Biological Weapons Convention

290: 649:, in accordance with their national constitutional processes, which often require parliamentary approval. Ratification applies to states which had previously signed the treaty before it entered into force in 1975. Since then, signing the treaty is no longer possible, but states can accede to it. Succession concerns newly independent states that accept to be bound by a treaty that the predecessor state had joined. The Convention enters into force on the date when an instrument of ratification, accession, or succession is deposited with at least one of the depositary governments (the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, and the United States). 466:. While these agents may be employed for nefarious ends, they also have several legitimate peaceful purposes, including developing medicines and vaccines to counter natural or deliberate disease outbreaks. Against this background, Article I only considers illegitimate those types and quantities of biological agents or toxins and their means of delivery which cannot be justified by prophylactic, protective, or other peaceful purposes; regardless of whether the agents in question affect humans, animals, or plants. A disadvantage of this intent-based approach is a blurring of the line between defensive and offensive biological weapons research. 1647:

establishment of a Working Capital Fund. This fund is financed by voluntary contributions and provides short-term financing in order to ensure the continuity of approved programs and activities. At the Ninth Review Conference, States Parties welcomed the improvement of the financial situation following the measures endorsed by the 2018 Meeting of States Parties, confirmed their effectiveness and decided to review them at the Tenth Review Conference. Live information on the financial status of the BWC and other disarmament conventions is available publicly on the financial dashboard of the United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs.

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respond to the potential use of biological weapons. National implementing measures may take various forms, such as legislation, regulations, codes of conduct, and others. Which implementing measures are adequate for a state depends on several factors, including its legal system, its size and geography, the development of its biotechnology industry, and its participation in regional economic cooperation. Since no one set of measures fits all states, the implementation of specific obligations is left to States Parties' discretion, based on their assessment of what will best enable them to ensure compliance with the BWC.

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deter such attacks from occurring in the first place by reducing their potential for harm through international solidarity and assistance. Despite no state ever having invoked Article VII, the article has drawn more attention in recent years, in part due to increasing evidence of terrorist organizations being interested in acquiring biological weapons and also following various naturally occurring epidemics. In 2018, the BWC's Implementation Support Unit issued a background document describing a number of additional understandings and agreements on Article VII that have been reached at past Review Conferences.

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dangerous pathogens and toxins cannot be prohibited altogether since they also have legitimate peaceful or defensive purposes, including the development of vaccines and medical therapies. Third, it is possible to rapidly eliminate biological agents, which makes short-notice inspections less effective in determining whether a facility produces biological weapons. For these reasons, Filippa Lentzos notes that "it is not possible to verify the BWC with the same level of accuracy and reliability as the verification of nuclear treaties".

907:, a British expert on biological warfare and participant in the visits arranged under the Trilateral Agreement, concluded that, on the one hand, the agreement "was a significant achievement" in that it "provided evidence of Soviet non-compliance from 1975 to 1991"; on the other hand, Kelly noted that the Trilateral Agreement "failed dramatically" because Russia did not "acknowledge and fully account for either the former Soviet programme or the biological weapons activities that it had inherited and continued to engage in". 761:

BWC which would establish an international organization and introduce a verification system. This organization would employ inspectors who would regularly visit declared biological facilities on-site and could also investigate specific suspect facilities and activities. Nonetheless, states found it difficult to agree on several fundamental issues, including export controls and the scope of on-site visits. By early 2001, the "rolling text" of the draft protocol still contained many areas on which views diverged widely.

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account any new scientific and technological developments relevant to the Convention". Most Review Conferences have adopted additional understandings or agreements that have interpreted or elaborated the meaning, scope, and implementation of BWC provisions. These additional understandings are contained in the final documents of the Review Conferences and in an overview document prepared by the BWC Implementation Support Unit for the Eighth Review Conference in 2016. Due to the

873:) resulted in the deaths of approximately 65 to 100 people. The Soviet authorities blamed the outbreak on the consumption of contaminated meat and for years denied any connection between the incident and biological weapons research. However, investigations concluded that the outbreak was caused by an accident at a nearby military microbiology facility, resulting in the escape of an aerosol of anthrax pathogen. Supporting this finding, Russian President 250:

today declares to possess or seek biological weapons, or asserts that their use in war is legitimate. In light of the rapid advances in biotechnology, biodefense expert Daniel Gerstein has described the BWC as "the most important arms control treaty of the twenty-first century". However, the convention's effectiveness has been limited due to insufficient institutional support and the absence of any formal verification regime to monitor compliance.

34: 971:(UNSCOM), which was responsible for disarmament in post-war Iraq. Iraq deliberately obstructed, delayed, and deceived the UNSCOM investigations and only admitted to having operated an offensive biological weapons program under significant pressure in 1995. While Iraq maintained that it ended its biological weapons program in 1991, many analysts believe that the country violated its BWC obligations by continuing the program until at least 1996. 193: 679:

cooperation on peaceful biological activities. CBMs are the main formal mechanism through which States Parties regularly exchange compliance-related information. After revisions by the Third, Sixth, and Seventh Review Conferences, the current CBM form requires states to provide information annually on six issues (CBM D was deleted by the Seventh Review Conference in 2011):

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identical but separate drafts of the BWC text on 5 August 1971. The BWC was opened for signature on 10 April 1972 with ceremonies in London, Moscow, and Washington, D.C., and it entered into force on 26 March 1975 after the ratification by 22 states, including its three depositary governments (the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States).

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understanding and effective action on the topics identified by the Review Conference—as well as Meetings of Experts (MX), which serve as preparation for the Meeting of States Parties. The annual meetings do not have the mandate to adopt decisions, a privilege reserved for the Review Conferences which consider the results from the intersessional program.

435:(Article VIII), negotiations to prohibit chemical weapons (Article IX), amendments (Article XI), Review Conferences (Article XII), duration (Article XIII, 1), withdrawal (Article XIII, 2), joining the convention, depositary governments, and conditions for entry into force (Article XIV, 1–5), and languages (Article XV). 550:

Article VII obliges States Parties to provide assistance to states that so request it if the UN Security Council decides they have been exposed to danger as a result of a violation of the BWC. In addition to helping victims in the event of a biological weapons attack, the purpose of the article is to

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if they suspect a breach of treaty obligations by another state. Moreover, the article requires states to cooperate with any investigation which the Security Council may launch. There is a general unwillingness to invoke Article VI due to the highly political nature of the Security Council, where the

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Article III bans the transfer, encouragement, assistance, or inducement of anyone, whether governments or non-state actors, in developing or acquiring any of the agents, toxins, weapons, equipment, or means of delivery specified in Article I. The article's objective is to prevent the proliferation of

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In subsequent years, calls for restarting negotiations on a verification protocol have been repeatedly voiced. For instance, during the 2019 Meeting of Experts "several States Parties stressed the urgency of resuming multilateral negotiations aimed at concluding a non-discriminatory, legally-binding

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and support the British proposal. In March 1971, the Soviet Union and its allies reversed their earlier opposition to the separation of chemical and biological weapons and tabled their own draft convention. The final negotiation stage was reached when the United States and the Soviet Union submitted

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5. With a view to enhancing international cooperation, assistance and exchange in biological sciences and technology for peaceful purposes, promoting capacity building in the fields of disease surveillance, detection, diagnosis, and containment of infectious diseases: (1) for States Parties in need

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to Cuba via crop-spraying planes in October 1996. Cuba and the United States presented evidence for their diverging views on the incident in a formal consultation in August 1997. Having reviewed the evidence, twelve States Parties submitted reports, of which nine concluded that the evidence did not

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rejected both the draft protocol circulated by the Group's Chairman and the entire approach on which the draft was based, resulting in the collapse of the negotiation process. To justify its decision, the United States asserted that the protocol would not have improved BWC compliance and would have

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Subsequently, a Special Conference of BWC States Parties in 1994 considered the VEREX report and decided to establish an Ad Hoc Group to negotiate a legally-binding verification protocol. The Ad Hoc Group convened 24 sessions between 1995 and 2001, during which it negotiated a draft protocol to the

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After a decade of negotiations, the major effort to institutionally strengthen the BWC failed in 2001, which would have resulted in a legally binding protocol to establish an Organization for the Prohibition of Biological Weapons (OPBW). Against this background, the Sixth Review Conference in 2006

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Article X protects States Parties' right to exchange biological materials, technology, and information to be used for peaceful purposes. The article states that the implementation of the BWC shall avoid hampering the economic or technological development of States Parties or peaceful international

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The BWC is considered to have established a strong global norm against biological weapons. This norm is reflected in the treaty's preamble, which states that the use of biological weapons would be "repugnant to the conscience of mankind". It is also demonstrated by the fact that not a single state

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BWC intersessional program meetings have recently been impeded by late payments and non-payments of financial contributions. BWC States Parties agreed at the Meeting of States Parties in 2018, which was cut short due to funding shortfalls, on a package of remedial financial measures including the

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States Parties have formally reviewed the operation of the BWC at periodic Review Conferences held every five years; the first took place in 1980. The objective of these conferences is to ensure the effective realization of the convention's goals and, in accordance with Article XII, to "take into

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Article V requires States Parties to consult one another and cooperate in disputes concerning the purpose or implementation of the BWC. The Second Review Conference in 1986 agreed on procedures to ensure that alleged violations of the BWC would be promptly addressed at a consultative meeting when

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implemented the Convention for the United States. A 2023 VERTIC report concluded that "gaps persist in States Parties' legal frameworks for implementing the Convention at the national level". The BWC's Implementation Support Unit issued a background information document on "strengthening national

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As agreed at the Fifth Review Conference in 2001/2002, annual BWC meetings have been held between Review Conferences starting in 2003, referred to as the intersessional program. The intersessional program includes both annual Meetings of States Parties (MSP)—aiming to discuss, and promote common

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Unlike the chemical or nuclear weapons regimes, the BWC lacks both a system to verify states' compliance with the treaty and a separate international organization to support the convention's effective implementation. Agreement on such a system was not feasible at the time the BWC was negotiated,

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While the number of CBM submissions has increased over time, the overall participation rate remains slightly above 50 percent. In 2018, an online CBM platform was launched to facilitate the electronic submission of CBM reports. An increasing number of states are making their CBM reports publicly

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A number of BWC States Parties have been accused of breaching the convention's obligations by developing or producing biological weapons. Because of the intense secrecy around biological weapons programs, it is challenging to assess the actual scope of biological activities and whether they are

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Article IV obliges BWC States Parties to implement the convention's provisions domestically. This is essential to allow national authorities to investigate, prosecute, and punish any activities prohibited by the BWC; to prevent access to biological agents for harmful purposes; and to detect and

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There are several reasons why biological weapons are especially difficult to verify. First, in contrast to chemical and nuclear weapons, even small initial quantities of biological agents can be used to quickly produce militarily significant amounts. Second, biotechnological equipment and even

1021:, North Korea, and Iran. The report concluded that North Korea "has an offensive biological weapons program and is in violation of its obligations under Articles I and II of the BWC" and that Iran "has not abandoned its (...) development of biological agents and toxins for offensive purposes". 737:

Earlier drafts of the BWC included limited provisions for addressing compliance issues, but these were removed during the negotiation process. Some countries attempted to reintroduce these provisions when the BWC text was submitted to the General Assembly in 1971 but were unsuccessful, as were

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At the Second Review Conference in 1986, BWC States Parties agreed to strengthen the treaty by exchanging annual confidence-building measures (CBMs). These politically binding reports aim to prevent or reduce the occurrence of ambiguities, doubts and suspicions, and at improving international

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with the information. After the Soviet Union's dissolution, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Russia concluded the Trilateral Agreement on 14 September 1992, reaffirming their commitment to full compliance with the BWC and declaring that Russia had eliminated its inherited offensive

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when ratifying the BWC declaring that it did not imply their complete satisfaction that the treaty allows the stockpiling of biological agents and toxins for "prophylactic, protective or other peaceful purposes", nor should it imply recognition of other countries they do not recognize.

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6. Provision of assistance and coordination with relevant organizations upon request by any State Party in the case of alleged use of biological or toxin weapons, including improving national capabilities for disease surveillance, detection and diagnosis and public health systems

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1. Agreement on the annual exchange of confidence-building measures (CBMs), including information on (i) high-containment research laboratories, (ii) abnormal infectious disease outbreaks, and (iii) the encouragement of BWC-relevant research in publicly available journals.

626:. For one of these ten states not party to the convention, the process of joining is well advanced, while an additional two states have started the process. The BWC's degree of universality remains low compared to other weapons of mass destruction regimes, including the 1629:, and robotics (...) create the possibility of novel biological weapons that target particular groups of people and even individuals". On the other hand, these scientific developments may improve pandemic preparedness by strengthening prevention and response measures. 1487:

4. Oversight, education, awareness-raising, and adoption and/or development of codes of conduct with the aim of preventing misuse in the context of advances in bio-science and biotechnology research with the potential of use for purposes prohibited by the Convention

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requested by a State Party. These procedures were further elaborated by the Third Review Conference in 1991. Two formal consultative meetings have taken place, the first in 1997 at the request of Cuba, and the second in 2022 at the request of the Russian Federation.

2260: 1044:, the Russian Federation convened a Formal Consultative Meeting under Article V of the Convention to address outstanding questions concerning the operation of biological laboratories in Ukraine by the United States. The meeting did not reach a consensus. 955:, and other agents, and created delivery vehicles, including bombs, missile warheads, aerosol generators, and spray systems. Thereby, Iraq breached the provisions of the BWC, which it had signed in 1972, although it only ratified the Convention in 1991 1028:

in the Republic of Georgia. The U.S. Department of State called these allegations "groundless" and reaffirmed that "all U.S. activities (...) consistent with the obligations set forth in the Biological Weapons Convention". Biological weapons expert

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and Amy Smithson, criticized the U.S. decision as undermining international efforts against non-proliferation and as contradicting U.S. government rhetoric regarding the alleged biological weapons threat posed by Iraq and other U.S. adversaries.

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With only 15 articles, the BWC is relatively short. Over time, the treaty has been interpreted and supplemented by additional politically binding agreements and understandings reached by its States Parties at eight subsequent Review Conferences.

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Duncan, Annabelle, and Robert J. Mathews. 1996. "Development of a Verification Protocol for the Biological Weapons Convention", in Poole, J.B. and R. Guthrie (eds). Verification 1996: Arms Control, Peacekeeping and the Environment. pp. 151–170.

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available on the platform, but many reports remain only accessible to other states. The history and implementation of the CBM system have been described by the BWC Implementation Support Unit in a 2022 report to the Ninth Review Conference.

1069:. The unit's mandate is to provide administrative support, assist the national implementation of the BWC, encourage the treaty's universal adoption, pair assistance requests and offers, and oversee the confidence-building measures process. 542:—China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States—hold veto power, including over investigations for alleged treaty violations. One formal complaint pursuant to Article VI has been lodged by the Russian Federation in 2022. 560:

cooperation on biological projects. The Seventh Review Conference in 2011 established an Article X database, which matches voluntary requests and offers for assistance and cooperation among States Parties and international organizations.

921:"assesses that the Russian Federation (Russia) maintains an offensive program and is in violation of its obligation under Articles I and II of the BWC. The issue of compliance by Russia with the BWC has been of concern for many years". 4097: 830:. Around the time when the BWC negotiations were finalized, and the treaty was signed in the early 1970s, the Soviet Union significantly expanded its covert biological weapons program under the oversight of the "civilian" institution 5445: 779:

instrument dealing with (...) verification measures". However, since "some States Parties did not support the negotiation of a protocol to the BWC" it seems "neither realistic nor practicable to return to negotiations". Notably, the

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The ISU was initially composed of three full-time staff with a budget smaller than the average McDonald's restaurant, and does not compare with the institutions established to deal with chemical or nuclear weapons. For example, the

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1. Encouragement of voluntary declarations of (i) past possession of BWC-relevant items, (ii) efforts to destroy or divert these items to peaceful purposes, (iii) and enactment of national legislation to implement the convention.

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2. Bringing bioterrorism within the convention's scope by agreeing that it applies to all international, national and non-State actors and that it covers all relevant current and future scientific and technological developments.

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calling on the 2021 BWC Meeting of States Parties to "establish a new expert working group to examine possible measures to strengthen implementation of the Convention, increase transparency, and enhance assurance of compliance".

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of assistance, identifying requirements and requests for capacity enhancement; and (2) from States Parties in a position to do so, and international organizations, opportunities for providing assistance related to these fields

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Ninth Review Conference of the States Parties to the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction (22 December 2022).

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4. strengthening and broadening national and international institutional efforts and existing mechanisms for the surveillance, detection, diagnosis and combating of infectious diseases affecting humans, animals, and plants

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was launched in 2023. These concern the penal code, enforcement measures, import and export controls, biosafety and biosecurity measures, as well as domestic and international cooperation and assistance. For instance, the

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3. Progress of the implementation of decisions and recommendations agreed upon at the Ninth Review Conference, taking into account, as appropriate, decisions and recommendations reached at previous Review Conferences.

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1. Expansion of the CBMs by including information on (i) national implementation measures such as legislation, (ii) past offensive and defensive biological weapons programs, and (iii) vaccine production facilities.

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employs around 280 staff. In December 2022, as a result of the Ninth Review Conference, States Parties decided to establish one new full-time staff position within the ISU, only for the period from 2023 to 2027.

1082: 324:. Of significance was a 1968 British proposal to separate consideration of chemical and biological weapons and to first negotiate a convention on biological weapons. The negotiations gained further momentum when 473:

would be regulated by it since they lie "at the edge of life"—they possess some but not all of the characteristics of life—viruses were defined as biological agents in 1969 and thus fall within the BWC's scope.

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Formal Consultative Meeting of the States Parties to the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction

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Implementation Support Unit (Geneva, 31 May 2016). Background information document: Additional understandings and agreements reached by previous Review Conferences relating to each article of the Convention,

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In March 2001, a 210-page draft protocol was circulated by the chairman of the Ad Hoc Group, which attempted to resolve the contested issues. However, at the 24th session of the Ad Hoc Group in July 2001 the

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microbial or other biological agents, or toxins whatever their origin or method of production, of types and in quantities that have no justification for prophylactic, protective or other peaceful purposes;

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1. Ways and means to enhance national implementation, including enforcement of national legislation, strengthening of national institutions and coordination among national law enforcement institutions

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2. Establishment of an intersessional program, including annual Meetings of States Parties and Meetings of Experts, to promote discussion and agreement on a variety of topics relevant to the BWC.

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and enabling technologies are eroding the technological barriers to acquiring and genetically enhancing dangerous pathogens and using them for hostile purposes. For example, a 2019 report by the

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within the Soviet Ministry of Health. The Soviet program employed up to 65,000 people in several hundred facilities and successfully weaponized several pathogens, such as those responsible for

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biological weapons program. The agreement's objective was to uncover details about the Soviet's biological weapons program and to verify that all related activities had truly been terminated.

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3. enhancing international capabilities for responding to, investigating and mitigating the effects of cases of alleged use of biological or toxin weapons or suspicious outbreaks of disease

462:(CWC). The general-purpose criterion covers all hostile uses of biological agents, including those developed in the future, and recognizes that biological agents and toxins are inherently 5747: 791:

In December 2022, States Parties decided to establish a Working Group on strengthening the Convention, which aims to address among other issues, measures on verification and compliance.

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5. How to strengthen implementation of Article VII, including consideration of detailed procedures and mechanisms for the provision of assistance and cooperation by States Parties

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In recent years, Russia has repeatedly alleged that the United States is supporting and operating biological weapons facilities in the Caucasus and Central Asia, in particular the

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Chapter 7: Accident at Sverdlovsk. In Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World – Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran It

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Chapter 15: Sverdlovsk 1979: The Release of Bacillus anthracis Spores from a Soviet Ministry of Defense Facility and Its Consequences. In The Soviet Biological Weapons Program

753:, including inspections of facilities, monitoring relevant publications, and other on-site and off-site measures. Another stimulus came from the successful negotiation of the 749:, with the mandate to identify and examine potential verification measures from a scientific and technical standpoint. During four meetings in 1992 and 1993, VEREX considered 405:: Undertaking to consult bilaterally and multilaterally and cooperate in solving any problems which may arise in relation to the objective, or in the application, of the BWC. 6945: 3711: 1750: 3260: 454:

Article I does not prohibit any specific biological agents or toxins as such but rather certain purposes for which they may be employed. This prohibition is known as the

5692: 6255: 4451: 7080: 6235: 4706: 270:, which prohibits the use but not the possession or development of chemical and biological weapons. Upon ratification of the Geneva Protocol, several countries made 502:

A database of over 1,500 laws and regulations that States Parties have enacted to implement the BWC domestically is maintained by the non-governmental organization

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invoked the provisions of Article V to request a formal consultative meeting to consider its allegations that the United States introduced the crop-eating insect

302: 5732: 1710: 880:

Western concerns about Soviet compliance with the BWC increased during the late 1980s and were supported by information provided by several defectors, including

6280: 1617:—could facilitate, each in their own way, the development or production of biological weapons and their delivery systems". Similarly, biological weapons expert 7020: 6770: 3891: 3116: 503: 427:: Undertaking to facilitate, and have the right to participate in, the fullest possible exchange of equipment, materials and information for peaceful purposes. 6790: 1209:

6. Assertion that information on the implementation of Article X on peaceful uses of the biological sciences should also be provided to the United Nations.

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largely due to Cold War politics but also due to a belief it was not necessary and that the BWC would be difficult to verify. U.S. biological weapons expert

6755: 4845: 4699:"Comment by the Information and Press Department on the Georgian Foreign Ministry's response apropos of the Richard Lugar Centre for Public Health Research" 3783: 1164:

3. Strengthening of Article V by agreeing on the Formal Consultative Process, a procedure to resolve doubts about compliance through consultative meetings.

313:. The statement ended, unconditionally, all U.S. offensive biological weapons programs. When Nixon ended the program the budget was $ 300 million annually. 3908: 1074: 1013:, with operating covert biological weapons programs. Moreover, a 2019 report from the U.S. Department of State raises concerns regarding BWC compliance in 569: 243: 143: 745:, a long negotiation process to add a verification mechanism began in 1991, when the Third Review Conference established an expert group on verification, 1234:

2. Assertion that the destruction and conversion of former biological weapons and associated facilities should be completed before accession to the BWC.

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3. National, regional and international measures to improve biosafety and biosecurity, including laboratory safety and security of pathogens and toxins

234:

Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction.

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1. the adoption of necessary national measures to implement the prohibitions set forth in the convention, including the enactment of penal legislation

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2. Elaboration of the cooperation under Article X by including personnel training, information exchange, and the transfer of materials and equipment.

631: 321: 27:

Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction

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commented that "this lack of an enforcement mechanism has undermined the effectiveness of the BWC, as it is unable to prevent systematic violations".

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Advances in science and technology are relevant to the BWC since they may affect the threat presented by biological weapons. The ongoing advances in

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3. Clarification that investigations under Article VI can also be requested through the Secretary-General and not only through the Security Council.

1167:

4. Agreement that the World Health Organization would coordinate the emergency response in the event of suspected biological and toxin weapons use.

507: 149:

10 non-parties: Chad, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt (signatory), Eritrea, Haiti (signatory), Israel, Kiribati, Somalia (signatory), and Syria (signatory).

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Article I is the core of the BWC and requires each state "never in any circumstances to develop, produce, stockpile or otherwise acquire or retain:

7045: 6110: 5246: 3550: 1602: 278:" agreement only. In particular, it did not prevent multiple states from starting and scaling offensive biological weapons programs, including the 4402: 2919: 7015: 6565: 6021: 5737: 3843: 3476: 2575: 1693: 238:

Having entered into force on 26 March 1975, the BWC was the first multilateral disarmament treaty to ban the production of an entire category of

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1. Review the operation of the convention, taking into account the new scientific and technological developments relevant to the convention.

1348:

1. Renewal of the ISU's mandate, the sponsorship program, the intersessional program, and the Article X assistance and cooperation database.

1289: 1066: 512: 336:

and Gregory Koblentz pointed out in 2016 that "crucial contemporary debates about new developments" for the BWC Review Conferences included "

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Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World, Told from the Inside by the Man who Ran it

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to investigate alleged breaches of the BWC and undertaking to cooperate in carrying out any investigation initiated by the Security Council.

332:

There have been some concerned scientists who have called for the modernization of the BWC at the periodic Review Conferences. For example,

6990: 6200: 6100: 4728: 4650: 4593: 1736: 1706: 1206:

5. Clarification of the coordinating role of intergovernmental organizations responding to attacks allegedly involving biological weapons.

6350: 6215: 4676: 1006: 5041: 2824: 2758: 1033:

agreed that the Russian allegations are "unfounded" and commented that they are "part of a disinformation campaign". Similarly, Swedish

246:. Four additional states have signed but not ratified the treaty, and another six states have neither signed nor acceded to the treaty. 6780: 5682: 5092: 4912: 2808: 2774: 2742: 1335: 804:

or a violation of the Convention—except for a few cases with an abundance of evidence for offensive development of biological weapons.

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While Article I does not explicitly prohibit the "use" of biological weapons as it was already considered to be prohibited by the 1925

317: 5165: 4045:

Chairperson of the 2019 Meeting of Experts on Institutional Strengthening of the Convention (Geneva, 4 October 2019). Summary Report,

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has operated the world's largest, longest, and most sophisticated biological weapons program, which goes back to the 1920s under the

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Mahley, Donald (25 July 2001). "Statement of the United States to the Ad Hoc Group of Biological Weapons Convention States Parties".

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United Nations General Assembly, Twenty-Fourth Session, 1969. 2603: Question of chemical and bacteriological (biological) weapons

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3. Recommendation of specific measures to improve the implementation of Article X on peaceful uses of the biological sciences.

6960: 6405: 6365: 5592: 3250: 2198: 1846: 1018: 817: 481:, it is still regarded as a violation of the BWC, as reaffirmed by the final document of the Fourth Review Conference in 1996. 3120: 7035: 6735: 6305: 6090: 5960: 5727: 3306: 2598: 2334: 2081: 1746: 1014: 1010: 1002: 4621: 1065:

created an Implementation Support Unit (ISU) funded by the States Parties to the BWC and housed in the Geneva Branch of the

196: 6750: 6680: 6585: 5822: 4698: 3365:

2019 Meeting of Experts on Strengthening National Implementation of the States Parties to the Biological Weapons Convention

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2018 Meeting of Experts on Strengthening National Implementation of the States Parties to the Biological Weapons Convention

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3. Establishment of a sponsorship program to support developing States Parties to participate in the annual BWC meetings.

7025: 6330: 6095: 6085: 5550: 4259:

Meselson, M.; Guillemin, J.; Hugh-Jones, M.; Langmuir, A.; Popova, I.; Shelokov, A.; Yampolskaya, O. (18 November 1994).

917:, assert that Russia may still continue parts of the Soviet biological weapons program today. Similarly, as of 2021, the 450:

weapons, equipment or means of delivery designed to use such agents or toxins for hostile purposes or in armed conflict."

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by prohibiting their development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling and use. The treaty's full name is the

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Future, Commission on a Global Health Risk Framework for the; National Academy of Medicine, Secretariat (16 May 2016).

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Meeting of Experts on Assistance, Response and Preparedness of the States Parties to the Biological Weapons Convention

3444: 2543: 1263:

1. Suspension of the conference by one year in response to the U.S. proposal to terminate the Ad Hoc Group's mandate.

6935: 6850: 6825: 6805: 6605: 6480: 6450: 6415: 6410: 6240: 6080: 5815: 5808: 5712: 4535: 4351: 4326: 4230: 4195: 4168: 4132: 3959: 2955: 2445: 2405: 2361: 1941:"Twenty-first century perspectives on the Biological Weapon Convention: Continued relevance or toothless paper tiger" 968: 918: 813: 283: 3133:

Drobysz, Sonia (5 February 2021). "Verification and implementation of the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention".

1454:

2. national mechanisms to establish and maintain the security and oversight of pathogenic microorganisms and toxins

490:

biological weapons by limiting the availability of materials and technology which may be used for hostile purposes.

6995: 6890: 6855: 6785: 6705: 6685: 6500: 6360: 6165: 5624: 2649: 1726: 1537:

1. Cooperation and assistance, with a particular focus on strengthening cooperation and assistance under Article X

1511:

1. Cooperation and assistance, with a particular focus on strengthening cooperation and assistance under Article X

1203:

4. Reaffirmation that the BWC covers not just agents affecting humans but also those affecting animals and plants.

930: 5489: 4452:"2021 Adherence to and Compliance With Arms Control, Nonproliferation, and Disarmament Agreements and Commitments" 4430: 3773: 1317:

1. Revision of the CBM reporting forms, including the deletion of CBM form D on the active promotion of contacts.

393:: Not to transfer, or in any way assist, encourage, or induce anyone else to acquire or retain biological weapons. 6970: 6905: 6895: 6820: 6815: 6795: 6665: 6655: 6625: 6590: 6580: 6535: 6520: 6400: 6310: 6270: 6175: 6160: 5702: 4835: 4021: 1375:

3. Progress of the implementation of decisions and recommendations agreed upon at the Eighth Review Conference.

534: 3904: 6980: 6865: 6830: 6690: 6630: 6575: 6475: 6435: 6150: 6140: 6065: 5672: 1197:, mandated to identify and examine potential verification measures from a scientific and technical standpoint. 960: 686:: (i) research centres and laboratories, and (ii) national biological defence research and development programs 583: 4954: 3920:

Special Conference of the States Parties to the Biological Weapons Convention (September 1994). Final Report,

3670: 3638: 3323: 1901: 7005: 6900: 6880: 6875: 6840: 6835: 6760: 6740: 6720: 6600: 6455: 6375: 6345: 6290: 6260: 6220: 6180: 6039: 5629: 5250: 5216: 2679: 1688: 259: 6044: 5091:

Final Document of the Seventh Review Conference of the States Parties to the Biological Weapons Convention,

4187:

Chapter 2: Beginnings of the "Modern" Soviet BW program, 1970–1977. In The Soviet Biological Weapons Program

3215: 3021:"Strengthening the Biological Weapons Convention confidence-building measures: Toward a cycle of engagement" 1925:

Report on universalization activities, 2019 Meeting of States Parties to the Biological Weapons Convention,

6985: 6975: 6965: 6925: 6810: 6695: 6660: 6640: 6560: 6555: 6550: 6505: 6490: 6465: 6430: 6385: 6370: 6355: 6340: 6315: 6250: 6245: 6210: 6190: 6170: 6155: 6145: 6125: 6120: 6115: 5164:

Final Document of the Eighth Review Conference of the States Parties to the Biological Weapons Convention,

5113: 4985: 4730:

Adherence to and Compliance With Arms Control, Nonproliferation, and Disarmament Agreements and Commitments

4643:

Adherence to and Compliance With Arms Control, Nonproliferation, and Disarmament Agreements and Commitments

3384:

Final Document of the Second Review Conference of the States Parties to the Biological Weapons Convention,

3103:

Final Document of the Fourth Review Conference of the States Parties to the Biological Weapons Convention,

2663: 2615: 2105: 2074:

National Security and arms control in the age of biotechnology: the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention

904: 766: 337: 5075:

Final Document of the Fifth Review Conference of the States Parties to the Biological Weapons Convention,

4871:

Final Document of the Sixth Review Conference of the States Parties to the Biological Weapons Convention,

3876:

Final Document of the First Review Conference of the States Parties to the Biological Weapons Convention,

3863:. Geneva, Switzerland: Ninth Review Conference of the States Parties to the Biological Weapons Convention. 3005:

Final Document of the Third Review Conference of the States Parties to the Biological Weapons Convention,

2261:"The Shortcomings of Indeterminacy in Arms Control Regimes: The Case of the Biological Weapons Convention" 7000: 6940: 6930: 6885: 6775: 6730: 6710: 6645: 6635: 6595: 6545: 6530: 6515: 6445: 6425: 6390: 6325: 6285: 6265: 6230: 6205: 6195: 6130: 6070: 5722: 2324: 1716: 1041: 754: 627: 459: 387:: To destroy or divert to peaceful purposes biological weapons and associated resources prior to joining. 239: 6915: 6860: 6765: 6725: 6700: 6675: 6670: 6615: 6525: 6510: 6495: 6470: 6420: 6395: 6300: 6275: 6075: 5677: 5585: 5267:

Lentzos, Filippa (1 November 2020). "How to protect the world from ultra-targeted biological weapons".

4394: 3748: 2909: 1696:, resolution to curb the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, particularly to non-state actors 865:

The Soviet Union first drew much suspicion of violating its obligations under the BWC after an unusual

750: 381:: Never under any circumstances to develop, produce, stockpile, acquire, or retain biological weapons. 6910: 6745: 6715: 6610: 6540: 6380: 6320: 6105: 5785: 5554: 5534: 4917: 4787:"Biological Weapons Allegations: A Russian Propaganda Tool to Negatively Implicate the United States" 2961: 2914: 2110: 1037:

specialists Roger Roffey and Anna-Karin Tunemalm called the allegations "a Russian propaganda tool".

455: 274:

regarding its applicability and use in retaliation. Due to these reservations, it was in practice a "

5178: 5009: 3073: 5854: 5649: 5560: 5544: 5053: 2468: 360: 5914: 1610: 866: 780: 4589: 3860:

Background document: History and operation of the confidence-building measures, BWC/CONF.IX/PC/3

3324:"The BWC Ninth Review Conference: an overview of outcomes, outlooks and national implementation" 5790: 3533:"Background information document on assistance, response and preparedness, BWC/MSP/2018/MX.4/2" 2309:

Biological Weapons: From the Invention of State-sponsored Programs to Contemporary Bioterrorism

4668: 2435: 1232:

1. Reaffirmation that the use of biological weapons is considered prohibited under Article I.

993:

At the Fifth BWC Review Conference in 2001, the United States charged four BWC States Parties—

399:: To take any national measures necessary to implement the provisions of the BWC domestically. 326:

the United States decided to unilaterally end its offensive biological weapons program in 1969

5975: 5970: 5940: 5639: 5578: 3837: 3470: 2569: 2397: 2351: 1025: 859: 710:: past activities in offensive and/or defensive biological research and development programs 5634: 5276: 4477: 4272: 3032: 1952: 1539:

2. Review of developments in the field of science and technology related to the Convention

1513:

2. Review of developments in the field of science and technology related to the Convention

990:

support the Cuban allegations, and two (China and Vietnam) maintained it was inconclusive.

421:: To assist States which have been exposed to danger as a result of a violation of the BWC. 6034: 4888:

Chapter 2: Existential Risk. In The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity

783:

seems to reconsider the U.S. position on verification, as demonstrated by U.S. ambassador

8: 5879: 3856: 3661:"Disarmament Treaties Database: Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT)" 3609: 3530: 3358: 3339: 1664:

of countries controlling exports to prevent the spread of biological and chemical weapons

1626: 1319:

2. Establishment of a database to facilitate assistance and cooperation under Article X.

1292:

in Geneva to provide administrative support and strengthen the Convention in other ways.

463: 5280: 4276: 3976: 3423:"Final report of the Formal Consultative Meeting of the States Parties, BWC/CONS/2022/3" 3036: 1956: 586:

the most recent to become a party. Four states have signed but not ratified the treaty:

5644: 5601: 5367: 5300: 5054:

Meeting of the States Parties to the Biological Weapons Convention (29 November 2021).

4814: 4572: 4236: 4201: 4138: 3952:

Chapter 9: The Failure of Arms Control, In Bioterror and Biowarfare: A Beginner's Guide

3177: 3158: 3056: 2380: 2288: 2165: 2138: 2054: 1978: 1805: 1770: 1672: 881: 731: 674:

Number and percentage of BWC confidence-building measures submissions from 1987 to 2020

229: 166: 5619: 5570: 5497:. A page with details on disarmament meetings, including documents and presentations. 4260: 3406:

Formal Consultative Meeting to the States Parties of the Biological Weapons Convention

1818: 1592: 266:

in 1346 CE, international restrictions on biological warfare began only with the 1925

5955: 5829: 5795: 5478: 5371: 5359: 5304: 5292: 4892: 4818: 4806: 4564: 4531: 4505: 4497: 4493: 4347: 4322: 4296: 4288: 4226: 4191: 4164: 4128: 3975:

Department Of State. The Office of Electronic Information, Bureau of Public Affairs.

3974: 3955: 3302: 3197: 3162: 3150: 3060: 3048: 2951: 2594: 2441: 2417: 2401: 2381:

Remarks Announcing Decisions on Chemical and Biological Defense Policies and Programs

2357: 2330: 2280: 2170: 2077: 2046: 2038: 1982: 1970: 1836: 1632: 1598: 1096: 1057: 910: 897: 893: 889: 653: 506:. A similar database on national implementation measures developed by VERTIC and the 349: 294: 271: 4590:

Comprehensive Report of the Special Advisor to the DCI on Iraq's WMD, with Addendums

4431:"The Trilateral Agreement: lessons for biological weapons verification. David Kelly" 3123:, National Implementation Measures Programme, Biological Weapons Convention. London. 2383:", via The American Presidency Project, 25 November 1969, accessed 21 December 2008. 2058: 1565:

2. Measures on scientific and technological developments relevant to the Convention

1400:

2. The progress made by States Parties on the implementation of the Convention; and

5965: 5757: 5500: 5351: 5284: 5240:"Bio Plus X: Arms Control and the Convergence of Biology and Emerging Technologies" 4798: 4592:(Duelfer Report). Volume 3-Biological Warfare. (Washington, D.C., September 2004). 4489: 4280: 3823: 3456: 3189: 3142: 3040: 2555: 2292: 2272: 2160: 2150: 2030: 1960: 1667: 1099:, the Ninth Review Conference originally scheduled for 2021 was postponed to 2022. 771: 412: 108: 5505: 5321:

Accelerating Research and Development to Counter the Threat of Infectious Diseases

5288: 4802: 3146: 2307: 1965: 1940: 6011: 5775: 5770: 5667: 5355: 4606: 4016: 2188: 1682: 1661: 1618: 1030: 948: 770:

harmed U.S. national security and commercial interests. Many analysts, including

574: 478: 432: 333: 306: 267: 5551:

The Historical Context of the Origins of the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)

5319: 4786: 3937: 3360: 3088:"Some Synthetic Biology May Not be Covered by the Biological Weapons Convention" 2982: 2589:

Wright, Susan, ed. (2016). "Evolution of Biological Warfare Policy, 1945–1990".

1995: 1867: 1372:

2. Progress made by States Parties on the implementation of the convention, and

670: 469:

While it was initially unclear during the early negotiations of the BWC whether

320:

in Geneva from 1969 to 1972, following the conclusion of the negotiation of the

5950: 5935: 5930: 5899: 5869: 5340:"Hard to Prove: The Verification Quandary of the Biological Weapons Convention" 5339: 3828: 3461: 3176:

Dunworth, Treasa; Mathews, Robert J.; McCormack, Timothy L. H. (1 March 2006).

2560: 936: 843: 784: 263: 162: 4240: 4142: 2276: 1464:

5. the content, promulgation, and adoption of codes of conduct for scientists

1052: 6059: 5889: 5884: 5864: 5859: 5540: 5363: 5296: 4810: 4568: 4528:

Biological warfare 1972–2004. In Bioterror and Biowarfare: A Beginner's Guide

4501: 4292: 4220: 4205: 4122: 4060:"Remarks to the 2021 Biological Weapons Convention Meeting of States Parties" 3498: 3201: 3154: 3052: 3044: 2516: 2376: 2284: 2042: 1974: 1481:

2. Regional and sub-regional cooperation on implementation of the Convention

1398:

1. New scientific and technological developments relevant to the Convention;

874: 870: 158: 4284: 4185: 3611: 2220: 2018: 1621:

argues that the convergence of genomic technologies with "machine learning,

5605: 3020: 2855: 2713: 2174: 2155: 2050: 2034: 1677: 985: 823: 692:: outbreaks of infectious diseases and similar occurrences caused by toxins 316:

The BWC sought to supplement the Geneva Protocol and was negotiated in the

275: 170: 4509: 4300: 3936:

Ad Hoc Group (April 2001). Protocol to the Biological Weapons Convention,

3610:

Biological Weapons Convention Implementation Support Unit (7 April 2022).

3193: 2499:

United Kingdom (6 August 1968), Working Paper on Microbiological warfare,

1700: 5849: 5780: 4046: 3532: 3341: 3284:"Biological Weapons Convention National Implementation Measures Database" 2394:

Disarmament Sketches: Three Decades of Arms Control and International Law

1685:, the first treaty to prohibit the use of biological and chemical weapons 1606: 831: 345: 225: 4576: 4552: 1580:

7. Measures on organizational, institutional and financial arrangements

1563:

1. Measures on international cooperation and assistance under Article X

5844: 2860: 1622: 1577:

6. Measures on assistance, response and preparedness under Article VII

1034: 957:

as a condition of the cease-fire agreement that ended the 1991 Gulf War

885: 801: 602:. Six additional states have neither signed nor acceded to the treaty: 528: 200: 4011: 3858: 3612:"Status of universalization of the Convention, BWC/CONF.IX/PC/7/Rev.1" 3513: 484: 5995: 5980: 5904: 3422: 952: 847: 839: 431:

The remaining articles concern the BWC's compatibility with the 1925

5748:

United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases

5422: 5189:

Final report of the Preparatory Committee to the Review Conference,

5055: 2023:

Revue Scientifique et Technique (International Office of Epizootics)

1926: 33: 5945: 5894: 5839: 5483: 4944: 4258: 4100: 3660: 3628: 3582: 1891: 1783: 1614: 1593:

Potential misuse of rapid scientific and technological developments

1385: 1288:

1. Establishment of the BWC Implementation Support Unit within the

964: 855: 835: 827: 742: 623: 611: 5317: 4756:"The Russian disinformation attack that poses a biological danger" 3921: 3857:

Biological Weapons Convention Implementation Support Unit (2022).

3531:

Biological Weapons Convention Implementation Support Unit (2018).

3359:

Biological Weapons Convention Implementation Support Unit (2019).

3340:

Biological Weapons Convention Implementation Support Unit (2018).

2521:

Statement on Chemical and Biological Defense Policies and Programs

1633:

Technological challenges in the verification of biological weapons

311:

Statement on Chemical and Biological Defense Policies and Programs

7076:

Treaties extended to South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands

7071:

Treaties extended to Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha

5765: 3283: 944: 851: 615: 607: 595: 470: 5517: 5105: 4649:. U.S. Department of State. 2019. pp. 45–50. Archived from 3401: 2326:

Stalin's Secret Weapon: The Origins of Soviet Biological Warfare

877:

later admitted that "our military developments were the cause".

724: 545: 5909: 5834: 4553:"Biological Weapons, International Sanctions and Proliferation" 3816:

WMDCE Series, United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research

3449:

WMDCE Series, United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research

3255: 2548:

WMDCE Series, United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research

738:

attempts led by Sweden at the First Review Conference in 1980.

619: 533:

Article VI allows States Parties to lodge a complaint with the

438: 341: 104: 100: 5494: 5056:"Report of the 2020 Meeting of States Parties, BWC/MSP/2020/7" 4101:"Final Document of the Ninth Review Conference, BWC/CONF.IX/9" 3583:"Disarmament Treaties Database: Biological Weapons Convention" 3216:"National Implementation of the Biological Weapons Convention" 3178:"National Implementation of the Biological Weapons Convention" 2350:

Miller, Judith; Engelberg, Stephen; Broad, William J. (2002).

1892:"Disarmament Treaties Database: Biological Weapons Convention" 5990: 5985: 5874: 5800: 5697: 4913:"Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)" 3812:"Compliance and Enforcement in the Biological Weapons Regime" 3445:"Compliance and Enforcement in the Biological Weapons Regime" 2544:"Compliance and Enforcement in the Biological Weapons Regime" 1605:

finds that "advances in three specific emerging technologies—

1194: 746: 599: 591: 587: 5512: 5490:

Brochure: The Biological Weapons Convention: An Introduction

5238:

Brockmann, Kolja; Boulanin, Vincent; Bauer, Sibylle (2019).

4886: 4669:"Russia claims US running secret bio weapons lab in Georgia" 3738: 3629:"Disarmament Treaties Database: Chemical Weapons Convention" 1294:

2. Renewal and modification of the intersessional program.

242:. The convention is of unlimited duration. As of July 2024, 5693:

Council of Europe Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism

980: 940: 603: 126:

Ratification by 22 states, including the three depositaries

2648:

Koblentz, Gregory D.; Lentzos, Filippa (4 November 2016).

2437:

Deadly Arsenals: Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Threats

2076:. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 53. 519: 4703:

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation

3605: 3603: 2106:"Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) Compliance Protocol" 1574:

5. Measures on national implementation of the Convention

867:

anthrax outbreak in 1979 in the Soviet city of Sverdlovsk

582:

The BWC has 187 States Parties as of July 2024, with the

3614:. Preparatory Committee for the Ninth Review Conference. 3361:"Background information update, BWC/MSP/2019/MX.3/INF.2" 3175: 2616:"The Biological Weapons Convention – An overview – ICRC" 16:

1975 treaty that comprehensively bans biological weapons

5733:

National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center

5600: 5531:

Treaties and Regimes: The Biological Weapons Convention

3402:"Report of the Formal Consultative Meeting, BWC/CONS/1" 1711:

List of parties to weapons of mass destruction treaties

1701:

Treaties for other types of weapons of mass destruction

6186:

Treaties of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

5237: 4785:

Roffey, Roger; Tunemalm, Anna-Karin (2 October 2017).

4395:"Russia Admits It Violated Pact on Biological Warfare" 4225:. London: Harvard University Press. pp. 423–449. 4127:. London: Harvard University Press. pp. 698–712. 3600: 974: 959:. The Iraqi biological weapons program—along with its 493: 7031:

Treaties extended to Saint Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla

5479:

Official website of the Biological Weapons Convention

4064:

U.S. Mission to International Organizations in Geneva

3499:"The Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) At A Glance" 2221:"Disarmament Treaties Database: 1925 Geneva Protocol" 1641: 1193:

2. Establishment of an expert group on verification,

822:

Despite being a party and depositary to the BWC, the

5204:"The Biological Weapons Convention: An Introduction" 4190:. London: Harvard University Press. pp. 51–78. 4124:

Conclusion. In The Soviet Biological Weapons Program

2680:"The Biological Weapons Convention: An Introduction" 2349: 1568:

3. Measures on confidence-building and transparency

1075:

Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons

570:

List of parties to the Biological Weapons Convention

529:

Article VI: Complaint about an alleged BWC violation

6946:

Treaties of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic

5541:

The Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) at a Glance

5106:"BWC Article X Assistance and Cooperation Database" 4368:"Yeltsin rewrites history on 1979 anthrax epidemic" 4218: 4183: 4120: 3301:. Berkeley, California: Counterpoint. p. 205. 485:

Article III: Prohibition of transfer and assistance

38:Participation in the Biological Weapons Convention 5708:European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control 5561:Understanding Biological Disarmament: Final Report 5177:Meetings under the Biological Weapons Convention, 5010:"Meetings under the Biological Weapons Convention" 4012:"U.S. Drops Bid to Strengthen Germ Warfare Accord" 3511: 3299:Dead Silence: Fear and Terror on the Anthrax Trail 2650:"It's time to modernize the bioweapons convention" 2353:Germs: Biological Weapons and America's Secret War 1519:4. How to enable fuller participation in the CBMs 632:Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons 554: 322:Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons 7081:Treaties extended to the Turks and Caicos Islands 6871:Treaties of the Republic of the Sudan (1985–2011) 5688:Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention 1655: 1548:5. Institutional strengthening of the Convention 1325:4. Reform of the convention's financing system. 563: 508:United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research 303:American biowarfare system was terminated in 1969 6057: 5513:Electronic Confidence-Building Measures facility 5247:Stockholm International Peace Research Institute 4478:"Iraq's Biological Weapons: The Past as Future?" 4093: 4091: 4089: 4087: 4085: 3850: 3739:"Electronic Confidence-Building Measures Portal" 1603:Stockholm International Peace Research Institute 915:The Soviet Biological Weapons Program: A History 913:and Raymond Zilinskas, authors of the 2012 book 7041:Treaties extended to the British Virgin Islands 6226:Treaties of the military dictatorship in Brazil 6022:United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540 5738:National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity 5047: 4344:Anthrax: The Investigation of a Deadly Outbreak 3086:Johnson, Durward; Kraska, James (14 May 2020). 2647: 2139:"Biological Warfare at the 1346 Siege of Caffa" 1786:. United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 1694:United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540 1026:Richard Lugar Center for Public Health Research 665: 516:implementation" in 2018 and an update in 2019. 6256:Treaties of the People's Republic of Kampuchea 5484:Full text of the Biological Weapons Convention 5421:Report of the 2018 Meeting of States Parties, 4784: 2469:"History of the Biological Weapons Convention" 1216:Ambassador Roberto Garcia Moritan (Argentina) 1047: 704:: legislation, regulations, and other measures 660: 578:Number of BWC States Parties from 1972 to 2020 458:and is also used in Article II, 1 of the 1993 7021:Treaties extended to the Netherlands Antilles 6771:Treaties of the Socialist Republic of Romania 6236:Treaties of the People's Republic of Bulgaria 5743:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 5728:India's Ministry of Health and Family Welfare 5586: 5518:Article X cooperation and assistance database 5473:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 5441:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 5212:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 5141:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 5015:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 4841:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 4736:. U.S. Department of State. 2019. p. 6. 4082: 3779:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 3744:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 3707:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 3666:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 3634:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 3587:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 3556:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 3342:"Background information, BWC/MSP/2018/MX.3/2" 3221:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 3085: 2987:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 2688:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 2643: 2641: 2474:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 2226:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 2194:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 2000:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 1897:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 1872:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 1842:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 1784:"Status of the Biological Weapons Convention" 1332:Ambassador Paul van den IJssel (Netherlands) 1290:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 1067:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 725:Failed negotiation of a verification protocol 546:Article VII: Assistance after a BWC violation 286:(active from the 1920s until at least 1992). 181:Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish 6791:Treaties of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 5040:Article XII, Biological Weapons Convention. 3281: 2947:Bioterror and Biowarfare: A Beginner's Guide 2823:Article VII, Biological Weapons Convention. 2757:Article III, Biological Weapons Convention. 2427: 2316: 1737:Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons 1707:List of weapons of mass destruction treaties 439:Article I: Prohibition of biological weapons 6651:Treaties of the Mongolian People's Republic 6461:Treaties of the Hungarian People's Republic 5390:"BWC Meeting Stumbles Over Money, Politics" 3842:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of May 2024 ( 3475:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of May 2024 ( 3417: 3415: 3121:Report on National Implementing Legislation 2807:Article VI, Biological Weapons Convention. 2773:Article IV, Biological Weapons Convention. 2741:Article II, Biological Weapons Convention. 2574:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of May 2024 ( 2299: 1868:Article XIII, Biological Weapons Convention 1571:4. Measures on compliance and verification 60: Unrecognized state, abiding by treaty 6281:Treaties of the People's Republic of China 5683:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 5593: 5579: 4666: 4550: 3505: 3296: 2983:Article II, 1, Chemical Weapons Convention 2841:Article X, Biological Weapons Convention. 2789:Article V, Biological Weapons Convention. 2728:Article I, Biological Weapons Convention. 2638: 2433: 2411: 2322: 1938: 1771:Article XIV, Biological Weapons Convention 807: 513:1989 Biological Weapons Anti-Terrorism Act 372: 318:Conference of the Committee on Disarmament 244:187 states have become party to the treaty 7066:Treaties extended to the Pitcairn Islands 7051:Treaties extended to the Falkland Islands 5698:Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency 4475: 4393:Dahlburg, John-Thor (15 September 1992). 4341: 4261:"The Sverdlovsk anthrax outbreak of 1979" 3827: 3460: 3429:. Geneva, Switzerland. 19 September 2023. 3079: 2559: 2305: 2164: 2154: 1964: 1939:Cross, Glenn; Klotz, Lynn (3 July 2020). 1545:4. Assistance, response and preparedness 1542:3. Strengthening national implementation 1516:3. Strengthening national implementation 1420: 262:goes back more than six centuries to the 6756:Treaties of the Polish People's Republic 4392: 3412: 2907: 2613: 2505:Eighteen-Nation Committee on Disarmament 2396:, University of Washington Press, 2002, 2386: 2343: 2071: 1051: 896:therefore directly challenged President 669: 573: 359: 288: 7046:Treaties extended to the Cayman Islands 6111:Treaties of the Republic of Afghanistan 5417: 5415: 5383: 5381: 5337: 5333: 5331: 5266: 5233: 5231: 5229: 5034: 5004: 5002: 4830: 4828: 4753: 4667:Isachenkov, Vladimir (4 October 2018). 4636: 4634: 4521: 4519: 4476:Zilinskas, Raymond A. (6 August 1997). 4424: 4422: 4420: 3809: 3496: 3442: 3132: 3018: 2903: 2541: 2370: 2136: 1996:Preamble, Biological Weapons Convention 1837:"Biological Weapons Convention – UNODA" 1533:MX: 5 separate meetings across 8 days 637:States can join the BWC through either 520:Article V: Consultation and cooperation 344:and other genome editing technologies, 218:Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention 7016:Treaties extended to the Faroe Islands 6566:Treaties of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 6058: 5387: 5160: 5158: 5116:from the original on 20 September 2020 5087: 5085: 5071: 5069: 5067: 5065: 4867: 4865: 4863: 4791:The Journal of Slavic Military Studies 4627:from the original on 16 February 2021. 4316: 4312: 4310: 4254: 4252: 4250: 4219:Leitenberg, M.; Zilinskas, R. (2012). 4184:Leitenberg, M.; Zilinskas, R. (2012). 4158: 4154: 4152: 4121:Leitenberg, M.; Zilinskas, R. (2012). 4116: 4114: 4112: 4110: 4041: 4039: 4009: 3932: 3930: 3872: 3870: 3805: 3803: 3801: 3768: 3766: 3733: 3731: 3729: 3696: 3694: 3692: 3690: 3688: 3623: 3621: 3512:Russian Federation (2 November 2022). 3492: 3490: 3488: 3486: 3438: 3436: 3396: 3394: 3380: 3378: 3376: 3374: 3321: 3245: 3243: 3099: 3097: 3001: 2999: 2997: 2995: 2939: 2937: 2901: 2899: 2897: 2895: 2893: 2891: 2889: 2887: 2885: 2883: 2837: 2835: 2833: 2819: 2817: 2803: 2801: 2799: 2785: 2783: 2707: 2705: 2674: 2672: 2588: 2537: 2535: 2533: 2254: 2252: 2250: 2248: 2103: 2099: 2097: 2095: 2093: 2016: 2012: 2010: 2008: 818:Russia and weapons of mass destruction 757:, which opened for signature in 1993. 297:in Geneva where the BWC was negotiated 6296:Treaties of the Republic of the Congo 5961:Biological warfare in popular culture 5574: 5400:from the original on 16 February 2021 5022:from the original on 20 December 2020 4957:from the original on 16 February 2021 4925:from the original on 16 February 2021 4848:from the original on 16 February 2021 4754:Lentzos, Filippa (19 November 2018). 4743:from the original on 22 January 2021. 4709:from the original on 16 February 2021 4525: 4428: 4405:from the original on 12 December 2021 4024:from the original on 16 February 2021 3949: 3786:from the original on 16 December 2020 3714:from the original on 16 February 2021 3563:from the original on 16 February 2021 3551:"Assistance and Cooperation Database" 3329:. London, United Kingdom. p. 12. 3263:from the original on 16 February 2021 3228:from the original on 27 February 2021 2943: 2922:from the original on 16 February 2021 2868:from the original on 14 February 2021 2769: 2767: 2753: 2751: 2724: 2722: 2698:from the original on 3 February 2020. 2626:from the original on 16 February 2021 2620:International Review of the Red Cross 2481:from the original on 16 February 2021 2463: 2461: 2459: 2457: 2265:American Journal of International Law 2258: 2118:from the original on 16 February 2021 1921: 1919: 1849:from the original on 15 February 2021 1747:Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty 1244:Ambassador Sir Michael Weston (U.K.) 1089: 1081:employs around 2,600 people, and the 698:: efforts to promote research results 355: 6951:Treaties of the United Arab Emirates 5448:from the original on 24 October 2020 5412: 5378: 5338:Lentzos, Filippa (1 November 2011). 5328: 5226: 4999: 4825: 4766:from the original on 6 February 2021 4631: 4516: 4417: 3182:Journal of Conflict and Security Law 2652:. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 1886: 1884: 1882: 1880: 1831: 1829: 1827: 1382:Ambassador Leonardo Bencini (Italy) 1077:(OPCW) has about 500 employees, the 40: 6991:Treaties of the Yemen Arab Republic 6201:Treaties of the Republic of Dahomey 6101:Treaties entered into force in 1975 5155: 5136:"BWC Sponsorship Programme – UNODA" 5082: 5062: 4884: 4860: 4679:from the original on 2 January 2021 4307: 4247: 4149: 4107: 4036: 4010:Slevin, Peter (19 September 2002). 3927: 3867: 3798: 3763: 3751:from the original on 13 August 2020 3726: 3685: 3618: 3483: 3433: 3391: 3371: 3240: 3094: 2992: 2934: 2880: 2830: 2814: 2796: 2780: 2702: 2669: 2530: 2440:. Carnegie Endowment. p. 212. 2245: 2233:from the original on 25 August 2013 2090: 2019:"The Biological Weapons Convention" 2005: 1354:Ambassador György Molnar (Hungary) 1174:Ambassador Winfried Lang (Austria) 1060:in Geneva, which houses the BWC ISU 975:Other accusations of non-compliance 494:Article IV: National implementation 282:(active from 1943 to 1969) and the 13: 6351:Treaties of the Dominican Republic 6216:Treaties of Bosnia and Herzegovina 5471:Official resources created by the 4988:. 2018. p. 62. Archived from 4950:International Atomic Energy Agency 4346:. University of California Press. 4070:from the original on 28 April 2022 2764: 2748: 2719: 2454: 2189:"Text of the 1925 Geneva Protocol" 2104:Tucker, Jonathan (1 August 2001). 1916: 1642:Financial health of the Convention 1301:Ambassador Masood Khan (Pakistan) 1079:International Atomic Energy Agency 967:through the investigations of the 14: 7092: 6801:Treaties of São Tomé and Príncipe 6781:Treaties of Saint Kitts and Nevis 5713:Global Health Security Initiative 5464: 5269:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 4760:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 4456:United States Department of State 3025:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 2591:Preventing a Biological Arms Race 2201:from the original on 8 April 2015 1945:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 1877: 1824: 1367:28. November – 16. December 2022 1257:19. November – 7. December 2001; 1141:Ambassador Oscar Vaerno (Norway) 969:United Nations Special Commission 814:Soviet biological weapons program 794: 364:The Biological Weapons Convention 6621:Treaties of the Marshall Islands 5625:1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack 5428: 5388:Mackby, Jenifer (January 2019). 5324:. National Academies Press (US). 5311: 5260: 5196: 5183: 5171: 5128: 5098: 4969: 4937: 4905: 4878: 4778: 4747: 4721: 4691: 4660: 4599: 4583: 4544: 4494:10.1001/jama.1997.03550050080037 4469: 4444: 3497:Kimball, Daryl (February 2022). 3297:Coen, Bob; Nadler, Eric (2009). 2908:Rissanen, Jenni (1 March 2003). 1727:Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty 1285:20. November – 8. December 2006 1272:Ambassador Tibor Toth (Hungary) 1229:25. November – 6. December 1996 931:Iraqi biological weapons program 340:, potential pandemic pathogens, 191: 32: 7061:Treaties extended to Montserrat 6921:Treaties of Trinidad and Tobago 6846:Treaties of the Solomon Islands 6136:Treaties of Antigua and Barbuda 5703:Defense Threat Reduction Agency 4386: 4360: 4335: 4212: 4177: 4052: 4003: 3994: 3977:"Biological Weapons Convention" 3968: 3943: 3914: 3897: 3883: 3673:from the original on 5 May 2021 3653: 3641:from the original on 3 May 2021 3575: 3543: 3524: 3518:United Nations Security Council 3352: 3333: 3315: 3290: 3275: 3208: 3169: 3126: 3110: 3067: 3019:Lentzos, Filippa (1 May 2011). 3012: 2976: 2910:"Biological Weapons Convention" 2856:"Biological Weapons Convention" 2848: 2735: 2656: 2607: 2582: 2510: 2493: 2213: 2181: 2130: 2065: 1989: 1904:from the original on 5 May 2021 1817:Biological Weapons Convention, 1804:Biological Weapons Convention, 716:: vaccine production facilities 555:Article X: Peaceful cooperation 535:United Nations Security Council 413:United Nations Security Council 7056:Treaties extended to Gibraltar 7011:Treaties extended to Greenland 6956:Treaties of the United Kingdom 6336:Treaties of the Czech Republic 5673:Caribbean Public Health Agency 3822:. Geneva, Switzerland: 11–12. 3774:"Confidence-Building Measures" 3514:"Draft resolution, S/2022/821" 1932: 1861: 1811: 1798: 1776: 1764: 1656:Biological weapons and warfare 1432:Intersessional program period 584:Federated States of Micronesia 564:Membership and joining the BWC 1: 6961:Treaties of the United States 6406:Treaties of Georgia (country) 6366:Treaties of Equatorial Guinea 6017:Biological Weapons Convention 5630:1989 California medfly attack 5501:BWC Meeting of States Parties 5289:10.1080/00963402.2020.1846412 4836:"Implementation Support Unit" 4803:10.1080/13518046.2017.1377010 3147:10.1080/10736700.2020.1823102 2664:Biological Weapons Convention 2614:Goldblat, Jozef (June 1997). 2259:Beard, Jack M. (April 2007). 1966:10.1080/00963402.2020.1778365 1757: 1689:International pandemic treaty 1587: 767:George W. Bush administration 260:history of biological warfare 228:treaty that effectively bans 210:Biological Weapons Convention 197:Biological Weapons Convention 22:Biological Weapons Convention 7036:Treaties extended to Bermuda 6736:Treaties of Papua New Guinea 6306:Treaties of the Cook Islands 6091:Treaties of the Soviet Union 5356:10.1080/10736700.2011.618662 4986:CTBTO Preparatory Commission 4530:. Oneworld. pp. 51–53. 3903:VEREX (1993). Final report, 3455:. Geneva, Switzerland: 7–8. 2323:Rimmington, Anthony (2018). 2312:. Columbia University Press. 2143:Emerging Infectious Diseases 1083:CTBTO Preparatory Commission 666:Confidence-building measures 338:gain-of-function experiments 230:biological and toxin weapons 7: 6751:Treaties of the Philippines 6681:Treaties of the Netherlands 6586:Treaties of North Macedonia 5723:Laboratory Response Network 5425:. Geneva, 11 December 2018. 5344:The Nonproliferation Review 4551:Leitenberg, Milton (1997). 3501:. Arms Control Association. 3135:The Nonproliferation Review 2434:Cirincione, Joseph (2005). 2329:. Oxford University Press. 1717:Chemical Weapons Convention 1650: 1048:Implementation Support Unit 1042:Russian invasion of Ukraine 935:Starting around 1985 under 892:and British Prime Minister 755:Chemical Weapons Convention 661:Verification and compliance 628:Chemical Weapons Convention 460:Chemical Weapons Convention 293:The Council Chamber at the 240:weapons of mass destruction 10: 7097: 7026:Treaties extended to Aruba 6486:Treaties of Ba'athist Iraq 6331:Treaties of Czechoslovakia 6096:Treaties concluded in 1972 6086:Non-proliferation treaties 5678:Center for Health Security 4342:Guillemin, Jeanne (1999). 3251:"BWC Legislation Database" 2944:Dando, Malcolm R. (2006). 2306:Guillemin, Jeanne (2005). 2017:Feakes, D. (August 2017). 1704: 928: 869:(formerly, and now again, 811: 567: 253: 54: Acceded or succeeded 6571:Treaties of Liechtenstein 6441:Treaties of Guinea-Bissau 6030: 6004: 5923: 5786:Burkholderia pseudomallei 5756: 5658: 5612: 5555:University College London 5535:Nuclear Threat Initiative 4918:Nuclear Threat Initiative 4614:VERTIC Trust & Verify 3810:Lentzos, Filippa (2019). 3443:Lentzos, Filippa (2019). 2915:Nuclear Threat Initiative 2542:Lentzos, Filippa (2019). 2277:10.1017/S0002930000030098 2111:Nuclear Threat Initiative 2072:Gerstein, Daniel (2013). 1929:. Geneva, 8 October 2019. 1259:11. – 22. November 2002 963:—was uncovered after the 741:Following the end of the 630:with 193 parties and the 456:general-purpose criterion 190: 185: 177: 154: 138: 130: 122: 114: 96: 88: 48: Signed and ratified 31: 26: 6936:Treaties of Turkmenistan 6851:Treaties of South Africa 6826:Treaties of Sierra Leone 6806:Treaties of Saudi Arabia 6606:Treaties of the Maldives 6481:Treaties of Pahlavi Iran 6451:Treaties of the Holy See 6416:Treaties of East Germany 6411:Treaties of West Germany 6241:Treaties of Burkina Faso 6081:Human rights instruments 5545:Arms Control Association 5394:Arms Control Association 3702:"Achieving Universality" 3090:. The Lawfare Institute. 3045:10.1177/0096340211406876 2950:. Oneworld. p. 94. 1187:9. – 27. September 1991 1154:8. – 26. September 1986 1111:Key outcomes and issues 961:chemical weapons program 919:U.S. Department of State 751:21 verification measures 6996:Treaties of South Yemen 6891:Treaties of Switzerland 6856:Treaties of South Korea 6786:Treaties of Saint Lucia 6706:Treaties of North Korea 6686:Treaties of New Zealand 6501:Treaties of Ivory Coast 6361:Treaties of El Salvador 6166:Treaties of the Bahamas 5915:Viral hemorrhagic fever 5506:BWC Meetings of Experts 4891:. Hachette Book Group. 4526:Dando, Malcolm (2006). 4285:10.1126/science.7973702 3950:Dando, Malcolm (2006). 3282:UNIDIR; VERTIC (2023). 2662:United Nations (1972). 1611:artificial intelligence 1345:7. – 25. November 2016 1314:5. – 22. December 2011 924: 808:Soviet Union and Russia 652:Several countries made 411:: Right to request the 373:Summary of key articles 6971:Treaties of Uzbekistan 6906:Treaties of East Timor 6896:Treaties of Tajikistan 6821:Treaties of Seychelles 6816:Treaties of Yugoslavia 6796:Treaties of San Marino 6666:Treaties of Mozambique 6656:Treaties of Montenegro 6626:Treaties of Mauritania 6591:Treaties of Madagascar 6581:Treaties of Luxembourg 6536:Treaties of Kyrgyzstan 6521:Treaties of Kazakhstan 6401:Treaties of the Gambia 6311:Treaties of Costa Rica 6271:Treaties of Cape Verde 6176:Treaties of Bangladesh 6161:Treaties of Azerbaijan 5941:Psychochemical weapons 5791:Chlamydophila psittaci 5058:. Geneva, Switzerland. 4103:. Geneva, Switzerland. 3938:BWC/AD HOC GROUP/CRP.8 3832:(inactive 2 May 2024). 3829:10.37559/WMD/19/WMDCE4 3465:(inactive 2 May 2024). 3462:10.37559/WMD/19/WMDCE4 2564:(inactive 2 May 2024). 2561:10.37559/WMD/19/WMDCE4 2356:. Simon and Schuster. 2156:10.3201/eid0809.010536 2137:Wheelis, Mark (2002). 2035:10.20506/rst.36.2.2679 1607:additive manufacturing 1421:Intersessional program 1061: 675: 579: 540:five permanent members 365: 298: 6981:Treaties of Venezuela 6866:Treaties of Sri Lanka 6831:Treaties of Singapore 6691:Treaties of Nicaragua 6631:Treaties of Mauritius 6576:Treaties of Lithuania 6476:Treaties of Indonesia 6436:Treaties of Guatemala 6151:Treaties of Australia 6141:Treaties of Argentina 6066:Arms control treaties 6035:Wiktionary definition 5976:Entomological warfare 5855:Legionnaires' disease 5640:Wood Green ricin plot 5436:"Financial Dashboard" 4607:"Cuba BW allegations" 4429:Kelly, David (2002). 3322:VERTIC (March 2023). 1055: 888:. American President 673: 577: 363: 292: 7006:Treaties of Zimbabwe 6901:Treaties of Thailand 6881:Treaties of Eswatini 6876:Treaties of Suriname 6841:Treaties of Slovenia 6836:Treaties of Slovakia 6761:Treaties of Portugal 6741:Treaties of Paraguay 6721:Treaties of Pakistan 6601:Treaties of Malaysia 6456:Treaties of Honduras 6376:Treaties of the Derg 6346:Treaties of Dominica 6291:Treaties of Colombia 6261:Treaties of Cameroon 6221:Treaties of Botswana 6181:Treaties of Barbados 5805:Equine encephalitis 5635:2001 anthrax attacks 5256:on 16 February 2021. 5215:: 22. Archived from 5110:bwc-articlex.unog.ch 4438:VERTIC Yearbook 2002 4317:Alibek, Ken (1999). 4159:Alibek, Ken (1999). 4066:. 22 November 2021. 3905:BWC/CONF.III/VEREX/9 2503:. Conference of the 1870:. Treaty Database, 1678:Biological terrorism 1128:3. – 21. March 1980 1009:—and one signatory, 781:Biden administration 6986:Treaties of Vietnam 6976:Treaties of Vanuatu 6966:Treaties of Uruguay 6926:Treaties of Tunisia 6811:Treaties of Senegal 6696:Treaties of Nigeria 6661:Treaties of Morocco 6641:Treaties of Moldova 6561:Treaties of Liberia 6556:Treaties of Lesotho 6551:Treaties of Lebanon 6506:Treaties of Jamaica 6491:Treaties of Ireland 6466:Treaties of Iceland 6431:Treaties of Grenada 6386:Treaties of Finland 6371:Treaties of Estonia 6356:Treaties of Ecuador 6341:Treaties of Denmark 6316:Treaties of Croatia 6251:Treaties of Burundi 6246:Treaties of Myanmar 6211:Treaties of Bolivia 6191:Treaties of Belgium 6171:Treaties of Bahrain 6156:Treaties of Austria 6146:Treaties of Armenia 6126:Treaties of Andorra 6121:Treaties of Algeria 6116:Treaties of Albania 5880:Salmonella enterica 5281:2020BuAtS..76f.302L 5222:on 3 February 2020. 4995:on 7 February 2021. 4921:. 30 October 2020. 4656:on 22 January 2021. 4277:1994Sci...266.1202M 4271:(5188): 1202–1208. 4047:BWC/MSP/2019/MX.5/2 3981:2001-2009.state.gov 3194:10.1093/jcsl/krl006 3037:2011BuAtS..67c..26L 2985:. Treaty Database, 1998:. Treaty Database, 1957:2020BuAtS..76d.185C 1627:affective computing 1395:No later than 2027 1114:BWC States Parties 309:when he issued his 74: Non-signatory 23: 7001:Treaties of Zambia 6941:Treaties of Uganda 6931:Treaties of Turkey 6886:Treaties of Sweden 6776:Treaties of Rwanda 6731:Treaties of Panama 6711:Treaties of Norway 6646:Treaties of Monaco 6636:Treaties of Mexico 6596:Treaties of Malawi 6546:Treaties of Latvia 6531:Treaties of Kuwait 6516:Treaties of Jordan 6446:Treaties of Guyana 6426:Treaties of Greece 6391:Treaties of France 6326:Treaties of Cyprus 6286:Treaties of Taiwan 6266:Treaties of Canada 6231:Treaties of Brunei 6206:Treaties of Bhutan 6196:Treaties of Belize 6131:Treaties of Angola 6071:Biological warfare 5981:Infectious disease 5718:Health Threat Unit 5650:2013 ricin letters 5645:2003 ricin letters 5602:Biological warfare 5525:External resources 4978:Annual Report 2018 4885:Ord, Toby (2020). 4620:. September 1997. 2964:on 5 December 2021 2714:BWC/CONF.VIII/PC/4 2418:Cirincione, Joseph 1673:Biological warfare 1668:Biological weapons 1105:Review Conference 1090:Review Conferences 1062: 882:Vladimir Pasechnik 802:defensive programs 732:Jonathan B. Tucker 676: 634:with 191 parties. 580: 366: 356:Treaty obligations 299: 169:(successor to the 167:Russian Federation 21: 6916:Treaties of Tonga 6861:Treaties of Spain 6766:Treaties of Qatar 6726:Treaties of Palau 6701:Treaties of Niger 6676:Treaties of Nepal 6671:Treaties of Nauru 6616:Treaties of Malta 6526:Treaties of Kenya 6511:Treaties of Japan 6496:Treaties of Italy 6471:Treaties of India 6421:Treaties of Ghana 6396:Treaties of Gabon 6301:Treaties of Zaire 6276:Treaties of Chile 6076:Cold War treaties 6053: 6052: 6040:Wikimedia Commons 6005:International law 5956:Biological hazard 5830:Foodborne illness 5826: 5818: 5811: 5796:Coxiella burnetii 5758:Biological agents 5486:, Treaty Database 5191:BWC/CONF.IX/PC/10 4557:Asian Perspective 4399:Los Angeles Times 4374:. 11 October 2005 3308:978-1-58243-509-1 3119:(November 2016). 2600:978-0-262-23148-0 2336:978-0-19-092885-8 2083:978-1-4422-2312-7 1599:synthetic biology 1585: 1584: 1418: 1417: 1097:COVID-19 pandemic 1058:Palace of Nations 911:Milton Leitenberg 894:Margaret Thatcher 890:George H. W. Bush 350:synthetic biology 295:Palace of Nations 206: 205: 150: 82: 81: 68: Only signed 7088: 6911:Treaties of Togo 6746:Treaties of Peru 6716:Treaties of Oman 6611:Treaties of Mali 6541:Treaties of Laos 6381:Treaties of Fiji 6321:Treaties of Cuba 6106:1975 in politics 5966:Ethnic bioweapon 5924:Related concepts 5890:Salmonella typhi 5821: 5814: 5806: 5613:Modern incidents 5595: 5588: 5581: 5572: 5571: 5458: 5457: 5455: 5453: 5432: 5426: 5419: 5410: 5409: 5407: 5405: 5385: 5376: 5375: 5335: 5326: 5325: 5315: 5309: 5308: 5264: 5258: 5257: 5255: 5249:. Archived from 5244: 5235: 5224: 5223: 5221: 5208: 5200: 5194: 5187: 5181: 5175: 5169: 5162: 5153: 5152: 5150: 5148: 5132: 5126: 5125: 5123: 5121: 5102: 5096: 5089: 5080: 5073: 5060: 5059: 5051: 5045: 5038: 5032: 5031: 5029: 5027: 5006: 4997: 4996: 4994: 4983: 4973: 4967: 4966: 4964: 4962: 4941: 4935: 4934: 4932: 4930: 4909: 4903: 4902: 4882: 4876: 4869: 4858: 4857: 4855: 4853: 4832: 4823: 4822: 4782: 4776: 4775: 4773: 4771: 4751: 4745: 4744: 4742: 4735: 4725: 4719: 4718: 4716: 4714: 4695: 4689: 4688: 4686: 4684: 4664: 4658: 4657: 4655: 4648: 4638: 4629: 4628: 4626: 4611: 4603: 4597: 4587: 4581: 4580: 4548: 4542: 4541: 4523: 4514: 4513: 4473: 4467: 4466: 4464: 4462: 4448: 4442: 4441: 4435: 4426: 4415: 4414: 4412: 4410: 4390: 4384: 4383: 4381: 4379: 4364: 4358: 4357: 4339: 4333: 4332: 4314: 4305: 4304: 4256: 4245: 4244: 4216: 4210: 4209: 4181: 4175: 4174: 4156: 4147: 4146: 4118: 4105: 4104: 4095: 4080: 4079: 4077: 4075: 4056: 4050: 4043: 4034: 4033: 4031: 4029: 4007: 4001: 3998: 3992: 3991: 3989: 3987: 3972: 3966: 3965: 3947: 3941: 3934: 3925: 3918: 3912: 3901: 3895: 3887: 3881: 3874: 3865: 3864: 3854: 3848: 3847: 3841: 3833: 3831: 3807: 3796: 3795: 3793: 3791: 3770: 3761: 3760: 3758: 3756: 3735: 3724: 3723: 3721: 3719: 3698: 3683: 3682: 3680: 3678: 3657: 3651: 3650: 3648: 3646: 3625: 3616: 3615: 3607: 3598: 3597: 3595: 3593: 3579: 3573: 3572: 3570: 3568: 3547: 3541: 3540: 3528: 3522: 3521: 3509: 3503: 3502: 3494: 3481: 3480: 3474: 3466: 3464: 3440: 3431: 3430: 3419: 3410: 3409: 3398: 3389: 3382: 3369: 3368: 3356: 3350: 3349: 3337: 3331: 3330: 3328: 3319: 3313: 3312: 3294: 3288: 3287: 3279: 3273: 3272: 3270: 3268: 3247: 3238: 3237: 3235: 3233: 3212: 3206: 3205: 3173: 3167: 3166: 3141:(4–6): 487–497. 3130: 3124: 3114: 3108: 3101: 3092: 3091: 3083: 3077: 3071: 3065: 3064: 3016: 3010: 3003: 2990: 2980: 2974: 2973: 2971: 2969: 2960:. Archived from 2941: 2932: 2931: 2929: 2927: 2905: 2878: 2877: 2875: 2873: 2852: 2846: 2839: 2828: 2821: 2812: 2805: 2794: 2787: 2778: 2771: 2762: 2755: 2746: 2739: 2733: 2726: 2717: 2709: 2700: 2699: 2697: 2684: 2676: 2667: 2660: 2654: 2653: 2645: 2636: 2635: 2633: 2631: 2611: 2605: 2604: 2586: 2580: 2579: 2573: 2565: 2563: 2539: 2528: 2514: 2508: 2497: 2491: 2490: 2488: 2486: 2465: 2452: 2451: 2431: 2425: 2415: 2409: 2392:Graham, Thomas. 2390: 2384: 2374: 2368: 2367: 2347: 2341: 2340: 2320: 2314: 2313: 2303: 2297: 2296: 2256: 2243: 2242: 2240: 2238: 2217: 2211: 2210: 2208: 2206: 2185: 2179: 2178: 2168: 2158: 2134: 2128: 2127: 2125: 2123: 2101: 2088: 2087: 2069: 2063: 2062: 2014: 2003: 1993: 1987: 1986: 1968: 1936: 1930: 1923: 1914: 1913: 1911: 1909: 1888: 1875: 1865: 1859: 1858: 1856: 1854: 1833: 1822: 1815: 1809: 1802: 1796: 1795: 1793: 1791: 1780: 1774: 1768: 1429: 1428: 1102: 1101: 772:Matthew Meselson 195: 194: 148: 109:Washington, D.C. 73: 67: 59: 53: 47: 41: 36: 24: 20: 7096: 7095: 7091: 7090: 7089: 7087: 7086: 7085: 6056: 6055: 6054: 6049: 6026: 6012:Geneva Protocol 6000: 5971:Decontamination 5919: 5776:Botulinum toxin 5771:Avian influenza 5752: 5668:Australia Group 5660: 5654: 5608: 5599: 5467: 5462: 5461: 5451: 5449: 5434: 5433: 5429: 5420: 5413: 5403: 5401: 5386: 5379: 5336: 5329: 5316: 5312: 5265: 5261: 5253: 5242: 5236: 5227: 5219: 5206: 5202: 5201: 5197: 5193:. Geneva, 2022. 5188: 5184: 5180:. Geneva, 2016. 5176: 5172: 5168:. Geneva, 2016. 5166:BWC/CONF.VIII/4 5163: 5156: 5146: 5144: 5134: 5133: 5129: 5119: 5117: 5104: 5103: 5099: 5095:. Geneva, 2011. 5090: 5083: 5079:. Geneva, 2002. 5074: 5063: 5052: 5048: 5039: 5035: 5025: 5023: 5008: 5007: 5000: 4992: 4981: 4975: 4974: 4970: 4960: 4958: 4953:. 16 May 2014. 4943: 4942: 4938: 4928: 4926: 4911: 4910: 4906: 4899: 4883: 4879: 4875:. Geneva, 2006. 4870: 4861: 4851: 4849: 4834: 4833: 4826: 4783: 4779: 4769: 4767: 4752: 4748: 4740: 4733: 4727: 4726: 4722: 4712: 4710: 4705:. 27 May 2020. 4697: 4696: 4692: 4682: 4680: 4665: 4661: 4653: 4646: 4640: 4639: 4632: 4624: 4609: 4605: 4604: 4600: 4588: 4584: 4549: 4545: 4538: 4524: 4517: 4474: 4470: 4460: 4458: 4450: 4449: 4445: 4433: 4427: 4418: 4408: 4406: 4391: 4387: 4377: 4375: 4372:Tampa Bay Times 4366: 4365: 4361: 4354: 4340: 4336: 4329: 4315: 4308: 4257: 4248: 4233: 4217: 4213: 4198: 4182: 4178: 4171: 4157: 4150: 4135: 4119: 4108: 4096: 4083: 4073: 4071: 4058: 4057: 4053: 4044: 4037: 4027: 4025: 4017:Washington Post 4008: 4004: 3999: 3995: 3985: 3983: 3973: 3969: 3962: 3948: 3944: 3935: 3928: 3919: 3915: 3902: 3898: 3888: 3884: 3880:. Geneva, 1980. 3875: 3868: 3855: 3851: 3835: 3834: 3808: 3799: 3789: 3787: 3772: 3771: 3764: 3754: 3752: 3737: 3736: 3727: 3717: 3715: 3700: 3699: 3686: 3676: 3674: 3659: 3658: 3654: 3644: 3642: 3627: 3626: 3619: 3608: 3601: 3591: 3589: 3581: 3580: 3576: 3566: 3564: 3549: 3548: 3544: 3529: 3525: 3510: 3506: 3495: 3484: 3468: 3467: 3441: 3434: 3421: 3420: 3413: 3400: 3399: 3392: 3388:. Geneva, 1986. 3383: 3372: 3357: 3353: 3338: 3334: 3326: 3320: 3316: 3309: 3295: 3291: 3280: 3276: 3266: 3264: 3249: 3248: 3241: 3231: 3229: 3214: 3213: 3209: 3174: 3170: 3131: 3127: 3115: 3111: 3107:. Geneva, 1996. 3102: 3095: 3084: 3080: 3072: 3068: 3017: 3013: 3009:. Geneva, 1991. 3007:BWC/CONF.III/23 3004: 2993: 2981: 2977: 2967: 2965: 2958: 2942: 2935: 2925: 2923: 2906: 2881: 2871: 2869: 2854: 2853: 2849: 2840: 2831: 2822: 2815: 2806: 2797: 2788: 2781: 2772: 2765: 2756: 2749: 2740: 2736: 2727: 2720: 2710: 2703: 2695: 2682: 2678: 2677: 2670: 2661: 2657: 2646: 2639: 2629: 2627: 2612: 2608: 2601: 2587: 2583: 2567: 2566: 2540: 2531: 2525:Wikisource link 2515: 2511: 2498: 2494: 2484: 2482: 2467: 2466: 2455: 2448: 2432: 2428: 2422:Deadly Arsenals 2416: 2412: 2391: 2387: 2375: 2371: 2364: 2348: 2344: 2337: 2321: 2317: 2304: 2300: 2257: 2246: 2236: 2234: 2219: 2218: 2214: 2204: 2202: 2187: 2186: 2182: 2135: 2131: 2121: 2119: 2102: 2091: 2084: 2070: 2066: 2015: 2006: 1994: 1990: 1937: 1933: 1924: 1917: 1907: 1905: 1890: 1889: 1878: 1866: 1862: 1852: 1850: 1835: 1834: 1825: 1816: 1812: 1803: 1799: 1789: 1787: 1782: 1781: 1777: 1769: 1765: 1760: 1713: 1705:Main articles: 1703: 1683:Geneva Protocol 1662:Australia Group 1658: 1653: 1644: 1635: 1619:Filippa Lentzos 1595: 1590: 1423: 1358:BWC/CONF.VIII/4 1220:BWC/CONF.III/23 1120:Final Document 1092: 1050: 1031:Filippa Lentzos 979:In April 1997, 977: 949:botulinum toxin 939:'s leadership, 933: 927: 820: 812:Main articles: 810: 797: 727: 668: 663: 572: 566: 557: 548: 531: 522: 496: 487: 479:Geneva Protocol 441: 433:Geneva Protocol 375: 358: 334:Filippa Lentzos 307:President Nixon 268:Geneva Protocol 256: 192: 147: 84: 83: 75: 71: 69: 65: 61: 57: 55: 51: 49: 45: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7094: 7084: 7083: 7078: 7073: 7068: 7063: 7058: 7053: 7048: 7043: 7038: 7033: 7028: 7023: 7018: 7013: 7008: 7003: 6998: 6993: 6988: 6983: 6978: 6973: 6968: 6963: 6958: 6953: 6948: 6943: 6938: 6933: 6928: 6923: 6918: 6913: 6908: 6903: 6898: 6893: 6888: 6883: 6878: 6873: 6868: 6863: 6858: 6853: 6848: 6843: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6823: 6818: 6813: 6808: 6803: 6798: 6793: 6788: 6783: 6778: 6773: 6768: 6763: 6758: 6753: 6748: 6743: 6738: 6733: 6728: 6723: 6718: 6713: 6708: 6703: 6698: 6693: 6688: 6683: 6678: 6673: 6668: 6663: 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