to commit crimes than women in virtually all cultures. Crimes committed by men also tend to be more severe than those committed by women.
306:
3097:
Developed nations are less likely to use physical punishments. Instead, they will impose financial penalties or imprisonment. In places with widespread corruption or limited
8219:
5330:
Hipp, J. R.; Curran, P. J.; Bollen, K. A.; Bauer, D. J. (1 June 2004). "Crimes of
Opportunity or Crimes of Emotion? Testing Two Explanations of Seasonal Change in Crime".
2325:. The understanding of crime and sin were closely associated with one another for much of history, and conceptions of crime took on many of the ideas associated with sin.
6880:
3373:
3003:
suspected perpetrators of crimes. Law enforcement may focus on policing individual crimes, or it may focus on bringing down overall crime rates. One common variant,
3192:. A person that commits a criminal act typically believes that its benefits will outweigh the risk of being caught and punished. Negative economic factors, such as
2752:
2851:
of criminal intention is generally enough to absolve the perpetrator of criminal liability, as their actions are no longer facilitating a potential future crime.
6915:
6707:
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valid law must, by definition, count as morally just. Thus, on this line of reasoning, the legal validity of a norm necessarily entails its moral justice.
2839:
Inchoate crime is crime that is carried out in anticipation of other illegal actions but does not cause direct harm. Examples of inchoate crimes include
2677:
Public order crime is crime that violates a society's norms about what constitutes socially acceptable behavior. Examples of public order crimes include
4531:
Van den
Bogaard, Joop; Wiegman, Oene (1991). "Property Crime Victimization: The Effectiveness of Police Services for Victims of Residential Burglary".
941:
2008:, the predominant moral beliefs of society determine the legal definition as well as the social definition of crime. This system is less prominent in
8212:
6875:
2445:
through radio and television in the mid-20th century allowed for the sensationalism of crime. This created well-known stories of criminals such as
2610:. Acts of violence are most often perceived as deviant when they are committed as an overreaction or a disproportionate response to provocation.
6905:
2991:
The enforcement of criminal law seeks to prevent crime and sanction crimes that do occur. This enforcement is carried out by the state through
8759:
2449:, and it allowed for dramatization that perpetuates misconceptions about crime. Forensic science was popularized in the 1980s, establishing
2659:, the complexity and anonymity of computer systems may help criminal employees camouflage their operations. The victims of the most costly
2321:
and corresponded to acts that were believed to invoke the anger of a deity. This idea was further popularized with the development of the
2176:
to coerce compliance with its laws has proven a consistent theoretical problem. One of the earliest justifications involved the theory of
62:; in other words, something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant and applicable law. One proposed definition is that a crime or
8205:
4908:
See
Polinsky & Shavell (1997) on the fundamental divergence between the private and the social motivation for using the legal system.
6885:
4013:
6772:
2222:
whatever norms the legislature decrees to achieve social utility, but every individual remains free to choose what to do. Similarly,
8134:
6700:
5878:
558:
8554:
4724:
2377:
In the modern era, crime came to be seen as an issue affecting society rather than conflicts between individuals. Writers such as
2725:, which posits that public order crimes increase the likelihood of other types of crime. Some public order crimes are considered
1920:
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8612:
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3402:
3349:
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8473:
3258:
As public opinion of morality changes over time, actions that were once condemned as crimes may be considered justifiable.
2655:. The scope of financial crimes has expanded significantly since the beginning of modern economics in the 17th century. In
291:
2426:. Crime increasingly came to be seen as a societal issue, and criminal law was seen as a means to protect the public from
9251:
6693:
5775:
Lipsey, Mark W.; Landenberger, Nana A.; Chapman, Gabrielle L. "Rehabilitation: An
Assessment of Theory and Research". In
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The victims may only want compensation for the injuries suffered, while remaining indifferent to a possible desire for
908:
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Psychological definitions consider the state of mind of perpetrators and their relationship with their environment.
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7674:
7543:
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The state determines what actions are considered criminal in the scope of the law. Criminalization has significant
1971:
countries can define offences that the courts alone have developed over the years, without any actual legislation:
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Political crime is crime that directly challenges or threatens the state. Examples of political crimes include
2210:
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742:
722:
296:
4026:
would be more accurate (according to
Dworkin) to say that judges who apply them are applying morality not law.
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1947:
1802:
903:
898:
752:
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7275:
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5871:
4437:"Can we Trust Crime Predictors and Crime Categories? Expansions on the Potential Problem of Generalization"
2295:. The latter influenced the conception of crime across several civilizations over the following millennia.
1877:
1786:
553:
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70:) is an act harmful not only to some individual but also to a community, society, or the state ("a public
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8754:
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5205:
3893:. William Blackstone Collection (Library of Congress). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 41.
3159:
3070:. Different criminological theories propose different methods of rehabilitation, including strengthening
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considerations, as it can infringe on rights of autonomy and subject individuals to unjust punishment.
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2310:
regarded assaults as a matter of private compensation. The most significant Roman law concept involved
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1913:
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717:
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393:
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28:
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Bottoms, Anthony E.; Costello, Andrew. "Understanding Repeat
Victimization: A Longitudinal Study". In
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movement of the early-20th century similarly held that crime was caused primarily by genetic factors.
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Thus the necessary and sufficient conditions for the truth of a proposition of law involved internal
2101:
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Social factors similarly affect the likelihood of criminal activity. Crime corresponds heavily with
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1817:
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266:
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3999:
3686:
3147:
2906:
1968:
1635:
747:
582:
388:
326:
2882:. Victimology is the study of victims, including their role in crime and how they are affected.
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8237:
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6469:
6459:
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2929:
2702:
2506:
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1998:
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311:
20:
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include banks, brokerage houses, insurance companies, and other large financial institutions.
89:
are to be prohibited exists worldwide. What precisely is a criminal offence is defined by the
54:
definitions have been provided for certain purposes. The most popular view is that crime is a
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Authorities may respond to crime through corrections, carrying out punishment as a means to
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3998:. 3.2 Natural law & (purely) positive law as concurrent dimensions of legal reasoning.
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1960:
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8:
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5704:
Davie, Neil. "Born for Evil? Biological Theories of Crime in Historical Perspective". In
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2180:. This posits that the nature of the world or of human beings underlies the standards of
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1765:
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In the United Kingdom, for instance, the definitions provided by section 243(2) of the
3283:
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3208:
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seeks to understand and mitigate the causes of a criminal's unlawful action to prevent
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3004:
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2467:
2322:
2198:
2097:
2009:
1972:
1954:
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1238:
1168:
1065:
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850:
507:
457:
413:
321:
191:
153:
137:
121:
4436:
3860:. Regan, Richard J., Baumgarth, William P. (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Hackett Pub.
3824:
2026:
defines crime not only as harm to others or to society, but also as harm to the self.
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9109:
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1822:
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538:
408:
145:
55:
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Hanson, Rochelle F.; Sawyer, Genelle K.; Begle, Angela M.; Hubel, Grace S. (2010).
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Taking rights seriously : [with a new appendix, a response to critics]
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When the perpetrator of a crime is found guilty of the crime, the state delivers a
3007:, seeks to prevent crime by integrating police into the community and public life.
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2834:
2810:
2726:
2714:
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2510:
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behavior. This idea was associated with a larger trend in the western world toward
2408:
2355:
2291:), and the first known criminal code that incorporated retaliatory justice was the
2277:
2214:
2148:
2124:
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2081:
2017:
1797:
1755:
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533:
479:
166:
5391:"Sex Differences In Crime: Do Means and Within-Sex Variation Have Similar Causes?"
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A Gift of Fire: Social, Legal, and Ethical Issues for Computing and The Internet
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4502:"Modelling Property Crime Using the British Crime Survey. What Have We Learnt?"
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Through most of history, reporting of crime was generally local. The advent of
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2218:
2192:, which is the first principle of human acts". He regarded people as by nature
2185:
2005:
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1365:
1335:
1228:
629:
256:
133:
39:
8579:
5627:
On the Disutility and Discounting of Imprisonment and the Theory of Deterrence
2151:. Besides sociology, criminology is often associated with law and psychology.
169: – be accompanied by the "intention to do something criminal" (
9350:
9049:
9019:
8919:
8864:
8744:
8409:
8039:
7998:
7884:
7864:
7836:
7786:
7751:
7725:
7720:
7713:
7664:
7604:
7444:
7434:
7392:
7315:
7310:
7240:
7199:
7123:
6685:
6339:
6237:
6041:
5991:
5617:
Polinsky, A. Mitchell. (1980). "Private versus Public Enforcement of Fines".
5463:
5414:
5351:
5280:
5229:
5038:
4624:
4460:
3842:
3776:
3710:
3539:
3243:
2941:
2730:
2569:
2450:
2378:
2273:
2223:
2047:
2013:
1617:
1471:
1183:
1133:
785:
617:
527:
425:
159:
Usually, to be classified as a crime, the "act of doing something criminal" (
98:
5843:
5261:
5244:
5221:
5149:
3941:
3875:
3768:
2733:
have moved toward decriminalization of victimless crimes in the modern era.
8521:
8495:
8171:
7921:
7889:
7844:
7582:
7577:
7548:
7461:
7439:
7407:
7340:
7320:
7214:
7154:
7144:
7096:
7054:
7032:
6975:
6777:
6647:
6582:
6187:
6076:
6061:
4844:
4517:
3978:
3908:
3200:, can increase the incentive to commit crime, while severe punishments can
3193:
2963:
2923:
2891:
2848:
2690:
2603:
2599:
2536:
2498:
2494:
2486:
2423:
2386:
2385:
developed as a long-term penalty for crime in the 18th century. Increasing
2382:
2303:
2299:
2156:
2120:
2065:
1858:
1421:
1345:
1218:
1203:
1115:
966:
780:
354:
194:) are not automatically punished by the state, but can be enforced through
149:
141:
94:
90:
47:
8559:
6670:
5343:
3531:
3338:
Farmer, Lindsay: "Crime, definitions of", in Cane and Conoghan (editors),
2928:
Virtually all countries in the 21st century have criminal law grounded in
8536:
8463:
8458:
8398:
8093:
8034:
8024:
7821:
7816:
7654:
7555:
7471:
7430:
7397:
7362:
7285:
7209:
7159:
7074:
6351:
6347:
6257:
6006:
5920:
4202:
3293:
3233:, while onset of crime at younger age predicts a longer criminal career.
3229:
with a small fraction of individuals re-offending many times due to high
3142:
International criminal law typically addresses serious offenses, such as
3098:
3034:
2937:
2895:
2818:
2740:
2648:
2607:
2326:
2238:
2227:
2193:
2177:
2140:
2061:
2043:
2023:
1994:
1977:
1873:
1629:
1625:
1491:
1148:
1077:
1001:
825:
612:
517:
464:
331:
286:
209:
183:
129:
5161:
5137:
8468:
8415:
8403:
8346:
8327:
8157:
8086:
7966:
7904:
7649:
7570:
7565:
7523:
7505:
7493:
7454:
7300:
7290:
7250:
7235:
7219:
7169:
7106:
7101:
6642:
6428:
6309:
6304:
6182:
6066:
6046:
6036:
6016:
5970:
5945:
5915:
5271:
5206:"Law, language and community: some preconditions of criminal liability"
4932:"The Historical and Contemporary Prosecution and Punishment of Animals"
4056:
4039:
3833:
3275:
3230:
3087:
3067:
3038:
2933:
2844:
2774:
2756:
2579:
2535:
Blue-collar crime is any crime committed by an individual from a lower
2502:
2474:
2442:
2361:
2159:
may be used to determine the frequency of crime in a given population.
2136:
1989:
As a sociological concept, crime is associated with actions that cause
1964:
1894:
1780:
1732:
1587:
1582:
1416:
1208:
1188:
1178:
1158:
1110:
1030:
983:
845:
840:
646:
161:
5630:, NBER Working Papers 6259, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
4826:
4421:
3086:
for physical and mental ailments. Rehabilitative programs may include
2188:
wrote in the 13th century: "the rule and measure of human acts is the
9320:
8064:
8029:
7971:
7946:
7811:
7708:
7696:
7681:
7669:
7597:
7515:
7488:
7372:
6846:
6612:
6592:
6577:
6512:
6418:
6413:
6382:
6372:
6334:
6272:
6252:
6192:
6167:
4856:
4854:
3226:
3151:
2814:
2813:
of a given state, and they are necessarily applied against political
2798:
2790:
2778:
2744:
2718:
2694:
2644:
2633:
2419:
2347:
2307:
2251:
2057:
1722:
1717:
1691:
1660:
1650:
1612:
1506:
1486:
1426:
1401:
1375:
1355:
1340:
484:
420:
51:
9337:
8340:
8152:
5964:
5389:
Rowe, David C.; Vazsonyi, Alexander T.; Flannery, Daniel J. (1995).
3269:
8113:
8098:
7801:
7686:
7483:
7027:
6814:
6532:
6502:
6423:
6367:
6319:
6294:
6276:
6212:
6177:
6148:
6130:
6125:
6108:
6071:
6051:
5030:
4616:
3247:
3163:
3155:
3143:
3106:
3102:
2899:
2794:
2748:
2736:
2729:
in which no specific victim can be identified. Most nations in the
2706:
2678:
2625:
2583:
2549:
2412:
2411:, arguing that certain people are naturally born as criminals. The
2181:
2173:
2144:
2073:
1843:
1775:
1727:
1681:
1645:
1597:
1572:
1510:
1446:
1411:
1295:
1272:
1267:
1250:
1213:
1193:
990:
624:
571:
221:
213:
171:
9303:
4851:
3807:
Fajnzylber, Pablo; Lederman, Daniel; Loayza, Norman (2002-07-01).
2230:, with lawmakers able to adopt any law as a means to a moral end.
8322:
8246:
8003:
7951:
7931:
7879:
7691:
7609:
7425:
7387:
7335:
6632:
6474:
6440:
6408:
6377:
6324:
6299:
6247:
6227:
6222:
6202:
6172:
6135:
6120:
6031:
5996:
5856:
3083:
3075:
3044:
2840:
2782:
2652:
2595:
2587:
2582:
against another person. Common examples of violent crime include
2553:
2518:
2482:
2085:
2001:, and societal attitudes determine what is considered criminal.
1760:
1712:
1655:
1602:
1577:
1551:
1481:
1461:
1456:
1436:
1406:
1277:
1262:
1173:
1138:
1100:
958:
655:
117:
106:
5674:
Shoham, Shlomo Giora; Knepper, Paul; Kett, Martin, eds. (2010).
3166:
to investigate and rule on egregious offenses such as genocide.
3154:. As with all international law, these laws are created through
8252:
8103:
7956:
7701:
7592:
7587:
7533:
7204:
6831:
6537:
6362:
6232:
6091:
5925:
4994:
3000:
2996:
2910:
2786:
2557:
2189:
1640:
1466:
1300:
1233:
1061:
602:
236:
78:
5438:"Age, Gender, and Crime in a Stockholm Birth Cohort to Age 64"
5311:
5053:
2317:
Many of the earliest conceptions of crime are associated with
50:, have any simple and universally accepted definition, though
19:"Criminal" and "Criminals" redirect here. For other uses, see
9245:
8590:
8044:
7988:
7894:
7735:
7538:
6262:
6207:
6157:
3921:
3546:
2825:
law-abiding citizens may also be considered political crime.
2629:
2545:
2478:
2330:
2234:
2115:
Subfields of criminology and related fields of study include
1496:
1441:
1391:
597:
125:
86:
71:
5287:
5125:
5077:
4982:
3454:
3246:. Exposure of crime through news stories is associated with
2381:
saw crime as a societal issue as early as the 17th century.
1938:, but this has been superseded by modern criminal theories.
8490:
8370:
7926:
7874:
7730:
7128:
7044:
6587:
6314:
5657:
An Eye for an Eye: A Global History of Crime and Punishment
5245:"Are Crimes against Humanity More Serious than War Crimes?"
5113:
4763:
3717:
2945:
2802:
1990:
1935:
1863:
1592:
1350:
187:
140:, or, depending on the nature of their offence, to undergo
82:
5560:
Criminology: Past, Present and Future: A Critical Overview
5299:
5065:
3060:
that discourages criminal action for fear of punishment.
6998:
6881:
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
5774:
5167:
5155:
5143:
5101:
5089:
4751:
4739:
4680:
4568:
4260:
3753:"Official Crime Statistics: Their use and Interpretation"
3374:
Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992
2318:
59:
5494:
5482:
3806:
6916:
International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals
5370:
4185:
Roman law: linguistic, social and philosophical aspects
3638:
3628:
3626:
3601:
3599:
3597:
3570:
3495:
2578:
Violent crime is crime that involves an act of violent
120:
for committing a crime. In modern societies, there are
8227:
6967:
5807:
Welsh, Brandon C.; Farrington, David P., eds. (2012).
5358:
4811:"The impact of crime victimization on quality of life"
4808:
4792:
4790:
4530:
4296:
4272:
3442:
5624:
Polinsky, A. Mitchell & Shavell, Steven. (1997).
5329:
4970:
4878:
4866:
4658:
4656:
4654:
4580:
4320:
4284:
4072:
4070:
3485:
3483:
3481:
2418:
The concept of crime underwent a period of change as
2302:
systematized law and applied their system across the
8336:
5960:
5470:
5442:
Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology
5388:
4332:
4238:
4236:
4089:
4087:
4085:
3623:
3594:
3265:
2241:, and that the state's agents used state power with
5713:O'Neill, Megan. "The Police Response to Crime". In
5581:
Crimes Against the State: From Treason to Terrorism
5436:Carlsson, Christoffer; Sivertsson, Fredrik (2021).
4890:
4787:
4775:
4704:
4344:
4308:
3888:
3582:
3466:
3392:
2759:societies or those heavily influenced by religion.
97:. While many have a catalogue of crimes called the
74:"). Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law.
6871:International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg Trials)
5435:
5185:
5173:
4958:
4651:
4639:
4543:
4248:
4221:
4209:
4164:
4152:
4099:
4067:
3956:
3729:
3611:
3478:
3323:Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition on CD-ROM
5723:
5714:
5705:
5696:
5673:
4692:
4668:
4233:
4082:
2358:, feudal justice survived into the 19th century.
16:Illegal behavior defined by existing criminal law
9348:
6901:Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia
6876:International Military Tribunal for the Far East
4725:"Defining Inchoate Crime: An Incomplete Attempt"
3954:
2329:developed its own system of criminal justice as
5829:
5806:
5721:
4917:See Polinsky (1980) on the enforcement of fines
4860:
3855:
3397:(7 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
6715:
5789:The Oxford Handbook of Crime and Public Policy
5621:, Vol. IX, No. 1, (January), pp. 105–127.
5516:
5131:
5083:
5000:
4988:
4489:(Report). Australian Institute of Criminology.
4410:International Journal of Conflict and Violence
3552:
3460:
2453:as a new method to prevent and analyze crime.
178:While every crime violates the law, not every
8606:
8213:
6983:
6701:
5872:
5848:
4182:
3131:
3101:, crime may be punished extralegally through
3028:
2364:first developed in England under the rule of
1914:
935:
5535:
5395:Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
5317:
5305:
5293:
3250:and inaccurate perceptions of crime trends.
2721:. Public order crime is associated with the
2333:spread in the seventh and eighth centuries.
1997:. Under this definition, crime is a type of
5828:Skogan, Wesley G. "Disorder and Crime". In
5712:
5071:
5059:
4722:
2809:. Political crimes are associated with the
2422:was widely accepted in the years following
2276:. The earliest known criminal code was the
116:) has the power to severely restrict one's
8613:
8599:
8220:
8206:
6990:
6976:
6886:International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
6708:
6694:
5879:
5865:
5736:Crime Victims: Theory, Policy and Practice
5598:
5119:
5107:
5095:
5015:"The Optimal Structure of Law Enforcement"
4769:
4686:
4598:
4555:
4533:Journal of Social Behavior and Personality
3723:
3687:"Whither the Sociological Study of Crime?"
2624:Common examples of property crime include
1921:
1907:
942:
928:
6906:Special Panels of the Dili District Court
5521:(7th ed.). Oxford University Press.
5517:Ashworth, Andrew; Horder, Jeremy (2013).
5453:
5270:
5260:
4925:
4923:
4834:
4481:
4055:
3926:(2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
3832:
3750:
8135:History of the American legal profession
4434:
3334:
3332:
3325:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2009.
3169:
3025:to determine the penalty for the crime.
1981:to develop various common law offences.
5810:The Oxford Handbook of Crime Prevention
5168:Lipsey, Landenberger & Chapman 2004
5156:Lipsey, Landenberger & Chapman 2004
5144:Lipsey, Landenberger & Chapman 2004
5012:
4499:
4111:
4040:"Kelsen, Hart, & legal normativity"
3963:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
3684:
3388:
3386:
3180:Criminal behavior determinants include
2272:the oldest extant writings are ancient
2162:
9349:
5827:
5776:
5757:The Blackwell Companion to Criminology
5753:
5732:
5556:
5500:
5488:
5476:
5364:
5242:
4929:
4920:
4896:
4884:
4872:
4796:
4781:
4757:
4745:
4586:
4574:
4403:
4338:
4326:
3991:
3922:Hart, Herbert Lionel Adolphus (1994).
3644:
3632:
3605:
3588:
3576:
3513:
3501:
3489:
3472:
3448:
3417:
8594:
8201:
6971:
6689:
5860:
5847:
5785:
5703:
5694:
5677:International Handbook of Criminology
5536:Bantekas, Ilias; Nash, Susan (2009).
5429:
5376:
5323:
5249:European Journal of International Law
4946:from the original on 29 December 2019
4645:
4399:
4397:
4350:
4314:
4302:
3802:
3800:
3798:
3796:
3794:
3746:
3744:
3735:
3680:
3678:
3430:from the original on 27 February 2013
3329:
3316:
3314:
3010:
2948:that lasts over several generations.
2755:are commonly recognized as crimes in
2666:
2639:Examples of financial crimes include
2461:
2403:in the late-19th century. This was a
2336:
2167:
9252:
5739:(2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan.
5654:
5633:
5577:
5203:
5191:
5179:
4976:
4964:
4710:
4698:
4674:
4662:
4549:
4406:"Violence, Crime, and Violent Crime"
4290:
4278:
4266:
4254:
4242:
4227:
4215:
4170:
4158:
4105:
4093:
4076:
3617:
3567:, John A. Yogis, Q.C., Barrons: 2003
3383:
3236:
2821:that is carried out by the state to
2524:
4565:. Third Ed. "Employee Crime" (2008)
4441:Applied Spatial Analysis and Policy
4037:
3891:Commentaries on the laws of England
2969:
38:is an unlawful act punishable by a
13:
5886:
4729:Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law
4394:
3791:
3741:
3675:
3411:
3311:
2980:
2951:
2762:
136:to a form of reparation such as a
14:
9383:
8532:Evidence law in the United States
7119:Restitution and unjust enrichment
5839:
5724:Shoham, Knepper & Kett (2010)
5715:Shoham, Knepper & Kett (2010)
5706:Shoham, Knepper & Kett (2010)
5697:Shoham, Knepper & Kett (2010)
4404:Felson, Richard B. (2009-05-01).
3344:, Oxford University Press, 2008 (
2828:
2613:
1975:. The courts used the concept of
9329:
9312:
9295:
9278:
9261:
8760:Democratic Republic of the Congo
8339:
8166:
8165:
8151:
6480:Perverting the course of justice
5963:
5954:
5902:. Not all types are listed here.
5695:Pease, Ken. "Crime Science". In
5382:
5236:
5019:The Journal of Law and Economics
4723:Cahill, Michael T. (2011–2012).
3995:Natural Law & Natural Rights
3268:
2563:
2266:
1557:Perverting the course of justice
957:
297:Risk & actuarial criminology
220:
8130:History of the legal profession
6218:Intellectual property violation
5637:The Dynamics of Political Crime
5210:Oxford Journal of Legal Studies
5197:
5006:
4911:
4902:
4802:
4716:
4592:
4524:
4493:
4475:
4428:
4356:
4176:
4031:
4016:from the original on 2019-08-06
3985:
3948:
3915:
3882:
3849:
3751:MacDonald, Ziggy (2002-02-01).
3650:
3558:
3520:Oxford Journal of Legal Studies
3507:
3341:The New Oxford Companion to Law
3220:disparity between men and women
2917:
2854:
2135:, criminal sociology, criminal
2056:. Criminology is a subfield of
1452:Intellectual property violation
182:counts as a crime. Breaches of
8620:
8386:Deferred prosecution agreement
6947:International humanitarian law
6891:Special Court for Sierra Leone
4506:British Journal of Criminology
3858:On law, morality, and politics
3366:
3176:Causes and correlates of crime
2350:. In some places, such as the
2172:Justifying the state's use of
105:nations no such comprehensive
1:
5830:Welsh & Farrington (2012)
5601:The Other Side of Criminology
5599:Hoefnagels, G. Peter (1973).
5510:
4038:Bix, Brian H. (August 2015).
3825:10.1016/S0014-2921(01)00096-4
3418:Easton, Mark (17 June 2010).
3378:Prevention of Crimes Act 1871
2372:
2281:
2052:The study of crime is called
2029:
1948:Legalism (Western philosophy)
201:
165:) must – with
77:The notion that acts such as
42:or other authority. The term
6911:Special Tribunal for Lebanon
6896:International Criminal Court
5786:Tonry, Michael, ed. (2011).
5619:The Journal of Legal Studies
4482:Bricknell, Samantha (2008).
4435:Connealy, Nathan T. (2020).
4187:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh U.P.
3889:Blackstone, William (1979).
3809:"What causes violent crime?"
3703:10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.711
3393:Elizabeth A. Martin (2003).
3116:
3051:seeks to create a system of
2878:and a long-term decrease in
2226:saw the law as an aspect of
1984:
1787:Ignorantia juris non excusat
124:to which investigations and
7:
6952:International speech crimes
6733:Customary international law
5813:. Oxford University Press.
5792:. Oxford University Press.
5754:Sumner, Colin, ed. (2004).
5407:10.1177/0022427895032001004
4861:Bottoms & Costello 2010
4815:Journal of Traumatic Stress
3685:Sampson, Robert J. (2000).
3376:and by the Schedule to the
3261:
3225:Crime distribution shows a
2859:
2407:school of thought based in
2397:Anthropological criminology
2129:anthropological criminology
1941:
10:
9388:
7797:International legal theory
7276:International slavery laws
7271:International human rights
7266:International criminal law
6773:Convention Against Torture
6717:International criminal law
6243:Possessing stolen property
5634:Ross, Jeffrey Ian (2003).
5539:International Criminal Law
5519:Principles of Criminal Law
5455:10.1007/s40865-021-00172-w
5132:Ashworth & Horder 2013
5084:Ashworth & Horder 2013
5001:Ashworth & Horder 2013
4989:Ashworth & Horder 2013
4500:Tseloni, A. (2002-01-01).
4453:10.1007/s12061-019-09323-5
4386:: CS1 maint: url-status (
4364:"White-Collar Crime - FBI"
4144:: CS1 maint: url-status (
3691:Annual Review of Sociology
3553:Ashworth & Horder 2013
3461:Ashworth & Horder 2013
3173:
3138:International criminal law
3135:
3132:International criminal law
3120:
3032:
3029:Corrections and punishment
3014:
2984:
2973:
2955:
2921:
2832:
2766:
2670:
2617:
2574:Offence against the person
2567:
2528:
2465:
2261:
2041:
2020:over other moral beliefs.
2012:societies that prioritize
2004:In legal systems based on
1945:
1477:Possessing stolen property
1125:Offense against the person
277:Expressive function of law
29:Criminals (disambiguation)
18:
8626:
8545:
8509:
8501:Presentence investigation
8451:
8356:
8334:
8236:
8145:
8122:
8012:
7850:Administration of justice
7835:
7744:
7635:
7514:
7416:
7137:
7005:
6942:Joint criminal enterprise
6924:
6855:
6786:
6723:
6657:
6622:
6522:
6489:
6438:
6392:
6286:
6146:
5980:
5952:
5908:
5895:
5854:
5849:Articles related to crime
5655:Roth, Mitchel P. (2014).
5563:. Palgrave Macmillan UK.
5557:Fattah, Ezzat A. (1997).
5243:Frulli, M. (2001-04-01).
4599:Wertheimer, Alan (1977).
3955:Dworkin, Ronald. (1978).
3514:Lamond, G. (2007-01-01).
2999:, which are empowered to
2868:
2060:that addresses issues of
1771:Diminished responsibility
1565:Crimes against the public
25:Criminal (disambiguation)
7627:Basic structure doctrine
7477:Natural and legal rights
7358:Public international law
6862:(in order of foundation)
6342:(such as prohibition of
5603:. Springer Netherlands.
5584:. Taylor & Francis.
5542:. Taylor & Francis.
5318:Bantekas & Nash 2009
5306:Bantekas & Nash 2009
5294:Bantekas & Nash 2009
5013:Shavell, Steven (1993).
4042:. 3.3 Law and morality.
3856:Thomas, Aquinas (2002).
3813:European Economic Review
3395:Oxford Dictionary of Law
3304:
3289:Law and order (politics)
2993:law enforcement agencies
2753:invoking the name of God
2456:
2106:differential association
2037:
1700:Crimes against the state
1620:(such as prohibition of
267:Differential association
34:In ordinary language, a
7807:Principle of typicality
7281:International trade law
6997:
6800:Crimes against humanity
5204:Duff, R. (1998-06-01).
4484:Trends in violent crime
4119:"The Ur-Nammu Law Code"
3769:10.1111/1468-0297.00685
3565:Canadian Law Dictionary
3148:crimes against humanity
2306:. The initial rules of
2155:in developing nations.
1384:Crimes against property
1074:(also called violation)
327:Symbolic interactionism
8443:Statute of limitations
8238:Criminal investigation
6957:Universal jurisdiction
6932:Command responsibility
6825:Incitement to genocide
6763:United Nations Charter
6460:Miscarriage of justice
5733:Spalek, Basia (2017).
5578:Head, Michael (2016).
5025:(1, Part 2): 255–287.
4183:Daube, David. (1969).
3216:genetic cause of crime
2507:copyright infringement
2405:biological determinist
2213:(1790–1859), an early
2201:described the thesis:
1836:Other common-law areas
1669:Crimes against animals
1537:Miscarriage of justice
1519:Crimes against justice
307:Social disorganization
128:must adhere. If found
21:Crime (disambiguation)
9085:Saint Kitts and Nevis
8381:Criminal jurisdiction
7802:Principle of legality
7561:Delegated legislation
7261:Intellectual property
6455:Malfeasance in office
5898:Note: Crimes vary by
5640:. SAGE Publications.
5344:10.1353/sof.2004.0074
5262:10.1093/ejil/12.2.329
5222:10.1093/ojls/18.2.189
3992:Finnis, John (2015).
3204:crime in some cases.
3182:cost–benefit analysis
3170:Causes and correlates
2876:post-traumatic stress
2723:broken windows theory
2094:social control theory
2090:preventative measures
1742:Defenses to liability
1532:Malfeasance in office
816:Biosocial criminology
523:Uniform Crime Reports
242:Biosocial criminology
132:, an offender may be
9190:United Arab Emirates
8421:Inquisitorial system
8358:Criminal prosecution
8298:Reasonable suspicion
8273:Exigent circumstance
8020:Barristers' chambers
7962:Legal representation
7900:Justice of the peace
7246:Financial regulation
6858:International courts
6758:Nuremberg principles
6548:Cybersex trafficking
6310:Censorship violation
4930:Girgen, Jen (2003).
4518:10.1093/bjc/42.1.109
4269:, p. 84, 91–94.
3757:The Economic Journal
3160:international custom
3092:vocational education
2436:centre-left politics
2184:or constructs them.
2163:Foundational systems
1961:English criminal law
1588:Censorship violation
1311:Cybersex trafficking
691:Solitary confinement
192:breaches of contract
180:violation of the law
46:does not, in modern
9170:Trinidad and Tobago
8438:Preliminary hearing
8055:Election commission
7767:Expressive function
7296:Landlord–tenant law
7195:Consumer protection
6805:Crime of aggression
6768:Genocide Convention
6340:Illegal consumption
6012:Criminal negligence
5832:, pp. 173–188.
5779:, pp. 211–227.
5726:, pp. 649–680.
5717:, pp. 483–510.
5158:, pp. 212–213.
5062:, pp. 485–486.
4863:, pp. 674–675.
4760:, pp. 125–126.
4748:, pp. 123–124.
4601:"Victimless Crimes"
4577:, pp. 173–174.
3532:10.1093/ojls/gqm018
3049:Retributive justice
2699:breach of the peace
2687:public intoxication
2399:was popularized by
2323:Abrahamic religions
2133:criminal psychology
1973:common law offences
1766:Defense of property
1618:Illegal consumption
1154:Criminal negligence
1054:Severity of offense
881:Radical criminology
252:Collective efficacy
8770:Dominican Republic
8366:Adversarial system
8308:Search and seizure
8278:Knock-and-announce
8229:Criminal procedure
8013:Legal institutions
7880:Lawsuit/Litigation
7870:Dispute resolution
7675:Catholic canon law
7383:State of emergency
7346:Will and testament
7070:Law of obligations
7023:Constitutional law
7013:Administrative law
6810:Crime of apartheid
6748:Geneva Conventions
6543:Child sexual abuse
6508:Wildlife smuggling
6498:Cruelty to animals
6287:Against the public
6116:Negligent homicide
6027:False imprisonment
5982:Against the person
5659:. Reaktion Books.
4936:Animal Law Journal
4416:(1): 23–39 Pages.
4281:, pp. 97–105.
4124:Schøyen Collection
4057:10.4000/revus.3984
3924:The concept of law
3516:"What is a Crime?"
3359:2016-06-04 at the
3284:Crime displacement
3214:There is no known
3209:social integration
3017:Criminal procedure
3011:Criminal procedure
3005:community policing
2683:drug-related crime
2673:Public-order crime
2667:Public order crime
2657:occupational crime
2495:labor racketeering
2468:White-collar crime
2462:White-collar crime
2337:Post-classical era
2199:William Blackstone
2168:Natural-law theory
2098:subcultural theory
2076:. It includes the
2010:liberal democratic
1955:criminal procedure
1687:Wildlife smuggling
1677:Cruelty to animals
1306:Child sexual abuse
1258:Negligent homicide
1169:False imprisonment
1066:Indictable offense
1010:Scope of criminal
167:certain exceptions
138:community sentence
9243:
9242:
9237:
9236:
8588:
8587:
8570:Wikimedia Commons
8517:Criminal defenses
8452:Charges and pleas
8376:Bill of attainder
8313:Search of persons
8195:
8194:
7855:Constitutionalism
7777:Law and economics
7615:Act of parliament
7353:Product liability
7306:Legal archaeology
7231:Environmental law
7225:Entertainment law
7065:International law
6965:
6964:
6791:international law
6753:Nuremberg Charter
6743:Hague Conventions
6683:
6682:
6666:Wikimedia Commons
6624:Inchoate offenses
6568:Indecent exposure
6057:Human trafficking
6022:Domestic violence
5708:, pp. 23–49.
5666:978-1-78023-359-8
5503:, pp. 63–64.
5491:, pp. 14–16.
5379:, pp. 44–45.
5320:, pp. 10–11.
5122:, pp. 17–18.
5003:, pp. 32–33.
4979:, pp. 23–24.
4827:10.1002/jts.20508
4772:, pp. 16–17.
4422:10.4119/IJCV-2791
4305:, pp. 23–24.
4293:, pp. 63–64.
3763:(477): F85–F106.
3726:, pp. 57–66.
3647:, pp. 36–37.
3579:, pp. 35–36.
3504:, pp. 31–35.
3451:, pp. 30–37.
3404:978-0-19-860756-4
3350:978-0-19-929054-3
3237:Public perception
3198:income inequality
2888:domestic violence
2807:unlawful assembly
2727:victimless crimes
2711:street harassment
2531:Blue-collar crime
2525:Blue-collar crime
2391:industrialization
2293:Code of Hammurabi
2084:of crime and its
1931:
1930:
1331:Indecent exposure
1199:Human trafficking
1164:Domestic violence
1092:Inchoate offenses
952:
951:
698:
697:
635:Prisoners' rights
539:Positivist school
146:life imprisonment
93:of each relevant
9379:
9342:
9334:
9333:
9332:
9325:
9317:
9316:
9315:
9308:
9300:
9299:
9298:
9291:
9283:
9282:
9281:
9274:
9266:
9265:
9264:
9254:
9040:Papua New Guinea
8615:
8608:
8601:
8592:
8591:
8349:
8344:
8343:
8303:Right to silence
8222:
8215:
8208:
8199:
8198:
8170:
8169:
8168:
8156:
8155:
7979:Question of fact
7860:Criminal justice
7190:Construction law
7185:Conflict of laws
7150:Agricultural law
6992:
6985:
6978:
6969:
6968:
6925:Related concepts
6863:
6820:Genocidal intent
6710:
6703:
6696:
6687:
6686:
6330:Ethnic cleansing
6268:Trespass to land
6163:Arms trafficking
5973:
5968:
5967:
5958:
5881:
5874:
5867:
5858:
5857:
5845:
5844:
5833:
5824:
5803:
5780:
5771:
5750:
5727:
5718:
5709:
5700:
5699:, pp. 3–22.
5691:
5670:
5651:
5614:
5595:
5574:
5553:
5532:
5504:
5498:
5492:
5486:
5480:
5474:
5468:
5467:
5457:
5433:
5427:
5426:
5386:
5380:
5374:
5368:
5362:
5356:
5355:
5338:(4): 1333–1372.
5327:
5321:
5315:
5309:
5303:
5297:
5291:
5285:
5284:
5274:
5264:
5240:
5234:
5233:
5201:
5195:
5189:
5183:
5177:
5171:
5165:
5159:
5153:
5147:
5141:
5135:
5129:
5123:
5117:
5111:
5105:
5099:
5093:
5087:
5081:
5075:
5069:
5063:
5057:
5051:
5050:
5010:
5004:
4998:
4992:
4986:
4980:
4974:
4968:
4962:
4956:
4955:
4953:
4951:
4927:
4918:
4915:
4909:
4906:
4900:
4894:
4888:
4882:
4876:
4870:
4864:
4858:
4849:
4848:
4838:
4806:
4800:
4794:
4785:
4779:
4773:
4767:
4761:
4755:
4749:
4743:
4737:
4736:
4720:
4714:
4708:
4702:
4696:
4690:
4684:
4678:
4672:
4666:
4660:
4649:
4643:
4637:
4636:
4596:
4590:
4584:
4578:
4572:
4566:
4559:
4553:
4547:
4541:
4540:
4528:
4522:
4521:
4497:
4491:
4490:
4488:
4479:
4473:
4472:
4432:
4426:
4425:
4401:
4392:
4391:
4385:
4377:
4375:
4374:
4360:
4354:
4348:
4342:
4336:
4330:
4324:
4318:
4312:
4306:
4300:
4294:
4288:
4282:
4276:
4270:
4264:
4258:
4252:
4246:
4240:
4231:
4225:
4219:
4213:
4207:
4206:
4180:
4174:
4168:
4162:
4156:
4150:
4149:
4143:
4135:
4133:
4131:
4115:
4109:
4103:
4097:
4091:
4080:
4074:
4065:
4064:
4059:
4035:
4029:
4028:
4022:
4021:
3989:
3983:
3982:
3962:
3952:
3946:
3945:
3919:
3913:
3912:
3886:
3880:
3879:
3853:
3847:
3846:
3836:
3819:(7): 1323–1357.
3804:
3789:
3788:
3748:
3739:
3733:
3727:
3721:
3715:
3714:
3682:
3673:
3672:
3670:
3669:
3654:
3648:
3642:
3636:
3630:
3621:
3615:
3609:
3603:
3592:
3586:
3580:
3574:
3568:
3562:
3556:
3550:
3544:
3543:
3511:
3505:
3499:
3493:
3487:
3476:
3470:
3464:
3458:
3452:
3446:
3440:
3439:
3437:
3435:
3420:"What is crime?"
3415:
3409:
3408:
3390:
3381:
3370:
3364:
3336:
3327:
3326:
3318:
3278:
3273:
3272:
3190:crime of passion
3082:, and providing
2976:Criminal justice
2970:Criminal justice
2835:Inchoate offense
2811:political agenda
2511:money laundering
2432:social democracy
2409:social darwinism
2356:Kingdom of Italy
2290:
2286:
2283:
2278:Code of Ur-Nammu
2149:forensic science
2125:crime statistics
2117:crime prevention
2018:multiculturalism
1999:social construct
1963:and the related
1923:
1916:
1909:
1880:
1751:Actual innocence
1608:Ethnic cleansing
1502:Trespass to land
1397:Arms trafficking
961:
954:
953:
944:
937:
930:
577:
576:
534:Crime statistics
460:
224:
206:
205:
68:criminal offence
9387:
9386:
9382:
9381:
9380:
9378:
9377:
9376:
9347:
9346:
9345:
9335:
9330:
9328:
9324:from Wikivoyage
9318:
9313:
9311:
9301:
9296:
9294:
9284:
9279:
9277:
9273:from Wiktionary
9267:
9262:
9260:
9257:
9253:sister projects
9250:at Knowledge's
9244:
9239:
9238:
9233:
8622:
8619:
8589:
8584:
8541:
8505:
8486:Peremptory plea
8480:Nolo contendere
8447:
8352:
8345:
8338:
8332:
8288:Pretextual stop
8283:Miranda warning
8232:
8231:(investigation)
8226:
8196:
8191:
8164:
8150:
8141:
8118:
8109:Political party
8082:Legal education
8070:Law enforcement
8050:Court of equity
8008:
7984:Question of law
7937:Practice of law
7917:Judicial review
7831:
7782:Legal formalism
7762:Comparative law
7757:Contract theory
7740:
7660:Legal pluralism
7631:
7620:Act of Congress
7544:Executive order
7510:
7412:
7331:Nationality law
7256:Immigration law
7180:Competition law
7133:
7001:
6996:
6966:
6961:
6937:Superior orders
6920:
6864:
6861:
6860:
6851:
6793:
6790:
6782:
6738:Peremptory norm
6719:
6714:
6684:
6679:
6653:
6652:
6651:
6618:
6617:
6616:
6598:Sex trafficking
6524:Sexual offenses
6518:
6517:
6516:
6490:Against animals
6485:
6484:
6483:
6434:
6433:
6432:
6388:
6387:
6386:
6282:
6281:
6280:
6198:False pretenses
6142:
6141:
6140:
6104:Preterintention
5976:
5969:
5962:
5959:
5950:
5904:
5891:
5885:
5850:
5842:
5821:
5800:
5768:
5747:
5688:
5667:
5648:
5611:
5592:
5571:
5550:
5529:
5513:
5508:
5507:
5499:
5495:
5487:
5483:
5475:
5471:
5434:
5430:
5387:
5383:
5375:
5371:
5367:, pp. 5–6.
5363:
5359:
5328:
5324:
5316:
5312:
5304:
5300:
5296:, pp. 2–3.
5292:
5288:
5241:
5237:
5202:
5198:
5190:
5186:
5178:
5174:
5166:
5162:
5154:
5150:
5142:
5138:
5130:
5126:
5120:Hoefnagels 1973
5118:
5114:
5108:Hoefnagels 1973
5106:
5102:
5096:Hoefnagels 1973
5094:
5090:
5082:
5078:
5070:
5066:
5058:
5054:
5011:
5007:
4999:
4995:
4987:
4983:
4975:
4971:
4963:
4959:
4949:
4947:
4928:
4921:
4916:
4912:
4907:
4903:
4895:
4891:
4883:
4879:
4871:
4867:
4859:
4852:
4807:
4803:
4795:
4788:
4780:
4776:
4770:Hoefnagels 1973
4768:
4764:
4756:
4752:
4744:
4740:
4721:
4717:
4713:, pp. 3–4.
4709:
4705:
4697:
4693:
4687:Hoefnagels 1973
4685:
4681:
4673:
4669:
4661:
4652:
4644:
4640:
4597:
4593:
4585:
4581:
4573:
4569:
4560:
4556:
4548:
4544:
4529:
4525:
4498:
4494:
4486:
4480:
4476:
4433:
4429:
4402:
4395:
4379:
4378:
4372:
4370:
4362:
4361:
4357:
4349:
4345:
4337:
4333:
4329:, pp. 4–5.
4325:
4321:
4313:
4309:
4301:
4297:
4289:
4285:
4277:
4273:
4265:
4261:
4253:
4249:
4241:
4234:
4226:
4222:
4214:
4210:
4195:
4181:
4177:
4169:
4165:
4157:
4153:
4137:
4136:
4129:
4127:
4117:
4116:
4112:
4104:
4100:
4092:
4083:
4075:
4068:
4036:
4032:
4019:
4017:
4010:
3990:
3986:
3971:
3953:
3949:
3934:
3920:
3916:
3901:
3887:
3883:
3868:
3854:
3850:
3805:
3792:
3749:
3742:
3734:
3730:
3724:Hoefnagels 1973
3722:
3718:
3683:
3676:
3667:
3665:
3656:
3655:
3651:
3643:
3639:
3631:
3624:
3616:
3612:
3604:
3595:
3587:
3583:
3575:
3571:
3563:
3559:
3555:, pp. 1–2.
3551:
3547:
3512:
3508:
3500:
3496:
3488:
3479:
3471:
3467:
3463:, pp. 2–3.
3459:
3455:
3447:
3443:
3433:
3431:
3416:
3412:
3405:
3391:
3384:
3371:
3367:
3361:Wayback Machine
3337:
3330:
3320:
3319:
3312:
3307:
3299:Organized crime
3274:
3267:
3264:
3239:
3178:
3172:
3140:
3134:
3125:
3123:Legal liability
3119:
3072:social networks
3041:
3033:Main articles:
3031:
3019:
3013:
2989:
2987:Law enforcement
2983:
2981:Law enforcement
2978:
2972:
2960:
2958:Criminalization
2954:
2952:Criminalization
2926:
2920:
2880:quality of life
2871:
2862:
2857:
2837:
2831:
2771:
2769:Political crime
2765:
2763:Political crime
2715:excessive noise
2675:
2669:
2622:
2616:
2576:
2568:Main articles:
2566:
2533:
2527:
2491:insider trading
2470:
2464:
2459:
2401:Cesare Lombroso
2375:
2339:
2288:
2284:
2269:
2264:
2170:
2165:
2110:labeling theory
2050:
2042:Main articles:
2040:
2032:
1987:
1950:
1944:
1927:
1868:
1432:False pretenses
1361:Sex trafficking
1287:Sexual offenses
1246:Preterintention
1082:Summary offense
948:
919:
918:
894:
886:
885:
811:Anthropological
801:
793:
792:
708:
700:
699:
574:
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360:Cesare Lombroso
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5235:
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5196:
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4591:
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9146:
9143:
9141:
9138:
9136:
9133:
9131:
9128:
9126:
9123:
9121:
9118:
9116:
9113:
9111:
9108:
9106:
9103:
9101:
9098:
9096:
9093:
9091:
9088:
9086:
9083:
9081:
9078:
9076:
9073:
9071:
9068:
9066:
9063:
9061:
9058:
9056:
9053:
9051:
9048:
9046:
9043:
9041:
9038:
9036:
9033:
9031:
9028:
9026:
9023:
9021:
9018:
9016:
9013:
9011:
9008:
9006:
9003:
9001:
8998:
8996:
8993:
8991:
8988:
8986:
8983:
8981:
8978:
8976:
8973:
8971:
8968:
8966:
8963:
8961:
8958:
8956:
8953:
8951:
8948:
8946:
8943:
8941:
8938:
8936:
8933:
8931:
8928:
8926:
8923:
8921:
8918:
8916:
8913:
8911:
8908:
8906:
8903:
8901:
8898:
8896:
8893:
8891:
8888:
8886:
8883:
8881:
8878:
8876:
8873:
8871:
8868:
8866:
8863:
8861:
8858:
8856:
8853:
8851:
8848:
8846:
8843:
8841:
8838:
8836:
8833:
8831:
8828:
8826:
8823:
8821:
8818:
8816:
8813:
8811:
8808:
8806:
8803:
8801:
8798:
8796:
8793:
8791:
8788:
8786:
8783:
8781:
8778:
8776:
8773:
8771:
8768:
8766:
8763:
8761:
8758:
8756:
8753:
8751:
8748:
8746:
8743:
8741:
8738:
8736:
8733:
8731:
8728:
8726:
8723:
8721:
8718:
8716:
8713:
8711:
8708:
8706:
8703:
8701:
8698:
8696:
8693:
8691:
8688:
8686:
8683:
8681:
8678:
8676:
8673:
8671:
8668:
8666:
8663:
8661:
8658:
8656:
8653:
8651:
8648:
8646:
8643:
8641:
8638:
8636:
8633:
8631:
8628:
8625:
8616:
8611:
8609:
8604:
8602:
8597:
8596:
8593:
8581:
8578:
8576:
8573:
8571:
8568:
8566:
8563:
8561:
8558:
8556:
8553:
8551:
8548:
8547:
8544:
8538:
8535:
8533:
8530:
8528:
8525:
8523:
8520:
8518:
8515:
8514:
8512:
8510:Related areas
8508:
8502:
8499:
8497:
8494:
8492:
8489:
8487:
8484:
8482:
8481:
8477:
8475:
8472:
8470:
8467:
8465:
8462:
8460:
8457:
8456:
8454:
8450:
8444:
8441:
8439:
8436:
8434:
8431:
8429:
8428:
8424:
8422:
8419:
8417:
8414:
8412:
8411:
8410:Habeas corpus
8407:
8405:
8402:
8400:
8397:
8395:
8393:
8392:Ex post facto
8389:
8387:
8384:
8382:
8379:
8377:
8374:
8372:
8369:
8367:
8364:
8363:
8361:
8359:
8355:
8348:
8342:
8337:
8329:
8326:
8324:
8321:
8319:
8316:
8314:
8311:
8309:
8306:
8304:
8301:
8299:
8296:
8294:
8291:
8289:
8286:
8284:
8281:
8279:
8276:
8274:
8271:
8269:
8266:
8264:
8261:
8259:
8256:
8254:
8251:
8249:
8248:
8244:
8243:
8241:
8239:
8235:
8230:
8223:
8218:
8216:
8211:
8209:
8204:
8203:
8200:
8188:
8187:
8183:
8181:
8180:
8176:
8174:
8173:
8162:
8160:
8159:
8154:
8148:
8147:
8144:
8136:
8133:
8132:
8131:
8128:
8127:
8125:
8121:
8115:
8112:
8110:
8107:
8105:
8102:
8100:
8097:
8095:
8092:
8088:
8085:
8084:
8083:
8080:
8076:
8073:
8072:
8071:
8068:
8066:
8063:
8061:
8058:
8056:
8053:
8051:
8048:
8046:
8043:
8041:
8040:Civil society
8038:
8036:
8033:
8031:
8028:
8026:
8023:
8021:
8018:
8017:
8015:
8011:
8005:
8002:
8000:
7999:Trier of fact
7997:
7995:
7992:
7990:
7987:
7985:
7982:
7980:
7977:
7973:
7970:
7968:
7965:
7963:
7960:
7958:
7955:
7953:
7950:
7948:
7945:
7943:
7940:
7939:
7938:
7935:
7933:
7930:
7928:
7925:
7923:
7920:
7918:
7915:
7913:
7910:
7906:
7903:
7901:
7898:
7897:
7896:
7893:
7891:
7888:
7886:
7885:Legal opinion
7883:
7881:
7878:
7876:
7873:
7871:
7868:
7866:
7865:Court-martial
7863:
7861:
7858:
7856:
7853:
7851:
7848:
7846:
7843:
7842:
7840:
7838:
7837:Jurisprudence
7834:
7828:
7825:
7823:
7820:
7818:
7815:
7813:
7810:
7808:
7805:
7803:
7800:
7798:
7795:
7793:
7790:
7788:
7785:
7783:
7780:
7778:
7775:
7773:
7770:
7768:
7765:
7763:
7760:
7758:
7755:
7753:
7750:
7749:
7747:
7743:
7737:
7734:
7732:
7729:
7727:
7726:Statutory law
7724:
7722:
7721:Socialist law
7719:
7715:
7714:Byzantine law
7712:
7711:
7710:
7707:
7703:
7700:
7698:
7695:
7693:
7690:
7688:
7685:
7683:
7680:
7676:
7673:
7672:
7671:
7668:
7667:
7666:
7665:Religious law
7663:
7661:
7658:
7656:
7653:
7651:
7648:
7646:
7643:
7642:
7640:
7638:
7637:Legal systems
7634:
7628:
7625:
7621:
7618:
7616:
7613:
7611:
7608:
7607:
7606:
7605:Statutory law
7603:
7599:
7596:
7595:
7594:
7591:
7589:
7586:
7584:
7581:
7579:
7576:
7572:
7569:
7567:
7564:
7562:
7559:
7558:
7557:
7554:
7550:
7547:
7545:
7542:
7540:
7537:
7536:
7535:
7532:
7530:
7527:
7525:
7522:
7521:
7519:
7517:
7513:
7507:
7504:
7502:
7499:
7495:
7492:
7490:
7487:
7486:
7485:
7482:
7478:
7475:
7474:
7473:
7470:
7468:
7465:
7463:
7460:
7456:
7453:
7452:
7451:
7448:
7446:
7443:
7441:
7438:
7436:
7435:Statutory law
7432:
7429:
7427:
7424:
7423:
7421:
7419:
7415:
7409:
7406:
7404:
7401:
7399:
7396:
7394:
7393:Transport law
7391:
7389:
7386:
7384:
7381:
7379:
7376:
7374:
7371:
7369:
7366:
7364:
7361:
7359:
7356:
7354:
7351:
7347:
7344:
7342:
7339:
7338:
7337:
7334:
7332:
7329:
7327:
7324:
7322:
7319:
7317:
7314:
7312:
7311:Legal fiction
7309:
7307:
7304:
7302:
7299:
7297:
7294:
7292:
7289:
7287:
7284:
7282:
7279:
7277:
7274:
7272:
7269:
7267:
7264:
7262:
7259:
7257:
7254:
7252:
7249:
7247:
7244:
7242:
7241:Financial law
7239:
7237:
7234:
7232:
7229:
7226:
7223:
7221:
7218:
7216:
7213:
7211:
7208:
7206:
7203:
7201:
7200:Corporate law
7198:
7196:
7193:
7191:
7188:
7186:
7183:
7181:
7178:
7176:
7173:
7171:
7168:
7166:
7163:
7161:
7158:
7156:
7153:
7151:
7148:
7146:
7143:
7142:
7140:
7136:
7130:
7127:
7125:
7124:Statutory law
7122:
7120:
7117:
7113:
7110:
7109:
7108:
7105:
7103:
7100:
7098:
7095:
7091:
7088:
7086:
7083:
7082:
7081:
7078:
7076:
7073:
7071:
7068:
7066:
7063:
7061:
7058:
7056:
7053:
7051:
7048:
7046:
7043:
7039:
7036:
7035:
7034:
7031:
7029:
7026:
7024:
7021:
7019:
7016:
7014:
7011:
7010:
7008:
7006:Core subjects
7004:
7000:
6993:
6988:
6986:
6981:
6979:
6974:
6973:
6970:
6958:
6955:
6953:
6950:
6948:
6945:
6943:
6940:
6938:
6935:
6933:
6930:
6929:
6927:
6923:
6917:
6914:
6912:
6909:
6907:
6904:
6902:
6899:
6897:
6894:
6892:
6889:
6887:
6884:
6882:
6879:
6877:
6874:
6872:
6869:
6868:
6866:
6859:
6854:
6848:
6845:
6843:
6840:
6838:
6837:Slave trading
6835:
6833:
6830:
6826:
6823:
6821:
6818:
6817:
6816:
6813:
6811:
6808:
6806:
6803:
6801:
6798:
6797:
6795:
6792:
6785:
6779:
6776:
6774:
6771:
6769:
6766:
6764:
6761:
6759:
6756:
6754:
6751:
6749:
6746:
6744:
6741:
6739:
6736:
6734:
6731:
6730:
6728:
6726:
6722:
6718:
6711:
6706:
6704:
6699:
6697:
6692:
6691:
6688:
6677:
6674:
6672:
6669:
6667:
6664:
6662:
6659:
6656:
6649:
6646:
6644:
6641:
6639:
6636:
6634:
6631:
6627:
6625:
6621:
6614:
6611:
6609:
6606:
6604:
6601:
6599:
6596:
6594:
6591:
6589:
6586:
6584:
6581:
6579:
6576:
6574:
6571:
6569:
6566:
6564:
6561:
6559:
6558:Homosexuality
6556:
6554:
6551:
6549:
6546:
6544:
6541:
6539:
6536:
6534:
6531:
6527:
6525:
6521:
6514:
6511:
6509:
6506:
6504:
6501:
6499:
6496:
6492:
6488:
6481:
6478:
6476:
6473:
6471:
6468:
6466:
6463:
6461:
6458:
6456:
6453:
6451:
6448:
6444:
6442:
6437:
6430:
6427:
6425:
6422:
6420:
6417:
6415:
6412:
6410:
6407:
6405:
6402:
6398:
6396:
6391:
6384:
6381:
6379:
6376:
6374:
6371:
6369:
6366:
6364:
6361:
6359:
6358:Miscegenation
6356:
6353:
6349:
6345:
6341:
6338:
6336:
6333:
6331:
6328:
6326:
6323:
6321:
6318:
6316:
6313:
6311:
6308:
6306:
6303:
6301:
6298:
6296:
6293:
6289:
6285:
6278:
6274:
6271:
6269:
6266:
6264:
6261:
6259:
6256:
6254:
6251:
6249:
6246:
6244:
6241:
6239:
6238:Pickpocketing
6236:
6234:
6231:
6229:
6226:
6224:
6221:
6219:
6216:
6214:
6211:
6209:
6206:
6204:
6201:
6199:
6196:
6194:
6191:
6189:
6186:
6184:
6181:
6179:
6176:
6174:
6171:
6169:
6166:
6164:
6161:
6159:
6156:
6152:
6150:
6145:
6137:
6134:
6132:
6129:
6127:
6124:
6122:
6119:
6117:
6114:
6110:
6107:
6106:
6105:
6102:
6098:
6095:
6094:
6093:
6090:
6088:
6085:
6082:
6078:
6075:
6073:
6070:
6068:
6065:
6063:
6060:
6058:
6055:
6053:
6050:
6048:
6045:
6043:
6042:Home invasion
6040:
6038:
6035:
6033:
6030:
6028:
6025:
6023:
6020:
6018:
6015:
6013:
6010:
6008:
6005:
6003:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5993:
5992:Assassination
5990:
5989:
5985:
5983:
5979:
5972:
5966:
5961:
5957:
5947:
5944:
5942:
5939:
5937:
5934:
5932:
5929:
5927:
5924:
5922:
5919:
5917:
5914:
5913:
5911:
5907:
5903:
5901:
5894:
5890:
5882:
5877:
5875:
5870:
5868:
5863:
5862:
5859:
5853:
5846:
5831:
5826:
5825:
5822:
5820:9780199940783
5816:
5812:
5811:
5805:
5801:
5799:9780199940264
5795:
5791:
5790:
5784:
5778:
5777:Sumner (2004)
5773:
5772:
5769:
5767:9780631220923
5763:
5759:
5758:
5752:
5748:
5746:9781137505330
5742:
5738:
5737:
5731:
5725:
5720:
5716:
5711:
5707:
5702:
5698:
5693:
5692:
5689:
5687:9781420085525
5683:
5680:. CRC Press.
5679:
5678:
5672:
5668:
5662:
5658:
5653:
5649:
5647:9780803970458
5643:
5639:
5638:
5632:
5629:
5628:
5623:
5620:
5616:
5612:
5610:9789026806698
5606:
5602:
5597:
5593:
5591:9781317157939
5587:
5583:
5582:
5576:
5572:
5570:9781349258383
5566:
5562:
5561:
5555:
5551:
5549:9781135241803
5545:
5541:
5540:
5534:
5530:
5528:9780199672684
5524:
5520:
5515:
5514:
5502:
5497:
5490:
5485:
5478:
5473:
5465:
5461:
5456:
5451:
5447:
5443:
5439:
5432:
5424:
5420:
5416:
5412:
5408:
5404:
5401:(1): 84–100.
5400:
5396:
5392:
5385:
5378:
5373:
5366:
5361:
5353:
5349:
5345:
5341:
5337:
5333:
5332:Social Forces
5326:
5319:
5314:
5307:
5302:
5295:
5290:
5282:
5278:
5273:
5268:
5263:
5258:
5254:
5250:
5246:
5239:
5231:
5227:
5223:
5219:
5215:
5211:
5207:
5200:
5194:, p. 23.
5193:
5188:
5182:, p. 24.
5181:
5176:
5169:
5164:
5157:
5152:
5145:
5140:
5134:, p. 16.
5133:
5128:
5121:
5116:
5109:
5104:
5097:
5092:
5086:, p. 18.
5085:
5080:
5073:
5068:
5061:
5056:
5048:
5044:
5040:
5036:
5032:
5028:
5024:
5020:
5016:
5009:
5002:
4997:
4991:, p. 22.
4990:
4985:
4978:
4973:
4967:, p. 48.
4966:
4961:
4945:
4941:
4937:
4933:
4926:
4924:
4914:
4905:
4898:
4893:
4886:
4881:
4874:
4869:
4862:
4857:
4855:
4846:
4842:
4837:
4832:
4828:
4824:
4820:
4816:
4812:
4805:
4798:
4793:
4791:
4783:
4778:
4771:
4766:
4759:
4754:
4747:
4742:
4734:
4730:
4726:
4719:
4712:
4707:
4700:
4695:
4688:
4683:
4676:
4671:
4665:, p. 11.
4664:
4659:
4657:
4655:
4647:
4642:
4634:
4630:
4626:
4622:
4618:
4614:
4610:
4606:
4602:
4595:
4588:
4583:
4576:
4571:
4564:
4558:
4552:, p. 13.
4551:
4546:
4539:(6): 329–362.
4538:
4534:
4527:
4519:
4515:
4511:
4507:
4503:
4496:
4485:
4478:
4470:
4466:
4462:
4458:
4454:
4450:
4446:
4442:
4438:
4431:
4423:
4419:
4415:
4411:
4407:
4400:
4398:
4389:
4383:
4369:
4365:
4359:
4353:, p. 43.
4352:
4347:
4341:, p. 14.
4340:
4335:
4328:
4323:
4317:, p. 38.
4316:
4311:
4304:
4299:
4292:
4287:
4280:
4275:
4268:
4263:
4257:, p. 64.
4256:
4251:
4244:
4239:
4237:
4230:, p. 36.
4229:
4224:
4218:, p. 42.
4217:
4212:
4204:
4200:
4196:
4190:
4186:
4179:
4173:, p. 47.
4172:
4167:
4161:, p. 26.
4160:
4155:
4147:
4141:
4126:
4125:
4120:
4114:
4108:, p. 46.
4107:
4102:
4095:
4090:
4088:
4086:
4079:, p. 18.
4078:
4073:
4071:
4063:
4058:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4041:
4034:
4027:
4015:
4011:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3996:
3988:
3980:
3976:
3972:
3966:
3961:
3960:
3951:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3929:
3925:
3918:
3910:
3906:
3902:
3896:
3892:
3885:
3877:
3873:
3869:
3863:
3859:
3852:
3844:
3840:
3835:
3830:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3803:
3801:
3799:
3797:
3795:
3786:
3782:
3778:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3754:
3747:
3745:
3737:
3732:
3725:
3720:
3712:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3696:
3692:
3688:
3681:
3679:
3663:
3659:
3658:"Criminology"
3653:
3646:
3641:
3635:, p. 38.
3634:
3629:
3627:
3620:, p. 10.
3619:
3614:
3608:, p. 29.
3607:
3602:
3600:
3598:
3590:
3585:
3578:
3573:
3566:
3561:
3554:
3549:
3541:
3537:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3510:
3503:
3498:
3491:
3486:
3484:
3482:
3475:, p. 49.
3474:
3469:
3462:
3457:
3450:
3445:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3414:
3406:
3400:
3396:
3389:
3387:
3379:
3375:
3369:
3362:
3358:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3342:
3335:
3333:
3324:
3317:
3315:
3310:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3281:
3277:
3271:
3266:
3259:
3256:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3244:crime fiction
3234:
3232:
3228:
3223:
3221:
3217:
3212:
3210:
3205:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3177:
3167:
3165:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3139:
3129:
3124:
3114:
3110:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3095:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3059:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3040:
3036:
3026:
3024:
3018:
3008:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2988:
2977:
2967:
2965:
2959:
2949:
2947:
2943:
2942:socialist law
2939:
2935:
2931:
2925:
2915:
2912:
2908:
2903:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2883:
2881:
2877:
2866:
2852:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2836:
2826:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2770:
2760:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2732:
2731:Western world
2728:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2674:
2664:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2637:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2621:
2611:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2575:
2571:
2570:Violent crime
2564:Violent crime
2561:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2538:
2532:
2522:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2487:Ponzi schemes
2484:
2480:
2476:
2469:
2454:
2452:
2451:DNA profiling
2448:
2444:
2439:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2416:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2379:Thomas Hobbes
2370:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2344:
2334:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2315:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2296:
2294:
2279:
2275:
2267:Early history
2259:
2255:
2253:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2231:
2229:
2225:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2204:
2203:
2202:
2200:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2160:
2158:
2152:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2113:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2102:strain theory
2099:
2095:
2091:
2088:, as well as
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2049:
2048:Crime science
2045:
2035:
2027:
2025:
2021:
2019:
2015:
2014:individualism
2011:
2007:
2002:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1982:
1980:
1979:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1956:
1949:
1939:
1937:
1924:
1919:
1917:
1912:
1910:
1905:
1904:
1902:
1901:
1896:
1893:
1892:
1891:
1890:
1886:
1885:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1841:
1840:
1839:
1835:
1834:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1813:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1803:Justification
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1788:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1748:
1747:
1746:
1743:
1740:
1739:
1734:
1731:
1729:
1726:
1724:
1721:
1719:
1716:
1714:
1711:
1709:
1706:
1705:
1704:
1703:
1699:
1698:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1674:
1673:
1672:
1668:
1667:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1636:Miscegenation
1634:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1616:
1614:
1611:
1609:
1606:
1604:
1601:
1599:
1596:
1594:
1591:
1589:
1586:
1584:
1581:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1570:
1569:
1568:
1564:
1563:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1543:
1540:
1538:
1535:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1524:
1523:
1522:
1518:
1517:
1512:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1473:
1472:Pickpocketing
1470:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1415:
1413:
1410:
1408:
1405:
1403:
1400:
1398:
1395:
1393:
1390:
1389:
1388:
1387:
1383:
1382:
1377:
1374:
1372:
1369:
1367:
1364:
1362:
1359:
1357:
1354:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1322:
1321:Homosexuality
1319:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1307:
1304:
1302:
1299:
1297:
1294:
1293:
1292:
1291:
1288:
1285:
1284:
1279:
1276:
1274:
1271:
1269:
1266:
1264:
1261:
1259:
1256:
1252:
1249:
1248:
1247:
1244:
1240:
1237:
1236:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1224:
1220:
1217:
1215:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1200:
1197:
1195:
1192:
1190:
1187:
1185:
1184:Home invasion
1182:
1180:
1177:
1175:
1172:
1170:
1167:
1165:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1155:
1152:
1150:
1147:
1145:
1142:
1140:
1137:
1135:
1134:Assassination
1132:
1131:
1130:
1129:
1126:
1123:
1122:
1117:
1114:
1112:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1098:
1097:
1096:
1093:
1090:
1089:
1083:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1063:
1060:
1059:
1058:
1057:
1053:
1052:
1047:
1044:
1042:
1039:
1037:
1034:
1032:
1029:
1027:
1024:
1022:
1019:
1018:
1017:
1016:
1013:
1009:
1008:
1003:
1000:
998:
995:
993:
992:
988:
986:
985:
981:
980:
979:
978:
975:
972:
971:
968:
965:
964:
960:
956:
955:
945:
940:
938:
933:
931:
926:
925:
923:
922:
915:
912:
910:
909:Organizations
907:
905:
902:
900:
897:
896:
890:
889:
882:
879:
877:
874:
872:
869:
867:
864:
862:
859:
857:
856:Environmental
854:
852:
849:
847:
844:
842:
839:
837:
834:
832:
829:
827:
824:
822:
819:
817:
814:
812:
809:
807:
804:
803:
797:
796:
787:
784:
782:
779:
778:
776:
774:
773:Postmodernist
771:
769:
766:
764:
763:Neo-classical
761:
759:
756:
754:
751:
749:
746:
744:
741:
739:
738:Environmental
736:
734:
731:
729:
726:
724:
721:
719:
716:
714:
711:
710:
704:
703:
692:
689:
687:
684:
682:
679:
677:
674:
672:
669:
667:
666:Participatory
664:
663:
662:
661:
657:
654:
653:
648:
645:
643:
640:
636:
633:
631:
628:
627:
626:
623:
619:
616:
614:
611:
609:
606:
605:
604:
601:
599:
596:
594:
591:
589:
586:
584:
581:
580:
579:
578:
573:
568:
567:
560:
557:
555:
552:
550:
547:
545:
542:
540:
537:
535:
532:
529:
528:Crime mapping
526:
524:
521:
519:
516:
514:
511:
509:
506:
504:
501:
500:
494:
493:
486:
483:
481:
478:
476:
475:Transnational
473:
471:
468:
466:
463:
461:
456:
454:
451:
449:
446:
444:
443:International
441:
439:
436:
434:
431:
427:
424:
423:
422:
419:
415:
412:
410:
407:
406:
404:
400:
397:
395:
392:
390:
387:
386:
384:
383:
380:
374:
373:
366:
363:
361:
358:
356:
353:
351:
348:
347:
341:
340:
333:
330:
328:
325:
323:
320:
318:
315:
313:
310:
308:
305:
303:
300:
298:
295:
293:
290:
288:
285:
283:
280:
278:
275:
273:
270:
268:
265:
263:
260:
258:
255:
253:
250:
248:
245:
243:
240:
238:
235:
234:
228:
227:
223:
219:
218:
215:
211:
208:
207:
199:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
176:
174:
173:
168:
164:
163:
157:
155:
151:
150:jurisdictions
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
110:
108:
104:
100:
99:criminal code
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
75:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
30:
26:
22:
9362:Criminal law
9336:
9319:
9302:
9290:from Commons
9285:
9268:
9247:
9205:Vatican City
9120:South Africa
9095:Saudi Arabia
8522:Criminal law
8496:Plea bargain
8478:
8433:Precognition
8425:
8408:
8391:
8245:
8184:
8177:
8163:
8149:
7922:Jurisdiction
7890:Legal remedy
7845:Adjudication
7745:Legal theory
7583:Ratification
7578:Promulgation
7549:Proclamation
7529:Codification
7462:Human rights
7450:Divine right
7440:Constitution
7408:Women in law
7326:Military law
7321:Marriage law
7316:Maritime law
7215:Election law
7155:Aviation law
7145:Abortion law
7097:Property law
7037:
7033:Criminal law
6778:Rome Statute
6648:Solicitation
6583:Prostitution
6573:Masturbation
6404:Lèse-majesté
6393:Against the
6188:Embezzlement
6077:Manslaughter
6062:Intimidation
5900:jurisdiction
5897:
5888:
5809:
5788:
5756:
5735:
5676:
5656:
5636:
5625:
5618:
5600:
5580:
5559:
5538:
5518:
5496:
5484:
5479:, p. 4.
5472:
5445:
5441:
5431:
5398:
5394:
5384:
5372:
5360:
5335:
5331:
5325:
5313:
5308:, p. 6.
5301:
5289:
5252:
5248:
5238:
5213:
5209:
5199:
5187:
5175:
5163:
5151:
5139:
5127:
5115:
5103:
5091:
5079:
5072:O'Neill 2010
5067:
5060:O'Neill 2010
5055:
5022:
5018:
5008:
4996:
4984:
4972:
4960:
4948:. Retrieved
4939:
4935:
4913:
4904:
4899:, p. 2.
4892:
4880:
4868:
4818:
4814:
4804:
4799:, p. 3.
4784:, p. 4.
4777:
4765:
4753:
4741:
4732:
4728:
4718:
4706:
4701:, p. 2.
4694:
4682:
4677:, p. 1.
4670:
4648:, p. 3.
4641:
4608:
4604:
4594:
4582:
4570:
4562:
4561:Sara Baase,
4557:
4545:
4536:
4532:
4526:
4509:
4505:
4495:
4477:
4444:
4440:
4430:
4413:
4409:
4371:. Retrieved
4367:
4358:
4346:
4334:
4322:
4310:
4298:
4286:
4274:
4262:
4250:
4245:, p. 8.
4223:
4211:
4184:
4178:
4166:
4154:
4128:. Retrieved
4122:
4113:
4101:
4096:, p. 9.
4061:
4047:
4043:
4033:
4024:
4018:. Retrieved
3994:
3987:
3958:
3950:
3923:
3917:
3890:
3884:
3857:
3851:
3816:
3812:
3760:
3756:
3738:, p. 7.
3731:
3719:
3694:
3690:
3666:. Retrieved
3664:. 2021-07-27
3661:
3652:
3640:
3613:
3591:, p. 3.
3584:
3572:
3564:
3560:
3548:
3523:
3519:
3509:
3497:
3492:, p. 5.
3468:
3456:
3444:
3432:. Retrieved
3423:
3413:
3394:
3368:
3354:Google Books
3339:
3322:
3257:
3240:
3224:
3213:
3206:
3194:unemployment
3179:
3141:
3126:
3111:
3096:
3062:
3042:
3020:
2990:
2964:human rights
2961:
2927:
2924:Criminal law
2918:Criminal law
2904:
2892:embezzlement
2884:
2872:
2863:
2855:Participants
2849:renunciation
2838:
2772:
2735:
2691:prostitution
2676:
2638:
2623:
2604:use of force
2600:self-defense
2577:
2537:social class
2534:
2499:embezzlement
2471:
2440:
2424:World War II
2417:
2395:
2387:urbanization
2383:Imprisonment
2376:
2360:
2340:
2316:
2311:
2304:Roman Empire
2297:
2270:
2256:
2232:
2208:
2171:
2153:
2121:criminal law
2114:
2086:perpetrators
2082:consequences
2066:social order
2062:social norms
2053:
2051:
2033:
2022:
2003:
1995:social norms
1993:and violate
1988:
1976:
1969:Commonwealth
1959:
1951:
1932:
1828:Self-defense
1785:
1708:Lèse-majesté
1422:Embezzlement
1346:Prostitution
1336:Masturbation
1219:Manslaughter
1204:Intimidation
1116:Solicitation
989:
982:
967:Criminal law
861:Experimental
583:Denunciation
549:Quantitative
459:Public-order
414:White-collar
378:
355:Hans Eysenck
177:
170:
160:
158:
148:or, in some
142:imprisonment
111:
95:jurisdiction
91:criminal law
76:
67:
63:
48:criminal law
43:
35:
33:
9367:Criminology
9270:Definitions
9150:Switzerland
9125:South Korea
9090:Saint Lucia
9055:Philippines
9010:North Korea
9000:New Zealand
8880:Ivory Coast
8785:El Salvador
8630:Afghanistan
8580:Wikiversity
8537:Legal abuse
8474:Information
8464:Arraignment
8459:Alford plea
8399:Extradition
8094:Legislature
8025:Bureaucracy
7822:Rule of man
7817:Rule of law
7792:Libertarian
7655:Chinese law
7556:Legislation
7506:Regulations
7494:Law reports
7472:Natural law
7368:Reparations
7363:Refugee law
7286:Jurimetrics
7227:(Media law)
7165:Banking law
7160:Amnesty law
7138:Disciplines
7075:Private law
6553:Fornication
6470:Obstruction
6450:Compounding
6258:Tax evasion
6007:Child abuse
5921:Misdemeanor
5501:Fattah 1997
5489:Fattah 1997
5477:Fattah 1997
5365:Sumner 2004
5272:2158/209025
4897:Spalek 2017
4885:Fattah 1997
4873:Fattah 1997
4797:Spalek 2017
4782:Spalek 2017
4758:Fattah 1997
4746:Fattah 1997
4587:Skogan 2012
4575:Skogan 2012
4339:Fattah 1997
4327:Sumner 2004
3834:10438/12228
3645:Fattah 1997
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3606:Fattah 1997
3589:Sumner 2004
3577:Fattah 1997
3502:Fattah 1997
3490:Sumner 2004
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3352:), p. 263 (
3294:Rule of law
3186:opportunity
3099:rule of law
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3035:Corrections
2938:Islamic law
2896:child abuse
2819:State crime
2741:fornication
2703:panhandling
2649:tax evasion
2608:acts of war
2327:Islamic law
2285: 2100
2239:consistency
2228:sovereignty
2224:H.L.A. Hart
2211:John Austin
2178:natural law
2141:victimology
2078:motivations
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2044:Criminology
2024:Paternalism
1978:malum in se
1823:Provocation
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1527:Compounding
1492:Tax evasion
1316:Fornication
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5511:References
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4646:Tonry 2011
4373:2024-08-03
4351:Davie 2010
4315:Davie 2010
4303:Davie 2010
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4020:2019-07-17
3970:0674867114
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3900:0226055361
3867:0872206637
3736:Pease 2010
3668:2023-07-03
3276:Law portal
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3088:counseling
3068:recidivism
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3039:Punishment
2995:, such as
2934:common law
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2845:conspiracy
2815:dissidents
2775:subversion
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2580:aggression
2503:cybercrime
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1692:Bestiality
1661:War crimes
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1542:Misprision
1417:Cybercrime
1209:Kidnapping
1189:Hate crime
1179:Harassment
1159:Defamation
1111:Incitement
1106:Conspiracy
1072:Infraction
1031:Complicity
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984:Actus reus
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9135:Sri Lanka
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9030:Palestine
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8830:Guatemala
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7682:Hindu law
7670:Canon law
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7210:Drugs law
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3227:long tail
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