256:(modern-day Feodosia) was a thriving port city on the Crimean Peninsula, established by Genoese merchants in 1266 by a purchase agreement with the Khan of the Golden Horde. The city was strategically situated on the Black Sea, serving as a critical link in the trade routes between Europe and Asia. Caffa's prosperity made it a coveted target for various powers, including the Mongol Empire. The Mongols, under the leadership of the Golden Horde, sought to control this lucrative trading post, which was vital for the flow of goods such as spices, silk, and precious metals.
357:
defenders of Caffa employed innovative tactics to withstand the Mongol assaults. For example, they used Greek fire, a flammable liquid weapon, to repel attackers attempting to breach the walls. The city's fortifications were continuously reinforced, and the defenders maintained a disciplined schedule of repairs and patrols to ensure their resilience against the relentless Mongol siege. The stalemate continued for months, with both sides suffering significant casualties and struggling to maintain their positions.
471:
implementation of new health regulations in the
Mediterranean. This period saw a shift in the balance of power in the region, with increased emphasis on securing trade routes and improving sanitary measures to prevent future outbreaks. The lesson learned from Caffa influenced how subsequent sieges and conflicts were conducted, highlighting the crucial interplay between military strategy, disease management, and international trade relations.
124:
37:
600:
466:
Lastly, the Siege of Caffa underscores the interconnectedness of the medieval world. The trade routes that brought prosperity to cities like Caffa also facilitated the spread of diseases. The movement of people, goods, and pathogens along these routes had far-reaching consequences, shaping the course
259:
Beyond its strategic importance, Caffa was a melting pot of cultures and religions. The city's population included
Genoese, Greeks, Armenians, Jews, and Muslims, making it a vibrant center of cultural exchange. The city's prosperity attracted merchants and settlers from across the Mediterranean and
332:
The relationship between the
Genoese and the Mongol Golden Horde was complex, marked by periods of cooperation and conflict. The Genoese had initially secured their trading rights through treaties with the Mongols, but tensions inevitably arose due to competing interests and the volatile political
409:
This act is considered one of the earliest recorded instances of biological warfare. The introduction of plague-infected corpses into Caffa had a catastrophic effect on the city's population. The disease spread rapidly among the inhabitants, causing panic, death, and chaos. The
Genoese defenders,
462:
Secondly, the siege marks a pivotal moment in the history of the Black Death. The event at Caffa serves as a crucial link in understanding how the plague spread from Asia to Europe. The siege's role in facilitating the transmission of the disease underscores the importance of studying historical
352:
Jani Beg renewed the siege in 1345, and cut off any supplies to the city, leading to miserable conditions within Caffa. The siege was a prolonged and grueling affair, lasting several months. The Mongol army, renowned for their military prowess and tactics, faced a formidable challenge in Caffa's
458:
The Siege of Caffa is significant for several reasons. First, it highlights the use of biological warfare in medieval times, illustrating the lengths to which military leaders would go to achieve their objectives. The deliberate use of plague-infected corpses as a weapon of war underscores the
356:
The
Mongols employed various siege tactics, including direct assaults, bombardments, and attempts to breach the walls with siege engines. However, the Genoese, bolstered by their strategic fortifications and the ability to receive supplies by sea, managed to hold off the Mongol attacks. The
470:
The aftermath of the siege had lasting effects on trade and diplomatic relations in the region. The fall of Caffa and the ensuing plague led to a significant disruption in trade networks between Europe and Asia. The Black Death’s spread resulted in a reevaluation of trade practices and the
418:
The fleeing
Genoese survivors boarded ships in a desperate attempt to escape the plague-ridden city. Unknown to them, they were carrying the plague with them, setting the stage for the pandemic's spread to Europe. As these ships docked at various ports along the Mediterranean, the
379:. However, de Mussis was not present at the siege and his story is contradicted by contemporary evidence from the Black Sea region. It is now believed that the Black Death spread to Europe in grain shipments that were restarted after the wartime embargoes between Venetian,
364:, caused widespread devastation among the Mongol troops. The exact origins of the plague in the Mongol camp are unclear, but it is believed to have been brought by infected rodents and fleas that thrived in the unsanitary conditions of the encampment. The epidemic of
434:
caused massive social, economic, and political upheaval, altering the course of
European history. The rapid and widespread transmission of the disease demonstrated the vulnerability of interconnected trade networks to the spread of infectious diseases.
349:, the cause of which was a brawl between Italians and Muslims in Tana. The siege of Caffa lasted until February 1344, when it was lifted after an Italian relief force killed 15,000 Mongol troops and destroyed their siege machines.
677:
233:
The siege of Caffa was characterized by intense military tactics from both sides. After several years of siege, the armies of the Horde were forced to withdraw. The siege is famous for a story recounted by
Italian
406:. The Mongol forces decided to use the bodies of their plague-infected soldiers as weapons. They catapulted these bodies over the city walls, aiming to infect the inhabitants of Caffa with the deadly disease.
730:
298:(the Mongol capital), and besieged Caffa, which the Genoese resisted for a year, but in 1308 set fire to their city and abandoned it. Relations between the Italians and the Golden Horde remained tense until
372:'s forces, giving hope to the Italians, and he was forced to lift the siege in 1347. The siege and despair of the city's citizens as the disease spread is vividly described by the Italian
394:
in 1347. The resolution of the siege marked a temporary restoration of stability in the region, but also emphasize the broader consequences of the conflict and the bubonic plague.
446:. The long-term effects of the Black Death reshaped European demographics, economies, and societies, leading to labor shortages that ultimately contributed to the end of
442:. The Genoese, despite the devastation, managed to reestablish their trading networks, though they faced increased competition from other emerging powers such as the
430:
to Europe had catastrophic consequences. The Black Death is estimated to have killed between 30% and 60% of Europe's population over the next few years. The
921:
926:
931:
916:
360:
The turning point in the siege came when an outbreak of the plague struck the Mongol camp. The disease, which later became known as the
402:
Facing the dire situation of a plague-ravaged army and a fortified city, Jani Beg resorted to a desperate and unprecedented tactic:
230:. The event is historically significant primarily because it is believed to be one of the earliest instances of biological warfare.
390:
The
Italians blockaded Mongol ports, forcing Jani Beg to negotiate for peace, and they were allowed to reestablish their colony in
353:
strong fortifications. The city's defenses were well-maintained, and the
Genoese defenders were determined to hold their ground.
713:
687:
946:
770:
626:
510:
703:
313:, which allowed Caffa to become a thriving city once again by the 1340s. However, the ascension of Ă–zbeg Khan's son
786:
291:
72:
857:
896:
333:
landscape of the region. The escalation of these tensions ultimately led to the siege of Caffa in 1346.
911:
906:
901:
936:
28:
643:
806:"Laying the Corpses to Rest: Grain, Embargoes, and Yersinia pestis in the Black Sea, 1346–48"
287:
438:
The immediate aftermath of the siege saw a significant shift in the balance of power in the
941:
410:
unable to contain the outbreak, were forced to abandon their positions and flee the city.
8:
283:
245:
to plague-infested corpses having been launched over the walls at the end of the siege.
150:
805:
584:
559:
403:
342:
825:
766:
709:
683:
622:
589:
380:
376:
310:
264:
238:
227:
145:
128:
463:
events to comprehend the dynamics of pandemics and their impact on human societies.
423:
began to take hold in Europe, leading to one of the deadliest pandemics in history.
817:
732:
History of the Mongols, from the 9th to the 19th Century ...: The Mongols of Persia
655:
579:
571:
439:
207:
648:
Actes de la Société des Historiens Médiévistes de l'Enseignement Supérieur Public
215:
763:
Medieval Siege Weapons (2): Byzantium, the Islamic World & India AD 476-1526
644:"Continuité ou changement d'un paysage urbain ? Caffa génoise et ottomane"
443:
365:
890:
872:
859:
829:
604:
488:
268:
223:
87:
74:
659:
306:
619:
The Colonies of Genoa in the Black Sea Region: Evolution and Transformation
593:
575:
384:
318:
317:
to the throne changed the political scene once more. The conversion of the
295:
275:
271:
199:
133:
420:
361:
242:
326:
447:
821:
431:
369:
314:
203:
195:
156:
62:
603:
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
467:
of history in ways that continue to be studied and understood.
373:
235:
219:
211:
66:
36:
845:
After the Black Death: A Social History of Early Modern Europe
260:
beyond, further enhancing its significance as a trading hub.
427:
322:
299:
279:
253:
391:
346:
341:
The Mongols under Jani Beg besieged Caffa in 1343 and the
206:) between two periods in the 1340s. The city of Caffa, a
679:
The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia
888:
241:, which attributed the subsequent spread of the
641:
560:"Biological Warfare at the 1346 Siege of Caffa"
41:The remains of a Genoese fortress in Feodosia
705:Weapons of Mass Destruction: Nuclear weapons
459:desperation and brutality of the conflict.
194:was a 14th-century military encounter when
642:Balard, Michel; Veinstein, Gilles (1980).
453:
583:
675:
671:
669:
500:As the 2nd Doge of the Republic of Genoa
290:, who were sold as soldiers to military
922:Sieges involving the Republic of Venice
842:
760:
728:
557:
294:. He arrested the Italian residents of
927:Sieges involving the Republic of Genoa
889:
803:
616:
932:14th century in the Republic of Genoa
666:
397:
210:, was a vital trading hub located in
745:
553:
551:
549:
218:, a group of seven ports located in
696:
547:
545:
543:
541:
539:
537:
535:
533:
531:
529:
13:
917:Sieges involving the Mongol Empire
779:
748:The Black Death in the Middle East
635:
14:
958:
729:Howorth, Sir Henry Hoyle (1880).
202:sieged the city of Caffa, (today
598:
526:
122:
35:
836:
797:
754:
739:
735:. Longmans, Green, and Company.
708:. ABC-CLIO. 2005. p. 173.
292:slavery in the Mamluk Sultanate
274:were strained. The khan of the
722:
610:
503:
494:
481:
426:The spread of the plague from
1:
804:Barker, Hannah (2021-01-01).
750:. Princeton University Press.
519:
248:
682:. Rutgers University Press.
564:Emerging Infectious Diseases
413:
309:, mended relations with the
214:. The city was then part of
7:
847:. Indiana University Press.
387:merchants had been lifted.
10:
963:
947:Military history of Crimea
325:, led to them prosecuting
175:
162:
139:
115:
45:
34:
26:
21:
843:Huppert, George (1998).
787:"Decameron Web | Plague"
511:Khan of the Golden Horde
491:of the Republic of Genoa
474:
336:
761:Nicolle, David (2003).
676:Grousset, René (1970).
660:10.3406/shmes.1980.1361
617:Balard, Michel (2016).
454:Historical significance
284:the Italian slave trade
576:10.3201/eid0809.010536
558:Wheelis, Mark (2002).
263:Relations between the
140:Commanders and leaders
765:. Osprey Publishing.
621:. London: Routledge.
222:and belonging to the
176:Casualties and losses
305:Toqtai's successor,
53:1343–1344, 1345–1347
869: /
151:Giovanni I di Murta
84: /
29:Genoese–Mongol Wars
897:Biological warfare
746:Dols, MW. (1977).
404:biological warfare
398:Biological warfare
302:'s death in 1312.
912:Conflicts in 1347
907:Conflicts in 1346
902:Conflicts in 1345
873:45.017°N 35.383°E
715:978-1-85109-490-5
689:978-0-8135-1304-1
377:Gabriel de Mussis
288:via the Black Sea
286:in Turkic slaves
239:Gabriel de Mussis
228:Republic of Genoa
188:
187:
146:Simone Boccanegra
129:Republic of Genoa
111:
110:
954:
884:
883:
881:
880:
879:
874:
870:
867:
866:
865:
862:
849:
848:
840:
834:
833:
801:
795:
794:
783:
777:
776:
758:
752:
751:
743:
737:
736:
726:
720:
719:
700:
694:
693:
673:
664:
663:
639:
633:
632:
614:
608:
602:
601:
597:
587:
555:
513:
507:
501:
498:
492:
485:
440:Black Sea region
282:, was piqued at
184:Several thousand
181:Several thousand
171:Several thousand
168:Several thousand
127:
126:
125:
99:
98:
96:
95:
94:
89:
85:
82:
81:
80:
77:
47:
46:
39:
19:
18:
962:
961:
957:
956:
955:
953:
952:
951:
937:1340s in Europe
887:
886:
877:
875:
871:
868:
863:
860:
858:
856:
855:
853:
852:
841:
837:
802:
798:
785:
784:
780:
773:
759:
755:
744:
740:
727:
723:
716:
702:
701:
697:
690:
674:
667:
640:
636:
629:
615:
611:
599:
556:
527:
522:
517:
516:
508:
504:
499:
495:
486:
482:
477:
456:
416:
400:
339:
251:
224:maritime empire
149:
123:
121:
92:
90:
88:45.02°N 35.22°E
86:
83:
78:
75:
73:
71:
70:
69:
40:
17:
12:
11:
5:
960:
950:
949:
944:
939:
934:
929:
924:
919:
914:
909:
904:
899:
878:45.017; 35.383
851:
850:
835:
822:10.1086/711596
796:
778:
771:
753:
738:
721:
714:
695:
688:
665:
634:
627:
609:
570:(9): 971–975.
524:
523:
521:
518:
515:
514:
502:
493:
479:
478:
476:
473:
455:
452:
444:Ottoman Empire
415:
412:
399:
396:
366:bubonic plague
338:
335:
250:
247:
208:Genoese colony
192:Siege of Caffa
186:
185:
182:
178:
177:
173:
172:
169:
165:
164:
160:
159:
154:
142:
141:
137:
136:
131:
118:
117:
113:
112:
109:
108:
105:
101:
100:
61:
59:
55:
54:
51:
43:
42:
32:
31:
24:
23:
22:Siege of Caffa
16:Medieval siege
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
959:
948:
945:
943:
940:
938:
935:
933:
930:
928:
925:
923:
920:
918:
915:
913:
910:
908:
905:
903:
900:
898:
895:
894:
892:
885:
882:
846:
839:
831:
827:
823:
819:
816:(1): 97–126.
815:
811:
807:
800:
792:
791:www.brown.edu
788:
782:
774:
772:9781841764597
768:
764:
757:
749:
742:
734:
733:
725:
717:
711:
707:
706:
699:
691:
685:
681:
680:
672:
670:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
638:
630:
628:9781138081604
624:
620:
613:
606:
605:public domain
595:
591:
586:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
554:
552:
550:
548:
546:
544:
542:
540:
538:
536:
534:
532:
530:
525:
512:
506:
497:
490:
484:
480:
472:
468:
464:
460:
451:
449:
445:
441:
436:
433:
429:
424:
422:
411:
407:
405:
395:
393:
388:
386:
382:
378:
375:
371:
367:
363:
358:
354:
350:
348:
345:territory of
344:
334:
330:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
303:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
270:
266:
261:
257:
255:
246:
244:
240:
237:
231:
229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
193:
183:
180:
179:
174:
170:
167:
166:
161:
158:
155:
152:
147:
144:
143:
138:
135:
132:
130:
120:
119:
114:
106:
103:
102:
97:
68:
64:
60:
57:
56:
52:
49:
48:
44:
38:
33:
30:
25:
20:
854:
844:
838:
813:
809:
799:
790:
781:
762:
756:
747:
741:
731:
724:
704:
698:
678:
651:
647:
637:
618:
612:
567:
563:
505:
496:
483:
469:
465:
461:
457:
437:
425:
417:
408:
401:
389:
385:Golden Horde
359:
355:
351:
340:
331:
319:Golden Horde
304:
276:Golden Horde
272:Golden Horde
262:
258:
252:
232:
200:Golden Horde
191:
189:
134:Golden Horde
116:Belligerents
93:45.02; 35.22
942:Black Death
876: /
487:As the 1st
421:Black Death
368:devastated
362:Black Death
243:Black Death
91: /
891:Categories
654:: 79–131.
520:References
327:Christians
307:Ă–zbeg Khan
249:Background
107:Indecisive
830:0038-7134
448:feudalism
414:Aftermath
321:Khans to
153:(1345–47)
810:Speculum
594:12194776
432:pandemic
370:Jani Beg
343:Venetian
315:Jani Beg
267:and the
204:Feodosia
196:Jani Beg
163:Strength
157:Jani Beg
58:Location
27:Part of
864:35°23′E
585:2732530
509:As the
311:Geneose
265:Genoese
226:of the
216:Gazaria
198:of the
79:35°13′E
76:45°01′N
861:45°1′N
828:
769:
712:
686:
625:
592:
582:
383:, and
381:Genoan
374:notary
269:Mongol
236:notary
220:Crimea
212:Crimea
148:(1345)
104:Result
67:Crimea
475:Notes
428:Caffa
337:Siege
323:Islam
300:Toqta
296:Sarai
280:Toqta
254:Caffa
63:Caffa
826:ISSN
767:ISBN
710:ISBN
684:ISBN
623:ISBN
590:PMID
489:Doge
392:Tana
347:Tana
190:The
50:Date
818:doi
656:doi
580:PMC
572:doi
450:.
893::
824:.
814:96
812:.
808:.
789:.
668:^
652:11
650:.
646:.
588:.
578:.
566:.
562:.
528:^
329:.
278:,
65:,
832:.
820::
793:.
775:.
718:.
692:.
662:.
658::
631:.
607:.
596:.
574::
568:8
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
